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ue YO OPER SR UR fh Ae “She 
ss ‘ = a Par onc 


ALDEN, RAYMOND M., Ph.D., Litt.D. 


Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior Uni- 
versity 


LETTERS IN LITERATURE 
LITERARY FORMS 
LYRIC POETRY 


AUSTIN, OSCAR P., M.A. 


Statistician of the National City Bank of New York 
and Secretary of the National Geographic Society 


LATIN AMERICA — INDUSTRIAL DE- 
VELOPMENT AND COMMERCIAL 
PRODUCTS 


AYRES, SAMUEL G., B.D. 
Garrett Biblical Institute 


LECTURESHIPS 


BEER, WILLIAM 


Librarian, Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans 


LOUISIANA 
BOUCKE, EWALD A., Ph.D. 


Professor of German and Scandinavian, University 
of Michigan 


LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE 


BRANDON, EDGAR EWING, A.B., A.M. 


Dean of Miami University 


LATIN AMERICA — EDUCATION IN 
LATIN AMERICA 


BREWSTER, WILLIAM T., A.M. 


Provost of Barnard College, Professor of English, 
Columbia University. 


LORNA DOONE 
LUSIADS, THE 


BROOKE, TUCKER, M.A., Litt.B. 
Professor of English, Yale University 


LOVE’S LABOUR'S. LOST 


BUCHANAN, MILTON A., Ph.D. 


Professor of Italian and Spanish, University of 
Toronto 


LIFE IS A DREAM 


CANFIELD, ARTHUR G., Ph.D. 


Professor of Romance Languages, University of 
Michigan 


LE’ ROUGE ET LE NOIR 
LEARNED LADIE>, 148 
CLEMENTS, FREDERIC £., %.%c., Ph.D. 
Head of the Departinent of Botany University 
of Minnesota 
LICHENS \ 
'O Lapis 
ets War 


PARTIAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME XVII 


CORNYN, JOHN HUBERT, B.A., LL.B. 
Editorial Staff of The Americana 


LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 
LEON, FRAY LUIS PONCE DE 
LYCEUM 
COUMBE, CLEMENT wW. 
Technical Art Expert 


LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM 
LION IN ART 


CUSHMAN, ROBERT EUGENE, A.B. 


Associate in Political Science, University of Illinois 


LAW MERCHANT, THE 
LEGISLATION, DIRECT 
LEGISLATIVE REFORM 


CUTLER, FRANCES W., M.A. 


Instructor in English, Vassar College 


LIGHT OF ASIA, THE 


DANA, JOHN COTTON, A.B. 
Librarian, Publis Library, Newark, N. J. 


LIBRARIES, SPECIAL 
DEWEY, MELVIL, LL.D. 


Author of ‘ Decimal Classification and Relativ 
Index,’’ etc. 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


DOLE, NATHAN HASKELL, A.B. 
Author, Editor and Translator 


LIZA 


DOW, CHARLES M. 
Director of Letchworth Park and Arboretum 


LETCHWORTH PARK AND. ARBO- 
RETUM 


DRUM, WALTER, S.J. 


Late Professor of Scripture, Woodstock College, 
Woodstock, Md. 


LOYOLA 


DUNN, WALDO H., M.A., Litt.D. 


gr Se of English, College of Wooster, Wooster, 
io ; 


LIVES OF THE POETS 
EGAN, MAURICE FRANCIS, Ph.D., LL.D. 


Former Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- 
potentiary to Denmark. 


LEO XIII 
EGGERT, CARL E., B.Ph., Ph.D. 


Assistant Professor: of German, 
Michigan 


LUCIAN 


University of 


Contributors to Volume XVII — Continued 


EISELEN, FREDERICK CARL, Ph.D., D.D. 


Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, Garrett 


Biblical Institute 
LEVITICUS, BOOK OF 


EISERHARDT, EWALD, Ph.D. 


Professor of German, University of Rochester 


LIED VON DER GLOCKE, DAS 


ESTES, DAVID FOSTER, D.D. 


Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Colgate 
University 


LUKE 
LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO 


FAIRLIE, JOHN A., Ph.D. 


Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois 


LOCAL GOVERNMENT 
LOCAL OPTION 


FERRIS, RICHARD, C.E., Sc.D. 
Editorial Staff of The Americana 


LATIN AMERICA — THE MINERAL 
INDUSTRY 

LATIN. AMERICA — THE RUBBER IN- 
DUSTRY 


FIRMIN, GEORGE 


General Manager, Little Rock Board of Commerce 


LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 


FISH, DANIEL 


Judge, District Court, Minneapolis; author of 
“Lincoln Bibliography,”’ etc. 


LINCOLN, ABRAHAM 


FUERBRINGER, LUDWIG E., D.D. 


Professor of Theology, Concordia Theological Sem- 
inary, Saint Louis, Mo. 


LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 


GARNER, JAMES WILFORD, PhiD. 


Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois 


LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL 
LAWS OF WAR, THE 
LEGISLATION 
LEGISLATURE 


GAUSS, CHRISTIAN, Litt.D. 


Professor of Modern Languages, Princeton Uni- 
versity 


LION OF FLANDERS, THE 


GOMME, G. L., F.S.A. 
Clerk to the London County Council. 


LONDON, ENGLAND 
(Revised by D. S. Douc.tas, Toronto) 


GRAHAM, W. B. 7 
sos wit Latin American Division, Washington 
LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE AND 


MEAT - INDUSTRY 
LATIN AMERICA — HIDES AND 


LEATHER 
raebtne MERICA — RICE PRODUC- 
LATIN AAMERICA — THE TOBACCO 
INDYSTRY 


LATIN} AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY 


GRAVES, V. CHARLES 
Hartford, Conn. 


LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS 
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS 


GUITERMAN, ARTHUR, B.A. 
Author and Critic 


LIGHT THAT FAILED, THE 
LITTLE MINISTER, THE - 


HALLER, WILLIAM, Ph.D. 


Instructor in English, Columbia University 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 


HANFORD, JAMES H., Ph.D. 


Associate Professor of English, University of North 
Carolina 


LAVENGRO | 
HARTMANN, JACOB WITTMER, Ph.D. 


Assistant Professor, Department of German Lan- 
guage and Literature, College of the City of New 
York 

LENAU, NIKOLAUS 
LUDWIG, OTTO 


HASTINGS, CHARLES S., Ph.B., Ph.D. 
Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University 


LIGHT 
HEMELT,} FRANCIS J. 


Assdciate Professor of English Language and Bee 
ature, Catholic University of America. 


ALFRED FIRMIN 
HIBBEN, JOHN GRIER, Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D. 


President of Princeton University 
LOGIC 


HOLLAND, |W. J., Ph.D., Sc.D.,; LL.D. 
Directok of Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


LEPIDOPTERA 
HOLMAN, C.\ VEY, LL.M. 


Lecturer om Mining Law, University of Maine 


LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF 
| 
HOWARD, WILLIAM G., A.M. 


Assistant Professor of German, Harvard University 


LOST PARADISE, THE 


Contributors to Volume XVII— Continued 


HOWE, WILLARD C., 


Editorial Director of ‘‘ Lumber ” 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED 
STATES 


HUNTINGTON, EDWARD V., Ph.D. 


Associate Professor of Mathematics, Harvard Uni- 
versity. 


LADD-FRANKLIN, CHRISTINE 


Lecturer at Columbia University 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


INGERSOLL, ERNEST 
Zoologist and Author 


_UEAVES 
wAZARD 
«UMINOSITY OF ANIMALS 


ISAA(S, ABRAM S., Ph.D.* 


Professor of Semitic Language, New York Uni- 
versity 


LMYARUS, EMMA 
LIE TURE, ART AND. MUSIC, IN- 
ILUENCE OF THE WORLD WAR ON 


ISAACS, EDITH T. R. 
LICITENSTEIN 


JACOBY, HAROLD, Ph.D. 


Ruterford Professor of Astronomy, Columbia Uni- 
Vésity 


LEAS1 SQUARES, METHOD OF 


JELLIFFE, ‘MITH ELY, M.D., Ph.D. 
AdjuncProfessor of Diseases of Mind and Nervous 
Systa, Post Graduate Hospital and Medical 


Schoc’ Professor of Psychiatry, Fordham Uni- 
versit. New York 


° LAVAGE 
LUNGS 


KLEIN, HENR F. 
Editorial Sf of The Americana 
LICHNOWYY, PRINCE KARL MAX 
LICHNOWSY’ MEMORANDUM 


LENNOX, PATRIK J., Litt.D. 


Professor of Edish Literature, Catholic University 
of America 


LOGAGDIC ERSE 


LOISEAUX, L. A.,3.S. 


Associate Profeyr of Romance Languages and 
Literatures, Cymbia University 


LES CHATIMETS 


LUCKIESH, M. 


Nela Research Labytory, National Lamp Works, 
General Electric Cnpany 


LIGHT AND SHAE 


WA 
* Deceased. w 


Te ee 


McDANIEL, WALTON BROOKS, Ph.D.c 117 | 


Professor of Latin, University of Pennsylvania 


LATIN WRITERS 
McGILLICUDDY, DANIEL J., A.B. 


Lewiston, Me. 


LEWISTON, MAINE 


MEADER, JOHN R.* 


Labor and’ Service Department, Brighton Mills, 
Passaic, N. J. ; 


LIFE EXTENSION 


MEEHAN, Very Rev. ANDREW B. 
Saint Bernard’s Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. 


LAW, CANON, THE NEW CODE OF 
MORRIS, EDWARD PARMELEE, L.H.D., Litt.D. 


Professor of Latin, Yale University 


LATIN LANGUAGE, THE 
LATIN LITERATURE, THE 
MUNROE, CHARLES E., S.B., Ph.D. 


Professor of Chemistry, George Washington Uni- 
versity, Washington, D. C. 


LYDDITE 


NASCHER, I. L., M.D. 


Author of Geriatrics; Diseases of Old Age am 
Their Treatment 


LONGEVITY 
PANARONI, ALFRED G., B.S. 


Instructor in Romance Languages, College of the 
City of New York 


LITTLE OLD WORLD, THE 


PFEIL, STEPHEN* 
Formerly of the Philadelphia 


LAW 
LAW, MILITARY 
LEGITIMACY 
RAUSCH, FREDERICK 
Of Sackett and Wilhelms Corporation, New York 


LITHOGRAPHY 


RINES, GEORGE EDWIN 
Editor of ‘‘ The Americana "’ 


LUTHER, MARTIN 


‘** Press ”’ 


RIX, GEORGE E. 


Secretary of Lawrence Chamber 


LAWRENCE, KANSAS 
SAVAGE, ELMER S., B.S 


Professor of Animal ges, 


LIVE STOCK 
SHAW, GEORGE * 


Master anc |ibrariar, phe Atheneum, Liverpool 


LIVERPOOL, ENC ,AND 


of Copamerce 


, M.S., Ph.D. 


andry, Cornell University 


Contributors to Volume XVII— Concluded 


SHERMAN, L. A.,.Ph.D., LL.D. 
Of the University of Nebraska 


LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL 


STARR, FREDERICK, Ph.D., Sc.D. 
University of Chicago 


LIBERIA 


TAYLOR, A.E., Ph.D. 


Professor of Moral Philosophy, Saint Andrew’s 
University, Scotland 


LEIBNITZ 


TRENT, WILLIAM P., LL.D., D.C.L. 


Professor of English Literature, 
versity 


LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH 
LYCIDAS 


Columbia Uni- 


TUCKER, MARION, Ph.D. 


Professor of English, The Polytechnic Institute of 
Brooklyn 


LETTERS TO DEAD AUTHORS 
LOCKSLEY HALL 


UNDERHILL, JOHN GARRETT, Ph.D. 


Author of Spanish Literature in the ‘‘ England of the 


Tudors ”’ 


LAZARILLO DE TORMES 
LOS INTERESES CREADOS 
LOS SUENOS 


VALETTE, MARC DE 


Chief, Economics de la Banque de France, Paris 


LEGION OF HONOR 


VEAZIE, WALTER B., Ph.D. 
Department of Philosophy, Columbia University 


LEVIATHAN, THE 


VERNER, WILLIAM F., B.S. 


Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, 
University of Michigan ~ 


LOCOMOTIVE, THE 


WALTER, FRANK K., B.A., M.A. 
Vice-Director, New York State Library School 


LIBRARY TRAINING 


WATKINS, JAMES L. 
Statistician, New York City 


LATIN AMERICA — THE COTTON 
INDUSTRY. IN LATIN AMERICA 

LATIN AMERICA —SUGAR INDUSTRY 
IN LATIN AMERICA 


WEEKS, RAYMOND, Ph.D. 


Professor of Romance Languages, Columbia Uni- 
versity 


LE CRIME DE SYLVESTRE 
BONNARD 
LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE 


WELLS, BENJAMIN W., Ph.D. 


Author of ‘‘ Modern German Literature,” etc. 


LE DIABLE BOITEUX 
LE GENDRE DE MONSIEUR POIRIER 
LES LETTRES PERSANES 

LETTERS, THE me! 
LIFE OF JESUS, THE eet 


f. 
Be 
} 


WIENER, LEO 


Professor of Slavic Languages and Liteatures, 
Harvard University / 
[ 


LEAR OF THE STEPPES, A | 


WILCOX, MARRION, A.B., LL.B. 
Co-Editor of Encyclopedia of Latin Ameica 


LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL/DES- 
CRIPTON AND CHARACTERSTICS 

LATIN AMERICA — LATIN ERICA 
AND THE WORLD WAR 

LATIN AMERICA — FRUIT TIADE OF 
LATIN AMERICA 


WILEY, EDWIN, Ph.D. 


Librarian, United States Naval WarServiee 


LIBRARIES 

LIBRARIES, MEDIAAVAL AJD 
RENAISSANCE | 

LIBRARIES, MODERN | 

LIBRARY ARCHITECTUR) AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

LIBRARY DATA 7 

LIBRARY LAWS AND. ILGISLATION 
IN THE UNITED STA#S 


2s 


WILSON, OTTO | 


Chief of Latin-American Wision, Bureau of 
poreien and Domestic Corferce, Washington, . 


LATIN AMERICA — 
TION AND COMM 


NSPORTA- 
ICATION IN 


WRIGHT, HERBERT F., PD. 
Sometime of the Departm¢ of Latin, The Catholic 
University of America 


LATIN LITERATURIOF THE MIDDLE 
AGES 
LIVES, PARALLEL 


YANES, FRANCISCO J.,/h.D. 


Assistant Director, Pafimerican Union 


LATIN AMERICA; CIVILIZATION OF 
LATIN AMERI 


or 


or 


pc 


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far, -tather 
fate, hate 

ate tae 

air, care 

ado, sofa 

all, fall 
choose, church 
eel, we 

bed, end 


her, over: also Fr. e, as in de; 
eu, as in neuf; and oeu, as in 
boeuf, coeur; Ger. 6 (or oe), 
as in dkonomie. 


befall, elope 
agent, trident 
off, trough 
gas, get 
anguish, guava 
hat, hot 


Ger. ch, as in nicht, wacht 


what 
file, ice 
him, it 
between e and i, mostly in 
Oriental final syllables, as, 


Ferid-ud-din 
gem, genius 
quaint, quite 


Fr. nasal m or n, as in embon- 
point, Jean, temps 


re) 

o 

° 

oi 

Oor oo 


ou OTF OW 


uor t 


il 


Z 


zh 


PRONUNCIATION. 


Span. 7, as in canon (can’yon), 
piwon (pén’yon) 


mingle, singing 
bank, ink 

no, open 

not, on 

corn, nor 

atom, symbol 
book, look 

oil, soil; also Ger. eu, as in beutel 
fool, rule 
allow, bowsprit 
satisfy, sauce 
show, sure 
thick, thin 
father, thither 
mute, use 

but, us 

pull, put 


between u and e, as in Fr. sur, 
Ger. Milles 


of, very 
(consonantal) yes, young 
pleasant, rose 


azure, pleasure 


‘(prime),” (secondary) accents, to indicate 


syllabic stress 


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ATIN AMERICA, a general term given 
to the countries in South and Central 
America; especially those whose in- 
habitants come of Latin linguistic stock. 

These include inhabitants of Mexico and certain 
islands of the West Indies. The term HISPANIC 
AMERICA has also come into use, embracing both 
the Portuguese-American inhabitants of Brazil 
and the Spanish-American inhabitants of other 
countries of Central and South America, as 
descendants of natives of the Iberian Peninsula, 
which under Roman domination was called, as 
a whole, Hispania. From this point of view 
the Hispanic Society of America, New York 
City, the periodicals Hispania and Hispanic 
American Historical Review, all three deal with 
matters both Portuguese- and Spanish-Amer- 
ican. Special information will be found in this 
section under the following heads: — 


1. General Characteristics. 10. Cattle and Meat [n- 

2. Civilization of Latin dustry in Latin 
America. America. 

3. Education in Latin 11. Hides and Leather in 
America. Latin America. 

4. Latin American Litera- 12. Coffee Industry in Latin 
ture. America. 

5. Latin America and the 13. Fruit Trade of Latin 
World War America. 

6. eer taan and Com- 14. Rice Production in Latin 
munication in Latin America. 
America. 15. Rubber Production in 


Latin America. 

Sugar Industry in Latin 
America. 

Tobacco Industry in 
Latin America. 


7. Industrial Development 
and Commercial Prod- 16. 
ucts of Latin America. 

8. Mineral Industry in 17. 
Latin America. 

9. Cotton Industry in Latin 18. Wool Industry in Latin 
America. America. 


1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
Latin America distinguishes as a group 
20 American republics, Argentina, Bolivia, 
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, 
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, 
Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Pan- 
ama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay and 
Venezuela. In a still larger sense, but less 
accurately, as a general term it designates all 
of the central and southern portions of the 
New World, continental and insular as well, 
between the United States and Cape Horn, 
The total area of the 20 Latin American re- 
publics is about 8,150,000 to 8,200,000 square 
miles and the aggregate population of the same 
countries not less than 75,000,000. In each the 
language of the ruling class is Spanish, except 
in Brazil, where it is Portuguese, and in Haiti, 
where it is French ora patois called “creole. » 
But in the central regions of the Western Hem- 
isphere are about 205,000 or 206,000 square miles 


i" 
N 


with 3,190,000 to 3,200,000 inhabitants not in- 
cluded in any of the Latin American republics. 
They are held as dependencies by Great Britain, 
Holland, France or the United States; and to 
denominate these dependencies “Latin Ameri- 
can” would be misleading. 

A few facts may serve to supplement de- 
scriptions in the articles devoted to South 
America, Central America, Panama, Mexico 
and the West Indies; to each of the above: 
mentioned republics, and to their political sub- 
divisions. 

Climate.— Readings of the thermometer, as 
set down in notes of travel in Latin America, 
are: At Montevideo, Uruguay, 18 June, 54° 
F. at 11 a.M.; Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4 July, 
52° F. at 3 p.m. But the average of these two, 
namely, 53° F., was recorded on the west coast 
of South America as the lowest figure the mer- 
cury reached during the cold season at Lima — 
which lies so much nearer than do Buenos 
Aires and Montevideo to the equator that its 
range of temperatures would be _ decidedly 
higher were it not for the influence of the cold 
Humboldt current. In the article CHILE ref- 
erence at greater length is made to this cur- 
rent, which is a truly beneficent river of the 
ocean, constantly tempering and stabilizing the 
climate along the Pacific coast, flowing north- 
ward and then northwestward along that coast 
until headlands below the equatorial line throw 
it straight out to sea, to cool one side of the 
Galapagos Islands. That is one of the big 
facts about the climate among others in the 
same field. 

At the confluence of the Paraguay and Alto 
Parana rivers, 25 July, the thermometer showed 
80° F. in the shade at 10 A.M., and about noon 
of the same day on the Paraguay River, 92° F. 
in the shade; at Asuncion, Paraguay, 27 July, 
84° F. in the shade; in the same city, 28 July, 
78° F. at 9 am. The circumstance that Asun- 
cién is built on a hill counts for much, Com- 
paring these observations, made in regions re- 
mote from the ocean, with - observations at 
moderate altitudes above the Atlantic coast, a 
striking difference is noticed immediately. 
Thus, on the road from the Brazilian port of 
Santos to Sao Paulo, 14 August, the thermom- 
eter showed only 62° F. at 2 p.M., and in the 
city of Sao Paulo, 15 August, ot F. as the 
average of the forenoon. At Rio de Janeiro 
(nearly at sea- -level), 19 August, we find 72° 
F. in the afternoon, but, only 67° F. at 7-8 
A.M., 20 August; and, as the record for the 


2 LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (1) 


warmest day of that “winter” season in Rio, 
84° F. at 34 p.m. A short distance away, a 
Petropolis among the mountains, we note 63° 
F. at 7 A.M.; and at an elevation of 1,500 feet 
above Rio, in the tropical forest clothing the 
flanks of Corcovado, 29 August, 60° F. at 7 
A.M. The fact thus illustrated is, simply, that 
regions sufficiently elevated to receive quite di- 
rectly the cool and saturated ocean breezes 
have, even in these latitudes near the Tropic 
of Capricorn, a climate not given to extremes 
but favorable to man and vegetation alike. 
Again, near the Atlantic coast in lat. 1° 52’ 
S., long. 38° 45’ W. we read 84° F. at 11 a.m.; 
in lat. 1° 13’-N., long. 43°°51’ W., 86° Pekar 12, 
noon, to 1 p.M.; in lat. 8° N., long. 53° 48° W, 
85° F. at 2 p.m. The highest temperatures (in 
the shade) observed at the equator near the 
Pacific or Atlantic coasts, either at sea or 
where the ocean influence controls —85° or 
scarcely more than 86° F.— must be called quite 
moderate. (See comment on this subject in 
the article BraziL). In the corresponding re- 
gions north of the equator, near the Tropic of 
Cancer, we appreciate, or resent, most promptly 
the development of intolerable degrees of heat 
in regions that are enclosed and far from the 
sea. For example, we notice.en route Oaxaca, 
Mexico, to Puebla, 14 March, 100° F. in the 
otherwise comfortable cars of a train running 
through a valley. It is necessary to remember 
that the Antillean regions (see CENTRAL AMER- 
IcA) look out, on one side at least, upon a com- 
paratively restricted and nearly bisected Amer- 
ican Mediterranean, not upon the ocean which 
plays the part we have mentioned all along 
the South American east coast; that the trade 
winds and the Gulf stream visit some portions 
of this interpolated continental area assidu- 
ously, but are as constantly deflected from 
other portions; and, partly for this reason, 
each subdivision of the vast, varied and most 
interesting Antillean region is the subject of a 
special study. (See the separate titles). Pan- 
ama, occupying the narrow space between two 
oceanic elbows, has, as shown by observations 
in a sheltered building near the centre of the 
capital during the year, an equatorially limited 
range of temperatures — from 76° F. to 88° F. 
But places shut in, even parts of the city of 
Panama itself, because they lie nearly at sea- 
level, may have 100° F. thrust upon them when 
the air-currents from ocean to ocean are inter- 
rupted temporarily. 

Climatic Values of Altitude.— Here again 
in Panama (and this is not less true of the 
Central American states) we find that even a 
moderate elevation mitigates the tropically op- 
pressive conditions that are notorious inthe 
lowlands. The importance of this consider- 
ation becomes apparent when we reflect that in 
much more than one-half of the entire land- 
area in the New World between the Tropics of 
Cancer and Capricorn nature assigns the con- 
trol of temperatures to mere altitude or to the 
almost equally permanent influence of oceanic 
and aerial currents. But in the vast highlands 
of Latin America one learns by experience, if 
he has not learned through previous study, 
that the pure and rarefied air is bad for any 
weakness of the heart, and, even when there is 
no such weakness, produces what is commonly 
known as soroche (anoxemia or mountain- 


sickness). It is worth while to note quite care- 
fully the effects of the change from sea-level 
to these great altitudes, since the experience 
bears directly upon the question of the value 
of, these uplands as regions where civilized 
men can live and work successfully. We ob- 
serve, as first effects, that the skin becomes 
rather dry and the digestive processes are de- 
ranged — with consequent pains and penalties. 
We must add the following symptoms: lassi- 
tude, loss of appetite, aversion to all forms of 
physical effort and drowsiness. The _ heart 
finds its steady job a bit harder than usual, and 
one gets out of breath too quickly, the air seem- 
ing to supply the lungs with innutritious food. 
After a long voyage a traveler in vigorous 
health suffers to this extent — that is, slightly 
and for a few days at least—on making a 
rapid and radical change. But in a week or so 
these symptoms disappear, the traveler gets 
acclimated and should find no trouble in mak- 
ing any physical effort that the situation calls 
for. Quite the contrary, in fact. We enjoyed 
mountain-climbing, long walks, long and hard 
riding, at altitudes of about 12,000 feet for sev- 
eral weeks and ranging from 10,000 to 16,000 
feet during two months. The impression we 
receive in regard to the people living in Andean 
towns (for example) situated at altitudes of 
7,000 to 14,000 feet is that they, as a rule, with 
some exceptions of irregular lives, are not in- 
jured by the climate. 

Naturally healthful regions are the follow- 
ing: 1.. The extensive region south of a line 
drawn from ocean to ocean through the cities of 
Paysandt and Valparaiso, including all of 
southern Argentina and Chile. 2. The uplands 
of southeastern Brazil. 3. The Andean habit- 
able districts, including many valleys and 
cuencas, at altitudes ranging from 6,000 to 
12,000 feet. 4. In Venezuela, Central America 
and Mexico, the districts, often fertile and ex- 
tensive, at altitudes ranging from 2,500 or 
3,000 to 7,000 feet, more or less. 5. Portions of 
the West Indies receiving the full benefit of 
the trade winds and ocean currents. Unfortu- 
nately it is necessary to note the prevalence of 
such diseases as typhoid fever in cities and 
towns whose favorable situation in temperate 
uplands does not safeguard them against the 
consequences of neglecting sanitary regulations. 
The tropical conditions in the low-lying parts of 
Central America and the northwest coast of 
South America (to and including the Gulf of 
Guayaquil) are unfavorable to health chiefly be- 
cause enormous deposits of alluvion and exces- 
sive rainfall offer ideal conditions for the prop- 
agation of disease-bearing insects. Yellow 
fever and malarial fevers have therefore long 
been regarded as endemic. Similar conditions 
are found in the great Amazon Valley and on 
the tropical Brazilian coast between the Atlantic 
and the highlands of the interior. Successful 
efforts to combat and control these fevers have 
been made at focal points — at Santos and Rio 
de Janeiro, at Panama, ete—— but much still re- 
mains to be done. Annual rainfall is most ex- 
cessive in amount at Pernambuco and Iquitos 
in Brazil, at Greytown in Central America, and 
in the territory of Magellan, in southern Chile; 
it is least on the Peruvian littoral and in north- 
ern Chile (q.v.); it is as a rule moderate in 
the interior of Argentina. Dense fogs, called 


LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (1) 3 


partias, supply the place of rain (but only to a 
slight extent) in the arid west coast regions 
just mentioned. Ever since the discovery of 
the New World the fact has been observed 
that the most vigorous races gained their de- 
velopment in the extreme south (region number 
1) and in the temperate or relatively cold up- 
lands (regions 3 and 4). It is not less interest- 
ing to observe that the most progressive and 
vigorous element of which we have any record 
in the early history of Brazil had its home in 
region number 2. For the exceptionally fine 
and temperate climate of Uruguay, see the 
article devoted to that country. 

Fauna and Flora.— The highlands of the 
northern and central portions of Mexico are 
included in the Nearctic Region and their fauna 
is classed with that of all temperate and Arctic 
North America; but naturalists, grouping to- 
gether all other parts of Latin America, in the 
wider sense of that term, distinguish the group 
(thus composed of Central America and 
Panama, the Mexican lowlands, the West 
Indies and South America) as the Neotropical 
Region. A valuable study entitled ‘A Zoodlog- 
ical Expedition to South America,> by W. E. 
Agar (in Royal Philosophical Society of Glas- 
gow Proceedings, Vol. XL, pp. 53-65, 1909), 
contains an expression of its author’s opinion 
to the effect that the Neotropical is, of all those 
regions into which zoologists divided the world 
in accordance with their fauna, by far the most 
interesting. And this is true although only 
four families of the ungulates are represented: 
the pigs by the peccary, the cervide by a few 
species of deer, the camels by the llama, and 
finally there is the tapir; while the beasts which 
we may call characteristic of the country are 
such forms as the opossum, armadillo, ant- 
eater and sloth, all very lowly organized ani- 
mals. 

Our interest in this fauna is deepened when, 
at the suggestion of the same writer, we ex- 
amine its history in past geological ages. “The 
past history of the mammals [in general, i.e., 
in all regions] shows us that, broadly speaking, 
most new forms arose in the North Polar 
regions (which we know were much warmer 
then than now) and spread thence southwards, 
exterminating to a large extent the more primi- 
tive earlier forms, and being sometimes ousted 
in their turn by new forms migrating south- 
wards. Now, the primitive mammals which 
arose in the Northern Hemisphere seem to have 
reached South America, not across the Isthmus 
of Panama —for we known that the whole 
south portion of North America was sub- 
merged at this period — but probably by means 
of a land connection across the Atlantic with 
Africa. Whatever may have been the exact 
nature of this connection between South Amer- 
ica and the other land-masses of the globe 
toward the end of the secondary geological 
epoch, it is certain that it was soon broken 
through and that South America was com- 
pletely isolated during the whole of that period 
in which the most active evolution of mammalia 
was taking place in other parts of the world. 
The few low mammals which had reached 
South America before it became isolated evolved 
a very peculiar mammalian fauna, including 
such forms as the giant sloth or Megatherium, 
and Glyptodonts like gigantic armadillos, which, 


however, never reached a very high grade of 
development, such as the mammals in the more 
desperate struggle for existence that was going 
on in other parts of the world were attaining.” 
But finally a new path of approach to this com- 
pletely isolated continent was constructed, Dur- 
ing the end of the Miocene period the emer- 
gence of the Isthmus of Darien or Panama 
allowed the influx of more highly specialized 
forms from the Northern Hemisphere; and 
accordingly we find that. fossiliferous beds 
dating from this period hold the remains of 
lions, the sabre-toothed tiger, dogs, bears, llama, 
deer, horses, tapirs and peccaries — animals 
that had been abundant in other parts of the 
globe for ages before, but had been unable to 
reach South America for the reason mentioned. 
These invaders “established themselves to a 
great extent at the expense of the old typical 
South® American fauna. -Remains of this 
original fauna, however, still survive in the 
opossum, armadillo, ant-eater and sloths, while 
the new forms, which are now far more abun- 
dant, both in numbers and species, include such 
forms as the deer, tapir, peccary, puma, jaguar, 
wildcats, dogs, etc.” Ex-President Roosevelt 
invites our attention particularly to the fact that 
South America has the most extensive and 
most varied avifauna of all the continents. The 
rhea, or American ostrich, and the fur seal 
were studied with true interest by Dr. John 
Augustine Zahm in. Uruguay. For the dis- 
tinctive fauna and flora of an important part of 
the west coast, see CHILE. On the other hand 
the countries of Central America, forming 
borderlands between the greater North and 
South, naturally show some results of the prox- 
imity of the former; nevertheless the influence 
of the latter has been in these respects so much 
the more potent that Central America is with 
good reason assigned to the Neotropical Region, 
as we have said above. 

Near the heart of South America, the region 
called the Chaco is interpolated between the 
region of great forests and the sabanas and 
pampas — the last being poor in vegetation while 
the first is in the same respect almost beyond 
belief richly endowed: since in that vast 
Amazonian valley the vegetable kingdom long 
ago fairly conquered the animal kingdom by 
expelling or subordinating the most important 
terrestrial mammals. (Consult Putnam’s Maga- 
zine, Vol. VII, pp. 194-199, New York, Oct. 
1909-April 1910). Of course it is still impos- 
sible to say what addition will be made to rec- 
ognized lists of plants by these equatorial South 
American forests: they have never been: more 
than partially explored; a civilizing reconquest 
of the fertile areas they usurp has never been 
attempted systematically. Taken all together 
they make the Great Forest of the world, shar- 
ing primacy in the list of this world’s natural 
features with the Andes, the greatest of moun- 
tain masses, and with the Amazon’s wholly in- 
comparable torrents. We mention here only a 
few of the best-known natives of widely sepa- 
rated parts of Latin America: Cinchona, maté 
(Ilex paraguayensis), coca, various rubber-pro- 
ducing forest growths, victoria regia, maize and 
Agave americana (both presumably Mexican), 
tobacco (a product of the islands of the West 
Indies), and potato, claimed as a native by both 
Chile and Peru. A very early association ex- 


4& LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 


isted with the flora of the Eastern Hemisphere; 
a much more recent connection was’ established 
with the North American flora. (See above). 
Botanic geography will, we think, establish the 
facts that Latin America’s most distinctive and 
distinguishing possession is its flora and that 
in this respect, even more —or much more — 
than in respect to its fauna, its claims will re- 
ward our attention; and although this is “by 
far the most interesting region” to the botanist 
as well as to the zoologist, we shall find both 
botanists and zoologists as one in asserting 
that the primitive geologic union of the South 
American continent with Africa and Australia 
explains many phenomena which could not be 
understood otherwise. Briefly, then, Latin 
American flora and fauna, both of surpassing 
interest, have indeed enjoyed independent’ de- 
velopment, yet in most ancient times they un- 
doubtedly influenced and in turn weré’ influ- 
enced by the flora and fauna of equatorial, 
tropical and sub-tropical regions of the East- 
ern Hemisphere.. 

Languages.— Interesting variations are ob- 
served in the Spanish, spoken and written, 
which, as we have said, is the language of the 
ruling classes-in 18 of the republics. Thus, in 
Mexico its characteristics are those of the 
tongue of southern Spain, but in Costa Rica 
those of northern regions in the mother coun- 
try; in distant Chile the Castilian linguistic 
standards are flouted (the substitution of 7 in 
place of g being a single example of literary 
and sépiilar revolt), while Cuba has held fast 
to the good old Spanish linguistic traditions 
‘through all the years of political insurrections 
and armed rebellion. Ecuador, Colombia and 
Peru deserve their fame as, in this respect, con- 
servative centres of an inherited culture, where 
the best usages are appreciated by writers and 
speakers. The literature of that great country, 
Brazil, in which Portuguese is spoken, seems 
to all loyal Brazilians a priceless treasure, even 
as the manuscript of the ‘Lusiad seemed to 
CamGes: they cherish their’ language in cor- 
responding degree — somewhat too exclusively. 

Governments of Latin America.— The 
Latin American countries are constitutionally 
either federal states, resembling most nearly in 
this respect the United States of America, or 
are unitary and centralized. The United States 
of Brazil, the United States of Mexico and 
the United States of Venezuela more obviously 
stand in the class first mentioned; Argentina’s’ 
governmental plan embraces some of the 
features characterizing each class; the other 
countries (Republic. of Bolivia, Republic of 
Colombia, etc.) in the main illustrate by their 
organization the growing unitarian or centraliz- 
ing tendency: “Republic of Colombia” was 
formerly “United States of Colombia”; the 
variations are, however, so complex that we 
convey only an approximately correct idea of 
them when we say that the federal form of 
government in Latin America resembles that of 
the United States and the centralized that of 
France. The readers who wish to study this 
subject closely will find paragraphs on govern- 
ment and constitution in the articles devoted 
to these countries separately, with careful 
bibliographic reference to such special works 
as are available. Frequent — constitutional 
changes are there recorded; but these must not 


be regarded as indications of weak vacillation. 
It is only fair to say that they are to a some- 
what greater extent than we commonly realize 
paralleled in our own experience, particularly 
in the matter of State governments (consult 
Holcombe, A. N., ‘State Government in the 
United States, Dp. 119-120, New York 1916) ; 
that by the middle of the 19th century “the 
constitutions of most of the States of the 
United States had been revised or were in 
process of revision»; and that, “beginning in 
1870, the constitutions of most of the leading 
States in. the north outside of New England 
[and inthe South after the overthrow of negro 
domination] were revised, the culmination of 
the movement being reached in New York in 
1894.” Some of the most interesting constitu- 
tional changes in South America (for example, 
in Paraguay): were designed simply — and 
wisely —to prevent the recurrence of dictator- 
ships and so to safeguard orderly development 
in the future. The dangers in that quarter have 
often been bravely met and will surely be over- 
come; their magnitude, and the importance of 
these phenomena in every study of this branch 
of our subject must be admitted. 

But the people who possess the splendid 
central and southern regions in the New 
World have determined that whatever im-~ 
pedes true progress or conflicts with the stabil- 
ity of republican institutions shall have no place 
in the third great period of national develop- 
ment, which is at hand. 

Marrion WILCOX, 


2. CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMER- 
ICA. Latin-American civilization from an 
Anglo-Saxon point of view may be found 
wanting in many respects, but the life and 
happiness of nations, the ideals and hopes of 
their peoples, their legislation and institutions, 
are not to be found ready made, but have to 
be worked out to meet peculiar wants, and in 
accordance with the racial, mental, moral, 
climatic and material resources and necessities 
of each. 

Latin America must be dealt with as a whole 
if one wishes to cast a rapid glance at its 
civilization. Some of the 20 free and independ- 
ent states which in their aggregate make up 
Latin America have developed more than 
others, and a few to a remarkable degree, but 
whether north or south of the Panama Canal, 
east or west, on the Atlantic or the Pacific, on 
the Caribbean or the Gulf of Mexico, the 
countries of Latin America sprang from the 
same race—the brave, hardy, adventurous, ro- 
mantic and warlike Spanish and Portuguese 
conquerors, who fought their way through un- 
known territories, whether in quest of “El 
Dorado” or in warfare against whole nations 
of Indians, as in the case of Mexico and Peru, 
where the native Indians had a wonderful 
civilization of their own. 

On the other hand, the men who founded 
the United States, the Pilgrims who first set 
foot on this new land of promise, and those 
who followed in the wake of the first settlers, 
came to the country already prepared, through 
years of training, to govern themselves. They 
came to the friendly shores of the New World 
in quest of freedom. They wanted a home in 
a new land not yet contaminated with the spirit 
of the Old World, They brought with them 


LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 5 


their creed, their habits of order and discipline, 
their experience in self-government, their love 
of freedom, their respect for the established 
principles of law. Hence from its inception 
Anglo-American civilization was built upon solid 
ground. Its subsequent development — the mar- 
vel of the last half of the 19th and of this 
20th century —is due to the solidity of their 
institutions, their steadfastness of purpose, 
their practical view of life, and a. territorial 
expanse where all the soils, all the wealth, 
all the climatic conditions of the cold, the 
temperate and the tropical zone can be found. 
The discussion of Latin-American civiliza- 
tion is of vast importance, since it deals with 
the history and development of 20 republics 
lying beyond the Mexican border, and covering 
an aggregate area of about 8,200,000 square 
miles, with a total population of nearly 80.000,- 
000, of whom 54,000,000 speak the Spanish 
language, 24,000,000 Portuguese in Brazil, and 
2,000,000. French in Haiti. This general divi- 
sion brings us at once to deal, under the same 
classification, with peoples and_ civilizations 
springing from different sources,— Spanish, 
Portuguese: and French. Even among the 
Spanish-speaking countries there are conditions, 
— depending on the province of origin of the 
first Spanish colonizers and settlers, who came 
mainly from Biscay, Andalusia, Castile, Aragon 
and Estremadura— which tend to establish 
slight differences and peculiarities just as the 
various States of the United States show dis- 
similarity due to the sources of their popu- 
lation. 
Geographically, Latin America begins beyond 
the Rio Grande, with Mexico, at the southern 
boundary of which extends what is called Cen- 
tral America, consisting of Guatemala, Hon- 
duras, Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the 
historic five Central American states; Panama, 
the gateway to the Pacific on the west and to 
the Caribbean and the Atlantic on the east; 
South America proper, embracing Venezuela 
on the Caribbean, Colombia on the sea and 
partly on the Pacific; Ecuador, Peru and Chile, 
bordering on the Pacific; Bolivia and Paraguay, 
inland states in the heart of South America; 
Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil on the Atlantic; 
and, lastly, Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican 
Republic, islands in the Caribbean Sea. Thus 
Latin America extends from the north tem- 
perate zone to Cape Horn, near the Antarctic 
Ocean, which means that all climatic conditions 
are found in that enormous area from the cool 
regions of notthern Mexico to the tropical heat 
of the torrid zone and again to the cold lands 
of Patagonia. This is indeed a world of wealth 
where all the products of the globe can be 
successfully cultivated, where all races of man- 
kind can live and thrive, because the Mexican 
and Central American cordilleras, and farther 
south the mighty Andean range, offer an un- 
broken chain of lofty peaks, wide valleys and 
extensive tablelands, affording all climates and 
zones, all kinds of soils and minerals, the only 
limitation to the development of these lands 
being human endurance. The water supply is 
plentiful in most parts of Mexico and the 
Central American republics, and there is noth- 
ing which can be compared to the hydro- 
graphic areas of northern and central South 


‘in the New World. 


length of about 4,000 miles; the mighty Amazon, 
having three times the volume of the Missis- 
sippi and navigable for over 2,000 miles, and 
the network of great rivers emptying into it; 
the Parana and the river Plata, with twice the 
volume of the Mississippi, and a thousand other 
streams too numerous to mention in detail, but 
which can be found on any fairly good map, 
showing a feasible water route from the mouth 
of the Orinoco in Venezuela to the Amazon 
and the very heart of South America, and 
thence to the Parana and finally down to the 
river Plata. 

It is well known how Columbus discovered 
this New World which to-day bears the name 
of America (although the application of that 
name is quite restricted in this country to 
the United States)— what hardships that un- 
daunted sailor and his followers had to endure, 
their sufferings, their hopes and their faith in 
some supernatural fate, a trait which is due in 
part to the influence of Moorish ancestors in 
Spain through the mingling of both races dur- 
ing the occupation wars which lasted over eight 
centuries. Thé discovery of America has a 
tinge of romance, such as inspires the soul of 
the adventurer and the buccaneer. It was a 
romance that began at the Rabida, grew in the 
presence and with the help of good Queen 
Isabella, developed into a mad desire for ad- 
venture at Palos, and ended with the planting 
of the Spanish standard on the shores of 
Guanahani, now called Watling’s Island. From 
here Columbus went to what is to-day called 
Cuba, thence to Hispaniola — now divided into 
Haiti and Dominican Republic—and in this 
latter island founded the first white settlement 
i It is not necessary to 
follow Columbus’ voyages or his adventures 
step by step, but the discovery of America is 
an epic worthy of the mettle of the great 
explorer and his men. 

And so the civilization of what is called 
Latin America began with the first Spanish 
settlement, the first Indian blood shed by the 
greed of the white conqueror and the first 
attempt to Christianize the inhabitants of the 
new-found land. The inevitable features of 
conquest — war, treachery, destruction, fire, 
sword, deeds of valor but little known and 
endurance almost superhuman — marked along 
the trail of the discoverers the birth and first 
steps of the: nations of the New World. And 
in the midst of this turmoil, bravely battling 


against unknown odds, the Spanish missionary 


fathers worked unceasingly, founding hamlets 
and towns, thus planting in the wilderness the 
seeds of many a large city to-day, building 
their temples of worship, going from place to 
place struggling with disease and hunger, teach- 
ing the Indians the Spanish language and with 
it their religious faith, and laying the founda- 
tion of what is known to-day as Latin America. 

The second stage of Latin-American civil- 
ization began when the Crown of Spain finally 
took an active interest in its’ new possessions 
and men of a better class than the soldiery 
which landed with the discoverers and con- 
querors began to come to the New World, 
bringing their wives and daughters, and sur- 
rounding themselves with whatever comforts 
could be had in their new home. They were 
in many cases scions of noble families, who 
came either as viceroys, governors or in some 


6 LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 


other administrative capacity, or as “oidores,” 
or judges, ‘and men of letters in general. 
There came also learned monks, and among 
these, philosophers, poets, musicians, painters 
and. skilled artisans. Hence some of the oldest 
descriptions and chronicles of Latin America 
are in verse or in choice prose, either in Span- 
ish or in Latin, and we find in some of the 
oldest cities in Spanish America wonderful ex- 
amples of wood carving, either in churches or 
in old houses, beautiful specimens of the gold 
and silversmith’s art, some fine paintings, and 
unexcelled samples of the art of illuminating 
books, particularly missals. 

The scholars, either members of the reli- 
gious orders or laymen, began to gather books 
imported from Europe, and so our libraries 
were started, mainly in the convents. With 
this feature of civilization the necessity of 
educating the children of the Spaniards and 
the Indians became more pressing, and private 
schools and seminaries were established, as a 
first step toward the foundation of universities. 
Both in Mexico and in Peru schools were 
founded by order of the Crown of Spain for 
the education of the Indians, where they learned 
not only reading and writing, but the manual 
arts as well. 

Latin Americans point with natural pride to 
the fact that the first university founded in the 
New World was that of Santo Tomas de 
Aquino at Santo Domingo, in 1538. This uni- 
versity is no longer in existence, but there still 
exists that of San Marcos at Lima, Peru, 
founded in 1551; the University of Mexico, 
established in 1553 and refounded in 1910; the 


University of Cérdoba, in Argentina, dating. 


from 1613; that of Sucre in Bolivia, founded 
in 1623, or 13 years before Harvard, which 
dates from 1636, and that of Cuzco, in Peru, 
established in 1693, or eight years earlier than 
Yale, which was founded in 1701. The Uni- 
versity of Caracas, in Venezuela, dates from 
1721, and that of Habana, Cuba, from 1728, 
the other universities founded before the 19th 
century being that of Santiago, Chile, in 1743, 
fae the University of Quito, Ecuador, in 
1787. 

The great agent of civilization and progress, 
the printing press, has been known in Latin 
America since 1536, when the first printing 
outfit was introduced into Mexico and the first 
book printed in the New World, a plea of 
Father Las Casas fora better life. Cartagena, 
Colombia, is said to have been the second city* 
of America to have a printing press, in 1560 
or 1562, but Peru seems to hold the record 
for the first book printed in South America, 
about 1584, and La Paz, Bolivia, had a printing 
establishment about 1610. There were also a 
press and other printing paraphernalia at the 
Jesuit missions of Paraguay, about the first 
decade of the 17th century. -The first work in 
Bogota was printed about 1739; Ecuador 
printed its first book in 1760 and Venezuela in 
1764, while the earliest production of the 
Chilean press bears the date of 1776; and 
there was a printing outfit in Cérdoba, Argen- 
tine, in 1767. With the foundation of univer- 
sities and schools and more frequent com- 
munication with Spain and other European 
countries of Latin origin, and the printing of 
books and newspapers in the New World, the 


‘desire for learning was developed and a new 
field was opened to intellectual culture, 

The dissatisfaction of the colonies with the 
exactions and abuses of the viceroys, captains- 
general and other officials representing the 
Crown of Spain, jealousies between the 
“creoles,»> or children of Spanish parents born 
in America, and the “peninsulars,” or native 
Spaniards, commercial preference and social 
distinctions and other petty annoyances born 
of the arrogance of the Spaniards on the one 
hand, and the proud nature of the creoles on 
the other, were the smouldering embers which, 
fanned by the success of the American Revo- 
lution and the storm of the French Revolu- 
tion, set on fire the Spaniard colonies at the 
end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th 
century. The majority of the Spanish-Ameri- 
can countries attained their independence be- 
tween 1804 and 1825, and their struggles for 
freedom, while encouraged by the example of 
the United States, were inspired by French 
ideals. The heroes of the bloody but romantic 
French Revolution, their fiery speeches and 
fearlessness, their proclamation of the repub- 
lic and the rights of man; the echoes of the 
Boston Tea Party, the exploits of the spirit 
of ’76, the commanding and serene figure of 
Washington, the adoption of the American 
Constitution, the utterances of the grave think- 
ers and inspired orators of the Revolutionary 
period — all these dazzling examples of patriot- 
ism appealed to the Spanish-American colo- 
nists, and one by one the colonies began their 
fight for independence. The executions and 
ignominy which were the lot of the first 
patriots who forfeited their lives for the cause 
of independence, instead of discouraging the 
leaders, made them more aggressive, and they 
resolved to gain the day at all hazards. 

On the most brilliant pages of the history 
of Latin America are written, among the names 
of other heroes, those of Miranda of Ven- 
ezuela, the precursor of South American inde- 
pendence; Bolivar, who has been called the 
Washington of South America, a born leader, 
the liberator and father of Venezuela, his na- 
tive country, and of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru 
and Bolivia; Sucre, also a Venezuelan, more 
like Washington than was Bolivar; San Mar- 
tin, the great general of Argentina, the brave 
and heroic liberator of the southern half of 
South America; Artigas of Uruguay, a man of 
sterling qualities; O’ Higgins, the great Chilean 
hero; Tiradentes, the forerunner of Brazilian 
independence; Morelos and Hidalgo in Mex- 
ico, both Catholic priests, and both martyrs to 
the cause of independence; and scores of others 
from each country whose names would be 
meaningless except to those well acquainted 
with the history of South America. 

Once free from colonial bondage, the new 
republics, whose political constitutions in the 
main are based on that of the United States, 
had to deal with fresh problems arising from 
changed conditions. The new political entities 
commenced their independent life heavily 
handicapped, on the one hand by their eco- 
nomic condition after a period of protracted 
wars, and on the other hand by a scarcity of 
population. The unbounded productiveness of 
Latin America, coupled with the modest wants 
of the masses, has been the main cause of the 


& 


LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 7 


slow development of most of these countries as 
manufacturing centres, their chief means of 
support being agricultural and allied industries 
and mining. The evolution out of all this 
chaos has been more rapid in some countries 
than in others, due to special conditions, among 
which the principal ones are geographic and 
topographic position and predominance of the 
white man. 

The leading classes, owners of black slaves 
and landlords to the Indian tenantry, lived for 
the most part in relative ease after the war of 
independence. Those who did not seek in the 
army a field for their activities or inclinations 
devoted themselves to intellectual and scientific 
pursuits, either in civil life or in the service of 
the Church. Some went abroad, to France or 
Spain preferably, to acquire a general educa- 
tion or to perfect that received at home and 
to see the world, and on their return bringing 
new ideas which were eventually adopted and 
modified as necessity demanded. With the 
progress of the 19th century Latin America 
also advanced. 

Intellectually, there is no difference between 
the Latin-Americans and the Anglo-Americans. 
The literature of Latin America (q.v.) 1s as 
rich and valuable as that of any country, yet 
it is hardly known— not to say entirely un- 
known—in the United States except by a 
handful of men who have devoted their time 
to the study of the Spanish language. It is 
only during the last few years that a desire to 
learn Spanish has made itself felt in the 
United States, and it is most gratifying to note 
the number of persons now able to read and 
understand the language and their growing 
familiarity with things Latin-American. On 
the other hand, the study of modern languages 
is compulsory in all of the universities and 
colleges of Latin America, and absolutely neces- 
sary to obtain certain academic degrees. 
French was for a long time the language 
chosen by the majority of the students, hence 
the influence of French literature and French 
thought in Latin America. German was taken 
up by many, more as a commercial tongue than 
otherwise. English was preferred by others, 
rather as an accomplishment than as a lan- 
guage of immediate practical use, but now it 
has taken, in many cases, the place of Ger- 
man. These two languages have followed the 
trend of trade, but English is becoming more 
useful every day in view of the increased re- 
lations of Latin America with the United 
States, in all spheres of human activity. 

The problem of education has always com- 
manded the earnest attention of all the Latin- 
American governments, to the extent of having 
made primary education not only free but 
compulsory. So far as higher education is 
concerned — that is, all grades above primary 
—there are institutions, either public or pri- 
vate, or both, for secondary and superior edu- 
cation, normal schools, schools of mines, agri- 
cultural and manual training, technological in- 
stitutes, colleges, universities, conservatories of 
music, academies of painting and sculpture, 
national or public libraries, museums, etc.— in 
short, all kinds. of institutions devoted to the 
moral and intellectual uplift of the people. 

In each of the Latin-American countries 
there is a system of scholarships which serves 
as a practical means of promoting interest in 


education. This system provides for support- 
ing abroad for a certain length of time such 
students and graduates as have won honors, 
who are sent to Europe and in some cases to 
the United States, to perfect their education 
and bring home the latest and most approved 
methods. Since the present war began students 
come to the United States who formerly would 
have gone to Europe to take a post-graduate 
course in some science or profession. Others 
are in this country studying and investigating 
school methods and appliances. At present 
there are over 1,300 such students sin the 
United States. 

With better means of communication and a 
desire to expand their trade with Latin 
America, United States merchants and travelers 
are visiting intelligently the Latin-American 
countries, and men of science and learning 
have, during the last few years, turned their 
eyes toward that continent, bringing to light 
the wonders of past ages buried by the sands 
of Time, and doing justice to a civilization 
then little known, and only by a few. No 
better proof of the fact that Latin-American 
civilization is worthy of note could be had than 
the desire to exchange professors and students 
between certain universities of the United 
States and those of the leading South Ameri- 
can countries, as well as the acquisition, gen- 
erally by purchase, of important private li- 
braries of Latin America, containing invaluable 
works dealing with the history, progress and - 
higher development of those countries. 

Latin Americans have done much toward 
the progress of the world both intellectually 
and ‘materially. Civilization may be -divided 
into two great branches from which others 
spring: development of the intellectual forces 
of mankind and development of the material 
resources for the benefit of society. Under 
the first head—as has been shown in the pre- 
ceding paragraphs—there are found educa- 
tional institutions to train and perfect the 
mind, which have existed in Latin America 
for centuries, and the result of this training 
has been great jurists, historians, orators, 
physicians, painters, sculptors, poets, musi- 
cians, playwrights and others too numerous to 
mention when dealing with 20 countries, but 
whose works might fill a great library. A 
passing mention has already been made of the 
standing of Latin-American writers. There are 
painters and sculptors of renown, whose works 
have been admired, rewarded and commended 
in the leading art centres of the world. In all 
these countries there are art schools from 
which the students go preferably to Italy or 
France, most frequently pensioned by the gov- 
ernment, to perfect themselves. There are 
musicians wedded to their art and a credit to 
their country and themselves; and composers. 
singers and players educated in their own con- 
servatories or schools. There are theatres and 
opera-houses not surpassed by any others in 
the United States or Europe, and the govern- 
ments of many, if not all, of the Latin-Ameri- 
can countries contribute to the musical educa- 
tion of the people by subsidizing opera troupes 
every Season or so, paying large sums to ob- 
tain the best singers. Many a celebrity who has 
come to New York has commenced his career 
in Latin America. 

There:is another phase of Latin-American 


8 LATIN AMERICA —CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 


civilization showing in an unquestionable man- 
ner a natural tendency toward the establish- 
ment of higher ideals —those ideals that are 
to-day being proclaimed by men of good will 
of all nations. I refer to arbitration, recourse 
to which is the highest form of culture among 
peoples. Arbitration is not new with the Latin- 
American peoples. It is one of the basic prin- 
ciples of their social structure, since it rests on 
the civil law of Rome, which provides for 
arbitration as one of the ordinary and usual 
means of settling differences between man and 
man. The principle of world arbitration was 
first proclaimed by Gen. Sim6én Bolivar, who 
was the originator of the idea of holding the 
first Congress of Nations of America at 
Panama in 1826, for the purpose, among others, 
of adopting arbitration as a principle of Amer- 
ican — that is to say, Pan-American — policy. 
In recent years Latin America has had re- 
course to arbitration and direct negotiations 
partaking often of the nature of arbitration, 
more frequently than all the rest of the world. 
Latin-American wars have been civil wars for 
a political principle, and these mainly in coun- 
tries where the military element predominates. 
They have never engaged in wars of conquest. 
In their international difficulties arbitration has 
always been the keynote of negotiations. It is 
a remarkable fact that in the history of the 
Latin-American republics, since they became 
independent from the mother country over 100 
years ago, they have had among themselves 
only two international wars, and these could 
indeed be classed as national, since they were 
fought among members of their own family 
of nations. But these wars were not fought 
for territorial expansion, nor in the spirit of 
conquest, although territory may have been 
gained as an indemnity. These are the Para- 
guayan war against Brazil, Uruguay and 
Argentina, 1865-70, and the war of Chile 
against Bolivia and Peru, 1879-84. On the 
other hand, who, looking at the map of 
Europe before this war, would recognize it 
as the same Europe of half a century ago? 
With one or two exceptions —the Iberian and 
Scandinavian peninsulas and the British Isles 
—there is not a single country that has not 
been remade at the cost of numberless lives. 
All boundary disputes — and they have been 
many—tave been or are being settled by 
arbitration. ‘Could any better proof be offered 
of the advancement of peoples who, while 
springing directly from a race of warriors, are 
not afraid to work toward the ends of peace? 
Another proof of this spirit of progress is 
the maintenance in the city of Washington, by 
all the countries of the American hemisphere, 
of a unique organization. called the Pan-Ameri- 
can Union, the living embodiment of the idea 
which created the International Union of 
American Republics as a result of the first Pan 
American Conference held in Washington in 
1889-90 at the invitation of that great Ameri- 
can statesman, James G. Blaine. The Pan- 
American Union represents the spirit of prog- 
ress, the desire for a better understanding, the 
necessity for stronger ties of friendship, felt 
among the republics of the three Americas, by 
making them known to one another, by bring- 
ing to the attention of the people of the 
United States the opportunities offered by the 
Latin-American countries, their civilization, 


their onward march toward: prosperity, united 
in a single purpose of material and moral ad- 
vancement. 

There is another aspect of the civilization 
of the Latin-American republics which deserves 
more than passing attention. It is their polit- 
ical life as members of the Pan-American 
fraternity of independent nations. Their first 
step toward higher ideals was their declaration 
of independence and their assumption of the 
duties and exercises of the rights of sovereign 
states. The transition from colonial depend- 
encies to self-governing nations was fraught 
with difficulties unknown to the citizens of the 
original 13 states of the North American 
Union, resulting from different conditions, due 
in the main to the spirit that inspired ‘their 
complete emancipation. The original 13 States 
separated from England principally for prac- 
tical reasons, while the Spanish-American 
countries had to contend with an economic as 
well as a political problem. 

After a period of evolution— or of succes- 
sive revolutions, as some would say — during 
which the several antagonistic interests were 
undergoing a process of amalgamation, or bet- 
ter still, clarification, there now exist, in the 
majority of Latin-American countries, stable 
governments whose sole aim is to maintain 
above reproach the moral as well as the eco- 
nomic credit of their respective nations, so as 
to attract foreign capital and energy, which 
will stimulate the development of home indus- 
tries, and ensure peace, prosperity and hap- 
piness to its citizens. Some Latin-American 
republics have been less fortunate, but every 
disturbance, all civil strife, should be construed, 
in fairness, as a misdirected effort toward the 
attainment of a goal dreamed of and desired. 
by all. Public education, foreign commerce, 
improved means of communication, greater de- 
velopment of the natural wealth of these coun- 
tries, are factors which have contributed and 
are constantly contributing to the establish- 
ment of a peaceful era which will eventually 
become normal and stable. 

As to the material phase of Latin-American 
civilization, communication with the other 
countries of the world at the beginning of the 
World War was represented by over 50 steam- 
ship lines plying between European ports and 
those of Latin America, and about 25 lines 
running from the United States to the Atlantic, 
Caribbean and west coast ports of Latin 
America. The combined railway mileage from 
Mexico down to Chile and Argentina, including 
the island countries of Cuba, Haiti and the 
Dominican Republic, is estimated at over 68,000 
miles, Argentina leading with over 22,000 miles ; 

next comes Mexico with over 15, 000 miles ; 
Brazil follows with about 14,600 miles : Chile, 
nearly 6,000; Cuba, nearly 2,500, and the other 
republics in lesser proportion. There is not 
one single country, however, that is not in- 
cluded in this total mileage. It may seem 
strange that in an area of about 8,200,000 
square miles there should be only 68,000 miles 
of railway, but if one stops a moment to con- 
sider the enormous barrier extending along the 
west coast of South America, formed by the 
mighty range of the Andes Mountains, which 
made direct communication between the cities 
of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts very difficult, 
and the scarcity of population which creates 


LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 9 


demands and makes traffic profitable, one will 
understand why the railways of Latin America 
have not advanced faster. But even under 
these circumstances, not a day passes but some 
work is done toward the extension of that 
railway mileage. 

Another phase of civilization and progress 
is the foreign commerce of a country. The 
progress made by Latin America in its com- 
mercial relations with the world at large and 
the United States, especially, shows that there 
is a great consumption of all such articles as 
are considered necessary to civilization. Latin 
America is not a manufacturing continent; it 
mainly produces for export agricultural prod- 
ucts such as sugar, coffee, rubber, tobacco, 
cacao or cocoa, cotton, etc., hides and other 
raw materials, mining products such as silver, 
gold, tin, copper, iron, bismuth, saltpeter, etc., 
and a few gems. Its main imports are ma- 
chinery of all kinds, hardware, cotton and other 
fabrics, foodstuffs, carriages and automobiles, 
railway material, electrical appliances and other 
similar products of industry necessary to the 
cultivation of the land, the improvement of 
roads and cities, and the comfort of the in- 
habitants. 

There is not a city of any importance in 
Latin America where either artificial illuminat- 
ing gas or electric light is unknown. Tele- 
graph and telephone wires stretch all over 
Latin America, uniting cities and towns, over 
the wilds and across the mountains, bridging 
mighty rivers, connecting neighboring countries 
and linking their shores with the rest of the 
civilized world. Not an event of. any import- 
ance takes place in Europe, Asia, Africa or the 
United States which the submarine cable does 
not bring to the Latin-American press, to be 
made public either in the form of bulletins or 
in “extras,” according to the importance of the 
event, while nearly every Latin-American 
country has its wireless telegraph system. 
Electric cars are fast replacing the older and 
slower methods of transportation within the 
cities and extending their usefulness to carry- 
ing passengers to suburban villas, small towns 
or country places of amusement, and Buenos 
Aires, the largest Latin- American capital, has 
a subway i in operation. 

A charge frequently made against Latin- 
Americans is that they are a race of dreamers. 
There is some truth in this. Latin-Americans 
have inherited from their forefathers the love 
of the beautiful and the grand; the facility 
for expression and the vivid imagination of 
the Latin race; the sonorous, majestic Span- 
ish, the flexible, musical Portuguese, and 
French, the language of art; and a responsive 
chord to all that thrills, be it color, harmony 
or mental imagery. They have also inherited 
from those ancestors their varying moods, their 
noble traits and their shortcomings, both of 
which have been preserved, and in certain 
cases improved, under the influence of environ- 
ment, the majestic mountains, primeval forests, 
ever blooming tropical flowers, birds of sweet- 
est songs and wonderful plumage; under 
magnificent skies and the inspiration drawn 
from other poets and writers, foreign and 
native. 

Much more might be said to sty the con- 
stant endeavor of Latin America to co-operate 
with its best efforts to the civilization of the 


world. It has contributed readily according to 
its Latin standards, and from the day of its 
independence and the establishment of republi- 
can institutions Latin America has recognized 
the rights of man, abolished slavery, fostered 
education, developed its commerce and in- 
creased traveling facilities and means of com- 
munication with the outer world. It has con- 
tributed to the best of its ability to the sum 
total of human betterment, and the day cannot 
be far off when full justice will be done to the 
efforts of the countries south of the United 
States, where live a people intelligent, progres- 
sive, proud of their history and their own 
efforts, and ready to extend a friendly hand 
and a sincere welcome to those who are will- 
ing to understand them, and aid them on their 
road to progress. 
FrANcisco J. YANES, 


Assistant Director, Pan-American Union. 


3. EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA. 
General and Historical. Education in Latin 
America is dominated by two forces. One 
is historical and concerns higher and _ pro- 
fessional studies. The Spanish colonists estab- 
lished universities soon after their occupation 
of the country. Santo Domingo, 1538; Lima, 
1551; Mexico, 1553; Bogota, 1572; Cérdoba in 
Argentina, 1613; Chuquisaca (now Sucre) in 
Bolivia, 1623. Six others were founded by the 
end of the colonial period. They had charters 
from the king of Spain and from the Pope, 
and enjoyed the monopoly of granting degrees. 
Preparation was obtained only in church 
schools and by private tutoring. The univer- 
sities themselves were conducted by the re- 
ligious orders. They were organized and con- 


- ducted solely in the interest of the colonial 


aristocracy. To-day they are national and theo- 
retically open to all classes with small tuition 
fees and very generally include engineering 
schools. However, their traditional character- 
istics persist. They overemphasize theory, 
culture, dialectics, and make their appeal to 
the leisure class. "They exercise little or no di- 
rect influence on elementary instruction. On 
the other hand, they dominate the secondary 
schools, which too often are but feeders to the 
universities, imitating their methods, reflecting 
their traditional spirit, and are likewise limited 
in patronage almost exclusively to the wealthy 
classes. 

The other force in Latin-American educa- 
tion, the movement for elementary education, 
is recent and comes from abroad. Before 
1860 no state had any well-defined system of 
elementary instruction. During the presidency 
of Sarmiento (1868-74) Argentina inaugurated 
a determined movement for universal elemen- 
tary instruction. Sarmiento was influenced by 
the example of the United States. About the 
same time Chile undertook seriously the 
national organization of elementary schools. 
France has been rightly called the intellectual 
mother of Latin America, and when the French 
republic from 1870 on strove to banish illiter- 
acy from France, its influence was not without 
great effect in Spanish America. All the states 
soon put upon their statute books laws for 
compulsory primary education. The reform 
has not progressed uniformly. Argentina, 
Chile and Uruguay in South America and 
Costa Rica in ‘Central America have made the 


10 LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 


greatest progress. Whereas in these states 50 
years ago illiteracy was perhaps more than 90 
per cent, it is now less than 50 and rapidly de- 
creasing. In some of the other states it is still 
90 per cent. 
progress in elementary education since its inde- 
pendence. The least progress has been made 
in those countries where the Indian and 
Mestizo population is the largest, or where 
strong clerical influence hampers the national 
and secular school organization. In such coun- 
tries school statistics are often misleading. 
Many schools exist only on paper, in others 
the terms are short, average attendance is low 
and the law of compulsory attendance is not 
enforced. 

Primary Education.— The standard period 
of the elementary school is six years, but even 
in a country like Argentina the full length is 
observed only in cities and larger towns. The 
villages and countryside maintain curricula of 
but two, three or sometimes four years. The 
school year appioximates nine months. The 
subjects of instruction are reading, writing, 
arithmetic, drawing, geography and national his- 
tory. As far as the mere ability to read is 
concerned, the short period of elementary 
schooling which obtains in so many localities 
is in part compensated for by the phonetic 
spelling of Spanish, and as concerns simple cal- 
culation by the use of the metric system. Gen- 
uine intellectual development, however, suffers 
severely from the short term of schooling for 
the average child. Elementary teachers are as 
a rule underpaid, and are seldom from the 
upper classes. The sharp class distinctions 
which so generally prevail in Latin America, 
especially in countries with a large mestizo pop- 
ulation, are nowhere more noticeable than in 
the schools. Except in Argentina, and in a 
lesser degree in Uruguay and Costa Rica, chil- 
dren of the upper classes of society seldom at- 
tend the elementary public schools. They re- 
ceive their primary education either . through 
private tutoring or in private select schools, or 
in primary grades attached to the state’ sec- 
ondary schools. This practice tends to foster 
and accentuate class distinction and makes of 
the public elementary instruction purely folk 
schools — a condition of affairs much to be re- 
gretted in a democracy. 

In a few countries there is a surprisingly 
strong tendency toward coeducation in the ele- 
mentary schools, but in general the policy is 
segregation of the sexes. In cities and larger 
towns segregation is practised in all grades. 
In smaller communities -boys and girls are 
taught together in the first two or three grades 
and segregated in the higher grades. In rural 
and small village schools where the range of 
instruction is limited (from two to four 
grades) the classes are usually open to both 
sexes. 

Except in the federated republics (Argen- 
tina, Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela) the 
primary school system is thoroughly central- 
ized and directed even in the smallest details 
from the national capital. The funds are ap- 
propriated from the national treasury, the ad- 
ministration is vested in the council of ele- 
mentary education under the Minister of Pub- 
lic Instruction. This council fixes the cur- 
riculum and methods, provides the building and 


Cuba has made commendable’ 


equipment, establishes qualifications of teach- 
ers, assigns teachers to their posts and fixes 
their salaries. Frequently there is a_ local 
board of education chosen by the municipality 
or named by the governor of the province. Its 
authority is, however, carefully limited. Its 
principal functions are to care for-the material 
equipment (building, etc.), to recommend suit- 
able teachers, and when the teacher has been 
appointed, to see that he performs his assigned 
duties and maintains a proper scholastic, moral - 
and civic attitude. Sometimes the local board 
is expected to provide from local funds the 
building and equipment. Great numbers of 
primary schools are conducted in rented build- | 
ings. 

In the federated republics the state systems 
are a copy of the national system of the cen- 
tralized republics. The tendency, therefore, is 
toward centralization over a larger or smaller 
extent of territory and close uniformity. Sucha 
system has undoubed advantages and was the 
only one that could cope with the difficulties 
that confronted popular education in Latin 
America. In Argentina the national govern- 
ment has recently asserted the right to estab- 
lish, maintain and control national elementary 
schools in those states where the local author- 
ities do not provide an adequate system. In 
some countries, especially in Mexico, the 
municipalities establish and maintain elemen- 
tary schools irrespective of the state system. 
These schools are usually better equipped and 
conducted than the state schools since the very 
fact of their establishment is an indication -that 
state-wide interest in popular education is de- 
ficient or non-existent. 

Normal Schools.— Those countries which 
have done most for primary education lay great 
stress on their normal high schools, which have 
come to be the secondary schools ‘of the com- 
mon people, as well as training schools for 
primary teachers. These schools were origin- 
ally an importation and came with the impetus 
for universal and obligatory primary instruc- 
tion. Many of the first masters were brought 
from Europe and the United States, and the 
schools were organized on the model of the 
French primary normal school and the original 
independent normal school of the United States. 
The requirement for entrance is completion of 
the elementary school course (six years) or its 
equivalent. The curriculum covers four, five 
and six years. The studies embrace what is 
usually found in grades 7 to 12 of American 
junior and regular high schools with the addi- 
tion of pedagogy, observation of teaching and 
practice teaching in the annexed model school. 
Many normals are boarding schools. Whether 
boarding or day schools the usual practice is 
for the state to maintain the scholars, lodging, 
feeding and clothing them in the boarding 
schools, or paying them.a commutation in the 
day schools. In return the scholars enlist in 
the teaching service of the state for a certain 
number of years. In case they do not serve 
out their enlistment, they agree to reimburse 
the govenment. A bond is given to ensure the 
observance of the contract. Unfortunately, in 
many countries this contract is not always ob- 
served. The normal school students come from 
the lower middle class, if indeed one can speak 
of a middle class in the average Latin-Ameri- 


LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 11 


can society, and their advancement into the 
higher grades of instruction, even with indus- 
try and ability, is difficult and rare. Their 
limited education is a handicap, and the line 
of demarcation between the normal and ele- 
mentary schools on one hand and the secondary 
and university education on the other is so 
sharply drawn that it is next to impossible to 
pass from the one to the other. Chile and 
Argentina maintain higher normal schools of 
college rank for the training of primary nor- 
mal school instructors, and, to a limited ex- 
tent, for the training of regular high school 
teachers, but the latter are more usually re- 
cruited from the universities and lack distinct 
pedagogical preparation. The boarding normal 
schools very naturally are for one sex or the 
other, but in the day schools coeducation is 
surprisingly common. A model school is always 
attached to a normal school, and much stress 
is laid upon practice teaching, although much 
more time is devoted to observation than to 
actual practice. 

Secondary Education— The — standard 
period of the regular secondary schools 
(Liceos) is six years, but in some countries 
it is less. These schools are usually good of 
their type even in countries where primary 
education has been neglected. Their clientele 
is largely from the upper classes. Church and 
private schools of this grade are numerous, but 
the state retains (as in France) the right of 
examination and power to grant the degree 
(bachelor of humanities) at the end of the 
course. The curriculum is, as.a rule, uniform 
and comprises the Spanish language and litera- 
ture, general and national history, mathematics, 
physics, chemistry and biology (usually without 
individual laboratory practice), French, Eng- 
lish, elementary philosophy and _ economics. 
Latin is seldom included. The uniform curric- 
ulum in the secondary schools is due to their 
close administrative relation with the univer- 
sities. They are still regarded as mere pre- 
paratory schools. When commercial and indus- 
trial. education was introduced, it seemed more 
politic to divorce it wholly from the traditional 
secondary schools, as had been done with the 
primary normal training. Hence almost every- 
where commercial and industrial schools are 
separate institutions although state supported. 
When they are combined with the regular high 
school, it is for economic, not pedagogical or 
administrative reasons. Notwithstanding the 
relative excellence of the regular high school, 
it suffers from the lack of trained and pro- 
fessional teachers. Much of the instruction is 
given by university graduates who divide their 
time between a number of schools or who carry 
on a profession (law, medicine, pharmacy, jour- 
nalism, etc.) at the same time. Their teaching 
is necessarily often a secondary consideration 
and their attendance irregular. They  fre- 
quently lack ability really to teach. The recita- 
tion is apt to become a lecture as in the uni- 
versity. 

Commercial Education.— The commercial 
school in many Latin-American countries oc- 
cupies a position of high favor, receives liberal 
state support and opens an avenue to young 
people who could not hope to profit materially 
by the regular high school course. It is usu- 
ally a combination of upper primary and 
junior high school. The curriculum comprises 


the traditional subjects of the fourth, fifth and 
sixth grades of the elementary school with a 
commercial orientation of arithmetic, geography 
and composition, while introducing the specific 
commercial branches, typewriting, stenography 
and accounting. Much stress is laid upon 
modern foreign languages, especially English 
and French. These schools often receive im- 
portant gifts and even regular subsidies from 
public-spirited citizens and commercial organ- 
izations. Evening as well as day classes are 
the rule in these institutions, and some have 
evening classes only. Unfortunately relatively 
few pupils complete the entire curriculum. 
They leave the school after acquiring the mere 
rudiments of a commercial education to accept 
modest employment in business. 

Higher and Professional Education.— 
The universities are professional schools almost 
exclusively. A very few have faculties. of 
letters and pure science. The standard uni- 
versity contains faculties of law, medicine, engi- 
neering, commerce and agriculture; but many 
have only two or three faculties. Medical de- 
partments include schools of pharmacy, den- 
tistry and midwifery. The average course of 
study in law covers six years; in medicine, six; 
in engineering and agriculture, four; in 
commerce, four; in pharmacy and dentistry, 
three. i 

The enrolment in Latin-American univer- 
sities is surprisingly large. Buenos Aires has 
approximately 6,000 (exclusive of the attached 
preparatory high school) ; Santiago 2,000, Lima 
1,100, Montevideo 900 exclusive of the agri- 
cultural college, a separate institution, and 
others in proportion to population and degree 
of general culture. The explanation is found 
in the fact that although the institutions are 
merely groups of professional schools, they 
also fill the place occupied by the liberal arts 
college in the United States, and many students 
attend with no expectation of following the 
profession they are studying. They take a uni- 
versity course for general culture or for the 
sake of the doctor’s degree which is conferred 
upon graduation. Not nearly half the gradu- 
ates in law and not more than half in medicine 
practise the profession. The law course espe- 
cially is regarded as a liberal education, being 
less technical than in an American law school 
and including at least the rudiments of all the 
social sciences, psychology, economics, sociology, 
constitutional history, as well as the philosophy 
and history of law, and international law. It 
is in fact a study of jurisprudence in the 
wide sense, and leads to the degree of doctor 
of jurisprudence. The medical college. with its 
adjunct departments usually has the largest en- 
rolment. The curriculum is long and full. 
Not as much stress is laid upon chemistry and 
the other basic sciences of medicine as there 
Should be, but the clinical instruction and 
practice is excellent. Agriculture, the last of 
the faculties to be introduced, is much en- 
couraged by the governments and _ receives 
generous support. The enrolment, however, is 
limited. All the states have one or more 
schools of agriculture either as part of a uni- 
versity or existing as a separate institution. 

Organization of Universities.— Practi- 
cally all institutions of higher and professional 
instruction in Latin America are state sup- 
ported and state controlled. In a few centres 


12 LATIN AMERICA — EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 


there are church colleges of law, engineering, 
etc., but mever of medicine. These colleges 
do not confer the degree of the profession. 
That privilege is reserved for the state uni- 
versity. Most state universities are autono- 
mous;.1.e., they are governed directly by the 
faculty, which is a self-perpetuating corpora- 
tion. However, the election to a vacant chair 
must be confirmed by the President of the re- 
public through the Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion. The common practice is for the faculty 
to nominate three candidates for a vacancy of 
whom the minister selects one. The state ex- 
ercises in this way a control over the personnel, 
but usually the faculty indicates its choice of 
the candidates, and the minister rarely rejects 
the nomination. The universities have thus 
acquired almost everywhere complete independ- 
ence. Their revenue, of course, depends largely 
on the will of the national (or provincial) 
legislature. University professors, like those of 
the secondary schools in Latin America, are 
rarely teachers by profession. The law is 
taught by practicing lawyers and judges in 
office; medicine, by practicing physicians. This 
custom has the same disadvantages though not 
so marked as in the Liceos. A professor usu- 
ally teaches but one course which consists of 
three lectures or recitations per week. If a 
course runs through two years, one man will 
teach the first year, another the second. This 
custom accounts for the large number of pro- 
fessors in an institution in proportion to the 
students, the ratio being often in the smaller 
universities as high as one to five. The differ- 
ent colleges of a university are usually scat- 
tered, the college of law being located in one 
part of the city, the college of medicine in 
another, etc. Each has its own library and 
laboratories. This necessitates a duplication of 
material and often a duplication of instruction 
since matriculation in the university is directlv 
from the high school, and certain basic subjects 
are taught in two or more colleges. Especially 
is this true of the basic sciences of medicine, 
engineering and agriculture. The universities 
are very generally open to both sexes, and 
women are enrolled in considerable numbers 
in the colleges of medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, 
education and architecture. 

So-called practical schools of agriculture 
and industrial arts are very common and are 
supported or subsidized by the state. They 
are of lower rank than the university profes- 
sional schools and are for the training of over- 
seers, foremen, artisans and farmers. The 
agricultural states have featured the practical 
agricultural school in recent years. Argentina 
has a score of them of different grade. Some 
are designed to emphasize the type of agricul- 
ture in the region where they are located, 
fruit growing, cattle raising, sugar industry, 
etc.; others have a general curriculum. They 
admit boys with the mere fundamentals of in- 
struction from the third or fourth grade, and 
continue their common school instruction, add- 
ing the professional branches. The curriculum 
extends over three or four years. Many of 
these institutions are boarding schools. The 
system is very similar in other states. Chile 
maintains them in the agricultural _ region; 
Cuba has one in each of the six provinces. 
In Brazil and Mexico it is the concern of the 
individual states, the national government con- 


cerning itself only with the higher professional 
schools. 
Industrial Education.— The practical in- 
dustrial schools (Escuelas de artes y officios) 
have the same status and occupy a correspond- 
ing position in the industrial field. They are 
supposed to reduce theory to the minimum and 
bend their energies to the practical. This is 
especially difficult, however, in Latin America 
since the tradition in education there for cen- 
turies has been in favor of theory, and the 
racial mind is forcibly bent in that direction. 
In the most enterprising countries there are 
trade schools for girls as well as for boys. 
Chile, for example, has a great number for 
girls, one or more in almost every important 
town. The introduction of industrial and agri- 
cultural education into the regular primary 
schools is uncommon. The tendency is to make 
them separate departments of instruction. Both 
at Buenos Aires and at Santiago, Chile, there 
is a school of industrial arts which occupies 
a middle ground between the ordinary elemen- 
tary trades school and the engineering college. 
They are well equipped and train a high type 
of artisan and practical engineer. Many ele- 
mentary trade schools are conducted by various 
orders of the Roman Catholic Church. The 
Salesian Brothers make a specialty of this type 
of education. Some of these schools combine 
elementary agricultural training with schooling 
in the industrial arts. They usually receive a 
subsidy from the local, provincial or national 
treasury. The pupils come from very poor 
families or are orphans. os aaa 6 
Theological Education.— Preparation for 
the Roman Catholic priesthood is given in 
church schools which are wholly removed from 
governmental supervision. At least one such 
school is maintained in each diocese from 
whence the more gifted boys are sent to the 
arch-diocesan school in the capital for ad- 
vanced instruction and training. The lesser 
priesthood may be recruited directly from the 
diocesan school. These institutions necessarily 
have a different curriculum from that of the 
state and state-supervised elementary and sec- 
ondary schools, not only in the emphasis laid 
upon strictly religious instruction, but also in 
the inclusion of Latin which is seldom found 
in the Spanish-American curriculum; in fact, 
in many states the study of Latin in the state 
and state-inspected schools is forbidden by law. 
Education in Brazil__In Brazil little was 
done for popular education before the advent 
of the republic (1889). It is delegated wholly 
to the individual states. Some, notably Sao 
Paulo and other southern states, have made 
commendable progress; others have done very 
little. The type of instruction is much the 
same as in Spanish America. The same is 
true of secondary education. Brazil has two 
national schools of law (Sao Paulo and 
Recife) and two of medicine (Rio de Janeiro 
and Sao Salvador) but since 1911 their gradu- 
ates have no rights not enjoyed by graduates 
of other standard institutions. The tendency 
now is to establish universities; i.e, groups of 
professional schools, in all the state capitals. 
Conclusion.— Popular education is re- 
tarded in Latin America by various causes of 
which some are operative in some countries, 
others in others, and some in all. They may be 
summarized as follows: (1) Apathy of Indian 


LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 13 


and Mestizo ‘population; (2) lack of trained 
teachers; (3) opposition of church to secular 
schools; (4) greater relative importance and 
appropriations given to university and second- 
ary imstruction; (5) want of proper buildings, 
textbooks and equipment; (6) sharply accen- 
tuated* class distinctions: (7) traditional cur- 
ricula and inefhicient methods of instruction. — 


€conomic and social progress, a will 
ingness fo learn modern educational methods, 
and an ever-increasing adaptability of instruc- 
tion to local and racial needs. 
Excar Ewrnc Brannon, 
Vice-President and Dean of Miami University. 


4. LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE, 
Ee an ne vtec on peont: 
American the 


possessions in America, past and pres- 

Be In the restricted sense in which the term 
im this article, however, it deals 
ie ene Mi Bicisinnce at tee Socaish ond 
Portuguese countries of the New World which 
lhaye achicyed national existence and which 
ise epesomently. been for years facing each 
Suse ane ete. 8s Pate ate and producing 


Se a aie at ax fas Miecoieres oF 
all countries. have a 
resemblance. The heritage of language, cus- 
toms, laws, government, social usages and Iiter- 
ature have made this necessarily so. Yei the 
differences are, in most cases, as marked as the 
In a general way ithe literature 
countries holds the 
same relation to that of Spain that American 
literature does to that of England It repre- 
sents the multiple and varying imterests of the 
great Spanish colonial land in the New World 
It has ever clung to the literary traditions of 
the mother country, and Spain's influence upon 
Spanish-American literature has been, m a 
semse, paramount. But just as Spanish colonial 
America has ever been different from British 
colonial America, so this difference is reflected 
m the literatures of the two countries. Eng- 
dand never had a very strong hold upon her 
colonial possessions m America: and she con- 
Seer ctewl were, dally, intn,stheke 


with her colonies but she kept such a firm hand 
upon their government that the colonies them- 
selves were never 


b dian 
of the Spanish- i colomies made their 
2 very : problem, which f 
the first fi i thistle sean 
the interests of Spaniards in America i 
vith those of Spain. ing the centi- 
ries of Spamish rule in the New World, Mexico 


and Peru gave birth to by far the greater part 
of the Spanish-American literature The Kit- 
erary productions of these countries, while ex- 
hibitmg a certain amount of individuality, is 

during this period essentially Spanish: sail 
greater part of it is the work of Spaniards or 
of sons of Spaniards born in America This 
Latin-American literature, whether it treat of 
things American or Spanish, is markedly a re- 
eee el ne: Faget pene as fon poe ag 


icine sles? Ginerteae we 
of the colonies and the relation of the Spanish 
adventurers and of the Spanish government to 
the natives of the New World An important 
part of it also deals with the history, customs, 
habits, religion, traditions and superstitions of 
the American races preceding and immediately 
following the discovery of the New World and 
the contact of Europe with America 
The Colonial Period— The two favorite 
colomies of Spain in America were Mexico and 
Peru, the former, because it was the first great 
territory ; and the latter, because of 
its wealth in the precious metals which gave it 
material importance over all the other Spanish- 
American colonies. The early prominence of 
these two colonies attracted to them great num- 
bers of Spaniards of all classes, among them 
many of high title, family connection and ex- 
cellent education. To these, to priests and 
friars and to native Indian wrfers we owe 2 
great pari of the early colonial [terature 
Mexico's part in this colonial iterature is fully 
discussed in the article on Mexican Literature 
(qa.v.)._ In general this early literature con- 
sists of letters and similar documents relating 
to the conquest, settlement and adminisiration 
oi the colonies, to the customs and habits of the 
Indians and to their pre-conquest history. The 
literature contributed by the priests and monks 
consists of works largely relating to the Chris- 
tianizing of the natives and it includes invalu- 
able texts of a religious nature written in the 
numerous native tongues of the aborigines. 
Some of these works are of a much more ex- 
tensive, ambitious and valuable nature than 
others. Among these are the ‘Hisioria de las 
Indias” of Fray Bratolomé de Las Casas (q.v.); 
the “Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva 
Espafia? of Padre a de Sahaguin 
and other works on the antiquities of Mexico 
by the same author; ‘Historia natural y moral 
de las Indias, by Padre de Acosta (1580): 
the “Monarchia India? of Padre Torquemada 
(1615) (qv.); the ‘Storia Antica del Mes- 
sico” by ithe "Abbé Clavigero (1780), all of 
Mexico; the ‘Inca Ceremonial and Religion? 
of Cristébal de Molina of Cuzco (between 
1570 and 1584); the ‘Extirpacién de Ila ons 
tria del Peri? of Pablo José de Arriaga; and 
the ‘Relacién de las costumbres antiguas de los 
naturales del Pert,» by an anonymous Jesuit 
priest. These, however, are bat a few of the 


immediately succeeding the conquest and 
the relationship of the Spaniards to the natives. 
But this early period of Spanish-American colo- 


14 LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN LAT EROEE ES (4) 


nial history produced laymen who have left as 
valuable and as vivid accounts of the same 
period as. have the representatives of the 
Church. Among these are Fernando de San- 
tillan, ‘Relacion, etc. (1550); Juan José de 
Betanzos, ‘Account of the Incas? (1551); 
Pedro de Cieza de Leén, historian of the con- 
quest of Peru (about 1554); Juan de Matienzo, 
‘Gobierno de El Pert?; Polo de Ondegardo, 
two ‘Relaciones? giving an account of the laws 
and system of administration of the Incas of 
Peru_ (between 1561 and 1571); Bernal Diaz 
del Castillo, ‘Historia Verdadera de la Con- 
quista de Nueva Espafia? (toward the end of 
the 16th century); F. de Alva Ixtlilxdéchitl, 
‘Relaciones? and ‘Historia Chichimeca? (end 
of the 16th century); Francisco de Avila, a 
work on the Indians of Huarochiri, their gods 
and their superstitions; Pachacuti Yamqui Sal- 
camayhua, ‘Relacidn de antiguedades deste 
Reyno del Pert”; Miguel Cavello Balboa of 
Quito, ‘Miscellane Austral,’ giving informa- 
tion on the war between Huascar and. Athau- 
huallpa and Indian coast history generally 
(1576); Fernando Montesinos, ‘Memorias 
antiguas historiales del Pert,’ and ‘Anales y 
memorias nuevas del Pert; Antonio de Her- 
rera, ‘Historia general de los hechos de los cas- 
tellanos en la Isla y Tierra Firme del Mar 
Océano? (1601); Garcilaso de la Vega (the 
Inca), ‘Comentarios reales? and other works 
(early in the 17th century); Lopez de Gomara, 
“Historia General de las Indias? (1616); 
Alonzo Ramos Gavilan, ‘Historia de Copaca- 
bana et de su Milagrosa Imagen” (1620); An- 
tonio de la Calancha, ‘Order of San Agustin, 
in which he gives a history of the Incas (1638- 
50); Juan de Velasco, ‘Historia de Reino del 
Quito?; Ioannes de Laet, ‘Novus Orbis? 
(1633) ; Sanchez de Aguilar, ‘Informe contra 
idolorum cultores Obispado de Yucatan 
(1639) ; Villagutierre y Sotomayor, ‘Historia 
de la conquista de la Provincia de el Itza? 
(1701) ; Cogolludo, D. L., ‘Historia de Yuca- 
tan? (1688). 

In addition to these serious: historical works 
the first period following the conquest saw 
many writers of personal narratives, heroic, 
narrative and semi-lyrical poems, a considerable 
number of which were based on personal ad- 
ventures or reputed to be so. 
are interesting for the hght they give on the 
obscure history, customs, quarrels and habits of 
the period. Among these are the rhymed 
chronicles, ‘La Araucana? of Alonso Ercilla y 
Zufiiga of Chile (1533-94); also ‘Arauco Do- 
mado? (1596), ‘El Vasauro? (1633) and ‘EI Ig- 
nacio de Loyola? of Pedro deOfia, also of Chile; 
‘Purén Indémito? of Hernando Alvarez of To- 
ledo; the ‘Compendio historico de Chile? of 
Melchor Xufre del Aguila (1568-1637); the 
“Conquista del Nuevo Mundo” of Gaspar de 
Villagra (1610); the ‘Elegias de Varones ilus- 
tres de Indias? of Juan de Castellanos; the 
‘Peregrino Indiano> of Antonio Saavedra Guz- 
man (1599), of Mexico; México Conquistada? 
of Juan de Escéiquiz: the “Cortés Valeroso” of 
Gabriel Lasso de la Vega (1594); and the 
“Hernandia? of Francisco: Ruiz. (See an 
account of these under MerxicANn  LITER- 
ATURE). Ambitious “epic poems” of a very 
similar nature appeared in the Argentine, Peru 
and Brazil. The various branches of this ex- 
tensive literature acted and reacted upon one 


These chronicles: 


another, eases the Spanish and Portuguese 
colonies i in America and in Spain and Portugal ; 
for in this the colonies were following in the 
footsteps of the mother countries; though some 
of the American poems were superior to a very 
considerable body of the European end of the 
literature. Many of these rhymed chronicles 
were little more than prose, and their authors 
would often have probably done better if they 
had used prose as their vehicle of communica- 
tion instead of poetry. Yet, to-day, they are 
looked upon as valuable owing to the side- 
lights they throw upon the age in which they 
were written. But their popularity prevented 
the production of prose works of a similar char- 
acter to any great extent. However there were 
a few prose productions which had considerable 
influence upon colonial literature owing to their 
general popularity and the extent to which they 
were read throughout Latin America. Among 
these were the ‘Cautiverio feliz? of Francisco 
Nufiez de Pifieda, written in the latter half of 
the 17th century; and the ‘Restauracién de la 
Imperial y conversiédn de almas infieles>? of 
Fray Juan Barrenechea (1693). The religious 
literature depicting the lives of the saints and 
other sacred characters during the first two 
centuries of Spanish rule in America, though 
plentiful, is of no great interest, except in so 
far as it shows the efforts the priests and monks 
made to present religious dogma in a pleasing 
form for the enlightenment of the Europeans in 
America and in a still simpler and more realistic 
form for the instruction of the Indian and mes- 
tizo population (‘See account of the religious 
drama in the article on MExIcAN LITERATURE). 
Of the most interesting and ambitious religious 
epits of this period’ are ‘La Cristiada> of 
Fray Diego de Ojeda of Lima (1611); and the 
‘Santa Rosa de Lima? of ‘Luis Antonio de 
Ovedo (Peru 1711). The most. interesting 
chronicler (and a fairly good poet) of the first 
century of the Spanish occupation of America 
was Bernardo de Balbuena (for whom, see 
MEXICAN LITERATURE). 

The period under consideration produced a 
great amount of verse, apart from the rhymed 
chronicles. Much of this has been lost and 
such of it as has been preserved is, on the whole, © 
not of a very high class (‘See MEXICAN LITERA- 
TURE for an account of literature of this nature 
in New Spain). Among the few poetical works 
of the period that are still of interest are the 
‘Miscelanea austral? of Diego de Avalos of 
Lima (1603); the “Parnaso Antartico de obras: 
amatorias? of Diego Mejia (1608); and the 
‘Ramillete de varias flores poéticas» of Jacinto 
de Evia of Guayaquil (1673); and the ‘Diente 
del Parnaso” of Juan del Valle of Lima about 
1681. A somewhat similar work by Fray Juan 
de Velasco, ‘El Ocioso de Faenza,? has pre- 
served, in six volumes, the best of the poetry 
of his age in Quito and the territory subject 
to it. The same author, in ‘Historia del reino 
de Quito? also gives some very interesting his- 
torical and other material relative to this an- 
cient stronghold of the Indian empire of the 
Pacific coast. 

The body of Spanish-American literature of 
the colonial period, on the whole, faithfully rep- 
resents the life in Spanish America, with its 
adventures, its strongly religious element and 
its close relation to the mother country. A part 
of it, too, shows the Indian side of the ques- 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 15 


tion. This latter is strongly brought out in 
such works as ‘Ollanta,> a Peruvian drama 
written in the Quichua language; ‘Cautiverio 
feliz? (already mentioned) of Francisco Nunez 
de Pifeda; and the drama ‘Siripo? of Manuel 
José Labardén, an Argentino (1789). 
Throughout the colonial period of Latin- 
American literature, Mexico, Colombia, Peru 
and Chile acted and reacted upon one another in 
some manner; but their literary resemblance to 
one another is more due to their common famil- 
iarity with and imitation of Spanish writers. 
For this reason they have all been reviewed 
under one head. But the Revolutionary period 
and the years following have seen a very con- 
siderable divergency in literary aspirations and 
achievements throughout all the republics which 
had their origin in the Spanish-American colo- 
nial possessions. Therefore it has been found 
convenient to treat the literature of each one of 
these nations separately, connecting them only 
when it is necessary to show the influence that 
one national literature has had upon the others. 
Revolutionary Period. The general char- 
acteristic of the literature of the Revolutionary 
period throughout Latin America is that of a 
strong resentment against Spain, an intense, 
somewhat idealized desire for liberty, and a 
general breaking away from the old order of 
things. It signified also the rise to power of 
the native population of the various colonies as 
distinguished from the Spanish-born rulers. It 
was inspired by the Napoleonic conflict in 
Europe, the troubles in which the Spanish gov- 
ernment found itself, and by the ideals of the 
American and the French revolutions. (For the 
restrictions placed upon native Indians and 
Spanish creoles, see MEXICAN LITERATURE). 
Naturally, possessing the ideas on government 
that they did, and the antipathy to Spanish rule 
that they had shown for some years, the Amer- 
ican revolutionists inclined strongly toward re- 
publican institutions. Once each country se- 
cured its independence the people proceeded to 
set up a republic in name at least. This feeling 
toward Spain and Spanish government and this 
love for republicanism and for the institutions 
of the United States and France are strongly 
reflected in the Latin-American literature of 
the Revolutionary period; and the more revolu- 
tionary the writers and the more they showed 
their hatred for the past the more they were 
likely to be popular with their fellow country- 
men. Yet for all this there is, at the beginning 
of republican institutions in Spanish-America, 
very little literary breaking away from Spain, 
whose literary bondage had become so firm and 
lasting that it may still be said to remain com- 
paratively firm. The revolutionary writers who 
sprang into prominence in the Spanish-Amer- 
ican colonies used the Spanish language in all 
its varied literary forms as their most powerful 
weapon against the mother-country, at the same 
time fanning the native hatred against every- 
thing Spanish. The whole land was sharply 
divided into two parties, those who were pro- 
Spanish and those who were anti-Spanish. The 
latter identified themselves with the cause of 
the Indian and the mestizo. The slumbering 
hatred of the oppressors who had so cruelly 
treated, for three centuries, the descendants of 
the native races, and had kept them in bondage, 
burst forth with terrible intensity and Spaniards 
were everywhere treated with the same cruelty 


that they had meted out to the vanquished na- 
tives. All this is reflected in the Spanish- 
American literature of the revolutionary period. 
Though it falls short of correct literary form, 
this literature never lacks intensity and direct- 
ness of aim. Much of it is very bitter; and the 
greater part of it still more markedly local in its 
point of view. But it has in it a sense of indi- 
viduality and the breath of national freedom 
which had never before been known in Spanish 
America. This revolutionary feeling is strongly 
exhibited in the ‘Marcha patriotica? of the Ar- 
gentina, Lopez y Planes, which, though, it was 
long the national anthem of the Argentine, is 
intensely anti-Spanish. Most of the literature 
of this period is controversial and political and 
shows all the ear-marks of having been written 
for revolutionary ends. Little of it is of very 
great value from a literary point of view. Its 
worth, however, consists in the fact that it 
served as a training field for the writers who 
were to follow in all the countries of Latin 
America and to produce, in each case, a national 
literature. 

Argentina. The early literature of the 
Argentine Republic is filled with the revolution- 
ary spirit that gave birth to the nation. Of 
the early Argentine poets one of the best is 
Juan Cruz Varela (1794-1839). His work ex- 
presses well the spirit of his age in its intense- 
ness and intolerance. Two of his dramas, 
‘Dido? (1823), and ‘Argia? (1824), were very 
popular with his own party, as was also his 
campaign poetry directed against the tyrant, 
Juan Manuel Rosas, President of the republic 
by right of conquest. A poet of much promise, 
marked simplicity and charm was Florencio 
Balcarce (1815-39) whose naturalness made him 
a great favorite. The most influential, how- 
ever, of these early Argentine poets was Este- 
ban Echeverria (1803-51). A profound student 
of English, French, German and Spanish 
poetry, and partially educated in Europe, he 
decided to make literature his life work. He 
published ‘Elvira? in 1832. This was followed 
shortly by ‘Los consuelos,» a volume of Byronic 
verse, which at once became popular; and by 
‘Rimas? (1837). One of the poems in the 
latter, ‘La Cautiva,? sets forth a new literary 
creed for Latin America and breaks away from 
established and entrenched literary forms. For 
this reason it has had much influence upon sub- 
sequent Latin-American literature. Among his 
other longer poems are ‘Celia,» ‘El Angel 
Caido? and ‘Avellaneda.» Like many of his 
contemporaries, Echeverria spent his latter 
years in exile from which he thundered against 
the tyrant ruler of the Argentine. Another 
exile, José Marmol (1818-81), a companion of 
Echeverria in Montevideo, was a poet, novelist 
and political writer of great force, imagination 
and considerable originality. His most notable 
works are his novel ‘Amelia? which was widely 
read; his numerous quatrains; his long nar- 
rative Byronesque poem ‘Fl Peregrino? and his 
two dramas ‘Fl Cruzado? and ‘EI Poeta. 
Two other political exiles and writers of in- 
fluence were Claudio Mamerto Cuenca (1812- 
52), and José Rivera Indarte (1814-45). The 
former left two dramas. ‘Muza and ‘Don 
Tadeo, and three volumes of poems published 
as ‘Delicios del corazén.? One of the best of 
the poets of the first half of the life of the 
republic is Juan Maria Gutiérrez (1809-78), 


16 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 


a follower of the doctrine of Echeverria that 
American poetry should be distinctly American. 
His works include ‘Los Amores del Payador? 
(1838) ; ‘América Poetica? (a collection of 
shorter poems, 1846); and ‘Estudios Biog- 
raficos.» Other poets of talent of this same 
period are Vicente Fidel Lépez (1815-1903) ; 
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84) ; Luis Domin- 
guez (1819-98) and Bartolomé Mitre (1821- 
1906). The latter, who became President of 
the republic and who proved himself a very 
successful soldier and leader of men, was a 
poet of considerable merit, a noted journalist 
and one of the best historians and biographers 
of his country. Another journalist, Domingo 
Faustino Sarmiento (1811-88), played a very 
prominent literary and political part in the 
history of the Argentine, becoming a powerful 
journalistic factor, a leader in politics, Presi- 
dent of the republic, a reformer in education 
and a university professor of ‘note. His book 
“Facundo? which reveals his political and social 
ideas, is characterized by brilliant descriptions 
of Argentine and mountain scenery and_ pic- 
tures of the life of the country, especially that 
of the interior on the great pampas. Among 
his other works of note are ‘Educatién popu- 
lar, ‘Viajes por Europa, Africa y América,? 
and ‘Recuerdos de Provincia?: but his com- 
plete writtngs make up close upon 50 volumes, 
in which the treatment of educational and po- 
litical subjects form a very considerable part. 
It is probable that Sarmiento was influenced in 
his descriptions of the gaucho and his life by 
the work on the same subject by Hilario Asca- 
subi (1807-75) whose ‘Media Cafia del Campo? 
became almost a text in the army fighting 
Rosas. His other important works, all essen- 
tially Argentine in sentiment, subject and treat- 
ment, .are ‘Paulino Lucero? (a_ series’ of 
gaucho eSpisodes published between 1839 and 
1851); and ‘Santos Vega.? The gaucho con- 
tinued to play an important part in Argentine 
literature for a considerable time and to aid in 
forming the realism of the national literature 
on a sounder basis. This gaucho movement, 
combined with the traditions of the Classicists 
and the influence of the Romantic movement in 
Europe and especially in I’sance, may be said 
to have been the motor power behind the move- 
ment that produced the Modernists in the Ar- 
gentine and other Latin-American countries. 
Of the Argentine classical writers one of the 
most important leaders was Carlos Guido y 
Spano, who was born in 1829 and continued, 
throughout a long life, to influence the literature 
of his country for purity of style and love of 
classical tradition, through ‘his journalistic 
articles and his published works. His best- 
known collection is ‘Hojas al viento? (1871). 
José Fernandez (1834-86), another journalist, 
was one of the most widely read poets and 
writers in his country. His ‘Martin Fierro 
(1872), and ‘La Vuelta de Martin’ Fierro? 
offer some of the best pictures of gaucho life in 
the Argentine presented in any work to date. 
Estanislau del Campo, a year younger than 
Fernandez, also helped to make the gaucho 
famous. His ‘Fausto,? a poem written in the 
gaucho dialect, is full of the spirit of the wild 
presented in a very artistic and spirited manner. 
Olegario Victor Andrade (1838-83), who was 
42 years of age before he was any way well 


known in literary circles, became suddenly 
famous not only in his own country but out- 
side it and acquired the reputation of being 
one of the two or three best poets of the 
country; and by many critics he is held to be 
the best. The most characteristic and worthy of 
his poems is ‘Prometeo.» To this period ‘be- 
longs Ricardo Gutiérrez (1836-96), poet and 
novelist, who is credited with being the best of 
all the interpreters of criollo life in the Argen- 
tine. His work shows a powerful imagination, 
great sympathy and striking ability to depict 
the life, feelings and passions of the lower 
classes on the great plains of Argentina. Carlos 
Encina (1839-82), in his two works ‘Canto 
al arte? and ‘La lucha por la idea» made him- 
self the leader of what may be called the zxs- 
thetic school in Argentine literature, a school 
which was destined to widely influence Latin- 
American literature and to have its effect on 
that of Spain through the Modernistas. Martin 
Coronado, a contemporary of Encina, was a 
narrative poet of considerable power and the 
possessor of a large fund of humor. Among his 
most popular works are ‘Los Hijos de la 
Pampa,” ‘Angela, and several dramas, the 
best of which are ‘La Rosa Blanca? (1877), and 
‘Luz de Luna y Luz de Incendio? (1878). One 
of the best Argentine interpreters of nature 
is Rafael Obligado, a follower of the school of 
Echeverria. His poetry is romantic in form, 
tender in sentiment and free in movement. 
Gervasio Méndez (1849-98), the poet of melan- 
choly, bed-bound most of his life, set the 
fashion for a sort of melancholy poetry ‘which 
was in great favor in the Argentine during the 
latter quarter of the 19th century. Eugenio 
Cambaceres, a contemporary of Méndez, was 
his direct opposite. His naturalism was so 
marked that he had difficulty in gaining the 
attention of the public. His first two works, 
‘Sibidos de un vago? (1882); ‘Musica senti- 
mental? (1883) and ‘Sin rumbo? (1885), gradu- 
ally overcame the antipathy of the public and 
his ‘En la sangre? (1887) made his reputation 
as a painter of the national life, especially of 
the mixed population of Buenos Aires. Martin 
Garcia Mérou, born in 1862, is one of the most 
voluminous of modern Argentine writers, hav- 
ing already published some 16 volumes covering 
literary criticism, descriptive studies of foreign 
countries, tales and poems, novels and history. 
The list of younger Argentine writers is long 
and includes, among others, Domingo Martinto, 
Luis S. Ocampo, Alberto Navarro Viola, Adolfo 
Mitre, Julio E. Mitre, Enrique E. Rivarola, 
Rubén Darié (q.v.), Juan Mas, Emilio Berisso, 
Manuel Galvez, Eugenio Diaz Romero, Ricardo 
Rojas, Alvaro M. Lafinur, Albero Giraldo, An- 
tonio Argerich, Paul Groussac, Lucio Vicente 
Lépez and Enrique Rodriguez Larreta. Some 
of the later Argentine novelists are worthy of 
special attention. Among these are two who 
have won attention in Europe. Carlos Maria 
Ocantos has an audience throughout Spain and — 
Latin America. He has written many novels, 
the best of which are ‘Ledn Saldivar,’ ‘Don 
Perfecto,» ‘El Peligro.2. Emma de la Barra, 
who writes under the pen name of “César 
Duayen,” is the best of the woman novelists of 
the Argentine. Her most popular story, ‘Stella, 
depicts, in a vivid manner, fashionable society 
in the capital. In this field she disputes sover- 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 17 


eignty with Martin Aldeo whose novel ‘La 
Novela de Torquato Méndez? is in itself a vivid 
picture of the life of Buenos Aires. 

Chile.— From the earliest days of the con- 
quest Chile has been a land of historians and 
chroniclers, to some of which reference has 
been made in the earlier section of this article. 
Many of the historical works of Chile are 
excellent; and she has shown considerable 
talent for essays and writings of a like nature. 
But it is in the novel, in more recent times at 
least, that Chilean literature has given the 
greatest promise. One of the earliest and most 
voluminous of Chilean novelists was Liborio 
Brieba, whose plots are set in the revolutionary 
period of native history. They are often 
spoiled by crude presentation of crime and fan- 
tastic plots. The work of Martin Palma (1821- 
84) is in every way better than that of Brieba. 
He was journalist, contfoversialist, free-thinker 
and tractarian. Among his novels are ‘Los 
Secretos del Pueblo” (1869); ‘La Felicidad del 
Matrimonio» (1870); ‘Los Misterios del Con- 
fesionario? (1874, translated into English). 
The success of his novels brought forth numer- 
ous imitators. Miguel Luis Amunategui (1828- 
88) who worked with his younger brother 
Gregorio, was the first trustworthy critic of 
Latin-American poetry and poets. Their works 
include, among much published matter, ‘Juicios 
criticos de algunos poetas hispano-americanos? ; 
‘La Alborada poetica en Chile? and ‘Primeras 
representaciones dramaticas en Chile.» The most 
copious biographer of Chile and probably of 
Latin America is Benjamin Vicuia Mackenna 
(1831-86), who has written more than 150 vol- 
umes on biographical-historical subjects. Diego 
Barros Arana (1830-1908), one of the most 
learned men and deepest thinkers of Chile, has 
left the best history of his native land, ‘Historia 
General de Chile,» among numerous other his- 
torical works. Alberto Blest Gana, whose liter- 
ary activity began in 1858, with a volume of 
striking stories: dealing with contemporary 
society, is one of the best story writers and 
foremost novelists of Chile. Among his novels 
are ‘Pago de las Deudas? (1860); ‘Martin 
Rivas? (1862) and numerous shorter stories, all 
of which move along swiftly displaying one 
vividly painted scene or characterization after 
another. Ramén Vial (1833-96), a dramatist 
and comedy writer of considerable talent, pos- 
sessed of an inexhaustible fund of hurnor and 
resources in dramatic comedy. Among his 
numerous works some of the best are ‘Mujer- 
hombre; ‘Los extremos se tocan? and ‘Grati- 
tud y amor. Three writers all bearing the 
same family name, Daniel Barros Grez (born 
1839), Vicente Grez (born 1843) and Borja 
Orijuela Grez, have all made names for them- 
selves in Chilean literature. The former is the 
best of the Chilean writers of historical fiction. 
Among his novels are ‘El huérfano,? ‘Primeras 
aventuras del maravilloso perro Cuatro Remos 
en Santiago» and ‘Pipiolos -y Pelucones? 
(Liberals and Conservatives), all of which are 
written with keen wit, satire and humor. He 
was also successful as a writer for the 
stage, his best dramatic production being 
‘Fl Tejedor.» Vicente Grez (1843-1909), one 
of the most versatile of Chilean literary men, 
has produced some notable novels, among them 
‘Emilia Reynals» (1883); ‘La Dote de una 


VOL. 17 — 2 


joven» (1884); ‘Marianita? (1885); ‘EI ideal 
de una esposa’ (1887) ; and a volume of poems 
‘Rafagas? (1882). Borja Orihuela Grez is 
also a novelist and her ‘Fl cura civil? is an 
excellent picture of certain phases of country 
life in the interior of Chile. Ramén Pacheco, 
who has been active as a novelist since the 
beginning of the last quarter of the 19th cen- 
tury, has found his field in episodes of native 
history. His best-known work, ‘El subterraneo 
de los Jesuitas? (1878), has gone through several 
editions. Enrique del Solar (1844-), son of a 
famous mother, Mercedes Marin del Solar, is 
the author of a number of popular novels con- 
siderably above the average of their class, 
among them being ‘Dos Hermanos? ; and ‘Una 
aventura en Ercilla.» Luis Montt (1848-1909), 
poet, bibliographer, critic and editor, has done 
much to encourage the study of the history and 
literature of his native land. José Toribio 
Medina (1852-) is the greatest authority on 
the history of printing throughout Spanish 
America; and he has written the best and most 
appreciative history of the early literature of 
Chile. Valentin Mutillo (1840-) has written 
numerous novels, short stories and other literary 
productions stretching over a third of a century. 
The best known of these is a novel ‘Una vic- 
tima del honor? (1871). Alejandro Silva de la 
Fuente is the author of several novels of 
promise; but they are hopelessly tragic. Among 
these are ‘Ventura? (1885); and ‘Penas que - 
matan? (1887), which are the most character- 
istic of his earlier work. Alberto del Solar 
(1860-), traveler, diplomat, novelist and. de- 
scriptive writer, has done some creditable work. 
Among his publications are ‘Huincahual? ; 
‘Rastaquoere?; and two novels, ‘Contra la 
marea? and ‘El faro.» One of the best short 
story writers of Chile is Luis Orrego Luco 
(1866-). He is also a successful novelist. 
Among his works which have attracted much 
attention are ‘Un idilio nuevo? (1900); ‘Un 
voluntario de la patria vieja? (1905); and 
‘Casa grande? (1908). Among the long list of 
other writers of Chile not mentioned are Pedro 
N. Cruz, story novelist; René Brickles; Emilio 
Rodriquez Mendoza, novelist; J. V. Lastarria; 
Baldomero Lillo; A. C. Espejo; F. Santibafiez ; 
R. Maluenda; G. L. Hubertson; all short story 
writers. J. J. Vallejo and Daniel Riquelme are 


both humorous writers popular in Chile. - 


Andrés Bello (1781-1865), as both poet and 
prose writer of varied talents and accomplish- 
ments, properly forms the connecting link be- 
tween the prose and the poetical writers. 
Born in Venezuela he became the moving 
spirit in educational matters in Chile where he 
was soon recognized as the leader of the 
classical school of literature in his adopted 
country. Bello distinguished himself as a 
poet, journalist, literary leader, educator and 
writer of school and other books. Grammar, 
philosophy, mathematics, education, juris- 
prudence and international law were all handled 
by Bello in works of singular clearness and 
notable pedagogic construction. His position 
as president of the University of Chile increased 
his influence. José Joaquin de Mora (1784- 
1863), a naturalized Spaniard and a literary 
man of some ability, was the opponent of Bello 
in most of his educational and literary work. 
His ‘Leyendas Espafiolas» had considerable in- 


18 LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 


fluence upon the development of literature in 
Chile. The most notable woman writer of this 
period was Mercedes Marin de Solar (1804— 
60), a writer of occasional verses which have in 
them the imagery, imagination and vision that 
make true poetry. Salvador Sanfuentes (1817- 
60), jurist, educator, statesman and_ literary 
man, was Bello’s most noted pupil. Among 
his poetical works are ‘El Campananario,? 
Juana de Napoles» (a drama), ‘El Bandido, 
‘Inami,> ‘Huentemagu,? ‘Ricardo y Lucia? 
and ‘Teudo.? Sanfuentes has written exten- 
sively and interestingly with a true sympathy 
with nature and a keen eye for her 
beauties. José Victorino Lastarria (1817- 
88), one of the prime factors in the 
literary life of Chile in his age, wrote 
prose sketches, short stories, political essays 
and was the prime mover in the literary society 
and the Academia de Bellas Letras. His works 


include ‘Antafio y hogafio,? ‘Recuerdos liter-. 


arios?> and ‘Lecciones de politica postiva.? 
The two sons of Andrés Bello, Juan (1825-60) 
and Carlos (1815-54), both wrote and trans- 
lated dramas and generally helped on the liter- 
ary movement in Chile. Carlos Bello’s drama, 
“Los Amores del Poeta» was very successful as 
were several of the dramatic adaptations of his 
brother. One of the stoutest liberals among 
the Chilean literary men of the middle of the 
19th century was Francisco Bilbao (1823-65). 
Sociologist, historian, journalist and poet, he 
showed talent in every field. His best prose 
work is ‘Sociabilidad Chilena.. A friend and 
supporter of the literary and political ideas of 
Bilbao was Eusebio Lillo (1826-1910). Editor, 
poet and soldier, he wrote fervid patriotic po- 
etry, some of which is still popular in Chile, 
among these being the ‘Himno nacional? and 
the ‘Himno de la igualdad.» Another active 
literary and political figure of this period was 
Isidoro Errazuriz (1835-). He distinguished 
himself in the field of history, which deals alto- 
gether with Chilean affairs. Guillermo Blest 
Gana (1829-1904) is a very subjective poet with 
decidedly romantic leanings. He has been 
called the poet of the home. Guillermo Mata 
is the most representative Chilian poet of the 
middle of the 19th century. He fitted his muse 
to political and national ends and he had ad- 
mirers throughout Latin America. Among his 


extensive poetical publications are ‘La mujer 


misteriosa,» ‘Un cuento endemoniado,” ‘Cuen- 
tos en verso,’ and much heroic and historical 
poetry. Martin José Lira (1833-67), one of the 
best nature poets of Chile, has made numerous 
translations from English into Spanish, among 
them Longfellow’s ‘Psalm of Life.2 Luis 
Rodriguez Velasco, J. A. Soffia, Eduardo de la 
Barra, the brothers D. A. and J. A. Alemparte 
and a score of other writers contributed more 
or less to Chilean poetry. 

Uruguay.— The peculiar formation of the 
great flat country along the Rio de la Plata and 
the close political and social relationship long 
existing between Uruguay and the Argentine 
have made it inevitable that their literatures 
should act and react upon one another. The 
constant revolutions in both countries have 
caused the exodus of literary men from one to 
the other and from the neighboring republics. 
The capitals of both republics have formed the 


hot-beds of revolutionary propaganda and the 


refuge of political exiles, many of whom were 
fired with the enthusiasm for political and social 
reforms each in his respective country. These 
conditions and circumstances have had an all- 
powerful influence upon the literature of both 
countries and in fact upon that of several other 
Latin-American republics, though probably 
upon none to such an extent as upon Argentina 
and Uruguay, many of the literary men of 
whom have had, at one time or another, to 
take refuge abroad from evils at home. To this 
latter class belonged Francisco Acufia de 
Figueroa (1790-1862). He was a_ strong 
partisan of Spanish interests in America and 
when the colonists rose up in rebellion during 
the Napoleonic troubles in Europe, he fought 
the battles of Spain right vigorously, using 
reason, appeals to’ patriotism, invective and 
satire. Naturally, on the success of the cause 
of the colonists, he had to leave the country, 
going to Brazil. After a while, he was per- 
mitted to return and became most active, as a 
literary figure. His influence which was nation 
wide exerted its greatest power in Repub- 
lican circles. Notwithstanding many public 
duties Acufia de Figueroa was a voluminous 
writer, his published works comprising 12 sub- 
stantial volumes. In “La Malambrunada,? one 
of the best-constructed and worked-out satires 
in the Spanish language, he ridicules the exag- 
gerations and pretensions of the new school. 
In ‘La Madre Africana» Acufia de Figueroa 
pleads for the abolishment of the African slave 
trade; and in others of his poems he displays 
a constant and intelligent interest in the great 
public questions of his day. Melchor Pacheco 
y Obes (1810-57) was, in a sense, a precursor 
of the Romantic school of literature. Pedro P. 
Bermudez (1816-60), a poet of some power, is 
noted for his lyrical drama ‘El Charrua,? which 
met with signal success on account of the sen- 
timents it expresses, its sympathy with the na- 
tive races and America as opposed to Spain. 
Adolfo Berro (1819-41), a still.more determined 
follower of the Romantic school, selects for his 
poems, for the most part, native subjects and 
incidents and he evolves his story with consid- 
erable skill and marked interest. Juan Carlos 
Gomez, a lyrical, romantic poet with strong sub- 
jective and personal tendencies, made his power 
felt in journalism and politics. He is intensely 
patriotic and he displays a fierce hatred of Bra- 
zilian domination over his country. On this 
subject he devotes a long poem of six cantos, 
‘Figueredo.» Alejandro Magarinos Cervantes 
(1825-93), diplomat, poet, dramatist and novel- 
ist, is the most universal literary genius that 
Uruguay has produced. He early acquired lit- 
erary fame not only at home but throughout 
Latin America and Spain. He published, dur- 
ing his student days in Madrid, a novel of con- 
siderable force and great promise, ‘La estrella 
del sur? and two dramas, ‘Amor y patria» and 
‘Percances matrimoniales,? which increased his 
reputation. When, at the age of 27, he pub- 
lished his poem ‘Celiar,? a striking legend of 
epic qualities, his name was already well known 
throughout Spain. Crowned with European 
laurels he returned to his native country at the 
age of 30. There during the rest of his life 
he retained the enthusiastic admiration of his 
countrymen who heaped favors upon him, 
among them being the position of rector of the 


LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 19 


aational university and senator. Among his 
more notable works are ‘Brisas del Plata? 
(1864), and ‘Palmas y Ombues?’ (1884), two 
volumes of poems of various kinds, all of 
which are marked by a choice of native sub- 
jects, an intense love of his native land and the 
power of painting the life about him superior 
to that of any of his contemporaries or of, his 
countrymen up to his day. Of his various 
novels, ‘Caramurt is the best from the point 
of view of construction and general develop- 
ment. Francisco de Acha (1828-88), journal- 
ist, poet, humorist and dramatist, wrote very 
good comedies, several of which were very suc- 
cessful on the stage. He also edited a comic 
satirical paper, El Molinillo, which had a very 
wide circulation. Among his successful dramas, 
some in prose and others in verse, were ‘Bro- 
mas caseras, ‘Como impieza acaba, ‘La 
fusién® and ‘Una victima de Rosas.” Heraclio 
Farjado (1833-70), poet and dramatist, was one 
of the most popular literary men in Uruguay 
in his day. He possessed considerable dramatic 
talent and wrote excellent shorter poems and 
odes. ‘Arenas del Uruguay? contains most of 
his shorter poems; and his most noted longer 
poetical composition is ‘La cruz de Azabache.’ 
For his ode on ‘América y Colén? he won a 
gold medal in 1858. His best-known drama, 
GCamilia O’Gorman? (1836), was received with 
great enthusiasm, perhaps more on account of 
its political references than because of the 
evident dramatic talent which it shows. Victor- 
iano E. Montes (1848-) belonged to the group 
of poets who delighted in depicting the life of 
the interior of the country after the manner of 
the gaucho poets. His best productions, which 
possess a very considerable warmth of. feeling 
and action, are ‘El Tambor de San. Martin? 
and ‘Tejedora de fianduti.» To this period be- 
long two dramatists who were quite popular, 
Estenilaso Pérez Nieto and Orosman Morato- 
rio. The chief work of the former, ‘Aparien- 
cias y realidades,» has its scenes laid during the 
revolutionary period. Moratorio, in his dramas, 
successfully exploited the gaucho character, sur- 
roundings and associations, working over popu- 
lar legends and stories. His dramas are still 
occasionally presented. Washington P. Bermt- 
dez (1847— ) came by his dramatic talent 
through family inheritance, his father being 
Pedro P. Bermtdez, already mentioned. He 
contributed fugitive verse to the periodicals; 
and became known as a writer of witty, satir- 
ical and political poems, many of which were 
contributed to El Negro Timoteo, a noted polit- 
ical journal. He wrote many plays, the most 
successful of which was ‘Artiagas,’ a historical 
drama, which is looked upon as one of the lit- 
erary assets of the nation. Juan Zorilla de San 
Martin (1857- ), diplomat, lyrical and epic 
poet, and the leader and greatest representative 
of the Romantic movement in Uruguay, was 
educated in the University of Chile and there 
received the first inspiration in the Romantic 
literature which had then already taken hold 
on the Pacific coast. He took ardent sides with 
the struggle then going on between the older 
school and the new literary movement; and he 
began to write with enthusiasm and yet with 
great care. Inspired with the ambition of writ- 
ing the great Latin-American narrative poem, 
he set to work on what proved to be the great- 


est poem of its kind in Uruguayan literature. 
This, when published, bore the title of ‘Ta- 
baré,? the name of the hero of the story. The 
poem, which consists of six cantos, sings, in 
beautiful lyrical verse, the love story of Tabaré, 
half-breed Charru Indian, for Blanca, the sister 
of Don Gonzalo, the Spanish commander. The 
plot ends in a tragedy, which was in reality the 
only solution for the complications the author 
had created. Among the other works of San 
Martin are his famous ‘La Leyenda Patria,’ 
“La epopeya de Artigas» and ‘Resonancias del 
Camino,» Luis Pifieyro del Campo (1858-) 
marks the passing of the Romantic movement 
into quasi-realism. He has written a great deal 
that is pleasing and often poetic, but little that 
is really lyrical or approaching poetical great- 
ness. His ‘EI ultimo gaugho, one of his long- 
est poems, gives a pleasing picture of the past 
and its customs. ‘Santiago Marciel (1867- ), 
at the age of 17, published a volume of poems 
which gave great promise of future achievement 
(‘Auras primaverales?). His best-known long 
poem, ‘Flor del trébol,? a tale of love, war and 
adventure, displays considerable poetic feeling 
and an appreciation of the beauties of nature. 
Among the other poets of Uruguay worthy of 
notice are Bernardo Prudencia Berro (1803-68), 
Enrique de Arrascaeta, Joaquin de Salterain, 
Antonio Lussich, Luis M. Lafinur, José del 
Busto, Victor Arreguine, Rafael Fragueiro and 
Carlos Roxlo. The latter, who is a poet of con- 
siderable versatility, has written what is by far 
the best literary history of his country, ‘Histo- 
ria critica de la literatura uraguaya> (1912). 
The same subject has been treated, but in a 
much less efficient and extensive manner, by 
any i Bauza, in his ‘Estudios literarios? 

Eduardo Acevedo Diaz (1851-  ), journal- 
ist, soldier, reformer, critic and novelist, stands 
easily at the head of the story writers of Uru- 
guay. He passed a stormy life. Frequently in 
opposition against the government and often in 
arms and exile, his varied experiences are em- 
bodied in a series of novels of startling reality 
and dramatic force. Undoubtedly Acevedo 
Diaz was largely influenced in his earlier days 
by his companion in exile, Carlos Maria Rami- 
rez, author of ‘Amores de Marta, a popular 
romantic story, and other tales. Among Ace- 
vedo Diaz’ popular stories are ‘Brenda, his 
first novel; ‘Ismael,? ‘Nativa,? ‘El Grito de 
Gloria,» a trio of semi-historical novels, pur- 
porting to relate the adventures of a family 
during the wars of the revolution, which pre- 
sent a bewildering array of excellently drawn 
characters. Carlos Reyles (1862—) is credited 
at home with being the leader of the natural- 
istic movement among the novelists of Uruguay. 
He had unexceptional facilities for depicting the 
life of the interior of the republic, for he was 
the owner of an extensive cattle ranch on 
which were employed scores of cattlemen and 
other ranch help. These he studied carefully 
and in detail; and he has reproduced them with 
startling exactness. Among his best and most 
realistic stories are ‘Beba? (1894); ‘La raza 
de Cain?; and a volume of excellent short 
stories. Manuel Bermtdez (1867—) also has 
written very good stories after the style of 
Reyles. 

Uruguay has also produced good dramatists 


20 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 


in Samuel Blixen (1869-1909) and Victor Pérez 
Petit (1871—). The former has developed, in 
a series of plays of the seasons, ‘Primavera,’ 
‘Otofio? and ‘Invierno,? some very fine char- 
acterization. Pérez Petit has written, in addi- 
tion to drama, literary criticism, stories and 
tales. His literary criticisms and studies in- 
clude ‘Los Modernistas? and ‘Zola, and his 
dramas ©Cobarde,? ©Yorick? and ‘El Esclavo- 
rey.’ He also published poems and a volume 
of sonnets bearing the title ‘Joyeles barbaros.? 
Two modern Uruguayan poets are Julio Her- 
rera y Reissig and José Enrique Rodd. The 
former possesses marked poetical talent; his 
best work is to be found in his sonnets which 
received a sort of second birth after the death 
of the author in 1909.. Rodé is learned and is 
looked upon as a leader of a certain section 
of the modern literary field not only in Uru- 
guay, but also in the Argentine and Paraguay. 

Peru and Bolivia—Away back in semi- 
historical times Peru and Bolivia were con- 
nected politically and their interests have been, 
in many respects, very closely related since 
then. Bolivia, owing to the disturbed condi- 
tion of the country following the expulsion of 
the Spaniards, did not begin to produce litera- 
ture until about the middle of the 19th cen- 
tury; and since then, her writers have, for the 
most part, been but rather faint echoes of those 
of Peru and the other surrounding countries, 
and of Spain. Therefore the literary efforts 
of Peru and Bolivia have been grouped 
together in this article. 

Peru—In Peru the unsettled condition of 
the country following the achievement of inde- 
pendence retarded literary development; but 
still the ancient land of the Incas recovered more 
quickly than her one-time province, Upper 
Peru (Bolivia). Manuel A. Segura (1805-71) 
is the brightest literary star on the horizon of 
Peruvian Republican literature. His first 
‘ comedies began to appear in 1839. His pub- 
lished comedies numbering a dozen are witty, 
full of intrigue, have considerable movement 
and present very good characterization. Hence 
they were very popular in their day. Among 
the best of his comedies are ‘La moza mala? ; 
‘Saya y manto’; ‘Lances de Amancaes,? ‘Na 
Catita?; and ‘El Sargento Canuto.? Felipe 
Pardo Aliaga (1806-68) was, like Segura, a 
depictor of the humorous situations of life 
and a wielder of satire. They are very good 
pictures of certain phases and conditions of the 
life of the country and of the society of the 
day. Among Pardo’s best-known comedies are 
‘Frutos de la educacién,? ‘Don Leocadio? and 
“Una Huérfana en Chorillos.» Manuel Castillo 
(1814-70), leader of the mountain school of 
Arequipa, is a poet with a great love of nature 
and a power of depicting her moods. To this 
period belongs Juana Manuela Gorriti de Belzu 
(1819-74), the greatest woman writer of Peru 
and her most clever novelist. Her husband, 
Manuel Bezu, President of Peru from 1848 to 
1855 and again in 1865, died in the latter year 
at the hand of an assassin. Juana Manuela Gor- 
rita had published her first novel, ‘La Quena,” 
in 1845 and had followed it up with many tales 
of a like nature, all having a historical or 
legendary basis in the national life of Peru 
and her pre-Spanish civilization. A collection 
of her stories was published under the general 
title of ‘Suefios y realidades? in 1865; and 


since then various other editions have appeared. 
Juana Manuela Gorrita also edited a periodical, 
El Correo del Pert, which exercised very 
considerable influence in literary circles. José 
Arnaldo Marquez (1830-1904) wrote in a fatal- 
istic and hopeless vein which gained him a con- 
siderable following. He struggled all his life 
with poverty and inability to make a decent liy- 
ing and his struggle is vividly reflected in his 
‘Meditacién? and other poems. Carlos Agusto 
Salaverry (1831-90) is the Peruvian poet of 
melaricholy and yearning love. There is in his 
poems a sweetness and depth of feeling rarely 
attained in Latin-American literature. ‘Cartas 
a un angel contains a collection of his love 
poems. Ricardo Palma, critic, historian, philol- 
ogist and poet, made a very respectable body 
of literature out of the traditions, customs and 
humors of Peru and Peruviau life. No other 
Latin-American writer has handled so many 
characters, incidents and plots as Palma has in 
his ‘Tradiciones Peruanas? which were pub- 
lished in various series and numerous volumes. 
Clemente Althaus (1835-81) has attempted al- 
most every class of literature, passing from 
Romanticism in ‘his younger days to Classicism 
in his more mature years. He wrote much 
and passably well. Luis Benjamin Cisneros 
(1837-1904), diplomat and poet, rises above 
the level of the poetic achievements of Althaus. 
Among his poems which are recited in schools 
and colleges and at private gatherings and 
public assemblies in Peru, are ‘Al Pert? (1860) ; 
‘Aurora Amor? (1885); and numbers of his 
songs and his patriotic odes. Manuel Nicholas 
Corpancho (1839-63) who died in the burning 
of a ship at sea was one of the most promising 
of Peruvian poets. Owing to his poetic success * 
he had already been appointed Peruvian Minis- 
ter to Mexico at the age of 21. He was both 
dramatist and lyrical poet. His first drama, 
‘El poeta cruzado,? published at the age of 17 
is a surprisingly good production. Among his 
other works are ‘Magallanes,’ an epic poem 
founded upon the life of Magellan. A collec- 
tion of his poems with an introduction by 
José Marmol appeared under the title ‘Ensayos 
poéticos.» Pedro Paz Soldan y Unanue (“Juan 
de Arona,” 1839-95), a poet of much originality 
and power, occupies a high place in the estima- 
tion of his countrymen. In his periodical, El 
Chispazo, he poured out all his satire, sarcasm 
and bitterness, which, natural with him, was 
imitated by the younger poets of his following. 
Paz Soldan made extensive translations from 
Virgil, Lucretius and Ovid; and this helped 
to increase the beauty and effectiveness of his 
style and the strength of his imagery. At once 
the most characteristic and the best of his 
published works is ‘Cuadros y episodios peru- 
anos? (1867). In these pictures, for such they 
really are, Peruvian scenery and life, especially 
in the country, seem to live and breathe. 
Ricardo Rossel (1841-1909), a poet of high 
ideals and Romantic tendencies, forms the link 
between the Romanticists and the Modernistas. 
Rossel has attempted successfully, in addition 
to Romantic poetry, the historical legend, songs, 
letrillas and humorous verse. Two. poems 
which show the extremes of his composition 
and treatment are ‘Hima Sumac,’ a poetical 
historical legend, and ‘Meditacién en el cemen- 
terio.” Manuel Gonzalez Prada (1844— ), 
professor of literature, possessed of a mastery 


LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 21 


of Spanish composition, has run through all 
the gamut of extremes, pessimism, atheism, 
anti-religious fanaticism, anarchism, and yet 
preserved his beauty of style and perspecuity 
of thought and arrangement. His most char- 
acteristic work is ‘Paginas libres.» Carlos G. 
Amézaga (1846-1906), dramatist and poet, in 
his ‘Leyenda del Caucho? has shown consider- 
able epic ability and his ‘Mas alla de los cielos? 
has the true lyrical ring. - Clorinda Matto de 
Turner (1854— ), the Peruvian wife of an 
English doctor, is noted for her patriotic poems. 
She has written two series of good “tradi- 
ciones,” and a novel, ‘Aves sin nido, the lat- 
ter of which has been extensively read through- 
out Latin America. It depicts, in a powerful 
and convincing manner, the wretched condition 
of the native Indian ground down beneath the 
keel of the landowner, the Church and the 
government. Peruvian critics are fond of com- 
paring ‘Aves sin nido»? with ‘Uncle Tom’s 
Cabin.? Contemporary with Clorinda Matto is 
Mercedes Cabello Carbonero, another clever 
Peruvian writer and the best novelist her coun- 
try has produced in her own peculiar field, 
the depicting of Peruvian society. She has 
covered a wide extent of territory in her novels. 
Political ambition and its effects upon the coun- 
try, gambling and its effect upon society, the 
relation of women to society and many other 
like subjects she has made the centre themes 
of her novels which are still read not alone 
in Peru but in many of the other Latin-Amer- 
ican countries. Among her most popular novels 
are ‘El conspirador,? ‘Las consecuencias? and 
‘Blanca Sol,» the latter of which is almost as 
well known in Spain and throughout Latin 
America as at home in Peru. Jdése Santos 
Chocano (1875, q.v.), the exponent of Ameri- 
canism, is universally and favorably known 
through Latin America. Among his published 
works are ‘Iras santas»? (1894); ‘En la aldea? 
(1895) ; ‘La epopeya del Moro,’ ‘Alma Amer- 
ica? and ‘El canto del porvenir.» Among the 
minor poets and writers of Peru worthy of 
mention are Clemente Palma (son of Ricardo 
Palma), noted for his ‘Cuentos malévolos? ; 
Jose Galvez, a writer of erotic sonnets and epic 
poems; Juan del Carpio, a poet of love songs 
and other erotic poetry; Leonidas N. Yerovi; 
Enrique A. Carrillo, a novelist; Manuel Bedoya, 
a dramatist of very modern tendencies; Felipe 
Sassone, a poet of love themes; José de la 
Riva Agtero, historian and critic, whose ‘Char- 
acter de la literatura del Perit independente? 
is one of the best works on the subject; and 
Francisco Garcia Calderén, essayist, historian 
and philosopher. The latter is one of the best 
of the Latin-American writers in his peculiar 
field and he is favorably known in Spain and 
throughout Latin America. He has dealt ex- 
tensively with the problems of his country and 
with those of Latin America in general. Among 
his works that are generally known are two 
published in French, ‘Le Pérou contemporain? 
and ‘Democraties latines de Amérique? ; and 
two issued in Spanish, ‘Profesores del Ideal- 
ismo” and ‘Hombres e ideas de nuestro tiempo.” 

Bolivia—Among Bolivian writers who have 
made respectable places for themselves on the 
literary roll of their country is Nestor Galindo 
(1830-65), a somewhat melancholy poet of Ro- 
mantic tendencies. Undoubtedly he stands 
higher in the eyes and in the hearts of his 


countrymen, because he was exiled from his 
native land several times, and finally shot. His 
chief work is ‘Lagrimas.’ Daniel Calvo (1832- 
80), a contemporary of Galindo, seems to have 
been under the same influence as the latter; 
and his attitude toward life is seen in his first 
volume of poems, ‘Melancolias.? In fact he 
was an ardent admirer of Galindo and ad- 
dressed some poems to him which fully dis- 
play this admiration. His ‘Rimas? are better 
and more varied than his other work; and 
some of the romantic legends contained therein 
have been popular in Bolivia. Rosendo Vil- 
lalobos (1860— ) has spent more time out of 
his native country than in it; and while he 
is claimed by Bolivia as one of her clever 
literary men, he more properly belongs to the 
city of Lima where most of his literary work 
has been produced. There he published several 
volumes of poems, light in quality, but pos- 
sessing a sympathetic touch and a swing which 
make them pleasant reading. They have, 
therefore, been quite popular in both Peru 
and Bolivia. Numbers of other Bolivian writ- 
ers are scattered throughout Latin America be- 
cause of the want of encouragement at home. 
One of these, Ricardo Jaimes Freyre, a profes- 
sor of literature in Tucuman, Argentina, has 
made for himself an international reputation 
as a follower of the Modernista movement. 
He is a disciple of Rubén Dario, with whom he 
was at one time associated. Benjamin Lens 
(1836-78) was a follower of the Romantic 
poetry whose influence had already extended 
to all Latin America in his day. He, Galindo 
and Calvo are usually associated together in 
any review of Bolivian literature. Lens, how- 
ever, is free from the excessive lachrymose 
tendencies of his two literary companions. He 
is, therefore, more pleasant reading, though he 
has not the poetic touch of Galindo nor the 
facility for successful imitation of Calvo. The 
modern poets of Bolivia are all under the 
influence of Rubén Dario, Santos Chocano or 
some one or all of the prime actors in thé 
Modernista movement. Of late years, how- 
ever, Chocano has come to have more influ- 
ence in Peru than Dario or any other modern 
or ancient poet. The Pan-American note of 
Chocano finds an echoing voice and a sympa- 
thetic ear in Bolivia. This Chocano influence is 
having a good tendency on the younger genera- 
tion of Bolivian writers who promise to make 
themselves heard in the near future in the 
cause of the extension of the feeling of com- 
mon interests and brotherhood throughout the 
American continents. 

Colombia.— For its population and the ex- 
tent of its educated class Colombia has pro- 
duced more literary men, in its short national 
life, than perhaps any other of the Latin-Amer- 
ican republics. Among the early writers of 
republican Colombia are José Joaquin Ortiz 
(1814-92) and José Eusebio Caro (1817-53), 
both poets, magazine writers and editors who 
worked together earnestly and intelligently for 
the advancement of Colombian literature. The 
latter is very strongly subjective and _ sensi- 
tive, vehement in his likes and dislikes, lyrical 
and. oratorical, and he moves ever on a high 
plane of morality and duty. Ortiz, too, be- 
longs to the Romantic school, and his poetry 
shows power of description, choice of words, 
finish of form and a lyrical ring which, at its 


22 LATIN AMERICA —LAiiN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 


best, is very good. His patriotism and his 
literary culture ring true and enabled him to 
do much, during his long and active life, for 
the cause of letters in his native country. A 
contemporary poet of great talent was Julio 
Arboleda (1817-62), statesman, soldier and pa- 
triot. Born to considerable wealth, his life was 
one long series of adventures and _ political 
changes, which finally ended in his assassina- 
tion. His geatest work, ‘Gonzalo de Oyon, a 
long poem founded on a native legend, is written 
in excellent Spanish, and displays many attrac- 
tive poetical gifts. Its influence has been very 
considerable on subsequent Colombian literature 
and his work is still read throughout Latin 
America. One of the most voluminous writers 
of Colombia was Manuel Maria Madiedo 
(1817-1900). His varied writings cover sci- 
ence, law, government, logic, poetry and reli- 
gion; and there is a- strong patriotic ring to 
them enforced by an enthusiastic love of na- 
ture. He was also a. journalist and dramatist. 
One of the poets of this period who strongly 
reflected the Romantic movement was Gregorio 
Gutiérrez Gonzalez (1826-72), “Antioco»» There 
is a tone of melancholy and discouragement 
running through his poems which appealed 
strongly to his audience and made him one of 
the most popular poets of Colombia. Felipe 
Pérez (1834 ) and his brother Santiago 
(1837— ) both wrote dramas, some of which 
were acted with success and others of which 
were simply published as literary productions. 
Felipe found the plots for his novels and tales 
in the early history of Spanish America, while 
his brother sought his in English history. José 
Maria Samper (1828-98), diplomat, dramatist, 
novelist and biographer, is one of the foremost 
figures in Colombian literature. He was a pro- 
lific dramatist, averaging over three plays a 
year for some time, all of which were staged, 
some of them with notable success. Turning 
from the stage he wrote novel after novel, 
interlarding his work with sketches of his 
contemporaries and of other native literary men. 
Among his best dramas are ‘Dos Primos a la 
Moderna? and ‘Un Alcalde a la antigua. 
“Historia de una alma, largely autobiograph- 
ical, is a book of deep interest. One of the 
most interesting characters in Colombian litera- 
ture is Rafael Nufiez (1825-94). At the age of 
36 he was President of Colombia, and for a 
score of years he dictated the policy and gov- 
ernment of his country. Beginning as a con- 
firmed skeptic, he gradually came around to 
protect the Church and he rose from a dictator 
to an advocate of something as near like con- 
stitutional government as Colombia was fitted 
for at the time. In addition to poems he has 
written a very interesting work, ‘La Reforma 
politica en Colombia.» José Maria Vergara 
(1831-72), poet, literary critic and editor, did 
much for the advancement of Colombian litera- 
ture; and his ‘Historia de la literatura en 
Nueva Granada? (1867) is the best authority 
on the subject. José Manuel Marroquin, 
statesman, philologist, political writer and his- 
torian, was successively Vice-President (1898- 
1900) and President (1900-04). His works in- 
terestingly reflect the life of his times. Miguel 
Antonio Caro (1843-1909), another Colombian 
President, was a classical poet; encouraged 
literature and edited, among other works. Ar- 
boleda’s »voems. Diego Fallén (1834-1905), a 


His © 


poet of breadth and imagination and depth of 
feeling, siands high in Colombia as a writer 
of rhythmis poetry that is, in some ways, sug- 
gestive of Poe. His religious sentiments and 
love of nature are ever strongly in evidence in 
all his work. Rafael Pombo (1833-1912), dip- 
lomat, educator and poet, is still one of the 
most popular of Colombian writers. His 
poetry is versatile, imaginative, rhythmic, 
technically excellent; and it often expresses 
great depth of feeling. Among his many popu- 
lar poems are ‘Mi Amor, ‘Angelina, ‘Cuen- 
tos morales» and “Cuentos pintados.° 

Colombia has produced many novelists, the 
best of whom are Jorgé Isaacs (q.v., 1837— 
95) and José Maria Samper already mentioned. 
Isaacs’ ‘Maria» is the best novel written in 
Latin America. It has been translated into 
most of the languages of Europe and has been 
warmly received in Spain. The book con- 
stantly reveals an intensity of passion that is 
truly Latin-American. Isaacs also published a 
volume of poems of some merit but inferior 
to his novel. He has had many imitators 
in his own country, the best of whom is Lo- 
renzo Marroquin, who has written some clever 
stories which have attracted attention at home 
and abroad. Of these the best known and 
most discussed is ‘Pax.? 

Among the more recent Colombian poets 
who have influenced Latin-American literature 
through. originality in meter and form is José 
Asuncion Silva (1860-96). 

Ecuador.— Gabriel Garcia Moreno (1821- 
75), twice President of the republic (1861-65 
and 1869-75) was the leader of the ultra-Catho- 
lic party in Ecuador and his administration was 
very much of a dictatorship. He possessed a 
curlous combination of talents. He was ar- 
dently attached to the mysticism of the Middle 
Ages, and his writings, especially his journal- 
istic work and his ‘Defensa de los Jesuitas,” 
are of great interest as reflecting the condition 
of Ecuador during its period of development 
toward more democratic ideas. The most in- 
teresting literary character of Ecuador is Juan 
Leén Mera (1832-99), poet, novelist, critic, his- 
torian, scholar and antiquarian. But it is as 
a poet that he is best remembered. One of the 
best of his longer poems is ‘La virgen del sol? 
(1861). Odes, romances, Indian legends, love 
poems and songs give a great deal of variety 
and life to his. whole body of poems. Mera’s 
‘Historia Critica? of the literature of Ecuador 
is one of the best works of its kind; and his 
editions of the works of various Latin-Amer- 
ican poets give strong evidence of his critica] 
ability. Mera also won fame as a novelist, his 
best work in this department of literature being 
‘Cumanda? (1879). This story displays a great 
love for and familiarity with nature. In it the 
poet shows that the forest is his domain and 
his great love. Numa Ponypilio Llona (1832- 
1907), educator, poet and philosopher, who re- 
ceived an excellent, cosmopolitan education in 
Colombia, Peru and Ecuador, and spent some 
years in the diplomatic service of his country 
in Europe, wrote long, semi-philosophical poems 
and sonnets which were popular in his day; 
but they are too discursive and subjective to 
suit the popular taste of to-day. Some of his 
poems, however, like ‘Noche de dolor en las 
montafias,’ ‘Los caballeros del Apocalipsis’ 
and ‘La Odisea de! Alma’ are still popular in 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 23 


Ecuador. Juan Montalvo (1835-89) is one of 
the most unique of Ecuadorian literary men. 
Profoundly religious, he was a strong hater of 
everything that gave evidence of sham in soci- 
ety, government and religion. This hatred 
burned fiercely against the friars and the igno- 
rant clergy of his country who prostituted their 
office. His mind was brilliant and original 
and his forms of poetical expression distinc- 
tively his own. Among his works are ‘El 
Buscapie? (partially finished) ; ‘Siete tratados, 
“Cervantes, and considerable excellent literary 
criticism, much of which appeared in his quar- 
terly, El Espectador. Like most Latin-American 
countries, Ecuador possesses a very consider- 
able number of aspirants for noetical honors, 
the greater number of which, however, sing in 
a minor key. Among these are Luis Cordero, 
Dolores Veintemilla de Galindo, Julio Zalum- 
bide, Horacio Vasquez, Francisco Campos, Ale- 
jandro Andrade Coello, Carlos R. Tobar, Emilio 
Gallegos del Campo, Dolores Sucre and Emilio 
Gallegos Naranjo. 

Venezuela.— On the breaking out of the 
revolution which finally led to the separation 
of the country from Spain, the Venezuelan 
revolutionary leaders had only one use for the 
press, and that was to employ.it to fight Spain. 
This end was purely political. Hence the vol- 
ume of political literature which marks the be- 
ginning of the life of the young republic. But 
even at this early date some enthusiastic spirits 
began the cultivation of literature for its own 
sake. These literary devotees were encouraged 
by the establishment of the first printing press 
in Venezuela in 1806; through revolutionary 
activity; the smuggling into the country of 
books forbidden by Spain and the general in- 
tellectual activity which proclaimed the coming 
of the revolutionary storm. Among these early 
literary advocates and lovers were José Luis 
Ramos, José Sanz, Luis Javier Ustariz and 
Francisco Javier Ustariz who are now remem- 
bered more for the encouragement they gave to 
literature and the example they set than for the 
excellence of their literary remains. Andrés 
Bello (q.v.), the greatest name in the literary 
life of Venezuela in the early days of the re- 
public, became more intimately connected with 
Chile (q.v.) very early in his career. Roman- 
ticism early made its appearance in Venezuela, 
as it did in all the Latin-American republics. 
Its first standard bearer was José Antonio 
Martin (1804-74). True to the inspiration of 
poetry in Venezuela he sang the beauty of the 
rich tropical land about him. To him nature 
was altogether lovely. He also wrote pleasing 
narrative poems and political effusions which 
were not so happy because they were not the 
natural expression of the author who couched 
them in characteristic Gongoristic language. 
One of his best poems is ‘Canto ftnebre? ; 
and one of his most characteristic and curi- 
ous narrative tales is ‘El Mascara.? Fer- 
min Toro (1807-65), diplomat, educational- 
ist, statesman and poet, has the peculiar distinc- 
tion of being both a classical writer and a 
romanticist. He was one of the best diploma- 
tists which his country has produced and he 
negotiated important treaties between Vene- 
zuela and Spain, France, Italy and Great Britain 
and was instrumental in obtaining general 
official recognition in Europe of the independ- 


ence of Venezuela from Spain. Though he was 
successful in classical poetry he was the first to 
recognize the fact that in his own country was 
a wide and interesting field for poetic efforts; 
and he himself lead the way in his elegies 
‘Hecatofonia? which depict the cruelty of the 
Spaniards in their treatment of the natives of 
Venezuela. His poetical tales have less merit 
than some of his other works. Rafael Maria 
Baralt (1810-60) has the distinction of being 
the first Venezuelan literary man who was wel- 
comed in Madrid where he became one of the 
noted literary figures of the Spanish capital 
and a member of the Spanish Academy. He 
distinguished himself in various fields of liter- 
ary endeavor. Journalist, poet, historian, critic 
and lexicographer, he proved almost equally 
efficient wherever he turned his hand. He was 
a great lover of classical literature and he saw 
the dangers into which the Romantic school was 
running. His sonnets and odes are among his 
best work; yet they are too often rigidly 
classical. The best known of his odes, and 
probably the most meritorious, is his “A Colon,? 
which is known to every Venezuelan who 
knows anything about literature. Juan Vicente 
Gonzalez (1808-66), historian, essayist and 
biographer, is one of the deepest thinkers and 
best critics that Venezuela has produced. In 
his ‘Historia Universal? and his ‘Mesenianas? 
are striking elegies in prose about the men who 
gave their lives for their country. José Ramén 
Yepes (1822-81), sailor, poet and soldier, has 
written poems that are filled with fine descrip- 
tions of the sea to which his vivid imagina- 
tion and his sensitive poetical nature have lent 
great brilliancy. The most notable Venezuelan 
poet of patriotic verse is Abigail Lozano: 
Journalist, critic and lyrical poet, he has done 
good service in advancing the cause of litera- 
ture in Venezuela through his literary publica- 
tion, El] Album. Among his collections of poems 
are ‘Fl martirio? (1847), and ‘Otras horas de 
martirio” (1864). Many of his poems have a 
political trend. Daniel Mendoza (1823-67), 
journalist and successful humorous writer and 
satirist, has made the vehicle of his satire on 
the customs, manners, foibles and extravagance 
of the larger cities the “llanero,” or Vene- 
zuelan cowboy. The latter, who has but re- 
cently arrived in the capital, is constantly sur- 
prised at all that he sees there,.and he makes 
his comments accordingly, thus holding up, ap- 
parently innocently, the vices of the age. José 
Antonio Calcafio (1837-97), a romantic poet of 
some considerable power, but no apparent aims 
in his work, has been popular in Venezuela. 
One of his best poems, ‘A orillas del Tamaira,? 
is filled with very pleasant pictures, but spoiled 
by his constitutional repining-over the things 
and advantages lost in the past. As it is there 
is a haunting sweetness and caressing melody 
in many of his plaints; as for instance in ‘La 
maga y el genio de las selvas? and ‘La hoja.? 
Another Venezuelan poet of nature is Heraclio 
de la Guardia (1829-1907)., He has written 
poems on many kinds of subjects and has a 
large body of work to his credit, some of it, 
however, of a somewhat mechanical nature. 
One of the most popular and national of 
Venezuelan poets is Domingo Ramén Hernan- 
dez. He is a follower of the Romantic school 
and he catches its inspiration and real senti- 


— 24 


ments perhaps better than any other Vene- 
zuelan. There is a depth of sweetness and 
tenderness, a wealth of imagery and an un- 
dertone of sadness in his poetical efforts that 
have endeared him to his countrymen. Fran- 
cisco G. Pardo (1829-82), one of the most per- 
sistent prize winners of the Venezuelan Acad- 
emy, has been called the Longfellow of Vene- 
zuela. Among his popular poems are ‘Las 
Indianas,? ‘El porvenir de la América? and ‘La 
gloria del libertador.» Cecilio Acosta (1831- 
81), jurist, orator, journalist and poet, had the 
power of poetical repetition so noticeable in the 
songs, poems and oratory of the aboriginal 
races of America. Some of his -poems read 
like an echo of ‘Hiawatha? or of some of the 
songs or hero tales of the Iroquois or Algon- 
quins. He was one of the cleverest masters of 
word painting in the history of Latin-American 
literature. A very characteristic example of his 
style and his limitations is ‘La casita blanca. 
Being a noted orator, Acosta was naturally a 
master of prose composition. In fact his prose 
has often all the characteristics of his poetry. 
It is rhythmic, imaginative and forceful. ‘La 
gota de rocio,’ one of his best poems, pos- 
sesses much of the mannerism of his best prose 
efforts and effects. Nicanor Bolet Peraza, 
journalist, political agitator, reformer and 
dramatist, was at one time well known in the 
United States, where he spent most of his life 
in political exile. He was witty, satirical and 
yet withal possessed of a strong fund of com- 
mon sense and the ability to size up the situa- 
tion in all cases. He strove sedulously to in- 
duce the different republics of Latin America 
to follow the example of the United States in 
the adoption of democratic principles and prac- 
tices. His writings have always been popular 
in Venezuela with a large percentage of the 
people, and his play ‘Luchas de honor? re- 
ceived an ovation in the capital of that re- 
public. Julio Calcafio (1840—), philologist and 
novelist, was tireless in his efforts in the field 
of literature and in his endeavors to inspire his 
countrymen with a desire to improve and 
broaden that field. ‘His historical — novel, 
‘Blanca de Torrestella,? which has run through 
several editions, and which has been translated 
into English and French, was popular in Europe 
and America. No other Venezuelan writer has 
painted such vivid pictures in prose of his 
country as has Julio Calcafio. This is because 
he knew Venezuela as few Venezuelan writers 
have succeeded in knowing it. His great work 
‘Fl castellano en Venezuela? has become a 
classic for those who are interested in the 
study of the Spanish language in Latin America 
and its relation to the tongue of the mother- 
country. Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde (1846-— 
92) made popular in Venezuela the poetry of 
Becquer who received his inspiration from 
Heine. ‘Pérez Bonalde has often more of the 
ring of the German than has Becquer himself ; 
but generally his poetry falls considerably below 
that of either Heine or his adapter. Pérez 
Bonalde’s importance consists in the fact that 
he introduced his countrymen to Becquer and 
put them in line with a wave of literary effort 
which was destined to spread over all the re- 
publics of Latin America and to leave deep and 
dasting effects, one of which was that it, in part 
at least, was the cause for the appearance of 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 


the Modernista movement on the American 
continents. Pérez Bonalde’s German influence 
is due to the fact that he was a very close 
student of the German language and literature 


‘and especially of the poems of Heine of whom 


he was an ardent admirer. His ‘Estrofas? 
(1877) was largely composed of translations or 
adaptations from the German poet. Some of 
his original work is of high standard and pos- 
sesses the qualities which he admired so much 
in Heine and Becquer. These qualities are 
seen at- their best in ‘Poema del Niagara,” 
which was translated into sonorous English by 
the American poet Bryant, who had a high ap- 
preciation of the talent of Pérez Bonalde. 
‘Vuelta a la patria? is another poem of Pérez 
Bonalde which is known wherever the Spanish 
language is spoken. Among the followers of 
Pérez Bonalde and, through him, of Heine and 
Becquer, is Miguel Sanchez Pezquera (1851—). 
He is both an erotic poet and a writer of Heine 
verse to which he has given an original turn 
by applying the moralizing principles of Heine 
to historical and dramatic settings. He is fond 
of moralizing on the vanities of all things 
human, on the shortness of human life and on 
the hopelessness that ofttimes takes possession 
of him. Of this class of composition is ‘El 
ultimo pensamiento de Weber? and ‘La tumba 
de Marino.» <A reactionary poet who flourished 
in the midst of Romanticism is Manuel Fom- 
bona Palacio (1857-1903). He was as careful 
in his composition as the most pronounced 
disciple of the classical school. His poetry 
shows considerable vision and historical per- 
spective; but it is too often suggestive of the 
atmosphere of the past than the forward move- 
ment of the present. His ‘Hanibal ante portas? 
is a vivid picture of the conditions existing in 
Italy and the fear in Rome at the news of the 
latest triumphs of Hannibal. Many of his 
classical poems are of like value. Manuel 
Pimentel Coronel (1863-1907) has written a 
great deal of pleasant narrative verse which is 
often, however, trequently spoiled, because of 
the author’s tendency to preach or to impart 
some lesson. His poems are easy to read be- 
cause they are generally kept within the under- 
standing of the masses and, for this reason, 
they have been more largely read than they 
otherwise might have been. Gonzalo Picén 
Febres (1860—), poet, short-story writer, 
novelist and literary critic, is one of the most 
important of the modern Venezuelan writers. 
He has manfully and effectively taken up the 
cudgel in behalf of the criollo in Venezuela; 
and his pictures of Venezuelan customs, habits 
and society are as vivid and as interesting as 
any contained in Isaacs’ ‘Maria.? | Picon 
Febres’ work naturally divides itself into two 
distinct parts, the first of which embraces his 
early poetical efforts and the second of which 
begins where the author came under the in- 
fluence of Heine, Becquer and the Becquerista 
school, already on a pretty sure footing in 
Venezuela. To this first period belong ‘Calén- 
dulas> and ‘Claveles encarnados y amarillos,” 
two volumes of verse of a decidedly classical 
trend. The second period begins with the pub- 
lication of tales of a very realistic type. These 
were followed by novels in which the author 
exhibits his talents much more highly devel- 
oped. Among these are two which have at- 


™% 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 25 


tracted attention throughout Latin America and 
in Spain, ‘Nieve y lodo? and ‘EI _ sargento 
Philipe.’ The latter is the best of his work. 
It is a novel filled with interest from cover to 
cover, and this interest is connected together 
with the most vivid and convincing pictures of 
life in Venezuela. Like so many Latin-Ameri- 
can and Spanish novels and stories, however, 
it is hopeless tragedy. One of the latest works 
of Picén Febres, who is by the way a univer- 
sity graduate and a deep student of science, is 
the ‘Libro raro,’ a. wonderfully interesting 
work on the peculiarities of Spanish as spoken 
in Venezuela. It is a work written to supple- 
ment and correct the “Catellano en Venezuela? 
of Calcafio, already mentioned. Another book 
which shows the breadth of learning and critical 
power possessed by Picon Febres is his ‘Litera- 
tura venezolana en el siglo XIX, the most 
learned and extensive work of its kind on the 
subject in Spanish. José Gil Fortoul (1860—), 
historian, short-story writer, essayist, critic and 
novelist, “began his literary life as an out and 
out adherent of the French psychological 
writers and more especially of Paul Bour- 
get. But he outgrew his youthful  tend- 
ency and influence and became the most in- 
teresting and soundest historian of his coun- 
try. His first story to attract attention, 
‘Julian,? is said to be largely autobiographical, 
and his French influence stood him in fairly 
good stead as it enabled him to analyze the 
conditions under which his hero is supposed to 
have lived, and incidentally to reveal his own 
thoughts and the influences at work in his own 
life. A succeeding story, ‘Idilio,” was subject 
to much the same influences, but it is weaker 
in plot and development than the former novel. 
“Pasiones,» another novel, is also partially 
autobiographical at least.. It is a vivid picture 
of political conditions in Venezuela under Guz- 
man Blanco’s dictatorship. Pédro César Dom- 
inici (1863—) has written very good tales, 
but they are all foreign to the soil in that they 
have nothing whatever to do with Venezuela or 
things Venezuelan; for Dominici seems to have 
never been in sympathy with his country. 
Manuel Romero Garcia (1865—), on the con- 
trary, has written so intimately about Venezuela 
and things Venezuelan that he is often so 
wrapped up in his subject he gives to it details 
and allusions an outsider cannot understand on 
account of their pure localism. These char- 
acteristics are very prominent in Romero 
Garcia’s novel ‘Peonia,? which the author him- 
self has declared is a photograph of social con- 
ditions in Venezuela, more especially in the 
rural sections. This novel, which was very 
popular, gained for the author a considerable 
following of younger writers who began to ex- 
ploit what was known as the nationalistic move- 
ment, which had already gained headway in the 
Argentine and several other Latin-American 
countries. It. became the fashion to write 
stories about Venezuelan characters and sub- 
jects and the short tale in this field found a 
number of exponents, among them Rufino 
Blanco Fombona, Luis Ubaneja Achelpohl and 
Rafael Bolivar. Of- these the best known is 
Blanco Fombona, novelist and critic, who has 
lived mostly in Europe, where he has been very 
closely connected with the Modernista move- 
ment. His tales and stories have had a wide 


-and government. 


circulation in Europe in both Spanish and 
French. Among his poems is a volume bearing 


the title “Pequefia épera lirica? (1904). He 
has also published numerous volumes of 
sketches and travels, among them ‘Mas 


alla de los horizontes? (1904) and ‘La Lampara 
de Aladino? (1915). A close friend of Rubén 
Dario (q.v.), Blanco Fombona became one of 
the most active of the Modernista poets and 
the foremost representative of that school in 
Venezuela. His ‘El hombre de hierro, a satire 
on conditions in Venezuela during the dictator- 
ship of Cipriano Castro, is a novel of very con- 
siderable force and power of description and 
of depicting conditions and characters. It grew 
out of the author’s personal experience while 
governor of the Amazonas territory (1905). 
While in prison in Venezuela Blanco Fombona 
wrote ‘Cantos de la prisi6n y del destierro” 
(1911) which have become popular with the 
Venezuelan revolutionary element. He has also 
written a great deal of sane criticism about 
Latin America and other literature; but his 
weak point is his antipathy to the United States. 
Miguel Eduardo Pardo (1868-1905) has cari- 
catured the Modernista movement and the whole 
school of writers who have written so fervidly 
about Venezuela, in his ‘Todo un pueblo,’ which 
has been also printed in Europe and translated 
into French. Manuel Diaz Rodriguez has taken 
delight in satirizing conditions in his native 
land and in many respects he has outdone 
Pardo in his novel 
he lashes absolutism in Latin-American politics 
He is inclined to follow the 
sociological school, as exemplified in French 
literature of the latter quarter of the 19th cen- 
tury, in his other novels and more especially in 
‘Sangre patricia. As an art and _ literary 
critic Diaz Rodriguez has no superior to-day in 
Venezuela, and few equals in Latin America. 
His criticism is marked by the same rhythmic, 
forceful and clear prose that makes his novels 
and other literary productions delightful read- 
ing. Among the other Venezuelan minor 
writers worthy of mention are Francisco de 
Sales Pérez (‘Ratos perdidos,? 1880); Nufiez 
de Caceres; Jacinto Gutiérrez Col, Andrés 
Mata; Victor Racamonde, Samuel Dario Mal- 
donado; Francisco Lazo Marti (‘Silva cri- 
olla’); Eduardo Blanco (‘Zarate?); José 
Maria Manrique; Tomas Michelena (‘De- 
bora,» 1884; ‘La Hebrea,? 1890); Arévalo 
Gonzalez, and Rafael Cabrera Malo. For the 
literature of other Latin-American countries 
see MEXICAN LITERATURE; WeEsT INDIAN, CEN- 
TRAL AMERICAN, AND BRAZILIAN LITERATURE. 
Bibliography.— Amunategui, Miguel Luis, 
‘La via de D. Andrés Bello? (Santiago 1882) ; 
‘Las Primeras representaciones dramaticas en 
Chile? (Santiago 1888); ‘Ensayos biograficos” 
(Santiago 1893-96) ; Barreda, E., ‘Nuestro 
Parnaso, coleccion de poesias argentinas? (4 
vols., Buenos Aires 1914); Blanco-Fombona, 
Rufino, ‘Cartas de Bolivar? (Paris 1893); 
‘Autores Americanos? (Paris 1912); Cafiete, 
Manuel, ‘Escritores hispano-americanos? (Ma- 


drid 1884); Figueroa, . ‘Antologia 
chilena? (Santiago 1908); Garcia Calderén, 
Francisco, ‘Latin America? (London 1913); 


Garcia Velloso, Enrique, ‘Historia de la litera- 
tura argentina” (Buenos Aires 1914) ; Gutiérrez, 
Juan Maria, ‘Poetas anteriores al siglo XIX? | 


“Idolos ratos,? in which ° 


< 


26 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 


(Buenos Aires 1865); Isaza, E., ‘Antologia 
colombiana? (Paris 1895); Laverde Amaya, I, 
‘Apuntes sobre biografia colombiana? (Bogota 
1889) ; Medina, José Toribio, ‘Historia de la 
literatura colonial de Chile? (‘Santiago 1882) ; 
Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino, ‘Historia de la 
poesia hispano-americana? (Madrid 1913); 
Mera, Juan Leén, ‘Ojeada_ historico-critica 
sobre la poesia ecuatoriana? (Quito 1868) ; 
Oyuela, Calixto, ‘Apuntes de literatura Argen- 
tina? (Buenos Aires 1889); Pena, N., ‘Teatro 
dramatico Nacional? (Santiago 1913) ; ‘Pifieyro, 
Enrique, ‘Biografias americanas>? (Paris) ; 
Torres Caicedo, José Maria, ‘Ensayos - biog- 
raficos? (3 vols., Paris 1863-68); Valera, Juan, 
“Cartas americanas? (Madrid 1889-90); Ver- 
gara y Vergara, J. M., ‘Historia de la litera- 
tura en Nueva Granada? (Bogota 1867); Cal- 
cafio, Julio, ‘Parnaso venezolano? (12 vols., 
Caracas 1892; Picédn Febres, Gonzalo, ‘La 
literatura venezolana en el siglo XIX? (Caracas 
1916); Bauza, Francisco, ‘Estudios literarios> 
(Montevideo 1912); Roxlo, Carlos, ‘Historia 
critica de la literatura uruguaya? (Montevideo 
1912); Molina, P., and Finot, E., ‘Poetas 
bolivianos.? 
Joun Hupert Cornyn, 
Birmingham Southern College. 


5. LATIN AMERICA AND THE 
WORLD WAR, 1914-19. The attitude of the 
Latin-American countries as a whole toward 
the conflict in Europe can be fully appreciated 
only when we examine separately the record of 
each country in this great class during the 
years of the war. It will, therefore, be our en- 
deavor to present briefly in this article the facts 
disclosed by studies of action and of tendency, 
so far as these can be ascertained to-day, in 
every one of the 20 Latin-American republics. 
We shall endeavor also to give prominence to 
things essential and of permanent value, and 
1o show in a true perspective things accidental 
or transitory. The American republics making 
common cause with the United States and her 
allies will be mentioned first. Then those main- 
taining neutrality — either strict neutrality or a 
friendly neutrality toward the United States — 
will be considered in their turn. 

Cuba and Panama followed immediately 
the lead of the United States in her declaration 
that a state of war existed between the United 
States and Germany. Thus, on the day after 
that declaration, the Cuban Congress resolved 
that there existed also a state of war between 
Cuba and Germany. President Menocal, in his 
message to the Cuban Congress, reviewed the 
causes which brought about-hostilities between 
the United States and Germany. He dwelt 
upon Germany’s continuous violations of in- 
ternational law and of the rights of neutrals, 
and said: “The Republic of Cuba must not be 
indifferent to this violation of the rights of 
peoples nor ignore the noble attitude of the 
United States. We are bound to that nation by 
sacred ties of gratitude and confraternity, and 
by a political treaty explicit and implied which 
creates between the two nations an understand- 
ing practically amounting to an alliance. This 
would require Cuba’s co-operation at any ordi- 
nary time, and all the more so now that the 
United States is defending principles of human 
liberty, of international justice, of honor and 
the safety of those free and independent na- 


tions which are threatened in their most vital 
rights and interests» On 16 Dec. 1917 Cuba 
declared war on Austria-Hungary. In like 
manner Panama’s acknowledgment of the close 
political and friendly ties which bind it to the 
United States was both swift and spontaneous. 
It has been well said that, to all intents and 
purposes, Panama has been in a state of war 
with Germany since 7 April 1917. The Presi- 
dent of that republic in his proclamation of 9 
April 1917 said: “Panama will lend its full 
and decided co-operation to the United States 
of America against any enemies that carry out 
or intend to carry out any hostile act against 
the territory of Panama or the Panama Canal 
or that should in any way affect or intend to 
affect the common interest of the two coun- 
tries” This official document was supple- 
mented by a cablegram addressed to the Presi- 
dent of the United States by the President of 
Panama, in which the latter said: “The Re- 
public of Panama, whose future is so intimately 
identified with that of the Great American 
Democracy, will take upon itself, in this trial, 
the obligation concurrent with its conception of 
solidarity, and fully assumes on this occasion 
the responsibilities due to its obligations to- 
ward the United States.» On 10 Dec. 1917 Pan- 
ama declared war on Austria-Hungary. 

Bolivia practically reached a decision early 
in February 1917. The Bolivian Foreign Of- 
fice, having been advised of the establishment 
of the submarine “blockade” by Germany, re- 
plied that the character of a maritime warfare 
involving offensive action of submarines against 
neutral vessels and persons, as well as the pro- 
hibition of all neutral traffic within the zone 
described, constituted an absolute denial of the 
inherent right of neutral powers to trade and 
‘navigate; that in view of this abnormal and il- 
legal situation the government of Bolivia had 
advised the United States that it was fully in 
accord with the stand taken by President Wil- 
son, and made common cause with the United 
States. On 13 April 1917 the German Minister 
was given his passports. The Bolivian Foreign 
Office stated that, inasmuch as Germany had 
carried out to all intents and purposes its threat 
against vessels and persons of neutral states, 
and in view of the fact that the steamer Tu- 
bantia had been torpedoed in neutral Dutch 
waters, the Bolivian Minister to Berlin being 
on board, diplomatic relations between Bolivia 
and the German Empire were no longer possi- 
ble. On 6 Aug. 1917 the Bolivian President, in 
his message to the Bolivian Congress, fully en- 
dorsed the course adopted by the government of 
the United States in defense of the principles 
of humanity and justice. 

Brazil’s first public statement in connec- 
tion with her attitude in the European War was 
almost synchronous with Bolivia’s reply, men- 
tioned above; for on 7 Feb. 1917, answering 
likewise Germany’s notification in regard to 
submarine warfare, the Brazilian government, 
through its Foreign Office, expressed the de- 
sire to maintain its position of unswerving neu- 
trality, reserving, however, the right to present 
in due time such claims as might arise in con- 
crete cases affecting Brazilian interests. It was 
also stated that a deep impression had been 
caused by the German avowal of an intention 
to sacrifice liyes unjustly, and unjustly to de- 


LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 27 


stroy property and disorganize commerce. The 
Foreign Office pointed out, moreover, that Bra- 
zil could not accept the “blockade” as effective; 
and that the Brazilian government, in harmony 
with international usages, conventions and agree- 
ments, was bound to protest against such a block- 
ade, placing on the German government the re- 
sponsibility for any acts affecting Brazilian citi- 
zens, ships and merchandise. On 11 April 1917 the 
Brazilian government broke off diplomatic re- 
lations with Germany, as the result of the sink- 
ing of the steamship Parand by a German sub- 
marine, without warning and with loss of lives, 
on the night of 3 April 1917 off Point Barfleur. 
On 1 June 1917 the Brazilian government re- 
voked the decree of neutrality (of 25 April 
1917) in the war between the United States 
and Germany. Next, measures were taken to 
make use of the German merchant vessels an- 
chored in Brazilian ports. The plans formed 
at that time included the protection of Brazil- 
ian shipping abroad and co-operation with 
friendly nations in measures designed to se- 
cure the freedom of Brazil’s foreign trade. 
On 4 June 1917 the Brazilian Ambassador at 
Washington; in his note to the Secretary of 
State of the United States, said: “The Presi- 
dent of the Republic [of Brazil] has just in- 
structed me to inform Your Excellency’s Gov- 
ernment that he has approved the law which re- 
vokes Brazil’s neutrality in the war between 
the United States of America and the German 
Empire. The Republic thus recognized the fact 
that one of the belligerents is a constituent por- 
tion of the American continent, and that we are 
bound to that belligerent by traditional friend- 
ship and the same sentiment in the defense of 
the vital interests of. America and the accepted 
principles of law. Brazil ever was and is now 
free from warlike ambitions, and while it al- 
ways refrained from showing any partiality in 
the European conflict, it could no longer stand 
unconcerned when the struggle involved the 
United States, actuated by no interest what- 
ever, but solely for the sake of international 
judicial order, and when Germany included us 
and the other neutral powers in the most vio- 
lent acts of war” We may add that a strong 
anti-German sentiment had been created in Bra- 
zil by the publication of the facts concerning 
the invasion of Belgium and the Teutonic 
atrocities during 1915 and 1916. The people 
and their government were of one mind when, 
on 25 Oct. 1917, the President of Brazil sent a 
message to Congress stating that it was impos- 
sible longer to avoid recognition of the state of 
war imposed by Germany. Accordingly on the 
following day, 26 Oct. 1917, the Chamber of 
Representatives by an almost unanimous vote 
(149 to 1) declared that a state of war existed 
between Brazil and Germany. Unanimous ap- 
proval of the proclamation of war was given 
by the Senate also on 26 Oct. 1917. 

_Costa Rica evinced the true Pan-American 
spirit promptly, offering the use of its ports 
to the warships of the United States, arresting 
on 16 Sept. 1917 three of the resident Germans 
who were charged with conspiracy, and intern- 
ing all Germans who resided in Costa Rican 
ports. A special session of Congress was called 
and on 21 Sept. 1917 the government severed 
diplomatic relations with Germany. The diplo- 
matic and consular representatives of Germany 
received their passports, and the Costa Rican 


legation and consuls in Germany were recalled. 
Costa Rica declared war on the government of 
the German Empire 23 May 1918. 

The Dominican Republic declared its neu- 
trality in 1916, but in June 1917 withdrew the 
exequatur of the German consular service and 
thus, in response to the general sentiment of 
its citizens, severed diplomatic relations with 
the German Empire. 

Ecuador did not reach a clear and explicit 
decision in this matter until toward the end of 
1917, but the government expressed to the Min- 
ister of the United States at Quito, in a note 
dated 11 Feb. 1917, the following views: “The 
efforts of neutral powers to soften the rigors 
of the present disastrous war are very com- 
mendable and worthy of applause, as are . . . 
the principles declared by the Government of 
the United States in its note of 18 April 1916, 
addressed to the German Foreign Office, 
through American Ambassador Gerard, con- 
cerning the inalienable rights of neutrals, the 
immunity of non-combatants, and those sacred 
rights of humanity which have universally and 
of old been accepted by civilized nations.» The 
President of Ecuador, in his message of 10 
Aug. 1917 to the Ecuadorean Congress, ad- 
vanced the thought of Pan-American solidarity 
in the following terms: “We continue to up- 
hold a policy of neutrality and our efforts to 
secure a more open and frank understanding 
among all nations of the American continents. 
We have said on every occasion, when justice 
so demanded, that we are in sympathy with and 
have faith in the great democratic principles, 
the fundamental basis of those nations. Amer- 
ica, therefore [in the wider sense, as suggested 
above], will always find us with it” On 5 Oct. 
1917, when Peru broke off diplomatic relations 
with Germany, it was stated that the German 
Minister at Lima intended to go to Ecuador, to 
which country he was accredited as well as to 
Peru. The Ecuadorean government announced, 
however, through its Minister of Foreign Af- 
fairs, on 7 Oct. 1917, that the German Minister 
would not be received officially in Ecuador in 
case he desired to present his credentials there; 
and two months later (7 Dec. 1917) the sever- 
ance of diplomatic relations with Germany was 
made definite and complete. 

Guatemala, in a formal statement dated 7 
March 1917, protested against Germany’s sub- 
marine blockade, of which it had received noti- 
fication on 9 February. The whole policy 
adopted by the German Admiralty constituted, 
according to the characterization of it in that 
document, a violation of the rights of nations. 
This protest elicited no response whatever from 
the German government or its diplomatic rep- 
resentative in Guatemala, and the Guatemala 
government proceeded to sever diplomatic re- 
lations with Germany on 27 April 1917. It 
also offered its ports, territorial waters and 
railway facilities to the United States; and by 
a decree of the National Legislative Assembly, 
21 April 1918, Guatemala’s attitude of belliger- 
ency toward the German Empire was declared 
to be the same as that of the United States. 

Haiti’s National Assembly protested on 11 
May 1917 against the establishment of the sub- 
marine blockade, asserting that Germany must 
be held to account in every sense for resultant 
injuries sustained by Haitian subjects travel- 
ing on the high seas; that a benevolent. policy - 


28 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 


was adopted toward the United States, and that 
diplomatic relations with Germany would, if 
necessity for such action arise, be broken off. 
Accordingly when the Karnak and the Mon- 
treal were sunk, several Haitians losing their 
lives, the government of Haiti demanded sat- 
isfaction and indemnity. The German gov- 
ernment emphasized its unwillingness to con- 
sider the matter by delivering his passports to 
the Haitian chargé-d’affaires at Berlin. The 
rupture was completed by the dismissal, on 16 
June 1917, of the German representative at 
Port-au-Prince, and by a declaration of war, 
12 July 1918. . 

Honduras, on 17 May 1917, severed diplo- 
matic relations with Germany, as a protest 
against the submarine campaign. In the de- 
cree of that date we find the declarations that 
the republic at Honduras makes common cause 
with the United States, approving fully the 
principles that the latter’s government defends; 
and that “it is incumbent upon Honduras to de- 
clare its attitude in the conflict between the 
United States and Germany on account of the 
submarine warfare, in violation of the princi- 
ples of international law, the rights of neutral 
property, and commerce on the high seas.” 
The government of Honduras offered to the 
United States its resolute co-operation in all 
possible ways and declared war on Germany, 
19 July 1918. 

Nicaragua, on 18 May 1917, broke off diplo- 
matic relations with Germany. In the note of 
the Minister of Foréign Affairs to the resi- 
dent American Minister full sympathy with the 
policy of the United States was expressed “by 
instruction of the President of the Republic,” 
and Nicaragua was truthfully represented as 
being in accord with the attitude the United 
States had taken for the safety of all the Latin- 
American continent and its measure of defense 
of the high ideals and principles of civiliza- 
tion. The use of the Nicaraguan ports, ter- 
ritorial waters and means of communication 
was offered to the government of-the United 
States. Nicaragua’s declaration of war on 
Germany was dated 8 May 1918. 

Peru sent a strong note of protest to the 
German government upon the sinking of a 


Peruvian vessel, the bark Lorton, 5 Feb. 1917. 


Later she refused to submit the case to German 
prize court and sent a second note, demanding 
a reply to the first — but without avail. On 28 
July 1917 the President of Peru. in his mes- 
sage to the Congress expressed agreement 
with President Wilson’s war-message. “The 
sufferings of humanity,” said President Pardo, 
“will not have been in vain if, through these 
efforts there is raised the new edifice of in- 
ternational society upon the immutable foun- 
dation of justice» On 7 Sept. 1917 Peru’s 
House of Representatives, by resolution unani- 
mously adopted, declared its adhesion to the es- 
tablished principles of justice and international 
ethics as proclaimed by President Wilson; and 
on the following day the Senate declared: 
“The international policy of Peru must be in- 
spired by the principles of the solidarity of the 
‘nations of the American continents with the 
United States, in harmony with ideals of inter- 
national justice proclaimed by President Wil- 
son and with the declaration formulated .. . 
in the House of Representatives.» The Peru- 
vian Congress, by a vote of 105 to 6, passed a 


resolution severing diplomatic relations with 
Germany on 5 Oct. 1917, and on the same day 
passports were handed to Dr. Perl. (See above, 
Ecuador). On 4 June 1918 the Peruvian gov-. 
ernment took possession of eight German ves- 
sels interned at Callao. This was not, how- 
ever, regarded as an act of war. 

Uruguay manifested cordial approbation of 
the cause defended by the American govern- 
ment. In a note dated 14 April 1917 and ad- 
dressed to the American Minister in Monte- 
video the Uruguayan Minister of Foreign Af- 
fairs stated that his government, while still 
maintaining neutrality, recognized the justice 
of the position taken by the United States of 
America. Thus, the offer of “moral sympathy 
and solidarity,” as the Minister of Foreign Af- 
fairs expressed it, was extended without delay; 
and on 18 June 1917 the Uruguayan govern- 
ment issued its memorable decree, in which the 
general principle was laid down “that no Amer- 
ican country, which in defense of its own 
rights should find itself in a state of war with 
nations of other continents, will be treated as 
a belligerent” On 7 Oct. 1917 Uruguay sev- 
ered diplomatic relations with Germany. The 
rupture was announced in a presidential de- 
cree, after the Chamber of Representatives, by 
a vote of 74 to 23, had declared itself in favor 
of such action. In his message to Congress 
President Viera observed that although Uru- 
guay had not received direct offense from Ger- 
many, it was necessary to espouse the cause of 
the defenders of justice, of democracy and of 
small nations; and popular acceptance of thig 
view was emphasized at a great public meeting. 
Eight German ships were seized at Uruguayan 
ports and subsequently leased to the Emergency 
Fleet Corporation of the United States. 

Summarizing our observations up to this 
point, we may say that nearly two-thirds of all 
Latin-American republics made known, by vig- 
orous governmental action, their adhesion to 
the cause of the United States and her Allies 
before the end of the year 1917 and were found 
standing firmly for the right when the year 
1918 had half run its course. We owe to John 
Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American 
Union (see Bibliography), the observation (in 
1917) that “the sober public sentiment of [the 
people of] practically all the twenty Latin 
American Republics is overwhelmingly pro- 
United States and pro-Ally in this struggle of 
democracy against autocracy. It would seem, 
in consequence, to be only a question of time 
when all the Latin American countries must 
follow the dictates and demands of this pub- 
lic sentiment and align themselves with the 
United States and the Allies.» Let us now turn 
our attention to the remaining seven — to those 
whose governments maintained interesting vari- 
ants of neutrality. “Argentina, Chile, Colom- 
bia, Mexico, Paraguay and Venezuela,” accord- 
ing to a special memorandum issued in 1919, 
“either by the statements of their Executives or 
by resolutions passed by their Congresses, or 
again by the pro-Ally tone of their most repre- 
sentative statesmen also expressed themselves 
in favor of Pan American solidarity.» As for 
Salvador, her declaration of benevolent neu- 
trality toward the United States “permitted the 
use of her territorial waters by the war-ships 
of the United States and the Allies.” 

Argentina, on 7 Feb. 1917, made answer to 


LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 29 


Germany’s notification concerning the subma- 
rine blockade: “The Argentine Government 
regrets that His Imperial Majesty has thought 
necessary to adopt such extreme measures and 
declares that it will adjust its conduct, as al- 
ways, to the fundamental rules and principles of 
international law.» In accordance with that 
declaration, the Argentine Foreign Office en- 
tered a strong protest when information was 
secured in regard to the sinking of the Monte 
Protegido, 4 April 1917; and in its note of 4 
July 1917 demanded satisfaction for the sink- 
ing of the sailing vessel Oriana on 6 June and 
the steamer Toro on 22 June, both without 
loss of life. More specifically, it required in- 
demnity, together with assurances that no more 
Argentine vessels would be attacked. In the 
Monte Protegido case Germany accepted the 
suggestion in regard to indemnity. On the 
other hand an effort was made to justify the 
sinking of the Toro. Argentina reiterated her 
demand 4 Aug. 1917. Next, into the heated 
controversy a new element was projected. On 
8 Sept. 1917 the Department of State of the 
United States published several cablegrams, 
dated 19 May and 3 and 9 July of the same 
year, sent by the German chargé-d’affaires at 
Buenos Aires through Baron Lowen, Sweden’s 
Minister at the same capital, to the Secretary 
of Foreign Affairs in Stockholm, to be delivered 
to the Minister for Foreign Affairs in Berlin. 
These dispatches contained an insolent refer- 
ence to Argentina’s Minister of Foreign Af- 
fairs and recommended the sinking of Argen- 
tine vessels without leaving a trace. On 12 
Sept. 1917 riots occurred in. Buenos Aires, .in 
the course of which the people expressed their 
resentment by wrecking the German Club, the 
offices of the German newspaper, La Union, 
and important German business houses. The 
offending chargé-d’affaires, Count Luxburg, 
and the German legation were protected by the 
police. The Argentine government immediately 
asked Germany to disapprove Luxburg’s con- 
duct and to apologize for his discourteous lan- 
guage; and on 19 Sept. 1917 the Argentine Sen- 
ate voted almost unanimously (23 to 1) in favor 
of breaking off diplomatic relations with Ger- 
many. This resolution was sent"to the Cham- 
ber of Deputies for approval. On 23 Sept. 
1917 the Argentine government received a note 
of apology from Berlin, expressing disapproval 
of Luxburg’s utterances; but the Chamber held 
this to be inadequate, and on 25 Sept. 1917 by 
_a vote of 53 to 18 upheld the Senate’s course. 
On the next day 100,000 persons paraded 
through the streets of Buenos Aires; and this 


was but a part of a great popular. demonstration 


in favor of war. Nevertheless the executive, 
it was said, did not consider it advisable to ter- 
minate diplomatic relations with Germany after 
the promise of discrimination in favor of Ar- 


gentine ships and the apology for the Luxburg 


incident. This seems to have been a clear case 
of unrepresentative inaction: the determination 
of the Argentine people not finding utterance 
through the executive. 

Chile, at the beginning of the war, dec lared 
its neutrality. Its President, on 1 June 1917, in 
a message to the Ch ilec an Congress, referred to 
the common enemy's declared ‘intention to es- 
tablish a submarine bloclade and then said: 
“For our part, being advised of hostile! plans 
against neutral merchant vessels that would af- 

| 
/ 
. / 


| 


| 


erent.» 


fect well-established maritime routes utilized as 
of old by countries foreign to the present armed 
conflict, we have found ourselves obliged to re- 
serve the right to take measures against acts 
which we cannot tolerate.» But at the same 
time he expressed unwillingness to deviate 
from the line of strict neutrality. It is cer- 
tainly more important to note that on 29 June 
1917 the government of Chile endorsed Uru- 
guay’s declaration of 18 June that “no American 
country, which in defense of its own rights 
should find itself in a state of war with nations 
of other continents, will be treated as a bellig- 
In his message to Congress 1 June 
1918, the President of Chile upheld the neu- 
trality of his country. 

Colombia at an early period declared its 
neutrality, and its government consistently 
maintained that original position. Neverthe- 
less the Colombian Senate, in October 1917, 
passed a resolution of protest against the bar- 
barous submarine warfare conducted by the 
common enemy. 

Mexico’s attitude was defined by President 
Carranza in his message to the Congress on 15 
April 1917 as follows: “Having in view com- 
pliance with the high duty of preserving and 

defending the national interests, and inspired 
always by the most altruistic and humanitarian 
motives, I shall guide the conduct of the Gov- 
ernment under my charge by all possible and 
dignified means in the direction of a most strict 
and rigorous neutrality.» At the beginning of 
a Congressional session, 1 Sept. 1917, President 
Carranza reviewed certain efforts that had been 
made by the Mexican government, the object 
of which was to render prosecution of the war 
extremely difficult. In this connection he men- 
tioned a note in which the Mexican govern- 
ment had proposed that all neutrals should 
cease shipping supplies to the belligerents. But 
according to his own admission the efforts of 
his government to bring about a premature 
peace had not called forth, in other Latin-Amer- 
ican countries, such full approval as he de- 
sired. And it is a pleasure to add that when 
the new Belgian Minister was presented the 
Mexican chief executive, in his address of wel- 
come, himself emphasized the duty of resisting 
the common enemy to the uttermost, saying: 
“Tt is a great pleasure for me to express to 
Your Excellency on this solemn occasion, ta; 
Belgium in taking up arms as Your Fxéellency 
affirms, tn defense of her neutra! ty, her honor 
and her independence, has fulfilled the most 
heroic act of modern times” for ihe glory ait 
example of weak nations “The countries which 
are not ready to shed the last dtop of blood 
in defense of their autor omy atid their institu- 
tions have no right to be counted in the con- 
cert of free mations, and those which do not 


, measure dangers or curtail sacrifices to pre- 


serve them, altl iough they may be defeated and 
chained, may rest assured of the advent of the 
bright day of their liberty, because they are 
worthy, of it, because they live for it and were 
born to enjoy it.” The wholly exceptional po- 
sition of Mexico was due to the circumstance 
that in April 1914, when American forces oc- 
cupied the seaport of Vera Cruz, and for a long 
time afterward, the United States and Mexico 
were on the brink of war. It is proper to ad- 
vert also to the following circumstance: The 
recognition of the government of Don Venus- 


30 


tiano Carranza, on 19 Oct. 1915, was brought 
about in an exceptional. manner, namely, 
through co-operative action of the American 
countries which, after careful investigation of 
Mexican conditions, granted together the off- 
cial recognition to the de facto Carranza gov- 
ernment. - 

Paraguay, geographically so remote from 
all scenes of the great war, gave evidence, nev- 
ertheless, of the feeling of her people when, on 
11 July 1917, an important meeting held at Asun- 
cidn was attended by the most prominent citi- 
zens, by the leaders of thought and representa- 
tives of the masses. The meeting offered am- 
ple tribute of admiration to the United States 
for her entrance into the conflict in defense of 
the principles of humanity and democracy, ac- 
claiming her as the champion of human rights, 
and particularly of those of the New World. 
The suggestion was brought forward that Para- 
guay’s duty was to intervene in the conflict 
against the common enemy, but the government 
has continued to profess neutrality. 

Salvador’s Foreign Office, in its note of 
4 Dec. 1914, observed: “The use of neutrality 
proclamations seems to have been customary 
before international law clearly defined the 
principles which should govern the rights and 
obligations between belligerents and neutrals 
during a state of war. Later, these proclama- 
tions have been used in cases where neutrals 
maintain an active commerce with belligerents ; 
have adjoining frontiers across which they 
might supply each other with armament; or 
when a neutral nation has a commercial fleet 
that might be affected in its traffic with bellig- 
erents. Our country in the present war is not 
affected by any of the above-mentioned con- 
tingencies; and as a state of neutrality and the 
regulations established for the same are juridic 
conditions emanating from the war itself and 
from the international principles which govern 
it, Salvador as a ‘neutral is obliged to observe 
strictly the principles of war-neutrality. These 
principles must not necessarily be promulgated 
by this country in the form of a proclamation, 
as they are amply set forth in the fourteen 
diplomatic instruments subscribed to at the Sec- 
ond Conference of the Hague in 1907 and in 
the Declaration of London dated 26 Feb. 1909.» 
The Minister of Foreign Affairs also stated 
that-notice had been given to the military com- 
manders under his control to see to it that bel- 
ligerent vessels should observe strict neutrality 
in the employment of their wireless apparatus. 
The government of El Salvador declined to 


take sides openly against the common enemy,’ 


but in a note dated.3 Oct,1917 the Minister of 
Foreign Affairs stated that SEl Salvador, as an 
American nation, could not fail to recognize, in 


the conflict between the United. States and- 


Germany the solidarity which binds it to the 
great Republic of the North, in view of the 
PRIM of Pan-Americanism which should pre- 
vail. 

Venezuela, non-committal from the begin- 
ning of the war, announced its policy on 3 May 
1917 through the message of the Provisional 
President, who stated that there had been no 
act of German submarines by which Venezuela 
had been directly affected, and, therefore, Vene- 
zuela had not been involved in the complica- 
tions which had drawn the United States into 


- ference of what we did” 


LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 


war with the common enemy: “Notwithstand- 
ing this,” the chief executive added, “Venezu- 
ela reserves intact its right to defend the lives 
and the properties of its nationals. It follows 
the course of events with natural interest and 
identified with the principle in defense of which 
the United States has entered into the war; 
[moved also by] the traditional friendship 
which unites it to that nation and those general 
interests which are common to the Republics 
of this continent.» Again, in the message of 1 
May 1918, the Venezuelan executive declared 
that his nation was in full sympathy with the 
principles for the defense of which the United 
States had gone to war. 

Contributions to the Cause of the Allies 
were indeed extended, but with attendant dif- 
ficulties, mainly economic, even in those coun- 
tries of Latin America in which the natural 
demonstration of approval was not entirely pre- 
vented by active German propaganda. Brazil, 
for example, rendered valuable services — to 
which reference was made, in 1919, by the Bra- 
zilian Ambassador to France, who was also the 
leading member of the Brazilian peace delega- 
tion at Paris. In support of his assertion that 
Brazil had accomplished much in the Allied 
cause since she entered the war, the Ambassa- 
dor said: “We seized 43 first-class German 
vessels and one German cruiser. Thirty of 
these vessels we turned over to France for her 
own use. We mobilized our entire army, of 
60,000 officers and men, and all our navy. At 
the same time we placed our merchant fleet at 
the command of the Allies. We sent our best 
aviators to France, together with more than 100 
army officers. We organized and maintained a 
complete hospital unit in France, with 300 beds. 
We kept more than 50 steamships plying be- 
tween Brazilian ports and the United States 
and Europe, supplying our allies with coffee, 
cocoa, oils, nuts, cotton and sugar. We 
stamped out German propaganda in Brazil, put 
a stop to enemy espionage and interned many 
dangerous enemy aliens. A large part of our 
navy was sent to European waters, where, un- 
der command of a United States admiral, it co- 
operated with the Allied fleets in protecting 
the coasts and shipping and: troop-transports 
from enemy submarines. Eight of our best 
merchant vessels were sunk by torpedoes while 
in the service of the Allies. Many of our sea- 
men were lost with these vessels. Some of our 
seamen were picked up and interned in Ger- 
many. We feel our position is quite modest, 
but hope for the complete approval by the con- 
' (Consuit New 
York Herald, 3 Feb. 1919). 

Large sums of money were raised in Latin 
America for the loans of all the Allies (con- 
sult ‘Selling War Bonds in South America,’ 
in The South American, New York, October 
1918, p. 5). ; 

Special mention should. be made here of 
Cuba’s highly creditable part in the war. When 
speaking in a general way about the participa- 
tion of. Cuba, the Secretary of War of that re- 
public mentioned a few interesting details in 
July 1918, saying, among other things: “We 
have established training camps in Cuba, both 
military and naval, and through the courtesy 
of the United States we have placed officers at 
Key’ West and Pensacola for instruction. 


LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 31 


France has detailed two Cuban aviators, who 
have achieved brilliant records in France with 
the Lafayette Escadrille, to act as instructors 
in our aviation school. We have purchased ad- 
ditional equipment and materials necessary to 
make this arm of our service effective. 
If our forces are needed on the western front, 
they will go there. It should be distinctly un- 
derstood that the Cuban government will with- 
hold nothing that it possesses that can be used 
to advantage by our allies in the fight against 
Prussian militarism.” On 19 Oct. 1918 an- 
nouncement was made in Havana that Cuba’s 
total subscriptions to the Fourth Liberty Loan 
amounted to $10,000,000, or $4,000,000 more 
than the quota allotted to her. The President 
of Cuba, in an authorized statement, said: 
aA relatively considerable number of large Ger- 
man steamships were held by the war in Cuban 
ports. I ordered their immediate seizure, as 
the governments of all the belligerent nations 
have done in similar cases, and turned them 
over to the United States to be used freely in 
the prosecution of the war. To the same end 
of frank co-operation, the government of Cuba 
authorized the sending of American troops to 
different .points in Cuba for military instruc- 
tions and preparations. For the same purpose 
a goodly number of officers and enlisted men 
of the Cuban army were sent to the United 
States to complete and perfect their training 
for war. The law establishing obligatory mili- 
tary service empowers the President to take 
steps for sending a contingent of our present 
regular army to the European battlefields, re- 
inforced by volunteers who wish to go and 
who have already, indeed, begun to enlist in 
considerable numbers. The President is also 
authorized to send military missions to the 
United States, England, France and Italy. The 
4th of July, anniversary of the independ- 
ence of the United States, and the 14th and 21st 
of July, celebrated in France and in Belgium 
as patriotic fétes, have been declared legal holi- 
days.” (see article CuBA). 
Bibliography.— Barrett, John, ‘The War 
and the New America —the New Pan-Amer- 
ica? ; Address before the Southern Commercial 
Congress : World Court (New York, Novem- 
ber 1917); Blakeslee, George H., ‘True Pan- 
Americanism ; a policy of co-operation with the 
other American Republics?; Journal of Race 
Development (Worcester, January 1917); Bul- 
letin of the Pan-American Union, ‘The Grow- 
ing Spirit of Pan-Americanism? (Washington, 
October 1917); Calderon, I., ‘The Consecra- 
tion of the Western Hemisphere to Democ- 
racy, World Court (New York, November 
1917); ‘Circular de la Cancilleria Ecuatoriana 
a las Cancillerias del Norte, Centro y Sud 
America, sobre Union y Solidaridad de_ los 
paises de todo el continente,? Boletin del Min- 
istro de Relaciones Exteriores (Quito 1917); 
Downs, W. C., ‘Pan-Americanism and the 
War,? South American (New York, November 
1917) ; Naon, R., ‘The European Conflict and 
the Pan American Republics,’ The Commoner 
(Lincoln, December 1914); Rendueles, M. R., 
‘Hacia una América Nueva,” El Gréfico (Ha- 
vana, 30 Dec. 1917) ; Review of Reviews, ‘Latin 
American Sympathy for France practically 
Demonstrated? (London, April 1918, p. 303, and 
South American Journal, London, 9 March 


1918, p. 146); ‘Tribute to Brazilian Help in 
the War,? Pan American Magazine (New 
York, February 1919). 

Marrion WILCox. 


6. TRANSPORTATION AND COM- 
MUNICATION IN LATIN AMERICA. 
Railways.—Although several countries lay 
claim to having the oldest railway in South 
America it appears that the first road to be 
actually opened for service was a line five 
miles long, finished in British Guiana in 1848. 
In the next year a line was completed between 


- Caldera and Copiapé, Chile, and in 1857 the 


first road began operations in Argentina, Brazil 
following a year later. Since that time con- 
struction has been practically continuous, and 
now every country in South America has its 
railway system. Naturally expansion of rail- 
way transportation has been most rapid in the 
level plains of Argentina, where rails have 
been laid at comparatively little expense, and it 
has made least progress in the west and north, 
where mountain construction often runs the cost 
up to more than $100,000 a mile. The railway 
mileage of South American countries (not in- 
cluding minor private and other lines) was 
(1917) as follows: 


COUNTRY Mileage 
INTRON tin a ieee Weer reales castcthe cua titateers oaks att 21,325 
Bolivia oy ice whe ce le be oe a MESA PAE, Sd 850 
Brazil eur Ite oh Retiree Senay Eee ote bee 16,146 
CHG ih ihe Acca eae ee wie ae gl SOLS 
Colom Diskin seca een te ee aye es ets Oe 698 
Mcuanor te SOA aA ee hoon taken tebe de 427 
iana: 
AAT ibis heer ys mca ye Gil ele ee cre Steyn an ee 100 
BB YS Good cM Ne ag eaten EL ies alta as ee 109 
Prench fen oo Bs ALAS Pe eee! SP Stet SES. 
Paraguay Je rate patel Testo ree ih kon ol Serene 231 
OPT CEM Sate) CRY OED alee dat om Relea red See ie ee ene 1,900 
UTM OAV Soe be ciate e tea ee ete eer. one? See sae 1,639 
Vertectelalss Si Cte Sat ok? ly eee ee. 530 


In. each country this mileage serves national 
needs almost entirely, and tourists will find that 
communication between countries is still largely 
by coast or ocean vessels. 

Travel to South America as a rule follows 
a well-beaten path. The tourist who wishes to 
visit the chief centres usually travels on one 
of two routes — down the east coast to Buenos 
Aires, across the continent to Valparaiso, up 
the west coast to Panama, and thence to Colom- 
bia and Venezuela, or the reverse of this jour- 
ney, making the north-coast countries from 
Barbados or Trinidad. If he elects the for- 
mer route his first stop will probably be at 
Pernambuco, where most ocean liners. serving 
Brazil call. Coast steamers will carry him to 
Para, Natal and points between, but the tourist 
whose time is limited can continue by ocean 
steamer to Bahia and to Rio de Janeiro. From 
Rio a favorite trip is that by rail to Sao Paulo, 
thence by rail to Santos, where the steamer 
can again be caught for Rio Grande do Sul, 
Montevideo and Buenos Aires. From Buenos 
Aires various side trips can conveniently be 
made, including a visit to Asuncién, capital of 
Paraguay. The only transcontinental line in 
South America affords rail accommodations 
between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, Chile, 
where the traveler usually takes a boat for 
the trip along the west coast. If he wishes to 
visit Bolivia he stops at Antofagasta, reaching 
La Paz from that port by rail in about 45 
hours. Siroche or “mountain sickness,” how- 


82 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 


ever, caused by a too rapid change from the 
coast to an altitude of over 12,000 feet, may 
make a more gradual ascent advisable. From 
La Paz two other railways reach the coast, 
that leading to Mollendo, Peru, having hereto- 
fore had the most passenger traffic. At Mol- 
lendo the sea voyage is continued to Callao- 
Lima, thence to the northern ports of Peru 
and to Guayaquil, Ecuador, from which the 
capital, Quito, can be reached in a two-days’ 
journey. Steamships carry the traveler from 
Guayaquil to Panama and through the canal to 
Colon, where connection can be made for 
Cartagena, Colombia. After possible trips to 
the interior cities of Bogota and Medellin, 
connections are made at Cartagena or Puerto 
Colombia for Venezuelan ports, the most 
important of which are Puerto Cabello 
and La Guaira, from both of which the capital, 
Caracas, can be reached by rail. As convenient 
the traveler can then either go to Trinidad or 
Barbados and catch a north-bound boat, or 
return to Colon. 

It will be seen that on a South American 
tour of this kind a great part of the travel 
is by boat, and railways are as a rule of only 
local convenience. If he desired to do so, how- 
ever, the traveler could land at Victoria, Brazil, 
and continue on the route mentioned entirely 
by rail to Mollendo, Peru. 

Most of the railways of South America have 
been built by European capital, largely Eng- 
lish. The equipment is therefore for the most 
part European. Government ownership “and 
“operation are most prominent in Chile, but 
exist also in Brazil, Argentina and other coun- 
tries. There are a multitude of gauges, ranging 
from the broad 5 feet 6 inches of various 
Argentine lines to 2 feet 6 inches of the Anto- 
fagasta (Chile) and Bolivia line in Chile, and 
even narrower private lines. Accommodations 
for passengers on many roads, notably those 
of the larger Argentine and Brazilian systems, 
are the equal of those in the United States, 
luxurious parlor-car, sleeping-car and dining- 
car service being provided. Fares are variable 
but for the most part are not excessive. Rates 
for excess baggage, however, are usually high. 

Before reviewing briefly the transportation 
systems of the various countries, the much- 
discussed project of the Pan-American Rajl- 
way should be mentioned. This project is the 
proposed linking-up of existing lines to afford 
railway service through North and South 
America, from New York all the way to Bue- 
nos Aires. Existing lines could be utilized to 
the southern border of the United States, and 
the National Railways of Mexico line would 
carry the train to the Guatemalan border. 
Railways now in operation, being built or pro- 
jected would afford passage through Central 
America to Panama, where construction to the 
Colombian border would involve the conquering 
of the tropical forest. At the other end of 
the line there is through trackage from Buenos 
Aires to Cuzco, Peru, except for a stretch of 
about 66 miles, now under construction between 
La Quiaca and Tupiza, Bolivia, and there are 
various mountain lines in Colombia, Ecuador 
and Peru which would form links in the com- 
pleted chain. Much of the construction yet to 
be affected, however, is in difficult country and 
it will be many years before the great dream 
is a reality. 


SoutH AMERICA. 


ARGENTINA.— The great level plains of Ar- 
gentina, with their wealth of agricultural and 
pastoral products, have made the river Plata 
region the centre of railway expansion in South 
America. From Buenos Aires a great network 
of lines stretches out to the north, west and 
south, connecting practically every important 
town or city of Argentina with the capital and 
bringing the country to a rank of ninth in 
point of railway mileage among the nations 
of the world. The following distances by rail 
from Buenos Aires to other cities of Argen- 
tina will illustrate the extent of railway de- 
velopment: To Bahia Blanca, 446 miles; Tu- 
cuman, 720 miles; Mendoza, 647 miles; San 
Juan, 745 miles; Santa Fé, 299 miles; Rosario, 
186 miles; Cordoba, 433 miles; Salta, 996 miles; 
Santiago, 628 miles; Jujuy, 1,006 miles; San 
Luis, 485 miles; Catamarca, 771 miles; Mar del 
Plata, 248 miles. Up to the outbreak. of the 
European War the mileage was being steadily 
extended, but that event practically suspended 
construction through the curtailment of the 
supplies of foreign capital necessary for exten- 
sive building. 

The systems of Argentine railways, with 
their mileage (excluding private and other 
minor lines) are as follows: Buenos Aires 
and Pacific, 3,535 miles; Buenos Aires Great 
Southern, 3,792 miles; Buenos Aires Western, 
1,870 miles; Central Argentine, 3,305 miles; 
Cordoba Central, 1,205 miles; Entre Rios, 831 
miles; Buenos Aires Midland, 322 miles; Ar- 
gentine North Eastern, 752 miles; Province 
Santa Fé, 1,192 miles; Rosario-Puerto Belgrano, 
493 miles; General Buenos Aires, 790 miles; 
Central Northern, 1,790 miles; Argentine del 
Norte, 1,196 miles; Buenos Aires Central, 252 
miles. Most of these systems are owned wholly 
or in part by English shareholders (English capi- 
tal having been invested in Argentine railways 
to the extent of almost a billion dollars), and 
the securities of the more important roads 
are quoted regularly on the London Stock 
Exchange. Of the total mileage the govern- 
ment owns some 4,000 miles, the longest roads 
being the Central Northern Railway, running 
from Santa Fé northwest to the Argentine 
boundary at La Quiaca, and the Argentine 
Northern, running from Santa Fé west to 
San Juan, both roads having several branches. 
The government is interested in building and 
operating railroads chiefly in order to open up 
new territory, and the roads in many cases 
are run at a loss, 

Argentine railways have three different 
gauges. The broad gauge of 5 feet 6 inches, 
said to have been introduced when the first 
railway builders’ purchased rolling stock of 
this gauge which had been used in the Crimean 
War, prevails on several of the larger roads, 
including the Buenos Aires and Pacific, the 
Buenos Aires and Great Southern, the Buenos 
Aires Western and the Central Argentine. 
The middle gauge, 4 feet 8% inches, is used 
by the Entre Rios Railway, the Argentine 
North Eastern and the Buenos Aires Cen- 
tral. The government lines mentioned, the 
Transandine Railway, the Cordoba Central, 
the Buenos Aires Midland.and the Province 
of Santa Fé are of metre (3.28 feet) gauge. 
Freight carried on these roads naturally con- 


LATIN AMERICA—TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 33 


sist very largely of grain, livestock and animal 
products such as wool and hides, but consider- 
able quantities of wine and grapes are carried 
from the vineyards of Mendoza and. other 
western provinces. 

The passenger service of these lines is quite 
up-to-date, and all the comforts appertaining 
to modern railway travel are provided. The 
line of the Central Argentine between Buenos 
Aires and Rosario has been double-tracked, 
and the running time between these cities, a 
distance of 186 miles, has been reduced to 
four and a half hours. The fare is not ex- 
cessive. One of the minor drawbacks to rail- 
way travel in many parts of Argentina is the 
monotony of landscape, some lines running for 
hundreds of miles over level plains with prac- 
_ tically no trees or hills to be seen in any 
direction. The railway system in general is 
such that every city of consequence in Argen- 
tina can be conveniently reached from Buenos 
Aires, and tourists and commercial travelers 
find it a good plan to make the capital their 
headquarters, taking side trips to other centres 
as may be desirable. The fact that a great part 
of the import and export business of the 
country flows through Buenos Aires makes it 
unnecessary for foreign salesmen to visit many 
of the outlying cities. Tourists, however, will 
find it interesting to visit Tucuman, where 
Argentine independence was declared; Men- 
doza, the centre of the wine industry; Rosario, 
second to Buenos Aires as a shipping centre; 
La Plata, where there are a large observatory 
and large meat-packing plants; and Mar del 
Plata, the great seaside resort. 

Urucuay.— The fact that Uruguay, smallest 
of South American republics, has some 1,600 
miles of railway is an illustration of the pro- 
gressiveness of the country, as well as the 
facility in construction afforded by the level 
or gently rolling character of the land. The 
chief system is the Central Uruguay Railway, 
which operates approximately 1,000 miles of 
track. Its main line and an extension connect 
Montevideo with the Brazilian frontier and 
join the Rio Grande system at Sant’ Anna. 
Nearly all lines are controlled by British capital, 
and as a rule return a good profit. They are 
for the most part operated under a government 
guarantee. 

In the third of the river Plata countries, 
Paraguay, there is as yet but a single line, 
the Paraguay Central, running from Asuncid6n, 
the capital, to’ Villa Encarnacién, where it 
makes connection with the Argentine North 
Eastern. A branch from Villa Rica to the 
Brazilian frontier is being constructed, to con- 
nect with the Sao Paulo-Rio Grande Railway 
and give through connection with the Atlantic 
Coast. At present Asunciédn is reached in 
about 50 hours from Buenos Aires over the 
road mentioned, or by river boat, the trip 
upstream taking five days and the return trip 
four days. An extension of the Santa Fé 
Railway of Argentina is being constructed which 
has for its objective a point in Argentina op- 
posite Asuncién, the complete line to be en- 
tirely in Argentine territory but giving Asun- 
cién another outlet to the sea. 


Railway. This continues 111 miles to the 
Transandine Tunnel, two miles long. The 
Chile-Argentine boundary line is reached about 
halfway through the tunnel, and across the line 
the journey is over the track of the Chilean 
Transandine Railway to Los Andes, 47 miles. 
From there to Valparaiso (83 miles) runs the 
line of the Chilean National Railway. The 
whole distance from Buenos Aires to Val- 
paraiso is 888 miles. This Transandine route 
has made unnecessary the long voyage around 
the Horn when traveling between Valparaiso 
and Buenos Aires, the railway trip now being 
made in two days. The line does not carry 
a great amount of freight but has a good 
passenger traffic. During the winter months it 
is often blocked by snows and the service is 
consequently very uncertain’ from June to 
August. 

The character of the railway. development 
of the west coast has been determined by the 
peculiar contour of the land. Along practically 
the whole length of the South American conti- 
nent the high ridges of the Andes lie only a 
comparatively short distance back from the 
coast. For the most part, therefore, the rail- 
ways of Chile, Peru and Ecuador consist of 
short lines crossing the narrow strip of coast 
lands between sea and mountains, here and 
there climbing over the high passes into the 
interior plateau. Mec 

The chief exception to this is the Longi-/ 
tudinal Railway of Chile, running from Puert/ 
Montt in the south to a point near Iqui 
(eventually to be extended to Arica). / 
cause of the proximity of the mountains t/ 
sea and their height, railway constructi¢ 
been exceedingly costly and difficult 7 
required the solution of more eng 
problems than construction in any 
of the world. The highest rail 
world is to be found in Peru, 
the Central of Peru Railway re 
height of 15,865 feet, while f 
Bolivia, a branch of the Ant 
and Bolivia Railway running 
15,814 feet. So far the rail 
Buenos Aires and ValparZ, \,i1] doe 
affording transcontinentaJ 4p; Zona 
tioned above, the comfently for sey- 

ee - Vs 
track between La Quige d 
another through rou eee een 
} gn rouktended to meet 
tion has been carriefestern of Brazil 
eral years. A thit4ed to the Spy ie 
Bolivia's railwaycher transcontinental 
the track of Blanea, Argentina 
Railway, practas been discussed. but 
town of Cong done on it. There ds 
line, to ruwahia Blanca to Neuquén 
to Talcahy , 


no active/es of railway open in Chile 
mm Argh owned by the government, 


miles of 


in Argnly country in South America 

cnsive government-owned sys- 
aboyoads are for the most part oper- 
Ch’s. The private lines are mostly 
t lways, owned and operated by the 
exploiting the nitrate fields in North 


1A.— The country of Bolivia, entirely 


Cuite— From Buenos Aires the broag’ from the sea, has three rail connections 


gauge tracks of the Buenos Aires and Pac) 

lead away 647 miles to Mendoza, joining 

with the meter-gauge Argentine Trans 
you, 17—3 


34 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 


with the coast, two of these being through 
Chile and one through Peru. The lines through 
Chile run from Antofagasta and Arica to La 
Paz, and that through Peru to Mollendo. The 
southernmost line is that of Antofagasta 
(Chile) and Bolivia Railway, from Antofagasta 
to Oruro, Bolivia, a distance of 575 miles. 
From Oruro the Bolivia Railway, leased by the 
Antofagasta Railway, leads to Viacha, 125 
miles, and the rest of the distance to La Paz, 
19 miles, is covered by a line constructed by the 
Antofagasta Railway, as well as by two others. 
The whole distance of about 720 miles is 
covered in 45 hours. The second line to the 
coast is the Arica-La Paz line of 248 miles, of 
which 28 miles is rack*road. The time required 
for the trip to La Paz from the coast is about 
25 hours and for the journey in the other 
direction 15 hours, the first-class fare being 
about 6% cents a mile. The third line to the 
sea is through Peru to Mollendo, the total dis- 
tance being 534 miles and the running time 
about 29 hours to the coast, part of the journey 
being made by steamer on Lake Titicaca. This 
road is the Southern Railway of Peru, which 
also operates a branch from Juliaca to the 
ancient Inca capital, Cuzco, 210 miles, a favorite 
objective of tourists. _While most of the traffic 
to and from Bolivia has been by way of the 
first and third of these routes, the second is 
considerably the shortest and there is, more- 
over, one of the best harbors along the Pacific 
Coast at Arica. The line was opened in 1912 
and is expected to build up a volume of busi- 
ness between La- Paz and the coast that will 
equal that of its older competitors. 
Peru.— Besides the Southern Railway, Peru 
as one other line that climbs the Andes from 
‘coast. This is the famous Central Railway 
°eru, one of the most wonderful railways in 
‘orld because of the number and character 
engineering difficulties overcome. It was 
1 and partially completed by Henry 
jn American engineer, at an enormous 
ins from the port of Callao to Oroya, 
. with an extension to Huancayo, a 
00 uiles_to the south. The main line 
3 thie 57 tunnels and ‘reaches a height 
the feene branch to Morococha going 
of aeat This branch, as noted above, 
ay in the world. At Oroya 
can copp’ 
railways tl. Railway leads to the town 
connecting *€ of an important Ameri- 
coastal regionterprise. Besides these 
A large p2us shorter lines, chiefly 
railways is contural valleys of the 
tion, a companyfic ports, 9 
holders of Peruvileage of Peruvian 
of interest on whicPeruvian Corpora- 
ment between the gi890 by European 
tion is such that thes, the payment 
way situation in Perult. The agree- 
terested in new construd the corpora- 
for the government a linetes the rail- 
on the Southern Railwajany 1s in- 
. Dios River, which will opei surveyed 
and-water route to the AtlaTiripata, 
Andean lines are projected in dre de 
central sections of Peru. | % rail- 
Ecuapor.— The only railway-ans- 
in Ecuador is the Guayaquil atand 


a 


built, owned and operated by Americans. This 
line is another example of daring mountain 
construction. It has a total length of 287 miles 
and the journey to Quito takes two days. 
There are also railways inland from the ports 
of Bahia de Caracas, Manta and Bolivar, and 
lines are projected from Quito to the coast and 
from Ambato, on the Guayaquil and Quito 
Railway, to ‘Curaray in the interior, which will 
open up the rich tropical sections of the 
Amazon Valley in Ecuador. Work on the 
latter line is proceeding slowly. 

CotomBiA.— In the north-coast countries of 
Colombia and Venezuela railroad building has 
made little progress, partly because of the 
mountainous character of the country and 
partly because of the fact that each country is 
but sparsely inhabited. In Colombia the main 
arteries of travel are still the rivers, particularly 
the Magdalena, and nearly all railways lead off 
from this river or from the seacoasts. The 
foreign traveler usually lands either at Carta- 
gena (thence reaching the river by rail at Cala- 
mar, 62 miles away), or at Puerto Colombia, 
going thence to Barranquilla, a rail distance of 
17 miles. A river boat carries him to La 
Dorado, where the Dorado Extension Railway 
leads around a series of rapids to Puerto Bel- 
tran, the river voyage being then continued to 
Girardot. The rest of the journey to Bogota, 
the capital, is by railways of two different 
gauges, a distance of 109 miles. From Bogota 
two short lines lead out north and southeast, 
besides the line running to the Magdalena River. 
The Antioquia Railway, nearly completed, con- 
nects Medellin with the Magdalena, and a short 
line leads out from the river port of Puerto 
Wilches, to be eventually continued to Bucara- 
manga. Isolated lines serving local needs in- 
clude the Cucuta Railway (44 miles) in the 
east, the Santa Marta Railway (92 miles) in 
the north, and the Cauca Railway (103 miles) 
in the west. A short line running from the 
Magdalena at Girardot to Espinal completes 
the list. The railway construction program of 
Colombia includes the completion of the lines 
from the Magdalena to Bucaramanga and to 
Medellin, the continuation of the Cauca Rail- 
way to Popayan, the connecting of the Cucuta 
Railway with the Magdalena, the building of 
a line from Medellin to the Gulf of Darien, and 
the construction of a line from Girardot to Cali, 
thus giving Bogota access to the Pacific. 

VENEZUELA.— The 530 miles of railway in 
Venezuela are all of three and one-half feet 
gauge or less, and serve the regions along the 
coast. The chief line is the Great Railway of 
Venezuela, a German road of 111 miles running 
from Caracas to Valencia. It was a costly 
road to build, having 86 tunnels and 212 bridges. 
Both the terminal cities of this road are con- 
nected with the coast, Valencia by an English- 
owned railway of 34 miles running to Puerta 
Cabella and Caracas by the La Guaira and 
Caracas line, also English, which in: its 23 
miles passes over 10 bridges and through nine 
tunnels, and climbs 5,000 feet. The Bolivar 
Railway (109 miles) connects the interior city 
of Barquisimeto with the coast at Tucacas, and 
is important as a carrier of copper ore from 
the mines at Aroa, about 50 miles from Tucacas. 
This road is also English-owned as is the Cen- 
tral Railway (46 miles) running southeast 
from Caracas, Most of the other railways, 


LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 35 


penetrating short distances into the interior 
from the coast and from lake Maracaibo, are 
financed by Venezuelan capital, three being 
government-owned. Several projects for new 
railways have been talked of, but extensive 
construction will have to await the development 
of the country. 

Gui1anaA.— In British Guiana there are about 
100 miles of railway, the chief line being that 
from Georgetown to New Amsterdam, 60 miles 
long. Dutch Guiana has a single road of about 
109 miles, 

BraAziL.— Brazil, a country whose great ex- 
panses have as yet not even been fully ex- 
plored, holds great promise for future railway 
construction. There are now some _ 16,000 
miles of railroad in the country, and lines pro- 
jected and under construction when the 
European War broke out would have added 
8,000 or 10,000 miles more. Existing lines, with 
one notable exception, have naturally been laid 
where the country is most thickly settled, that 
is, in the coastal regions and the immediate 
hinterland, and the great interior plains and 
forests are penetrated by only one line that has 
connections with the coast. Construction has 
been most in evidence in the more productive 
section, comprising the agricultural and mining 
states of the south. Almost one-half of the 
total mileage of the country is owned by the 

ederal government, although most of this is 
leased. The gauges of Brazilian railways range 
from two feet to five feet three inches, but 
about 90 per cent of the mileage is metre gauge. 

The chief economic value of these railways 
heretofore has been to bring the products of 
each general section to the coast, and communi- 
cation between northern, southern and western 
states is still largely by ocean or river steamer. 
The traveler visiting the several coast cities has 
little use for the railways until he reaches Rio 
de Janeiro. From Rio the usual journey (re- 
quiring all of one day), is by rail to Sao Paulo, 
one of the most thriving commercial cities of 
South America, and then to the coast again at 
Santos, where steamer connection is made for 
southern Brazil and the river Plata. However, 
the traveler, if he wishes to do so, can reach 
both Uruguay and Argentina by rail from Rio 
de Janeiro. Sleeping and dining-car service is 
provided, but the rates are high. 

The line that connects the capital with many 
of the important cities of southern Brazil and 
the oldest line in the country is the Central 
of Brazil Railway, whose broad and metre 
gauge tracks lead to Sao Paulo in the southwest 
and to Bello Morizonte and other important 
centres in the north. It is government-owned, 
and returns a large annual deficit. The coun- 
try’s best-paying line is the S40 Paulo Railway, 
running from Santos to Jundiahy via Sao 
Paulo, which carries a tremendous freight of 
coffee annually. There are two tracks over 
the 50 miles between Sado Paulo and Santos, 
and grades of 8 per cent are surmounted by 
means of endless-cable systems. Other import- 
ant lines of this region that should be men- 
tioned are the Mogyana, Sorocabana, Paulista, 
South Minas, West of Mines and Brazil Rail- 
way systems. The last named is the compre- 
hensive system controlled by a company known 
as the Farquhar Syndicate, incorporated in 
Maine, which carried forward ambitious de- 
yelopment plans that involved railway construc- 


tion or control in Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay 
and Argentina. This development, however, 
was largely suspended by financial difficulties 
on the outbreak of the European War, and the 
company passed into the hands of a receiver. 
The southernmost states of Brazil are served 
by this line and by the Great Southern, the 
region to the north of Rio de Janeiro by the 
Leopoldina Railway, the region around Pernam- 
buco by the Great Western, the state of Ceara 
by the Brazil North Eastern, and Bahia by the 
state of Bahia Southwestern. There is at 
present no through rail connection between 
north and south, but it is planned to have the 
Central of Brazil extended eventually to Para, 
thus affording railway communication for all 
the states on the Atlantic seaboard. Construc- 
tion is also reaching out toward the western 
plains, and a transcontinental line through 
Bolivia will eventually be built. 

Far removed from all other lines is the 
Madeira-Mamore Railway, 1,800 miles into the 
interior, which spans a series of rapids in the 
Madeira, Mamore and Beni rivers. These 
rapids are the only obstruction to river traffic 
from the interior of Bolivia to the Atlantic, and 
the road of 225 miles was constructed (with 
great difficulty and only after repeated failures) 
to afford an outlet for the products of eastern 
Bolivia. 


MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 


Mexico.— Before the revolution broke out 
in 1910 Mexico had witnessed a steady expan- 
sion of its railways, which formed a network 
that afforded an outlet for the products of 
almost all parts of this potentially wealthy coun- 
try. In the years that followed the overthrow 
of Diaz not only has new construction been 
materially diminished (though not entirely sus- 
pended) but millions of dollars’ worth of 
track and rolling stock have been destroyed. 
In normal times the country is well served by 
its railways. It has about 16,000 miles of rail- 
way, mostly standard gauge (four feet eight and 
one-half inches) of which about 7,300 miles are 
owned or controlled (but not operated) by one 
system, the National Railways of Mexico. The 
government organized this system by combining 
the National Railroad of Mexico and the Mexi- 
can Central, in 1908, and later adding the 
Mexican International, the Vera ‘Cruz and 
Isthmus and the Pan-American. The govern- 
ment owns 50.3 per cent of the ordinary stock 
and thus has full control. The principal line 
of the system runs from Nuevo Laredo, on 
the northern border, through the ‘states of 
Nuevo Leon and San Luis Potosi on down to 
Mexico City, with several branches east and 
west. 

Other important lines of Mexico include the 
Southern Pacific of Mexico, running from the 
northern border through the western states of 
Sonora and Sinaloa to Tepic, whence it will be 
continued to join the National Railways of 
Mexico at Guadalajara; the Mexico North 
Western Railway, one of the two lines joining 
El Paso and Chihuahua; the Mexican Rail- 
way, running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City, 
with several branches; the Kansas City, Mexico 
and Orient Railway, which when completed will 
join Kansas City with the port of Topolo- 
bampo on the Gulf of California; and _ the 
Tehuantepec National Railway, running from 


,. 


36 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 


coast to coast between Salina Cruz and Puerto 
Mexico. The only isolated system is the 
United Railroads of Yucatan, and a line is pro- 
jected which will join this with the other rail- 
ways of the country. 

Mexico has a carefully worked out body of 
railway law, and the Minister of Communica- 
tions is assisted by a standing advisory Railway 
Commission of nine members. 

CENTRAL AMERICA. In ‘Central’ America 
through connections from ocean to ocean are 
afforded in three countries, Panama, Costa 
Rica and Guatemala (considering Panama a 
part of Central America). On these and other 
Central American lines the traveler will find 
some of the finest scenery attending railway 
travel anywhere in North and South America. 
Both freight and passenger rates are high, but 
the service in general is good. The oldest and 
best-known line, the Panama Railway, has been 
carrying immense amounts of traffic across the 
isthmus since it was opened in 1855, and its 
earnings have been very large. It is 47 miles 
long, and the trip between the Atlantic and 
Pacific terminals is made in about one and one- 
quarter hours. From Port Limon, in Costa 
Rica, the three and one-half foot gauge Costa 
Rica Railway (leased by the Northern Rail- 
way of Costa Rica) carries the tourist through 
wild and beautiful country to the capital, San 
José, in some five or six hours, a daily service 
being maintained in both directions. The fare is 
$3.90 gold. Over another line the traveler may 
also reach the Pacific Coast at Puntarenas, 69 
miles from San José, in about the same time. 
The freight traffic of these Costa Rican railways 
is very largely made up of bananas and coffee 
shipped by the United Fruit Company. A sys- 
tem that promises much for the future develop- 
ment of Central America is that of the Inter- 
national Railways of Central America. This 
now includes the lines joined to make the 
ocean-to-ocean route from Puerto Barrios, on 
the Atlantic, to San José on the Pacific, together 
with a branch at Santa Maria and a line run- 
ning westward from La Union, Salvador. 
When projected roads are completed the Inter- 
national Railways will have continuous track 
from the Mexican border to Panama, which will 
complete the North American part of the Pan- 
American Railway. 


The railway mileage of the countries of | 


Central America is as follows: Panama, 202 
miles; Costa Rica, 450 miles; Nicaragua, 200 
miles; Salvador, 184 miles; Honduras, 300 
miles; Guatemala, 500 miles.* 

Ocean Transportation. The fact that a 
large part of the foreign trade of South Amer- 
ica has been with Europe has caused a great 
development of. ocean transportation service be- 
tween the two continents. Until a few years 
before the World War the only regular com- 
munication of any importance between South 
America and the outside world was over the 
lines of ships that ran to European ports. It 
was customary for passengers bound for South 
America from the United States to go by way 
of Liverpool or Hamburg, and a great deal of 
freight was also routed via these ports. While 
this has decidedly changed and the United 


*These figures, which. are approximate only, are taken 
from ‘Railway Expansion in Latin America’ by Frederic 


M. Halsey, 


United States. 


States enjoys reasonably good freight service 
with South America, it is nevertheless true that 
in normal times transportation facilities to and 
from Europe are immensely better than to and 
from the United Siates. This is due in large 
part to the nature of the resources and com- 
merce of Europe, South America and the 
South America is distinctly a 
continent of raw materials, while Europe is a 
producer of manufactured articles and has 
been, moreover, an investor of immense amounts 
of capital. A heavy volume of oversea traffic 
and a consequent growth of shipping was, there- _ 
fore, very logical. The United States, on the 
other hand, has until recent years supplied it- 
self with most of its foodstuffs and other raw 
materials and has also not actively sought for- 
eign markets for its factory products. Direct 
transportation facilities to South America, 
therefore, have been in demand only in a com- 
paratively few years and the freight and pas- 
senger traffic, even after direct service was well 
established, has been carried almost wholly in 
foreign bottoms. Before the beginning of the 
European War a triangular trade route had 
been evolved by which vessels carried manufac- 
tured goods from Europe to South America, 
coffee, hides and a few other staples from 
South America to the United States and various 
American exports to Europe. The radical 
changes resulting from the war, together with 
the steadily increasing interest of the United 
States in South American trade, will undoubt- 
edly cause the establishment of more ample 
direct facilities between North and South 
America, which in time will rival the facilities 
heretofore enjoyed by European countries. 
After the outbreak of the World War in 
1914 shipping service to South America was of 
course anything but normal. The price of 
charters advanced as much as 1,000 per cent, 
and ships were often not to be had at any price 
that would justify the dispatch of cargo. Any 
description of shipping conditions during the 
war would give little indication of the ordinary 
state of ocean transportation. The following 
account will, therefore, be confined to a review 
of the service offered immediately before the 
beginning of the war, although most of the lines 
mentioned have maintained a more or less in- 
terrupted service during its continuance. 
European shipping, carrying mostly food- 
stuffs, hides and skins, and similar commodities 
to Europe, has been much more in evidence in 
the ports of Brazil and the river Plata than 
on the west and north coasts and scores of 
vessels, some of them registering as high as 
20,000 tons, have come and gone at all seasons 
of the year. The port of Buenos Aires saw its 
business grow so rapidly that elaborate con- 
struction of docks was hardly sufficient by the 
time it was completed to take care of the grow- 
ing traffic. In 1913 a total of 700 passenger- 
carrying vessels entered the port from over- 
seas, bringing 316,000 passengers. Many of the 
large liners that reached Buenos Aires put in 
also at Rio de Janeiro and Montevideo, and 
these also were busy ports. Liners flying the 
flags of European countries, together with the 
ships of one Brazilian line, afforded most of 
the regular communication between the east 
coast and New York, and the American flag, 
carried only by an occasional sailing vessel or 


LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 37 


tank steamer or the monthly vessels of one 
American line to Brazil, was counted a rarity 
along the east coast. 

England has enjoyed the bulk of South 
American trade and English lines have been 
more numerous than any other: The Royal 
Mail Steam Packet Company was perhaps the 
most prominent of these. It maintained a 
weekly service, its modern steamers of 15,000 
tons and more making the voyage from Liver- 
pool to Buenos Aires in 18 days regularly, and 
on occasion covering the distance from Cadiz, 
Spain, to Rio de Janeiro in 11 days. The Lam- 
port and Holt Line had passenger and freight 
steamers running to the river Plata both from 
New York and from English ports, and steam- 
ers of the Booth Line plied regularly between 
England and North Brazil and Amazon ports, 
and between New York and these ports. Other 
lines offering service between the east coast of 
South America and England were the Harri- 
son Line, the Houston Line, the London and 
Northern Steamship Company, Ltd., the 
Blue Star Line, the British and Argentine 
Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., the Nautilus 
Steam Shipping Company, Ltd., the Nelson 
Line, the Prince Line and a line operated by 
the New Zealand Shipping Company, Ltd., 
and Shaw, Savill and Albim Company, Ltd. 
All these sent their ships to the river Plata, 
and the Royal Mail, in addition, had regular 
boats to Venezuela and to Panama, offering 
service, through transshipment, to the west 
coast. Direct service to the west coast was 
maintained by the Pacific Steam Navigation 
Company, a subsidiary of the Royal Mail. The 
fastest of the river Plata steamers made Lisbon 
in about 14 days and Southampton in 17 days 
from Buenos Aires, and the first-class fare 
rangéd from $110 to $160. 

Next to the English the ships of the Ital- 
ian lines were most numerous in traffic to the 
east coast. This was due to the large move- 
ment of Italian immigrants into Argentina and 
Brazil, many of them going over for the har- 
vests and returning to Italy to spend the rest 
of the year at home. Those who settled per- 
manently brought their tastes with them and 
the demand for Italian articles built up a trade 
of considerable proportions. The following 
lines maintained a service consisting mostly of 
monthly sailings each way between Italian ports, 
usually Genoa and Naples, and the river Plata: 
Italia Line, La Veloce, Italian Lloyd, Lloyd 
del Pacifico, Lloyd Sabaudo, Navigazione Gen- 
erale Italiana, Ligure Braziliana and Sicula- 
Americana. The German flag was carried by 
the large vessels of the Hamburg-South Amer- 
ican and the North German Lloyd to Brazilian 
and Argentine ports, and by the Roland Line 
to west coast ports. The first-named line 
maintained a weekly service to European ports, 
including Lisbon, Vigo, Southampton, Bou- 
logne and Hamburg, calling at Rio de Janeiro 
on the way and covering the distance between 
the river Plata and Lisbon in about 16 days. 
The first-class passenger fare to Europe was 
about $160. Regular liners were also to be seen 
in the river Plata in weekly, fortnightly or 
monthly service from France, Denmark, Hol- 
land, Spain, Belgium and Sweden, and even 
the interior countries of Russia and Austria- 
Hungary found it desirable to maintain a regu- 
lar service through their own national lines. 


Besides the regular boats there were a large 
number of tramp steamers and sailers and spe- 
cially chartered boats plying between Europe 
and the river Plata, for the most part carrying 
grain and livestock products from Buenos 
Aires, Rosario, San Lorenzo (near: Rosario) 
and Bahia Blanca, and bringing back coal and 
miscellaneous cargo. 

Between the United States and the river 
Plata six steamship lines, all British, offered 
freight service and one or two of these also 
carried passengers. These were the Lamport 
and Holt (the only important passenger-carry- 
ing line), Barber, Norton, Houston, Prince and 
American- Rio Plata lines. They maintained a 
fortnightly or monthly service from New 
York, stopping at Brazilian ports in one or 
both directions. The United States and Brazil 
Line, flying the American flag, was established 
primarily to carry the products of the United 
States Steel Products Company to Brazil and 
bring back manganese for steel manufacture, 
but it also offered general cargo service. The 
Booth Line had sailings from New York to 
Para, Manaos and Iquitos, and also on occa- 
sion. to ports on the north coast of Brazil, and 
the Brazilian line, the Lloyd Brazileiro, oper- 
ated between New York and all the important 
Brazilian ports. 

The west coast enjoyed adequate ocean 
transportation facilities, both to oversea coun- 
tries and between the various coast ports. The 
regular European lines included the Kosmos 
and Roland lines, flying the German flag, the 
three English companies, the Pacific Steam 
Navigation Company, Gulf Line and Lamport 
and Holt, and the Johnson Line, maintaining 
service to Denmark and Norway. To the 
United States ships of three lines sailed regu- 
larly from west coast ports—the Merchants, 
West Coast and New York and South Amer- 
ica lines, each with sailings varying from one 
to two months apart. These lines made the 
trip around the Horn until the opening of the 
canal, but now go by way of Panama. Be- 
tween Japan and the Pacific Coast the large 
ships of one line, the Toyo Kisen Kaisha, pro- 
vided regular and adequate service. In the 
coasting trade between the ports of Chile, Peru 
and Ecuador’ three companies maintained reg- 
ular schedules, the Pacific Steam Navigation 
Company, the Compania Sud Americana de 
Vapores (Chilean) and the Compania Peruana 
de Vapores y Dique del Callao (Peruvian 
Steamship and Drydock Company of Callao). 
Ships of the Kosmos Line and others sailing 
to transoceanic ports also made stops at the im- 
portant ports of the west coast and carried 
more or less coasting traffic. Besides these 
regular sailings there were a large number of 
tramp steamers and sailing vessels taking ni- 
trate from Chile to Europe and the United 
States or bringing coal from Australia and 
Wales. 

The flags of more than half-a-dozen coun- 
tries were carried on the ships of the regular 
lines that served the ports of the north coast. 
Spain was represented by the Compagnia 
Transatlantica de Barcelona, Italy by La Ve- 
loce, France by the Compagnie Générale Trans- 
atlantique, Holland by the Royal Dutch West 
India Mail, Germany by the Hamburg Amer- 
ican, England by the Harrison and Leyland 
lines, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company 


38 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 


and the United Fruit Company (British ves- 
sels sailing from United States ports), and 
the United States by the “Red D” Line. The 
ships of most of these lines touched at ports 
of both Venezuela and Colombia, usually, how- 
ever, going in one direction, New Orleans or 
New York being visited either before or after 
the Caribbean ports on the round trip from 
Europe. The United Fruit Company had sail- 
ings only to Colombia, and the Red D Line 
and the Royal Dutch West India Mail visited 
only Venezuela. 

In Venezuela, La Guaira and Puerto Ca- 
bello were the chief ports of call, the cargo to 
and from Maracaibo, the important coffee dis- 
trict, being transshipped at Curacao, and a good 
part of the trade of Ciudad Bolivar and the 
Orinoco being handled through Trinidad. In 
Colombia either Cartagena or Puerto Colom- 
bia, the port for Barranquilla, was visited by 
the liners serving the country, and in addition 
the port of Santa Marta became prominent be- 
cause of heavy shipments of bananas. Barran- 
quilla, the most important commercial city of 
the Colombian Republic, is shut off from the 
ocean by a great bar at the mouth of the Mag- 
dalena, which permits the entry of boats of 
lighter draft only. Various projects have been 
discussed and contracts have even been let for 
dredging and maintaining a channel through 
this bar, but this has not been accomplished so 
far and cargo must come and go through 
Puerto Colombia. 

The various lines carrying the commerce of 
the United States with South America may be 
said to have furnished a fairly adequate serv- 
‘ice, and in the main their ships were ready to 
carry all the cargo that offered. There has been 
considerable agitation in recent years for the 
establishment of American steamship lines to 
carry freight and passenger traffic between the 
United States and Latin America, but this has 
arisen from a desire for many advantages de- 
rived from a national service rather than from 
a conspicuous inadequacy of cargo space. Nev- 
ertheless there is little question that American- 
owned vessels would do much to assist in the 
upbuilding of United States trade with Latin 
America. American lines could expand their 
service with the increasing demands from 
American shippers, and: could adopt policies 
that would directly encourage a steady trade in- 
crease. A faster schedule with more frequent 
sailings of passenger vessels to Brazil and the 
river Plata would help to bring shipping com- 
munications from New York to a par with 
those from Liverpool, Hamburg and Genoa. A 
constant community of interest between Amer- 
ican industries and the companies which trans- 
ported their products to Latin America would 
work for as great an expansion of both trade 
and shipping as could reasonably be expected 
under normal conditions of competition. It is 
probable that with the growth of interest in 
foreign trade in the United States thg estab- 
lishment of American-owned lines to all parts 
of Latin America will be a question of only a 
short time. 

The time now required for the voyage from 
New York to Buenos Aires is 24 or 25 days, 
to Rio de Janeiro 17 days, to Colén 7 days, to 
Cartagena 8 or 9 days, to La Guaira 8 to 10 
days. to Guayaquil, Ecuador, 12 to 14 days, to 


Callao, Peru, about 15 days and to Valparaiso, 
Chile, about 22 days. The West Coast and the 
Merchants lines offer through service to the 
west coast, and the United Fruit Company and 
the Panama Railroad and Steamship lines con- 
nect with the boats of the Peruvian and Chilean 
lines and the Pacific Steam Navigation Com- 
pany. Vessels plying to east coast ports from 
New York make no stops in the West Indies, 
as a rule, except at Barbados, and occasionally 
Trinidad, and travelers in Venezuela or Colom- 
bia who wish to visit Brazil and Argentina 
often find it more desirable to return to New 
York than to wait for connections. Pernam- 
buco is the first port of call for the regular 
liners on the way down the east coast, except 
those of the Lloyd Brazileiro, and Para and 
neighboring ports are reached from Pernam- 
buco by coasting vessels. : 
River Transportation.— Transportation by 
river in South America has had the importance 
which it always has in a new and unexplored 
continent, and it will continue to be perhaps 
the chief factor in the development of the in- 
terior regions, particularly the Amazon Valley, 
for an indefinite time to come. Where rail- 
ways are built they form of course the prin- 
cipal means of carrying traffic, and a steady ex- 
pansion in railway construction is to be ex- 
pected. But such construction is attended with 
great difficulties in the vast tropical regions of 
the northern and central sections as well as in 
the mountainous regions of the west coast, and 
the cost is very heavy. The rivers will, there- 
fore, remain the recognized outlets for these 
tropical regions until the growth of population 
makes it feasible and desirable to provide what 
is now dense forest land with networks of rail- 
ways. ; 
There are four great river systems in South 
America on which vessels ranging in size from 
the small canoe of the Indian to the great 
ocean liners carry manufactured goods to the 
interior and bring out rubber, hides and a 
dozen other tropical products. These are the 
systems of the Amazon, the river Plata, the 
Orinoco and the Magdalena. So extensive are 
these systems that with a comparatively few 
miles portage one can go by boat except for 
rapids from Buenos Aires to the mouth of the 
Orinoco. The great Amazon, of course, leads 
in the extent of navigable waterways and 
ocean liners go regularly as far as Manaés and 
even Iquitos, almost to the boundary of Ecua- 
dor. The Parana and its tributaries, the Para- 
guay and the Pilcomayo, stretch far into the 
heart of the continent and afford an outlet for 
the interior plains of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay 
and Argentina. In the north the Orinoco is as 
yet little utilized because the country it serves 
is but thinly settled, but the grassy plains 
through which it flows will support millions 
more cattle than they do, and until railways are 
built to the coast their only outlet will be by 
way of the river. In Colombia the Magdalena 
forms the only highway by which freight and 
passengers move from the interior of the coun- 
try to the Atlantic Coast and vice-versa. 
Navigation on the Amazon, in many respects 
the most remarkable river highway in the world, 
is carried on by ocean liners, particularly the 
boats of the Booth Line and the Lloyd Brazil- 
eiro, by a number of river companies and by a 


LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 39 


host of larger or smaller vessels not grouped 
into companies. The principal river company 
is the Companhia Navegacgao do Amazonas, a 
Brazilian company, which owns some 50 or 60 
vessels. The principal port is that of Manads, 
about 1,000 miles from Para, on the Rio Negro 
near the place where it empties into the Ama- 
zon. On the Madeira there is continuous navi- 
gation to the beginning of the rapids at Santo 
Antonio, and beyond these series of rapids, 
which are spanned by the Madeira-Mamore 
Railway, boats of light draft can run almost 
to the foot of the mountains. On the Amazon 
itself the line of navigable water for large- 
draft boats passes the frontier of Peru and 
continues on to Iquitos, and much farther for 
those of smaller size. Another highly import- 
ant river in Brazilian transportation is the Sao 
Francisco, which rises in the state of Minas 
Geraes and flows north for more than a thou- 
sand miles before turning east and south to 
the Atlantic. Rapids and falls prohibit through 
navigation, but there is a stretch of about 800 
miles between Pirapora and Sobradinho over 
which boats of considerable size can operate. 


The Uruguay River does not offer much in 


the way of transportation facilities, as rapids 
at Salto stop the boats going up from Buenos 
Aires. The Paraguay, however, is open as far 
as the draft of vessels will permit them: to go, 
and steamers of the Lloyd Brazileiro call regu- 
larly at Corumba on the Bolivia-Brazil fron- 
tier. These boats and also those of the Mihano- 
vitch Line (Argentine Navigation Company, 
Ltd.) offer a river service to Asuncidn, 
Paraguay, the trip up the river from Buenos 
Aires taking about five days and that down- 
river about four. This company, which has a 
fleet of some 300 vessels, does an extensive 
coasting business to Argentine ports and main- 
tains a daily express service between Monte- 
video and Buenos Aires. 

On the Orinoco, as noted, traffic is light be- 
cause of the fact that the plains through which 
the river flows are as yet but sparsely inhab- 
ited. There is considerable difference in the 
level of the river in the rainy and the dry sea- 
sons and when the floods come it overflows its 
banks and its width increases to several miles. 
The principal city, Ciudad Bolivar, is reached 
by vessels engaged in ocean trade, and the 
river is navigable for large boats during high 
water as far as San Antonio. In western 
Venezuela the large expanse of lake Mara- 
caibo affords a highway over which the im- 
portant coffee production of the interior 
reaches the outside world, but a bar at the en- 
trance keeps out all but light-draft boats. 

The Magdalena River, in Colombia, may be 
said to be the life-line of the country’s com- 
merce. Practically all imports. destined for the 
interior are carried over it. Although it is 
silted up at the mouth so that ocean liners can- 
not pass through, cargo is discharged at Carta- 
gena and Puerto Colombia and is taken thence 
by rail to the river ports of Calamar and Bar- 
ranquilla. It is then loaded on river boats 
(which also carry passengers) and carried up 
the Magdalena to the various river ports, from 
which it is taken inland by muleback or rail. If 
destined for the capital, Bogota, it must be 
transferred to railway trains at Honda or La 
Dorado and then reloaded on river boats at Bel- 
tran, after having encompassed a series of rap- 


-running through to the Magdalena. 


ids in the river. It then goes by river to Girar- 
dot, 93 miles, and finally arrives at Bogota 
after another journey by rail, during which it 
must be transshipped from a medium-gauge to 
a narrow-gauge railway. From the time it ar- 
rives in port, therefore, until it reaches Bo- 
gota the cargo is transshipped six times. The 
whole trip up-river to Bogota takes 8 to 10 
days, but the down trip can be made in less 
time during periods of high water. The Cauca 
River, the principal tributary of the Magda- 
lena, is navigable over part of its length, but 
rapids and falls prevent the river boats from 
Railway 
construction may in time provide a quicker and 
more convenient outlet for the country’s prod- 
ucts, but this is not likely to be accomplished 
for many years. 


Mexico AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 


Central America has owed much of. its 
ocean-transportation service to the development 
of its banana industry, as this has brought 
about the establishment of the steamship lines 
of the United Fruit Company. The vessels of 
this company have provided the east coast of 
Central America with a service to United 
States ports more frequent and regular than is 
enjoyed by any other section of Latin America. 
Large ships carrying as a rule both passengers 
and freight sail regularly between the United 
States and Central America, as well as Colom- 
bia and Cuba, giving direct connections between 
these countries and five United States ports. 
From New York there are two sailings each 
week for Panama (one of these boats also mak- 
ing Port Limon, Costa Rica), and one sailing 
every two weeks for British Honduras, Guate- 
mala and Spanish Honduras. From Boston 
there is a weekly boat to Port Limon, stopping 
at Havana, Cuba, on the way. From New 
Orleans there is a boat each week to British 
and Spanish Honduras and Guatemala and an- 
other to Panama and Costa Rica, while a third 
sails for Panama by way of Havana. Service 
is also offered from Galveston and Mobile, 
though no passengers are carried, as they are 
on all the other routes. These boats, carrying 
millions of bunches of bananas from Central 
American ports every year, as well as cacao and 
other produce, afford an adequate and valued 
service of immense importance to the prosper- 
ity of Central American countries, all of which 
are reached directly except Salvador and 
Nicaragua. 

Besides the United Fruit Company lines 
serving the east coast from the United States 
are the Bluefields Fruit and Steamship Company, 
operating between Bluefields and New Orleans, 
affording the only regular steamship commu- 
nication of eastern Nicaragua with the outside 
world; the Orr-Laubenheimer Line, the vessels 
of which operate between Mobile and _ ports 
of British Honduras and Guatemala; the Hub- 
bard-Zemurray Line running fruit steamers 
from Mobile to Puerto Cortes, Ceiba and Tela. 
Honduras; and the Independent Steamship 
Line, with sailings twice.a week for Ceiba, 
Honduras. 

Before the war the Hamburg American 
Line (Atlas Service) had weekly sailings be- 
tween New York and Port Limon, and also 
a semi-monthly service from Port Limon to 
Hamburg. The Elders and Fyffes Line formerly 


40 LATIN AMERICA—TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 


carried bananas from Costa Rica to Bristol, 
England, but the vessels were taken over by 
the United Fruit Company, which continued 
the sailings via Colon and Jamaica. The 
French Compagnie Générale Transatlantique 
maintained a semi-monthly service between 
Colén and Port Limon and Havre before the 
war, but sailings under war conditions have 
been uncertain. Besides this line connections 
between Panama and Europe are normally 
afforded by the Leyland and Harrison Line and 
the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company to 
England, La Veloce (Italian) to Genoa, and 
the Compania Transatlantica de Barcelona to 
Spanish ports. 

On the Pacific coast Central America is 
served by five regularly operating lines, the 
Pacific Mail, the line of W. R. Grace and Com- 
pany, the Salvador Railway and Steamship Com- 
pany, the Jebson Line and the California South 
Sea Navigation Company. The first-named 
line operates between Balboa and San Fran- 
cisco, touching at intermediate ports of im- 
portance, the second between Seattle and Bal- 
boa and the third between Salina Cruz, Mex- 
ico, the terminus of the Tehuantepec Railway, 
and Balboa. The Jebson Line and the Cali- 
fornia South Sea Navigation Company operate 
out of San Francisco, the former with steamers 
every three weeks and the latter every 10 
days for ports to the south. Before the war 
the vessels of the Kosmos and Hamburg Amer- 
ican lines called at Central American ports on 
their way to Europe. All the above lines 
serve Mexican west-coast ports as well as 
those of Central. America, and in addition the 
Pacific Coast Steamship Company has sailings 
from San Francisco to Mexican ports. 

To Mexican east-coast ports four or five 
lines offer direct regular service from: New 
York, and others take cargo for transshipment. 
The New York and Cuba Mail has a weekly 
service to Vera Cruz, Progreso and Puerto 
Mexico, and the American and Cuban Steam- 
ship Line and the Atlantic Fruit Company 
serve Vera Cruz, Tampico and Frontera with 
frequent sailings. From New Orleans and 
Mobile three or four lines have weekly sailings 
to the chief east-coast ports of Mexico, and 
there are also a large number of tramp steamers 
plying between Mexican and United States 
Gulf ports. Several oil companies also’ operate 
tank steamers out of Tampico to United States 
and European ports. In normal times Dutch, 
British, German and other steamers afford a 
frequent service to Europe. 

Lake and river transportation has not been 
extensively developed in Mexico or Central 
America, as there are no interior waterways 
of great importance. In Guatemala a certain 
amount of traffic is carrried on over Lake 


Izabal, and in Nicaragua Lake Nicaragua, Lake © 


Managua and the San Juan River form a water 
highway that is considerably used. In Mexico 
the Panuco River, leading back from Tampico, 
is navigable for many miles. He 
Interior Transportation—A casual study 
of the map will disclose that South America, 
although . discovered by white men over 400 
years ago, is as yet in large part only fringed 
with settlements, and the heart of the continent 
remains as it was before Columbus sailed. All 
along the coasts are scores of towns and cities, 


mostly commmunicating with each other and 
the outside world by water, which serve as 
inlet and outlet for the commerce of a com- 
paratively narrow hinterland. In some cases 
the towns and villages of this hinterland are 
reached by railways, in others by river boats; 
but very often the only communicating road 
from the coast is a rough trail, where even 
wheeled vehicles will find no thoroughfare. 
Even where rail or river transportation ‘is - 
well developed: the terminal towns serve as 
distributing centres for settlements still farther 
in the interior, which must be reached by 
primitive means. These interior towns are not 
heavy consumers of manufactured goods from 
abroad, or at least the variety of such goods in 
demand is not wide. But such lines as cotton 
goods, boots and shoes, farm implements, house 
furnishings and hardware of various kinds, 
particularly cutlery, move constantly to the 
interior when they can be obtained from abroad. 
It is also a mistake to consider that these out- 
lying villages offer no special market for lux- 
uries or for articles usually associated with 
urban life. An American company has placed 
sewing machines in the houses of poor Indian » 
laborers, and one instance is known where 
an American soda fountain was imported, al- 
though the drums of carbonated water to be 
used in it had to be carried regularly 100 miles 
or so by muleback. As a rule the American 
manufacturer exports his wares to South 
America in the same way as the German, 
British or other European manufacturer, that 
is through an export commission house, which 
attends to transportation details. Even where 
he ships direct his goods in most cases go to 
a native importing house in some large port, 
and this house, long established in the field, 
has its own connections with merchants of the 
interior. It will nevertheless be worth his while 
to make such study as he can of the ultimate 
consumer in South America, and, if oppor- 
tunity offers, to trace his goods by personal 
visit to their final destination in mountain or 
forest home. The necessity for complying 
closely with requirements as to. trifling details 
in color or construction, for packing in con- 
tainers of a certain weight and quality and 
for being liberal in granting credit terms to 
importers will undoubtedly be more clear to 
him after such visit. 

The distributing centres for foreign goods 
in South America are in most cases coast cities 
at which the ocean liners discharge the cargo 
destined for the general region which they serve. 
Along.the coast of Brazil there are six or eight 
of these centres, including Para, Pernam- 
buco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos, and to 
a lesser extent Rio Grande do Sul, Porto 
Alegre, Florianopolis, Victoria, Maceio, Forta- 
leza, Paranagua and others, while Manaos, 


over 900 miles up the Amazon, is for all prac- 


tical purposes to be considered an ocean port. 
From these cities goods are distributed by coast 
vessels ranging in size from those of several 
hundred tons to the small sailing vessels or 
motor boats, which make the numerous small 
ports in between the larger centres, and from 
these the goods work their way back into the 
inland villages: In Uruguay all lines radiate 
from Montevideo and in Argentina Buenos 
Aires is the great open door to the whole in- 


LATIN AMERICA —INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, ETC. (7) 41 


terior. Goods destined for Patagonia may be 
routed by way of Bahia Blanca or Punta Are- 
nas, but the greater part of imports for this 
section also will probably be found to pass 
through Buenos Aires. Along the Chilean 
coast are many nitrate towns and cities, each 
of which lives an independent existence, ob- 
taining all its supplies from visiting ships. 
Besides three railway lines running to the 
Pacific, Bolivia is reached by two or three 
routes running up from the river Plata. This 
is the historic road over which a great amount 
of traffic passed in the Spanish colonial days, 
and it is still a convenient pathway for supplies 
going to eastern Bolivia. The route lies 
through either Buenos Aires or Rosario, then 
by rail to the border at La Quiaca, then by cart 
or animal to Tupiza, 57 miles, or to Tarija, 82 
miles, and then by such conveyance as offers 
to the final destination. Goods often reach the 
cities of Sucre or Potosi in this manner. 
Throughout all the region known as the “mon- 
tania” district, embracing eastern Bolivia, Peru, 
Ecuador and western Brazil, the method of 
moving produce is the same — that is, by rail, 
ocean steamer or river boat as far as these 
conveyances can take it, then by muleback, 
llama back or man power to the village in the 
mountain or forest. This is true also of Colom- 
bia and Venezuela and the Guianas, to the 
north, where the general absence of rail trans- 
portation makes the mule a necessity in com- 
municating with most districts off the coast. 

In all South America there are hardly any 
extensive highways built and maintained with 
substantial paving materials, such as are com- 
mon in the United States and Europe. Wheeled 
vehicles are mostly carts, which are used in 
-many places to bring the country produce to 
market and to do heavy hauling in the towns 
and cities. This lack of roads is due in part 
to the expense of constructing them, in part to 
the general disposition of South Americans to 
allow foreign enterprise to develop their re- 
sources. There is, however, a very widespread 
interest in the subject of good roads, and 
several governments have included substantial 
sums in their budgets to be devoted to build- 
ing them. It is likely that the continent is on 
the eve of an era of extensive highway con- 
struction, one of the things now most needed 
to open up the resources of the various po- 
tentially wealthy countries. The coming of 
the automobile is to be credited with much of 
the interest now being displayed in good 
roads. 

Of the beasts of burden used to transport 
freight into the mountainous districts of the 
Andean highlands the llama is most distinct- 
ive but the mule is most useful. The llama is 
not a strong animal and can carry only about 
100 pounds. It is very tractable and finds its 
own forage by the wayside. It knows its load, 
however, and will usually refuse to go on if a 
few pounds extra weight are added to its 
burden. The mule carries as much as 250 
pounds at a load, but as the pack is arranged 
so as to distribute the load evenly on each side 
it adds greatly to the convenience of the im- 
porter to have the goods in cases of 120 or 125 
pounds each. Packages should not be over 
three feet long, or 14 inches in other dimen- 
sions. Indians carry heavy loads on _ their 


backs and go long distances with little to eat. 
although a pouch of cocoa leaves on which to 
chew is considered practically a necessity. 

Conditions in Central America are prac- 
tically the same as in South America so far 
as interior transportation goes, although in 
one case at least an excellent automobile road 
has been built. This is the highway called 
“Carretera del Sur,” 90 miles long, leading 
from the Pacific coast of Honduras to Teguci- 
galpa. There is much interest in road building 
in Honduras, but comparatively little con- 
struction of a permanent character has been 
effected. In Mexico road building and rail- 
road construction have made much more ad- 
vance, but mule trains are used throughout 
the country, particularly for carrying supplies 
into mining camps and bringing out ore. 

; Orto WILSON, 


Chief of Latin-American Division, Bureau of 
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washing- 
ton, D. C 


vie INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 
AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF 
LATIN AMERICA. Latin America is the 
most promising of the undeveloped sections of 
tHe world. The North Temperate Zone has 
been peopled and developed. Europe with 
3,875,000 square miles has 465,000,000 people, 
or 120 per square mile. Asia with 17,000,000 
square miles has 870,000,000 people, or 50 per 
square miles. North America with 8,600,000 
square miles has 140,000,000, or 16 per square 
mile. Africa with 11,600,000 square miles has 
150,000,000, or 12 persons per square mile; 
South America with 7,600,000 square miles of 
area has but 56,000,000 people, or 7 persons 
per square mile. Add to South America, 
Mexico, Central America, Cuba and the island 
of Haiti, and we find that Latin America has 
8,660,000 square miles, 82,000,000 people and 8 
persons per square mile. North America has 
315,000 miles of railway, Europe 227,000, Asia 
62,000, South America but 49,000, and Latin 
America as a whole, 70,000. Europe has a 
commerce of $25,000,000,000 per annum ‘in nor- 
mal years; North America, $6,250,000,000; Asia, 
$4,200,000,000, South America $2,250,000,000 in 
her best year, 1913, and all Latin America 
$2,900,000,000 

The three great requirements of man are 
food, clothing and manufactures. The North 
Temperate Zone has been pretty well de- 
veloped as to its producing powers and is look- 
ing to the South Temperate Zone and_ Tropical 
America for food and manufacturing materials. 
The food demands of the Temperate Zone peo- 
ple are chiefly bread and meat, and the Tropics 
at present do not produce enough of these for 
their own use. And there are only three places 
in the South Temperate Zone to which to look 
for products of this character, namely, South 
America, Australia and New Zealand. All of 
Argentina, all of Uruguay, two-thirds of Chile 
and the southern parts of Brazil and Paraguay 
are temperate. They grow wheat, corn and 
maintain enormous herds of cattle and sheep, 
and Argentina is now beginning to develop the 
swine industry. In addition to this the great 
elevated region of the interior of Peru, Bolivia, 
Ecuador and Colombia is capable of producing 
Temperate Zone products, the extreme eleva- 


42 LATIN AMERICA —INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, ETC. (7) 


tion giving it a temperate climate even under 
the Equator. Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and 
Mexico together produce about 225,000,000 
bushels of wheat a year, while Australia and 
New Zealand, the other South Temperate Zone 
wheat: producers, seldom turn out more than 
100,000,000 bushels a year. Of corn, Argen- 
tina is next to the United States in rank in the 
quantity of corn produced, and actually exports 
more corn than we do, and Mexico 75,000,000 
bushels, while Australia and New Zealand pro- 
duce but very small quantities. Of meats 
Argentina alone exceeds Australia and New 
Zealand in combination, her supply of cattle 
being about 30,000,000 against 13,000,000 in 
Australia and New Zealand. Mexico and Cen- 
tral America have normally about 10,000,000. 
Of sheep Argentina has 83,000,000, Australia 
82,000,000 and New Zealand 25,000,000, though 
the number of sheep slaughtered for food is 
small, most of them being retained for wool 
production. Of swine Argentina has about 
3,000,000 while Australia and New Zealand have 
about 1,000,000. Brazil has as many cattle as 
Argentina, 30,000,000; Uruguay 10,000,000, other 
countries of South America about 20,000,000, 
and Mexico and Central America 10,000,000, 
making for all Latin America about 80,000,000 
against 20,000,000 in Australia, New Zealand 
and South Africa. The total number of cattle 
in all the world is but about 500,000,000. About 
125,000,000 of these are in India which does 
not utilize them for food, so that Latin America 
has now over one-fourth of the world’s supply 
of cattle usable for food. And when we re- 
member that Latin America has at the present 
time but an average of 8 persons per square 
mile against 20 persons per square mile in the 
United States and 120 per square mile in 
Europe, it will be seen that her possibilities of 
a large increase in the future are very great, 
both in the matter of meat supply for the out- 
side world and that of grain, for Argentina in 
1913 held fourth rank as an exporter of wheat, 
and was also the world’s largest exporter of 
corn. Of sugar Cuba is the world’s largest 
producer, her exports in 1918 in sugar alone 
amounting to about $246,000,000. 

In one other important article of food sup- 
ply South America outranks all other parts of 
the world combined. This article is coffee. 
Brazil alone produces not merely more. coffee 
than any other country, but actually more than 
all the rest of the world put together. In fact 
Brazil’s output of coffee amounts ‘to about 
three-fourths of the world’s supply, while sev- 
eral other of the Latin-American countries pro- 
duce considerable quantities of this important 
world crop. The total world output of coffee 
averages about 2,500,000,000 pounds per annum, 
and of this Brazil produces three-fourths and 
Latin America as a whole produces four-fifths. 
And when we remember that the coffee crop 
of the world amounts to about $350,000,000 per 
annum in value in the countries of production 
we begin to realize the value of Latin America’s 
production of this article of commerce. The 
cacao crop of the world amounts in value to 
about $100,000,000 per annum, and _ Latin 
America produces about one-half of this, di- 
vided between Ecuador, Brazil and the West 
Indian Islands, the Ecuador crop amounting to 
about 100,000,000 pounds a year, and that of 


Brazil about 75,000,000. Of flaxseed, or lin- 
seed, as it is usually termed in commerce, 
Argentina produces about one-third of the 
world’s supply, the total world crop usually 
amounting to about 130,000,000 bushels, while 
Argentina alone produced 44,000,000. bushels in 
1913, though the crop of 1916 was very small 
owing to the extreme droughts which adversely 
affected many of the agricultural products of 
that country. 

Wool, hides, rubber, tin and copper are 
Latin America’s chief contribution to the manu- 
facturing requirements of the world at the 
present time, and the output of copper on the 
western coast of continental Latin America has 
greatly increased in very recent years. The 
relative rank of the Argentine and Uruguay 
in the world’s supply of wool and hides is in- 
dicated by the figures above quoted of shee 
and cattle in the same countries compared with 
those of other parts of the world, as above 
presented. In copper production Chile holds 
second rank as a world producer, and rapidly 
increasing its output through the great mines 
owned by American capital, though her out- 
put is small as compared with the United 
States, which still supplies over one-half of the 
copper of the world. Chile has also the world’s 
chief supply of nitrate. Mexico and Peru are 
considerable producers of gold and silver. 

Bolivia supplies about one-fifth of the 
world’s tin, and has very large supplies yet 
undeveloped. In India rubber, Brazil formerly 
held first rank in world production prior to the 
recent wonderful development in the production 
of plantation rubber, but her output of forest 
rubber is declining by reason of the enormous 
supplies of plantation rubber now entering the 
world markets. Of cotton considerable quan- 
tities are grown in Brazil, Peru, Chile, Mexico, 
Colombia and the northern part of Argentina. 
Tobacco is grown in great quantities, that of 
Cuba alone amounting to about $25,000,000 a 
year. 

Latin America has a more promising future 
than any of the other great undeveloped areas 
of the world. It is, as already shown, a large 
producer of many classes of foodstuffs and 
manufacturing material for which the world is 
clamoring, its fertile area is larger in propor- 
tion to its entire extent than that of any other 
of the undeveloped continents, and the present 
population per square mile is smaller than that 
of any other of the continents except Aus- 
tralia which has a much larger percentage of 
desert than has Latin America. The greatest 
lack in natural supplies is in. coal, of which 
she has but small quantities, found chiefly in 
Chile, but the recent developments in fuel oil 
production in Mexico and the mountain re- 
gions of the west coast of South America, 
coupled with the increasing use of the splendid 
water powers for the production of electricity, 
promise to minimize the disadvantage due to 
this lack of fuel supplies. 

Latin America’s greatest requirement at the 
present time is capital for transportation facili- 
ties and for the development of the great agri- 
cultural and mineral resources which will be- 
come available with facilities to transport the 
natural products to the navigable streams of 
which South America has the world’s greatest 
supply and thence to the ocean where steam- 


LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) 43 


ships. are available to transport them to the 
Waiting markets of the world. The lessons of 
the war have shown that the horseless vehicle 
and flying machine can now be successfully used 
over areas in which no modern roads exist, and 
the development of the motor for farm pur- 
poses has shown how agriculture can now be 
conducted in the tropics without the aid of the 
horse. These things point to a great develop- 
ment in the producing power of Latin America 
in the near future. 
O. P. AusTIN, 


‘Statistician of the National City Bank of New 
York and Secretary of the National Geo- 
graphic Soctety. 


8. MINERAL INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. The known mineral riches of 
Latin America exceed those of any other part 
of the globe so far explored. The entire sup- 
ply of the world’s bismuth comes from Bolivia; 
by far the largest supply of thorium is fur- 
nished by the monazite sands of Brazil; the 
unparalleled nitrate deposits of Chile supply 
practically all of the world’s consumption of 
nitric acid, and quite all of its consumption of 
iodine; ‘Colombia is the only considerable 
source of platinum outside of Russia; the tin 
production of Bolivia stands second on the 
world’s tally sheets; Colombia supplies the 
world’s demand for fine ‘emeralds; Brazil is 
second only to South Africa in the production 
of diamonds, and for many years was first; 
.the asphalt lakes of Trinidad and Bermudez 
supply the world. 

In striking contrast to the prodigious wealth 
awaiting development in Latin America is the 
notably disproportionate enterprise with which 
it has been attacked. The most serious hin- 
drance is the lack of transportation, and, com- 
parable with this, the scarcity of water and 
dearth of fuel. The preliminaries of new un- 
dertakings in the mineral country require the 
investment of very substantial sums, and ex- 
plains why the active mines in the whole region 
are those which have been in operation for 
centuries, and why the vast mineral treasure of 
the less accessible places is left to the exploita- 
tion of the individual native miner. 

The mineral belt of Latin America is cen- 
tred upon the great continental backbone which 
in the United States and Canada bears the 
general name of “The Rockies.» In Mexico it 
is a broad zone traversing the entire country 
from northwest to southeast. Through Cen- 
tral America it is lower in altitude and with 
apparently fewer treasure spots. In South 
America it appears again as the Andes, follow- 
ing along the entire western coast. Other 
smaller areas add their tribute, notably the 
coastal uplift of southeastern Brazil, known 
as the great Brazilian plateau. Glaciers and 
other erosive agencies have scattered far and 
wide their grindings from the mother lodes, so 
that the territory available for profitable ex- 
ploration and development is, broadly speaking, 
boundless; and somewhere within the region 
may be found every mineral having commercial 
value. 

The disturbed conditions in Mexico and the 
influences of the European War upon the min- 
eral output of South America from 1914 to 
1918 make it impossible to present an accurate 


survey of Latin America’s potential production 
of any of the metals. The most that can be 
done is to show what the actual production 
was under these great disadvantages. 

Gold.—In Mexico and Central America 
almost all the mining of gold is from the lode. 
In South America much the greater output is 
from the placers which for centuries have been 
accumulating fragments from lodes of un- 
rivaled richness high up on the slopes of the 
Andes, and as-yet undiscovered. The stores 
of gold and golden objects carried away from 
the Inca and Aztec chiefs by Pizarro and 
Cortes were doubtless the accumulations of 
many years, and in all probability were the prod- 
uct of the placers. Under the viceroys a very 
large amount of gold and silver was obtained 
under a system of forced labor at no expense 
to the taskmasters. In Bolivia alone the great 
placer deposits have been worked since the 
middle of-the 16th century and are estimated 
to have produced $2,500,000,000. About the 
middle of the 18th century the leading gold 
producing country of the world was the south- 
eastern highland of Brazil in the present state 
of Minas Geraes. The workings were mainly 
placer, but there were some lode mines. Some 
of the more remarkable yields of mining under 
modern methods are: Butters (Salvador), 
$4,138,050, on a capitalization $729,000; Dos 
Estrellas (Mexico), $10,335,000, on a capitaliza- 
tion of $150,000; Mexico Mines of El Oro, 
$4,458,745, on a capitalization of $875,000; 
Penoles (Mexico), $6,361,687, on a capitaliza- 
tion of $180,000; San Rafael (Mexico), $1,442,- 
380, on a capitalization of $60,000; Sorpresa, 
$3,979,240, on a capitalization of $384,000. 

Figures which give a fair comparison of the 
relative annual gold production of the countries 
of Latin America follow: 


AT RENTING Te 2 Aik teens Oe eRe oo aa $107 , 300 
Bolavial ai tte: higeaest Shsewick? & uae eee ee 175,000 
Shea iA eee aot PR eR ane Ba y's 3,570,000 
British? Guiana’. Since 2 ee). ee: 879 ,000 
Ghileé..°s seit as ected © eset. 8 ae Se 731,000 
Goloibiare wares vite youd aro hoes diciked > anes enero ts 2,971,700 
COSEAPINICA helices tatee ice Choe cis, cra os eas 1,021,629 
Cuba Ako BELA he A Bag 2 28 ,000 
PatehyGuiahaties [eth Pen Ses) 2. eee 571,100 
CHA CGESY ta One ee ee Pe kaa 406,500 
Haneh Gta yest tte tebe ee ee teas ee 3,050,000 
TLonaduraste tee tee - bee aae Oo rk cls een aes 1,000,000 
Mesitot Vii eo teri ieee est Shoe 2 Tepe 20,500,000 
Nicaragua... aitht.; Se See Rene Ee LIER aN 1,100,000 

CEU eres ey itebiaricct ce cbeeettstohs, ceenEEs he chain o oee nies 492 ,000 
DAlVAGOr AS. A Alas lett tee noe aicl a Gree ol ated 1,245,000 
Urupua year} bcc aetna. 3c MOR Oe tee les 111,000 
VeEnOZUGl al auton ETh base Wc tedicciecs At aPohecyatihn' 623,500 


Upon the breaking out of the European 
War in 1914, the demand for metals other than 
silver and gold lessened considerably, so that 
large numbers of men found their way to the 
fields yielding the precious metals. The effect 
was most marked in the yields of Colombia and 
British Guiana, the tormer increasing to 
$4,678,000 (nearly 60 per cent), and the latter 
increasing to $1,126,515 (28 per cent). 

As to the immediate outlook it may be said 
there are enormous gold-bearing deposits on 
the summits and slopes of the Peruvian and 
Bolivian Andes, and this section is probably 
richer than the most productive area now being 
worked anywhere in the Western Hemisphere. 
Glacial moraines miles in extent show gold in 
paying quantities, and great alluvial “pampas” 
are equally rich. In addition, gold may be 


ie LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) 


picked out of every stream flowing down to 
the lowlands. In the Nechi and Condoto rivers 
in Colombia dredges are at work, the yield 
ranging from 20 to 50 cents a cubic yard, 
though not yet in the richest section. Drills 
show that an average of 70 cents per yard pre- 
vails throughout a mass of 7,000,000 yards. In 
1915 gold to the value of $1, 720,000 was taken 
by two dredges from the Nechi River. The 
mines of Chiquiaguillo are noted for the un- 
usual size of the nuggets secured, the largest 
weighting 52% ounces, of which 47 ounces 
were solid gold. In the form. of lodes gold is 
found both on the eastern and western slopes 
of the Andes, the veins often crossing the 
water courses, and showing an outcrop hun- 
dreds to thousands of feet above the base 
of the ravines. ' They are traceable for 
miles, from three to eight feet in width and 
showing from one to five ounces of gold per 
ton. The whole country, and this is true also 
of Mexico and Honduras, is dotted with signs 
of ancient workings. In Honduras many of 
these diggings are being worked to-day with 
the most primitive appliances and yielding sur- 
prising returns. In the Brazilian plateau the 
ore is showing richer quality as the mines are 
sunk deeper. The Saint John del Rey mine is 
now the deepest in the world having reached 
the depth of nearly 5,000. feet. This mine and 
the Ouro Preto combined have a steady output 
of about $233,000 a month. Formerly the gold 
output was mostly placer, and abandoned 
placer mines are very numerous in Minas 
Geraes. In French Guiana and Dutch Guiana 
some of the placer territory has apparently run 
out, though it is still considered profitable for 
dredges. With all its potential richness, how- 
ever, the whole of Latin America is at present 
yielding only about one-fifth as much gold as is 
South Africa. 

Silver.— Large as has been the total of 
gold produced by Latin America, the amount 
of silver has been many times larger. The 
records do not go back of about 1545, when 
Europeans found many silver mines yielding 
enormous quantities, and millions of dollars in 
silver ornaments, images and objects of. art. 
At the beginning of the 19th century the yearly 
silver output of Mexico was about $27,000,000; 
it is now about $45,000,000. The state of 
Zacatecas alone has produced nearly or quite 
$1,000,000,000 in silver. The most famous sil- 
ver mine in South America is at Potosi, Bolivia, 
discovered in 1545. Fully $3,000,000,000 has 
been taken from this “silver mountain,” and its 
yearly output is about $2,450,000. Another noted 
mine is, or was, that at Cerro de Pasco, now 
equally famous for its enormous copper pro- 
duction, the silver it now yields being what is 
found in with the copper. Another mine of 
fabulous richness is that at Valenciana, Mexico, 
which from 1760 to 1810 produced over $300,- 
000,000. In Colombia several discoveries have 
been made of ore carrying from 500 to 750 
ounces of silver to the ton. In Chile and 
Argentina silver has been found on both 
sides of the great eruptive masses of the 
mountain country, but as yet is little worked. 
The silver output of those countries is 
largely that recovered from argentiferous 
copper ores. 

The latest authoritative figures for the silver 


‘famous mines of Cornwall. 


production of Latin America are those for 
1914, as follows: 


AT ROTM ss oa. os vob nage heen oe $19,500 

Oliviay Wilree a US. 30, Aa Gi ee ee , 200,000 
Chile. 3534:5. 52s cata $428 biog cae ee eee 39,600 
Calonti bia « os cooviscs + tie eee 194,300 
Eictiadors tet ks. Oe ee 5 Se 12,500 

erro. Teo, Ai os Rous eee 4,618, 400 
Mexido, fs ab Gerablitud. hone ee 39,099, 200 
Central Americas: 1s « dty.<t. otieagtee ee Seen 1,330,600 


The total of $47,520,000 is about 41 per cent 
of the entire silver output of the world ($116,- 
719,000) for that year. With the increase of 
copper mining in Peru, the silver output of that 
country has risen to about $6,000,000 annually; 
a part of this, however, comes from the argen- 
tiferous lead of the mine at Ancachs. 

Copper.—For many years Mexico and Chile 
have been among the leading contributors to 
the world’s supply of copper, Chile, indeed, 
having been at one period the largest copper 
producer in the world. Recently Peru has taken 
third place in Latin America’s copper produc- 
tion, the mines at Cerro de Pasco, long famous 
for their great output of silver, now being 
claimed to include one of the largest known 
deposits of copper ore. From Venezuela mines 
$15,000,000 worth of copper have been taken in 
15 years. In Bolivia also copper mining has — 
developed in many localities, usually in con- 
nection with silver mines of long standing. In 
Brazil some large copper smelters are in con- 
tinuous operation, and the increased price due 
to the European war has occasioned the pump-_ 
ing out of the old Cobre copper mine near 
Santiago, Cuba, which has stood full of water 
for a century or more. In Guatemala and 
Costa Rica many copper deposits are found, 
but few. are worked, and these but. feebly. 
Mexico’s copper output, which in normal times 
is about. 175,000,000 pounds annually, in 1915 
had dwindled to 68,255,676 pounds. In Chile, 
however, the greatest development has taken 
place. Fully 2,000. copper mines are in more or 
less active operation, many of them by indi- 
vidual native miners in localities far removed 
from transportation facilities, only the richest 
findings reaching civilization in bags on the 
backs of mules or llamas. Recent explorations 
in the region of Chuquicamata have revealed 
the largest known body of copper ore in the 
world, estimated to contain at least 700,000,000 
tons of ore averaging 38 pounds of copper to 
the ton. And these figures are completely over- 
shadowed by those of Peru, where the Cerro 


-de. Pasco mines are yielding 140 pounds to the 


ton, besides 11 ounces of silver and nearly one- 
tenth of an ounce of gold. For 1916 the ex- 
ports of copper from Chile amounted to 146,- 
605,900 pounds, and from Peru 91, 766,475 
pounds. Under the stimulus of the war de- 
mand and the war prices, vigorous exploration 
is in progress throughout the whole of western 
South America, and a very large increase in 
output may be expected within the next two 
or three years. 

Tin, Platinum and Bismuth.—In the 
world’s production of tin Bolivia holds second 
place, following the Malay states; the output 
for 1915 being 21,794 tons — about ‘half that of 
Malaya, and over four times that of the long 
In several in- 
stances former silver mines are now yielding 
tin ores, the silver having disappeared. Many 


LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) 45 


rich lodes of tin ores have been located at 
high elevations in the Bolivian Andes, at places 
remote from transportation lines, and the claim 
is confidently made that this region holds the 
largest and most valuable tin deposits in the 
world. Formerly a large proportion of the tin 
output of Bolivia was won from placers, and 
while these are by no means exhausted, lode 
mining has been found more profitable. The 
tin exports of Bolivia now exceed a value of 
$15,000,000 annually. Within the past three or 
four years tin mining has been developed in 
Catamarca province, Argentina, and small ship- 
ments are reaching the market from that local- 
ity. As a matter of fact, tin is found in nearly 
all parts of Latin America where silver occurs, 
but the individual outputs are small and do not 
appear in the records. 

Next to Russia, Colombia is the most im- 
portant source of platinum in the world. Its 
output in 1915 was about 19,000 ounces, and, as 
the Russian production had diminished one- 
half on account of the war, the Colombia pro- 
duction amounted to one-seventh of the world’s 
output. From a value of $44 per ounce in 
1914 platinum has risen to $100 per ounce in 
1917, stimulating the mining of this metal to 
the fullest extent. The workings are generally 
in gold-bearing gravels, and some of these de- 
posits have been found in Ecuador and are be- 
ing developed. Platinum in small quantities has 
also been found in the gold placers of Brazil. 
The crude platinum mineral, as it comes from 
Colombia, has a very large admixture of either 
iridium or osmiridium, amounting sometimes 
to 30 or even 50 per cent, 

Very nearly the whole of the world’s supply 
of bismuth comes from the Bolivian mines at 
Tasna and the Chorolque mountain. At the 
former locality the deposits constitute the larg- 
est known occurrence of bismuth ores. The 
metal is associated with tin and silver and is 
nearly all sulphide. At Huayni-Potosi a con- 
siderable part of the large yield is native metal. 
Another locality which has been worked suc- 
cessfully, though in a small way, for bismuth 
is that of San Gregorio, Peru, and it is known 
that bismuth is plentiful in other Peruvian 
territory. For 1915 the Bolivian product was 
568 tons, valued at about $1,071,000; the Peru- 
vian output was about 25 tons. 

Coal and Petroleum.— The retardation 
which the mineral industries of Latin America 
suffer through lack of cheap fuel has already 
been noticed. The condition is not due to the 
barrenness of the territory in this primal 
necessity, but to indifferent development of a 
natural supply actually abundant. All through 
the Andes region coal exists in large quanti- 
ties, and in many localities wide seams are ex- 
posed to view for long distances along the 
slopes and in the sides of ravines, millions 
upon millions of tons being in sight. Some of 
these coal veins come down almost to. tide 
water —as at Paracas and near Trujillo, Peru. 
Good coal is found also along the coast of 
Ecuador, but it is as yet undeveloped. It is 
dificult to understand this situation in the face 
of the fact that in Bolivia coal imported from 
England brings $40 per ton, and delivered at 
the Potosi mines, $70 per ton. Although Peru 
has almost unlimited deposits of both anthra- 
cite and bituminous coal, as well as lignite, the 
only considerable mining done in that country 


is by the industrial companies which consume 
it. About 700 tons a day is thus mined, most 
of it being turned into coke. In Chile; new 
deposits have been discovered recently in the 
Aconcagua region near Rio Blanco. In South- 
ern Chile, coal is mined extensively at Lota and 
Coronel, at the former place the mines running 
out under the sea for more than half a mile. 
The yearly output of the three principal mines 
aggregates more than a million tons. As fuel, 
the ‘Chilean coal is not of the highest grade, 
having about 80 per cent of the heating value 
of.the imported British coal. The Lota mines 
have been worked since 1852. In Colombia, coal 
is found in many widely separated localities; 
good bituminous coking coal in the interior, and 
lignite. beds near the coast. No attempt at 
commercial development has been made. There 
is more or less coal of fair quality in Vene- 
zuela, worked only for local purposes. In 
Mexico, coal is very plentiful, and the deposits 
in some cases are of great extent. At one lo- 
cality in Coahuila a visible supply of 300,000, 000 
tons has been found. Perhaps the most seri- 
ous result of the delay in coal development is 
that under this condition no great iron indus- 
try can be brought into being, and without ‘this, 
the whole country must be at a disadvantage 
as compared with other sections. The coal 
production averages annually about 1,350,000 
tons for Chile, 980,000 tons for Mexico, 300,000 
tons for Peru and 16,500 tons for Brazil. 

The petroleum beds of Mexico and Peru are 
important sources of fuel oil, the Mexican 
fields occupying fourth place in the records of 
the world output. The Mexican field at Tam- 


Pico contains one of the most productive wells 


ever opened, yielding 105,000 barrels per day. 
The total capacity of the wells now producing 
in Mexico is ‘not far from 600,000 barrels per 
day. The 1915 output is given authoritatively 
at 35,000,000 barrels. The only considerable 
active oil production in South America is in 
the Lobitos fields of Peru; their yearly output 
is about 3,500,000 barrels. In Bolivia, however, 


there is an immense oil belt 150 miles long and 


this continues over the national boundary into 
Argentina to Comodoro Rivadavia where the 
Government is pushing development. In Co- 
lombia, petroleum has been found in the upper 
Magdalena district, and at Santander an oil 

area 100 miles in length and 60 miles in width 

has been located. It contains many sponta- 

neous oil springs. Another large field has been 

located in Venezuela near the city of Mara- 

caibo, and in the River Limon district in sev- 

eral places near the asphalt lake oil oozes from 

the ground. There is also a small refinery in 

active operation at Santa Elena in Ecuador. 

On the island of Trinidad the development has 

reached an output of 700,000 barrels annually. 

The Guatemala oil fields are controlled rigidly 
by the Government, and the output is small ar: 
present. With exceptional prospects for a 
great oil industry all Latin America, with the 
single exception of Mexico, cannot be said to 
have seen even the first stages of its possible 
development. 

Other Metals and Minerals.— Foremost 
among the lesser mineral products of Latin 
America stands nitrate of soda, or “Chile 
nitrate». The only locality in the world where 
this invaluable salt is found. in. considerable 
quantity. is the ‘Atacama. desert in -northern 


46 LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) 


Chile, an interior dry valley between the Coast 
ranges and the Andes. Associated with the 
nitrate (29 per cent) is sodium chloride (43 
per cent); sodium sulphate (5 per cent), and 
calcium sulphate (4 per cent). A small pro- 
portion (1/10 of 1 per cent) of sodium iodate 
supplies the world with iodine—about 450 
tons, valued at about $2,000,000 annually. 
These nitrate deposits supply not only the larg- 
est part of the world’s nitric acid for indus- 
trial purposes, but also the bulk of the nitro- 
genous fertilizers for the world’s agriculture. 
With the outbreak of the European war a great 
demand sprang up for Chile nitrate as a source 
of the ingredients of explosives, and previous 
exports were trebled to meet this demand. In 
1916 the output of the nitrate fields was about 
3,000,000 tons. 

Iron, which has been well called the foun- 
dation of all modern civilization, exists in 
enormous quantities and of unrivaled quality 
throughout all Latin America, awaiting devel- 
opment. In the Brazilian plateau are billions 
of tons of ore carrying up to 50 per cent of the 
metal, but coal and transportation are lacking 
for .its successful utilization. Great iron de- 
posits are found also in Chile, and some ore 
is exported. At Tofo the explorers’ drills 
have blocked out a mass of Bessemer-grade 
ore calculated to contain 100,000,000 tons. 
Here, too, a lack of coking coal is holding 
back development. In the province of Atacama 
deposits of iron ore aggregating 500,000,000 
tons contain gold in the proportion of one 
ounce up to 16 ounces per ton. In Venezuela 
a start has been made, and a million tons of 67 
per cent ore are being shipped annually. In 
the southeastern part of Cuba has been located 
an immense body of iron ore estimated at 300,- 
000,000 tons, carrying 1 per cent of nickel. In 
1915 Cuba shipped 830,000 tons of iron ore, and 
200,000 tons of manganiferous iron ore. Other 
important deposits have been found in northern 
Wa Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia and 

eru. 

After the outbreak of the European War 
and the consequent advance in the price of 
antimony from 6 cents to 40 cents a pound, 
many antimony mines throughout Latin Amer- 
ica, unprofitable at the old prices, went into 
active operation. The effects were most 
marked in the increase of Bolivia’s exports of 
ore (50 per cent) from 205 tons in 1914 to 
19,786 tons in 1915. The antimony ores are 
found in the same localities as the tin ores, but 
in different veins. Mexico also has rich anti- 
mony deposits, and in normal times exported 
upwards of 4,500 tons of metallic antimony 
annually. Since 1911 the production has been 
greatly reduced. 

About half the world’s supply of borax is 
‘ produced by Chile. The western range of the 
Andes, known, as the Cordillera Occidental, 
traverses Peru, Bolivia, Chile and extends into 
Argentina. Many of the peaks of this range 
were volcanoes, and at their bases, at eleva- 
tions of 12,000 feet above the sea, are a suc- 
cession of lakes whose waters are saturated 
with borax, which thickly encrusts their shores 
and forms a thick pellicle on the surface. 
Lake Ascotan in Chile is capable alone of sup- 
plying the whole- world’s demand for borax 
for many -years to come, --Boliyia. and ‘Peru 


1895-1900). 


have similar lakes, and in Peru are dry beds 
of lakes which formerly existed there, now a 
mass of borax and other salts. 

Four-fifths of the world’s supply of vana- 
dium is produced by a single mine in Peru, 
which yields about 3,000 tons annually. The 
mine has much greater possibilities if there 
were a larger market for its product. 

About one-tenth of the total production of 
tungsten is supplied by Latin America; Mexico, 
Bolivia, Argentina and Brazil joining to make 
up their yearly output of 1,200 tons of 60 per 
cent ore. 

In precious stones, Colombia leads the 
world with the finest of emeralds of such per- 
fection that they are valued at three times the 
price of perfect diamonds of equal weight. 
The mines at Muzo hold the record of having 
produced the largest emerald known, a stone 
weighing within two pennyweights of nine 
ounces. The diamond mines of Brazil have 
yielded some of the most famous of the world’s 
jewels, notably the “Estrella do Sul” (Star of 
the South), which weighed after cutting 125 
carats, and was sold to the Rajah of Baroda | 
for a figure said to have been close to $15,- 
000,000. Brazil holds the record for, black dia- 
monds with a stone weighing 3,150 carats. The 
diamond fields of Brazil promise profitable 
returns for years to come, and recent prospect- 
ing has revealed new possibilities in a ledge of 
diamonds in the matrix. Brazil is also rich in 
aquamarines, topazes and amethysts. A large 
pearl fishery is in operation in the waters about 
Margarita Island, employing 1,000 boats and 
upwards of 3,000 persons. 

The largest known supply of thorium exists 
in the monazite sands of the Brazilian coast, 
and to this must be added a recently discovered 
bed of gravel in the interior, estimated to con- 
tain not less than 60,000 tons of this scarce and 
valuable metal. 

The great sulphur mine at Tinguirirca, 
Chile, holds another world’s record as the rich- 
est sulphur mine known, much of its output 
being pure native sulphur. For years the Mex- 
ican mines at Aguascalientes and Ollague have 
been producing important quantities of sulphur. 

The very important asphalt lakes of Trini- 
dad and Bermudez, each covering an area of 
more than 1,000 acres, and together yielding a 
very large proportion ‘of the world’s total pro- 
duction of asphalt, is only one more testimony 
to the marvelous richness in mineral wealth 
possessed by Latin America. The manganese 
and zircon of Brazil, the lead and graphite of 
Mexico, the zinc of Guatemala, the molybde- 
num and mercury of Peru, the talc of Uruguay, 
may only be mentioned as of those for which 
space lacks for detailed discussion. Enough 
has been told to show that the story of the 
mineral wealth of Latin America has scarcely 
begun to unfold, and with so much already 
known, a mighty development must be looked 
for in the nearer future. Consult Ugarte, M., 
‘Fl Porvenir de la América Latina? (Valencia 
1911); Pan-American Union, ‘General De- 
scriptive Data? in 20 separate pamphlets, one 
devoted to each of the Latin-American repub- 
lics (Washington 1915-17); ‘Boletin del Insti- 
tuto Geolégico de Mexico? (Nos. 1-14, Mexico 

RICHARD Ferris, 
| Edsttorial Staff of The Americana, 


LATIN AMERICA — COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 47 


9. COTTON INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. Cotton production in the Latin- 
American republics has reached important pro- 
portions, the average crop now being 385,000,- 
000 pounds in those countries. Brazil leads 
with an annual crop of. 207,000,000 pounds. 
The Mexican crop averages 100,000,000 pounds, 
the Peruvian 62,000,000 pounds, and that of the 
West Indies 6,500,000 pounds. Venezuela, 
Haiti and Argentina produce 3,522,000, 3,122,000 
and 1,230,000 pounds, respectively. Among the 
smaller producers are Colombia with 790,000 
pounds, the Dominican Republic with 368,000 
pounds, Nicaragua 257,000 pounds, Ecuador 
250,000 pounds and Paraguay 51,000 pounds. 

Reliable information concerning the cotton 
industry in the southern countries is as fol- 
lows: 

Mexico.—Among the countries of Central 
and South America Mexico ranks second in the 
production of cotton. The staple is cultivated 
on a small scale in many sections of the repub- 
lic, but the principal cotton lands are found in 
the states of Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz on the 
Gulf ‘Coast; Oaxaca, Guerrero, Sinaloa, Sonora 
and Lower California on the Pacific Coast; and 
Durango, Coahuila and Chihuahua in the north 
central section. But at least 80 or 90 per cent 
of the crop is grown in the central states of 
Durango and Coahuila, in what is known as the 
Laguna section. The Laguna lands are said to 
be of even greater fertility than those of the 
famous Nile Valley. No fertilizers are needed 
as there is plenty of nitrogen in the soil, and 
the Nazas River which irrigates the lands 
brings down the required phosphates and pot- 
ash. The fertility of the soil is so great that 
one irrigation in August or September assures 
a large crop the next year. 

There are no reliable statistics relating to 
cotton production in Mexico, but the normal 
crop is estimated at about 200,000 bales of 500 
pounds. The unsettled condition of the coun- 
try, however, has so greatly interfered with 
cotton cultivation that in 1914-15 the output 
was only about 145,000 bales. Mexico exports 
very little raw cotton in ordinary times, but 
the closing of the mills in Torreon, Durango 
and other interior towns has forced the cotton 
planters in the past few years to send a con- 
siderable amount of their staple to the United 
States. Besides these exports from 20,000 to 
25,000 bales raised in the Imperial Valley are 
ginned in the United States from the seed 
cotton sent across the border. 

According to late official figures there are 
in Mexico 139 cotton mills, containing 762,149 
spindles and 27,019 looms. These mills in nor- 
mal times consume about 162,000 bales of cot- 
ton, and employ 34,500 operatives, and the out- 
put was approximately 17,605,000 pieces of 
cloth and 5,002,000 pounds of yarn, valued at 
$26,548,000 (gold). Most of the mills are fitted 
for only the coarser grades of goods which find 
their best customer in the peon. The govern- 
ment levies a direct tax of 5 per cent on all 
mill sales. Most of the mills are small, the 
average containing 5,225 spindles and 182 looms. 
There are only 13 mills with over 10,000 spin- 
dles, the largest single mill containing 44,184 
spindles and 1,675 looms. The largest group 
of mills are located in the states of Puebla and 
Vera Cruz, and in the Federal District, The 


most important of the mill towns are Puebla, 
Atlizco, Orizaba and Mexico City. 

Before the condition of the country became 
so unsettled the imports of cotton goods into 
Mexico showed a steady increase, the require- 
ments of the people growing proportionately 
faster than the capacity of the local mills for 
supplying them. In 1908 the total output of 
the mills was valued at $27,357,000, while the 
imports were valued at $8,846,000, so that Mex-. 
ico imported nearly one-fourth of its require- 
ments of cotton goods. The Mexican tariff on 
cotton goods is among the highest in the world, 
being exceeded by those of Peru, Russia and 
Brazil. On some classes of cloth the duty 
amounts to three times its value abroad, espe- 
cially on the coarser grades; the imports are, 
therefore, mostly of the finer grades of cloth, 
and such specialties as are not made in Mexico. 
In 1913 the imports of cotton goods from the 
United States increased to the value of $1,065,- 
000; in 1914, to $1,201,000; in 1915, to $2,261,- 
000; and in 1916, to $4,892,000, and in the eight 
years from 1908 to 1916, $4,072,000 or 368% 
pen cent: 

Guatemala. No cotton is produced in 
Guatemala, but (1917) it contains the only cot- 
ton mill in Central America. This mill is 
owned and operated by an American and is 
located near Quezaltenango. It operates 6,000 
spindles and 150 looms, and manufactures 
coarse colored cottons and unbleached sheet- 
ing, called “manta.” The cotton used in the 
mill is mainly American, but it also uses some 
Mexican and occasionally a little Peruvian. 

Guatemala is the largest importer of cotton 
goods in Central America, and cotton manu- 
factures make up the largest single import of 
the country, amounting to about 24 per cent of 
all imports and in some years to nearly a third. 
Of this trade previous to the European War 
England’s share was about 53 per cent, that of 
the United States 24 per cent, that of Germany 
18 per cent and all other countries the remain- 
ing 5 per cent. 

Of the total of $1,735,000 worth of cotton 
manufactures imported in 1913, the last normal 
year before the war, Great Britain supplied 
$778,000, the United States $504,000, Germany 
$337,000, and other countries $116,000. In 1914 
Great Britain supplied $597,000; the United 
States $311,000, Germany $286,000, and other 
countries $95,000, of the total of $1,289,000 
worth of cotton manufactures. The statistics 
of the United States Department of Commerce 
for 1917 showed exports of cotton goods to 
Guatemala valued at $471,635. The demand is 
mainly for goods that are staple articles in the 
United States. . 

Honduras.— Cotton is not cultivated in 
Honduras, though the cotton tree, which is 
indigenous throughout Central America, is 
found in all parts of the country. But the ex- 
treme height of the tree, reaching 20 to 30 feet, 
makes it impracticable to gather the fibre 
which is so very short that it is practically 
worthless for spinning. However, experiments 
have shown that both the soil and climate of 
Honduras are highly favorable to the success- 
ful cultivation of upland and sea-island varie- 
ties of cotton, There are no cotton mills in 
this republic, 

The United States almost monopolizes the 


48 LATIN AMERICA—: COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 


trade of Honduras, both imports and exports, 
and just prior to the European War supplied 
the country with about 65 per cent of its total 
imports of cotton goods. *The main imports 
in this class are prints, gray goods, colored and 
white goods. The United States has the bulk 
of the trade in gray goods and more than half 
of that in colored and dyed goods. England 
supplies most of the white goods, such as 
bleached muslins, fancy cottons, ginghams and 
drills. In 1908 our share in the cotton goods 
import trade was less than 66% per cent, in 
1911 it increased to about 72-.per cent and in 
1914 to nearly 80 per cent. In 1916 the total 
value of our trade in cotton goods amounted 
to $523,688. 

Nicaragua.— There is a limited area of 
Nicaragua that is suitable for growing cotton, 
and the cotton produced (from imported Mis- 
sissippi seed) is said to. compare favorably 
with American upland. The greater portion 
of the country, however, is too mountainous to 
raise cotton, and the area suitable for cotton, 
said to be not much greater than 50,000 acres, 
is confined mainly to the western coast in the 
province of Chinandega, north of the port of 
Corinto. In 1908 a crop of 192,026 pounds was 
produced, in 1912 it increased to 256,344 pounds, 
but in 1914 the yield was only 12,562 pounds. 

Cotton cloth (hand-made) is produced in 
Nicaragua only in small quantities, the amount 
imported practically representing all that is 
used. The cheaper qualities of “cotton cloth, 
such as gray and bleached sheetings, prints, 
ginghams and drills, make up the greater share 
of the textile imports. In 1908 the total value 
of imported cotton goods amounted to $909,000, 
and. in 1913 to $1,022,846. In the latter year 
England supplied 55 per cent of the cotton 
cloth imported; the United States, 29 per cent; 
France, 7 per cent; and Italy, Germany and 
Spain smaller amounts. In 1914 the imports of 
cotton goods dropped in value to $828,000, and 
in 1915 to less than $600,000. In the latter year 
there were no imports from Germany, and the 
decrease in the imports of cloth from England 
amounted approximately to 80 per cent. The 
value of our exports in 1915 was $259,528, and 
in 1916 $518651. In 1917 cotton exports 
from Nicaragua were valued at $18,859. 

Salvador.— No raw cotton is produced in 
Salvador, nor are there any establishments for 
the manufacture of cotton. The imports of 
cotton goods into Salvador are listed as cotton 
yarn and thread, and as cotton cloth and other 
manufactures of cotton, and while there are no 
details as to the kinds of goods imported, the 
manufactures of cotton form by far the largest 
importations, being from 33 to 35 per cent of 
the total. This trade is practically monopo- 
lized by Great Britain and the United States. 
These countries on an average furnish 60 and 
30 per cent; respectively, of the total and all 
other countries 10 per cent. In 1907 the total 
value of cotton goods imported amounted to 
$1,153,000, of which Great Britain supplied 
$653, 736, the United States $331,721, and_all 
other countries $167,673, and in 1914 to $1,- 
532,000, showing an increase of about 33 per 
cent. Of the 1914 total Great Britain supplied 
$847,724, the United States $462,491, Italy $105,- 
231; and other countries $117,017. In 1916 the 
imports from the United States increased in 
value to $735,144. 


Costa Rica.— Cotton is not cultivated in 
Costa Rica, and there are no establishments for 
its manufacture, and as there is practically no 
hand-manufacture in the country all cotton 
wares consumed are imported. Of the piece 
goods imported, the. United States monopolizes 
the trade in gray goods to almost as. great an 
extent as England does in the sale of white 
goods. The English also have the largest 
share of the colored goods trade, while the 
United States has the largest proportion in the 
sale of prints. In 1913 cotton goods to the 
value of $828,948 were imported, of which 
$355,042 worth came from Great Britain, $243,- 
802 from the United States, $124,699 from Ger- 
many and $105,405 from other countries. The 
cotton imports in 1915 totaled $466,699, and of 
this $129,848 came from Great Britain, $266,333 
from the United States and $70,518 from other 
countries. The imports of cotton goods from 
the United States in 1916 were valued at $623,- 
699, an increase over 1915 of about 135. per 
cent. 

Panama.— No cotton is produced or manu- 
factured in Panama, and there is no hand-loom 
work except possibly on a small scale among 
the southern Indian tribes. The share of the 
United States in the trade of Panama has 
steadily increased since the foundation of the 
republic until now it buys nearly all that Pan- 
ama has ‘to sell, and supplies about 73 per cent 
of her requirements from other countries. 
Notwithstanding the favorable position held by 
the United States in the general trade of the 
republic, for some time prior to 1914 England 
controlled more than half of the cotton goods 
trade, the share of the United States being 
about _one- -third, the remainder falling mainly 
to Germany. But a comparison of the imports 
in 1914 and 1915 shows that the United States 
gained at the expense of European countries, 
on account of the war then raging, in nearly 
all classes of goods imported, Spain being the 
only European country that increased its ex- 
ports in 1915. In 1915 the imports from the 
United States amounted in value to $913,391, 
and in 1916 there was an increase to $1,396,880, 
or 53 per cent. The main imports from the 
United States consist of bleached, unbleached 
and colored cloths, knit goods, clothing and 
other wearing apparel, other miscellaneous 
wares and a small quantity of yarn. 

Cuba.— Cuba’s imports of cotton goods 
in the order of value are cloth, knit goods, lace, 
ready-made clothing and thread. Of the cloths 
imported the largest takings are white goods, 
prints, colored goods and gray goods. Prior to 
the World War, Great Britain supplied more 
than half the cloths classed as close-woven, 
followed by Spain, the United States, France 
and Switzerland. Of loose-woven cloths Great 
Britain also supplied over half, followed by 
the United States, Spain and France. The 
bulk of the knit goods came from France, Ger- 
many and Spain, with only a small amount 
from the United States, laces from Great 
Britain, with smaller amounts from Germany, 
France and Spain. Of the wearing apparel im- 
ported the United States furnished nearly half, 
with lesser amounts from France, Austria and 
Germary. Cotton velvets were imported from 
Spain and Great Britain, tulle from the latter 
country and: France, piqué from Great Britain, 


LATIN AMERICA — COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 49 


and passementerie from Germany, the United 
States and France. 

Prior to 1900 the exports of cotton goods 
from the United States to Cuba were a very 
small proportion of that country’s require- 
ments, being a little less than 7 per cent of the 
total, ‘but beginning with the independence of 
the island the proportionate share of the 
United States increased materially, and in 1915 
reached 3714 per cent of the total. The cotton- 
goods trade of Cuba ever since 1900 has been 
undergoing a marked change. The value of 
cotton goods sent to Cuba from the United 
States increased from $4,325,000 in 1915 to 
¥7, 742,000 in 1916, being a gain of $3,417,000, 

r 79 per cent in a single year, mainly due to 
the war. 

Haiti— A very superior quality of cotton 
is grown in Haiti, but the crop is small and the 
quantity uncertain, owing to continuous revo- 
lutions and the unsettled condition of labor. 
In 1914 the exports of raw cotton amounted to 
3,121,839 pounds, and in 1917 to 8,381,786 
pounds, nearly all of which was shipped to 
Liverpool. There are no cotton manufactures, 
all the cotton wares used being imported. 
There are no statistics relating to the cotton 
goods imported from the various countries, but 
as the United States is now controlling about 
90 per cent of the import trade, 
assumed that most of the cotton goods used 
are obtained from this country. 

In spite of revolutions the cotton-goods 
trade with Haiti shows a gratifying increase in 
recent years, the total value of such goods ex- 
ported to that republic in 1916 being $2,275,749, 
compared with $770,452 in 1915; $1,706,208, in 
1914; and $742,978, in 1908. 

Dominican Republic.— The cotton-growing 
district of this republic is in the northern half 
of the island, principally the provinces of Monte 
Christi, Santiago and Puerto Plata, and some 
little planting i in the provinces of Espaillat and 
La Vega. The province of Pacificador also 
contains much good cotton land. The cotton 
grown is of the sea-island variety and com- 
mands a high price. The cultivation of cotton 
for export was begun in 1908, and for a time 
enjoyed considerable prosperity though the 
production was small. The largest yield was 
in 1912, but since then the crops have gradually 
lessened, and in 1914 only 368,439 pounds were 
exported, and 297,471 pounds in 1915. The 
cotton wares used in the republic are all im- 
ported, as there are no hand-looms or mills for 
making such goods. The total value of cotton 
goods imported in 1913 amounted to $1,880,211; 
in 1914, to $1,232,725; and in 1915, to $1, 869, 849. 
The values of the cotton goods imported from 
each country in 1915 were as follows: United 
States, $1,377,222; Great Britain, $390,192; 
Porto Rico, $62, 716: Germany, $19,875: Spain, 
$15,517; France, $4,327, It will thus be seen 
that the United States controls the bulk of the 
cotton trade, its share being nearly 74 per cent 
of the total, while that of Great Britain is 20 
per cent, the remaining 6 per cent being divided 
between Porto Rico, Germany, Spain and 
France. Cotton exports of 1917 were valued at 
$32,164. 

Virgin Islands, U. S.—In 1913 the island 
of Saint Croix produced 778,000 pounds of 
sea-island cotton, but the following year the 
crop was almost a failure, amounting to only 

voL.17— 4 


it may be’ 


62,000 pounds. The value of cotton textiles im- 


ported in 1914 amounted to $70,006, of which 


Great Britain contributed. $49,838, the United 
States, $13, 798 and Germany, $4, 614. The value 
of impofts in 1916, from this country amounted 
to only $39,398. 

Colombia.— A small amount. of cotton is 
grown in Colombia, which is confined to the 
departments of Bolivar, Atlantico and Magda- 
lena. Most of. the cultivated cotton fields lie 
along the banks of the Magdalena River, be- 
tween Barranquilla and Colomar. There is 
also a small amount of cotton gathered from 
the native wild cotton trees. The staple of the 
cultivated cotton is one and one-half to one 
and three-eighths inches, grown from Missis- 
sippi seed imported every second year. It re- 
sembles sea-island cotton, but the fibre, which 
is long and silky, is said to be too fine for use 
in the local mills. This has resulted in the 
exportation of the Colombian cotton, and the 
importation of American cotton for domestic 
manufacture. ‘In 1914 the Colombian cotton 
sold in the Liverpool market as high as 24 cents 
a pound. In 1907 the raw cotton exported 
amounted to 564,242 pounds, and in 1914 to 
789,390 pounds. In 1915, owing to the Euro- 
pean War, there were no exports, the small 
crop being consumed by local mills. 

According to government statistics (1915- 
16) there are in Colombia 21 establishments de- 
voted to the manufacture of “textiles and 
threads,» with a combined capital of $3,530,400. 
How many of these are engaged in cotton 
manufactures is not shown, but there are at 
least four cotton mills of importance, one each 
at Cartagena, Medellin, Samaca and Bogota. 
They operate some 20,000 spindles and 200 
looms, and make narrow gray sheeting, drills 
andthread. Besides these there are four under- 
shirt mills — one at Cartagena, another at Bar- 
ranquilla, and two at Medellin. There are also 
hosiery machines at Cartagena and Buga. 

Textiles form the largest single item of im- 
ports into Colombia,:and of these cotton goods 
are by far greater than all others. In 1908 the 
total value of cotton goods imported amounted 
to $6,616,602, the value of the goods received 
from each country and the percentage share 
of each being as follows: Great Britain, $3,929,- 
674, per cent 59.5; United States, $1,477,082, 
per cent 22; Germany, $425,540, per cent 6.5; 
France, $312,135, per cent 5; Spain, $135,084, 
per cent 2; all other countries, $337,087, per 
cent 5. In 1913 the value of cotton. goods re- 
ceived from the United States was almost the 
same as in 1908, amounting to $1,453,774, in 
1915 it dropped to $846,793, but in 1916 it was 
more than three times as much, reachine $2,- 
607,192.. Of course this great increase was the 
result of the disturbance of trade caused by 
the European War. Colored cloths are the 
chief item of imports, followed by bleached and 
unbleached cloths. 

Venezuela.— Cotton is grown to a limited 
extent in Venezuela, most of which is raised 
near Valencia and consumed by local mills. 
The staple is strong and silky. and about one 
and five-sixteenths inches in length. Besides 
the cotton of domestic growth consumed in the 


“mills, a small quantity was exported prior to 


the European War, the total in 1908 being 396.- _ 
885 pounds, which was mostly taken by France, 
some going to Germany, the Netherlands and 


50 LATIN AMERICA — COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 


the United States. But that the crops of very 
recent years have been too small to meet loca) 
requirements is evidenced from the fact that 
within the past year the surtax of 25 per cent of 
the duty on imported cotton has been removed, 
and now the import tax is only 3.43 cents per 
pound. There are four cotton factories in 
Venezuela, operating about 19,000 spindles and 
500 looms. They employ 1,800 hands and con- 
sume about 6,250 bales of cotton annually. 
The mills are located in Caracas, Valencia, 
Maracaibo and Cumana. These mills make 
gray goods, coarse wearing cloths, plain sheet- 
ing and hosiery. 

The cotton-goods trade is the most import- 
ant in Venezuela, and one in which the United 
States appears to the worst advantage. Of the 
total value of this trade in 1908, amounting to 
$4,191,270, Great Britain furnished such goods 
to the value of $2,545,536; Germany, $681,530; 
and the United States, $307,973, the latter’s 
share being only a fraction over 7 per cent. 
Our share in this trade in 1910 was 7.7 per 
cent; 1911, 8 per cent; 1912, 10.3 per cent; 
1913, 22.6 per cent; 1914, 12.5 per cent; and the 
first six months of 1915, 20.9 per cent. The 
items of most importance constituting this trade 
are in the order named, prints, drills, madapol- 
lam, undershirts, checks and plaids, gray shirt- 
ing, white shirting, hosiery, etc. 
of cotton goods has been considerably affected 
by the European War, the value having fallen 
from $3,907,726 in 1913, to $2,460,525 in 1914, 
and since 1914 still less than this as indicated 
by the imports of the first six months of 1915. 
The exports of cotton goods from the United 
States to Venezuela in 1915 were valued at 
$413,203, and in 1916 at $1,114,606, an increase 
of $701,403, or 170 per cent. 

Ecuador.— Cotton is raised in Ecuador 
south of Guayaquil and also around Ibarra, 
north of Quito, but to what extent there is no 
available information. Most of the cotton 
produced is used in domestic manufacture, and 
occasionally some little is exported. In 1908 
7,317 pounds were shipped to the United States, 
and in 1914 120,000 pounds to Great Britain. 
The mills depend upon home grown cotton for 
their limited supplies, the duty on raw cotton 
being so high (4.42 per pound) as to prohibit 
any imports. 

Of the imports cotton goods are the most 
important, forming 24.5 per cent of total in 
1908, the value of which was $2,453,900. Of 
this amount Great Britain contributed $1,573,- 
243, or 64 per cent; Germany, $395,724, or 16 
per cent; Italy, $147,020, or 6 per cent; the 
United States, $106,770, or 4.5 per cent; Spain, 
$103,268, or 4.5 per cent; and all other coun- 
tries, $127,875, or 5 per cent, of which Bel- 
gium contributed $76,357; France, $34,820; and 
all other countries $16,698. The principal 
articles of import are white shirting, prints, 
gray shirting, knit underwear, cotton trousering, 
handkerchiefs and hosiery. Cotton goods in 
general are dutiable at 5.06 cents per pound 
gross weight, but a few pay special rates. In 
1915 the value of cotton goods imported from 
the United States was $146,854, and in 1916 
$498,321, an increase of $351,467, or 240 per, 
cent. 

Peru.— Cotton has been one of the chief 
products of Peru since the time of the Incas, 
-but only.within. the past 15 years has there been 


The imports ° 


any attempt to increase the acreage and im- 
prove the methods of cultivation. Nearly all 
of the crop is grown on the west coast near the 
sea and within the valleys formed at intervals 
between the mountains and the sea by small 
rivers. The alluvial deposits in these valleys 
are rich in nitrogen and potash and are very 
productive. Cotton growing as a rule is very 
profitable, and hence the area is being increased, 
and with greater irrigation upon which all of 
the crops depend and the gradual development 
of intensive farming the crop is steadily in- 
creasing, or was increasing until the European 
War. The very high freight rates and the 
limited demand in European countries has been 
very discouraging to planters, and the crops the 
past few years have fallen off considerably. 
The cotton plantations vary in size from 500 
to 5,000 acres, are owned principally by Peru- 
vians, and the laborers are native Indians whose 
average wage is about 60 cents a day. Peru- 
vian cotton may be divided roughly into five 
staple classifications: The so-called “full 
rough” cotton, coming mostly from the planta- 
tions in the Piura Valley; the “modern rough,” 
from the districts of Palpa and Uazca; sea- 
island, largely from Supa; mitififa, grown at 
several localities along the coast; and “Peru 
soft,» locally known as Egypto. The rough 
Peruvian is the indigenous cotton of the tree- 
cotton variety, and has a strong, rough, wooly, 
crinkly staple, about one and three-eighths to 
one and one-half inches long, and its price is 
largely governed by the price of wool as it is 
used to mix with wool in the manufacture of 
“all-wool” underwear, hosiery and cloth. The 
crop of long-stapled sea-island and mitififa, 
grown from imported sea-island and Egyptian 
seed, is small as the staple and quality are 
found to deteriorate with a consequent lower- 
ing of price, which to some extent is governed 
by the price of Egyptian cotton, a variety it. 
closely resembles. The “Peru soft” or Egypto 
(a misnomer for it is grown from American 
upland seed) is much more extensively culti- 
vated than even the native cotton. In the 
United States it is an annual, in Peru it is 
cultivated as a biannual, though the second 
year’s crop is about 20 per cent less than that 
of the first. Its staples run from one and one- 
eighth to one and one-quarter inches, and its 
market value is governed by the price of Amer- 
ican upland. 

In 1902 the cotton crop of Peru was 106,914 
bales; in 1905, 139,609 bales; in 1909, 315,640 
bales; in 1913, the largest crop ever made. 
364,706. bales; in 1914, 346,422 bales; and in 
1915, 318,071 bales. The average bale weighs 
about 170 pounds. The United States con- 
sumes annually about 5,654,500 pounds of 
Peruvian cotton. In 1915-16 the imports 
amounted to 5,454,000 pounds, but the bulk of 
the cotton exported from Peru goes to Liver- 
pool. In 1913 the United States exported to 
Peru cotton goods to the value of $198,331, and 
in 1916 to the value of $675,686, an increase of 
$477,355, or 242 per cent, There are seven 
cotton mills in Peru, five of which are located 
at Lima, operating 67,900 spindles and 2,293 
looms, the capital invested being $2,057,000. 
These mills manufacture mostly gray sheetings 
and shirting, gray ducks, ticks and drills and 
gray and colored checks and striped cloths; 
also blue drill, khakj drills and trousering, 


LATIN AMERICA— COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 51 


ordinary grades of white flannel, and white 
drills and towels. Outside of the domestic 
consumption one of the best markets for these 
goods is Bolivia, and a small quantity is also 
taken by Chile. The mills consumed 41,177 
bales (Peruvian weights) in 1913, 32,353 bales 
in 1914 and 44,118 bales in 1915. 

Bolivia.— Cotton is not grown in Bolivia, 
nor are there any manufactures of cotton. 
The imports of cotton goods average in value 
about $1,000,000 a year, and are largely con- 
fined to a few standard lines. The greatest 
demand seems to be for gray sheetings, white 
shirtings, printed flannelets and cotton trouser- 
ings or cassinettes. In most South American 
countries Great Britain has controlled about 
half the cotton goods trade, but prior to 1914 
Germany had obtained nearly half the Bolivian 
trade, Great Britain only about a fourth, the 
remainder being divided between the United 
States and Peru, with a small amount going to 
Italy and France. Most of the gray sheeting 
used is from the United States and Peru, with 
a small amount from England. This is the only 
line in which the United States is prominent 
in this market, the imports consisting almost 
wholly of Massachusetts shirtings. Besides 
these about the only American cotton goods 
used are small amounts of drills, duck and 
ticking. The trade in white shirtings is 
monopolized by Great Britain, and that in 
printed flannelets was done mainly with Ger- 
many, some of the finer grades coming from 
Great Britain. The cheap cotton trouserings 
or cassinettes were furnished almost entirely by 
Germany, as were corduroys, used not only for 
riding trousers but by the poorer white popula- 
tion for suits, on account of their stout wear- 
ing quality. 

No detailed statistics of the cotton trade 
of this republic are ‘obtainable, and hence the 
proportionate share of the United States is 
unknown. However, our exports of this class 
of goods for the fiscal year 1915-16 showed an 
appreciable gain over the previous year, 
particularly in bleached and unbleached goods. 
In bleached cloths the increase was from 110,- 
806 yards to 1,200,944 yards and in unbleached 
cloths from 1,934,264 yards to 3,069,619 yards, 
while the value of all cotton wares increased 
from $146,597 to $366,254. 

Chile.— No cotton is grown in Chile, but 
there are three cotton factories of some im- 
portance, operating about 5,000 spindles and 400 
looms, besides there are seven or eight knitting 
mills. These mills make shirts, underwear and 
hosiery, and a small quantity of miscellaneous 
wares. Among the South American countries 
Chile ranks third as a buyer of cotton goods, 
its annual imports for some years prior to the 
European War averaging over $11,000,000 in 
value. Cotton goods form the largest single 
item of the imports, the value of which 
amounted to $11,442,939 in 1905, to $13,262, 180 
in 1907, to $12, 214,864 i in 1909, to $9,025, 176 in 
1913 and, due to the war, to only $6,324,368 in 
1914. There are no very recent statistics show- 
ing the share of each country in the imports. 

Among the principal imports, in the order of 
value, are colored and dyed goods in general, 
white shirting, knit goods, prints, drills, yarn, 
gray sheeting, osnaburgs, sewing thread, flan- 
nel, passementerie, lace, oxfords, bed-covers, 
handkerchiefs, ticking, cotton waste and cotton 


blankets. The trade of the United States, at 
the period named, consisted mainly of osna- 
burgs for making flour sacks, flannel, gray 
sheeting, sail duck, white goods and yarn. 
The value of the cotton goods exported from 
the United States to Chile in 1914-15 was 
$639,031 and $1,638,043 in 1915-16, an increase 
of $999,012, or 156 per cent. This increase 
was mainly confined to bleached, unbleached 
and colored cloths, the exports in 1914-15 being 
6,780,257 yards, as compared with 12,211,220 
yards i in 1915-16. 


Argentina.— Cotton cultivation has been . 


undertaken on a small scale in Argentina for 
some years. There are large tracts of land in 
the northern and northwestern section of the 
country that are well adapted for cotton, but 
for lack of experience, capital and sufficient 
labor, the crop has made little progress. The 
provincial governments and various agricul- 
tural societies have tried to encourage cotton 
growing by offering prizes at agricultural 
fairs, and in 1913 the province of Corrientes 
granted partial exemption from taxation, and 
a bounty for picking cotton. Most of the cot- 
ton grown in Argentina comes from the ter- 
ritory of Chaco, where European farmers are 
doing most of the planting, employing native 
Indians and peons from Paraguay and _ the 
province to pick the cotton. There are also 
small areas devoted to cotton in Cdrdoba, 
Santa Fé, Corrientes and several other prov- 


inces. In 1907 the exports of raw cotton 
amounted to 116,767 pounds; in 1912 to 1,230,- 
000 pounds; in 1913, to 750,000 pounds, and 


1914, to 609,500 pounds. 

There is (1917) one cotton-spinning mill in 
Argentina with 9,000 spindles, and five cotton- 
weaving mills with a total of 1,200 looms. 
The spinning mill has a capital of $850,000, and 
consumes from 650,000 to 750,000 pounds of 
raw cotton annually, most of which is im- 
ported from the United States, and small quan- 
tities from’ Brazil and Peru. The capacity of 
this mill is about 1,100,000 pounds of yarn. 
The five weaving mills have a capital of $730,- 
000 and employ 1,415 operatives. The produc- 
tion of the mills is figured at 8,000,000 to 10,- 
000,000 yards annually, comprised mainly of 
duck, canvas, gray sheeting and shirting, and a, 
small amount of colored goods. There are also 
43 knitting mills with 650 machines, with a 
yearly production of about 4,000,000 pounds. 

he most important single item imported 
into Argentina is cotton goods. Of this trade 
prior to 1914 Great Britain controlled about 
half, the remaining half being competed for by 
Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, the United 
States, Spain and other countries. As indi- 
cating ‘the share of each country in this trade 
the imports of a typical year is a fair illustra- 
tion. The total value of the cotton goods im- 
ported amounted to $27,119,134, and of this 
Great Britain furnished $13,428, 662, or 49.5 per 
cent; Italy, $5,403,737, or 20 per cent; Germany, 
$3, ae 172, or, 14 per cent; France, $1,623,565, 
or 6 per cent; Belgium, $916, 788, or 3 per cent; 
the United States, $685, 207, or 2.5 per cent; 
Spain, $663,266, or 2.5 per cent: and all other 
countries, $666,737, or 2.5 per cent. 

Piece goods form. the bulk of the cotton 
manufactures imported, and most of these are 
classed as colored goods, which include both 
goods made with dyed yarn, usually known as 


Sz LATIN AMERICA— COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 


colored goods and piece-dyed goods. Other 
piece-good imports, in the order of their value, 
are printed, bleached, and gray goods, 
cially of cotton and wool mixed cloths for 
trousering, women’s skirts, etc. In addition to 
piece goods the other chief imports of cotton 
manufactures are cotton yarn, hosiery, lace 
handkerchiefs, bed covers, blankets, cotton 
flour bags, haberdashery, duck and canvas, 
ready-made clothing, ribbons and tapes, and 
towels. Heretofore the trade of the United 
States was confined chiefly to cotton flour 
bags, yarn, duck and canvas, with a small 
amount of ready-made clothes, gray drills, 
madapollams and candle wicks. But since the 
beginning of the European War this country 
has made extraordinary gains, especially in the 
exports of bleached, unbleached and colored 
cloths, knit goods and yarns. The increase in 
the value of each of this class of goods in 1915- 
16 as compared with 1914-15 is as follows: 
bleached cloths from $11,612. to $225,716; un- 
bleached cloths, $178,179 to $578,663; colored 
cloths, $14,344 to $796,786; knit goods, $169,572 
to $1,686,512; yarns, $475,528 to $2,183,809, 
while the total of all cotton goods increased 
from $1,064,265 in 1914-15 to $6,495,724 in 
1915-16. This shows a gain in one year of 
$5,431,459, or 510 per cent. 

Paraguay.— There is considerable land in 
Paraguay very productive and well adapted to 
cotton raising, but the lack of labor, the lack of 
a home market, high freight rates abroad and 
the fact that other crops pay better have 
tended to restrict cotton production. What 
little cotton there is made is grown partly from 
the indigenous tree cotton, which bears for sey- 
eral years without replanting and yields a 
strong fibre about one and one-fourth inches 
in length, and partly from imported Ameri- 
can seed which gives a fibre one and_three- 
sixteenths inches long and is whiter in 
color than the indigenous cotton. Prior to 
1870. about 43,000 acres were cultivated in cot- 
ton. Since that date, as a result of the war 
in which the country had been engaged, cotton 
culture has been neglected. In 1905, 18,893 
pounds were exported; in 1906, 13,018 pounds, 
and in 1907, 19,092. The total crop during 
these years averaged about 51,000 pounds. Ex- 
periments during 1915 were carried on with 
American seed and under the direction of an 
experienced American planter, the results being 
very satisfactory. There are no cotton manu- 
factures in Paraguay and ‘prior to 1914 -the 
cotton goods trade was divided between Great 
Britain, Germany, Italy, Spain and France, the 
rank of each being in the order named. 

Uruguay.— Cotton is not grown in Uruguay, 
and there are only two or three small _cotton- 
weaving mills with some 300 looms. There is 
also a small but increasing number of knitting 
machines for making hosiery. The products 
of the weaving mills consist of plaid flannelets, 
known as tartan, a good grade of khaki, Turk- 
ish towels, common strips and checks and a 
small amount of fancy goods. There are no 
available statistics of the imports of cotton 
goods or the origin of the same, but a recent 
report of the United States Department of 
Commerce shows that the imports of cotton 
goods for the first six months of 1916 were 
Paltied at $967,933, The value of cotton goods 


espe-, 


exported to Uruguay in 1914-15 from the 
United States amounted to $126,054, and in 
1915-16 to $870,613, an increase in value of 
$744,559, or 590 per cent. The value of 
bleached, unbleached and colored goods in- 
creased from $20,279 to $145,307; knit goods 
from $25,609 to $377,810; and yarns from $14,- 
444 to $133,067. 

Brazil.— It has been estimated that there are 
sufficient and available lands in Brazil to pro- 
duce 40,000,000 bales of cotton; and yet, com- 
pared with such possibilities, it contributes a 
very small share to the cotton commerce of the 
world. The crops fluctuate from year to year, 
but in spite of the increasing demand for home 
consumption, and high protection, production 
shows little tendency to increase. The tariff on 
imported raw cotton, 7.27 cents a pound, is the 
highest in the world, the next highest being 
Russia with 7.22 cents a pound, Peru with 2.65 
cents and Mexico with 1.74 cents. 

The unprogressive state of cotton culture is 
said to be due to the fact that cotton is grown 
in small patches by small farmers, who till the 
lands by the most primitive methods, and who ~ 
have neither the money nor the knowledge to 
adopt more advanced systems; also, to the lack 
of transportation facilities. Again, another 
drawback is the uncertain and irregular rain- 
fall, which is often excessive at the fruiting 
period and at other times fails entirely, result- 
ing in prolonged drought. Cotton can be 
raised practically in all parts of the country, 
but the states producing the largest crops (in 
the northeastern section). are, in the order of 
their importance, about as follows: Pernam- 
buco, Parahyba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceara, 
Alagoas, Maranhao, Sergipe, Sao Paulo, Minas 
Geraes and Bahia. The Pernambuco cottons 
are in general of long staple, and the arboreous 
Peruvian varieties predominate. The varieties 
most cultivated are known locally as quebra- 
dinho, creoulo, caiana and governo, especially 
the first two, both of which are tree-cotton. 
The crop of ‘this state ranges from 150,000 to 
250,000 bales. The states of Parahyba and Rio 
Grande do Norte are ranked after Pernambuco 
in cotton production. The tree cotton of these 
states gives the largest yield and will bear six 
to eight years. Sea-island cotton also gives 
good results). The Maranhao cotton ranks 
second only to the famous sea-island. The 
varieties most cultivated are the Peruvian and 
some varieties of herbaceous; the creoulo, que- 
bradinho and the governo ‘being mostly es- 
teemed. The highlands produce cotton trees 
that bear for 8 or 10 years, and are often 20 
feet or more in height. The sandy lands of the 
state of Ceara produce an excellent cotton, the 
fibre of which is strong, flexible and silky : the 
salt marshes produce the acclimated sea-island, 
and also tree cottons that bear regularly for 
periods up to 10 years. The herbaceous varie- 
ties produce cotton in three to four months. 
The small state of Alagéas in proportion to its 
size produces more cotton than most of the 
other states. In the state of Sergipe the her- 
baceous cottons predominate, but ‘there are also 
some of the longer-staples grown. The herba- 
ceous cottons take six months and the tree cot- 
tons nine months to bear. 

The statistics of cotton production in Brazil 
are very unsatisfactory and not always reliable, 


LATIN AMERICA— COTTON INDUSTRY (9) 53 


but as nearly as can be ascertained the crop 
from 1910 to 1915, inclusive, in Brazilian bales 
(of 176 pounds each) averaged 966,000 bales, 
the maximum being reached in 1913 with 
1,165,000 bales, and the minimum in 1915 with 
781,000 bales. On account of the increased do- 
mestic consumption, the exports of raw cotton 
from Brazil have declined considerably in re- 
cent years. Back in 1872 as much as 173,115,- 
500 pounds were exported. Nothing like this 
amount has since been sent out of the country, 
as the home consumption has continually in- 
creased. The exports in 1912 reached 36,980,- 
000 pounds, in 1913, 82,504,000 pounds, and fell 
to 1,960,000 pounds ‘in 1915. 

The spinning and weaving of cotton ‘in 
Brazil has developed to such an extent in the 
past 20 years that it is now the most important 
industry in the country. And it is not only a 
valuable asset in the prosperity of Brazil, but 
also a growing factor in its economic develop- 
ment as is evident from the following data 
very recently compiled by Sefior Cunha Vasco, 
showing the comparative status of the industry 
in 1905 and 1916: 


1905 1916 

Number of mills working regu- 

PATI ee eee eS hee hs a8 110 250 
Raiabes of spindles working 

regilarivie.. bles 232. GAG! 734,928 1,464,218 
Number of looms working regu- 

baie, Been we Sms te ee eee 26,420 49 ,648 
Meeies of hands working regu- 

dative: Sites ACL Ie 39,159 72,943 
to production in yards. . 264,749,000 261,520,700 
GAME a eet eee. sho poaiene $48,427,000 $78,756,000 
Maluerof outputs 2 fhe eA 30,260,750 


59,783,750 


The annual consumption of cotton per spin- 
dle is estimated at 88.18 pounds, from which it 
is deduced by Centro Industrial, a commercial 
association of Rio de Janeiro of high standing, 
that not less than 129,121,900 pounds of cotton 
are consumed annually. The leading states in 
the manufacture of cotton, in the order of 
importance: Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, Rio de 
janeiro, Federal District, Bahia and Maran- 
hao. There are from one to a half dozen mills 
in 10 other states. The goods made in the 
Brazilian mills are chiefly of the coarse and 
medium grades. The largest output is of col- 
ored goods, followed by gray, printed, dyed 
and bleached, in the order named. Some of 
the larger mills are manufacturing the finer 
grades, part of which compare favorably with 
the imported goods in both weave and finish. 
The value of the exports of cotton from the 
United States to Brazil in 1913 amounted to 
$386,368, and in 1916 to $782,755, a gain of 
$396,387, or 103 per cent. 

General Trade with United States.— The 
total value of our cotton trade in 1907-08 with 
all Latin America, and including the West 
Indies, amounted to $7,366,526, and in 1912-13, 
the year before-the outbreak of war in Europe, 
to $15,506,377. This was a gain in the five 
years of $8,139,851, or 110% per cent. But just 
two years following, 1915-16, the total exports 
reached the value of $38,381,074, a gain of $22,- 
874,697, or a little more than 147 per cent. The 
statistics contained in the following table give 
the value of our trade with each country for 
the fiscal years 1907-08, 1912-13 and 1915-16. 
It is certainly a gratifying exhibit, every coun- 
try showing a substantial gain, except Hon- 


duras, where there was a loss of 25 per cent. 
The most conspicuous gains (1913-14 —1915- 
16) are shown in the value of the exports to 
Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, the British West 
Indies, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina and 
Uruguay. Of course this was largely due to 
the total suspension of exports from Germany, 
and the interruption of the maritime trade of 
other belligerent European nations. But the 
American exporter ought henceforth to be pre- 
pared to meet any competition, and not part - 
with legitimate trade he has acquired. 


VALUE OF Cotton Goods EXPpoRTED FROM THE 


UnitTrep STATES TO LATIN AMERICA 
AND WEsT INDIES. 


| Per 
cent 
COUNTRY 1907-08 | 1912-13 1914-15 lincrease 
1912-13 
1914-15 
Mexico......... $782 ,966/$1 ,064,895|$4,891,956| 359 
Guatemala...... 29, 27,445 578,579 35 
Hondtirass.-.50- 333,921 699, 506 523) GS88i5 Sa aks. 
British Honduras 26,479 131,448 188,017 43.5 
Salvador. jii.% sil: 329,161 407 ,730 735,144 80 
Nicaragua... ..... 246,222 349,401 518,651 49 
Costa Ricave.as 2575501, 293,262 623,699] 113 - 
Panama... 2°23.) 201 ,957| 1,122,185) 1,396,880 24.5 
Oba iict Save bee's $2,507 ,340|$4, 495 ,872/$9 ,456,614| 110.3 
Increase, dol- 
lars See PG. 2) aS $1,988 ,532/$4,960,742)....... 
Increase, | per 
CONG. -<.thloelas o eee. % 79 EO} ee 
Haitie?. 8855: $742 ,978|$1, 465 ,710/$2,276,749 55 
San Domingo. . 34,570 986,076} 1,347,919 37 
British West ; 
Tridiés® 22 .3)5! 40,711 960,041) 1,973,542} 105.5 
Dutch West 
sreliess ice 22 2,563 104,531 109,556 5 
Danish West 
Indies¢ PAs: ..« 3,648 28,302 34,062 21 
French West 
Indies. fe ee A 6 655 14,550 93,024) 520 
Cubatae ss s steee 1,245,822) 2,903,372| 7,741,671] 132 
Totalnves: < teeeree $2,070,947|$6, 462 ,582|$13,576,523|} 110 
Increase, dol- 
Tavs, PI, FO $4,391, 635|$7,113,941]....... 
Increase, per 
Cen fie 7. eee the to oh 212 T40). <7.674- 
Colombia. 2127: $624,587/$1,453,774|$2, 607 ,192 79 
Venezuela....... 307 ,973 376,314] 1,114,606] 197 
InGRa Ores sbowcrae 106,770 218 , 232 498,321) 133 
Bolivian 9,378 295 ,645 366,254 24 
Crime Pe BAI, 132 ,409 188 ,004 675,686] 260 
Chile. ssi dexy-.< 445 ,960 808 ,674| 1,638,043] 102 
Argentina 685 , 207 538,421] 6,495,724]1,107 
Uruguay 97,084 146, 344 870,613} 503 
Paraguay .2 5th). 222 3,261 16,360) 401 
Brazky 2d Aet 373,545 431,368 782,755 82 
Gyiana . 0:5 ne 5,104 87 , 886 282 ,383| 221 
Toray.) 24. o $2 ,788,239|$4, 547 ,923/$15,347,937| 237.5 
Increase, dol- 
lars deere ee ee ee $1,759, 684/$10,800,014|....... 
Increase, per 
Centr? Fr. AD. reke wards ’ 63 23%) Simo a: 
Grand total... . .|$7,366,526] $15,506,377/$38,381,074| 147.5 
Increase, — dol- 
{ESN «52a aie 2 aN ee A $8,139 ,851/$22,874,697|....... 
Increase, per 
CEMIEKE SFIS ORT 6 LB 110.5 LATS OA. 


JAMES L. WATKINS, 
Statistician, New York City. 


54 


10: CATTLE AND MEAT INDUSTRY 
IN LATIN AMERICA. The world demand 
for meat, and particularly beef, has directed at- 
tention to Latin America as the most promising 
field for its production. Locally, there are but 
few places in either the northern or southern 
group where cattle have not been raised with 
success since the Spanish settlement. Due, 
however, to the lack of transportation facilities 
and extensive meat-preserving plants, until re- 
cently their great value in export trade was 
almost entirely in their hides. In consequence, 
the native stock deteriorated through inter- 
breeding and acclimatization to the tropical and 
semi-tropical conditions, the result being a 
non-fat producing animal of small size whose 
beef was unsuited to the tastes of foreign buy- 
ers. But with a foreign demand, and the in- 
stallation of packing, refrigerating and trans- 
portation facilities, cattlemen of the pampas of 
Argentina early recognized the need of scien- 
tific methods. Foreign pedigreed stock has 
been introduced for cross-breeding, fat-produc- 
ing feedstuffs have been cultivated, sanitary 
regulations have been decreed and enforced, 
inland transportation has been facilitated and 
markets have been established. The result is 
that under the stress of war requirements for 
foodstuffs, Argentina became prepared, along 
with her sister republic, Uruguay, while the 
beginning of a powerfully potential export 
meat trade unfolded itself throughout the 
southern part of the continent, including both 
Brazil and Paraguay, with the southern prov- 
inces of Chile. The present development has 
shown that, wherever intelligent encouragement 
has been given to the cattle industry it has 
prospered. Cheap grazing land, cheap labor, 
salubrious climate, luxuriant vegetation, im- 
proved methods of refrigeration and transpor- 
tation, await only the scientific correlation of 
these elements in the more intensive applica- 
tion of the principles of animal industry to 
make Mexico, Central America, the West In- 
dies and South America a constant producer of 
cattle, beef and other meat-producing animals 
for ages to come. 

Argentina. The Argentine Republic is the 
greatest livestock country of Latin America. 
Situated between 22° and 55° of south lati- 
tude, it has every degree of climate that the 
United States has, including a diversity of rain- 
fall. Certain parts, particularly in Patagonia, 
are semi-arid, and deducting these, along with 
the foot-hills of the Andes, and 90,000 square 
miles under cultivation, from the whole area 
leaves an estimated 484,162 square miles avail- 
able for livestock, an area approximately twice 
the size of the State of Texas. The number of 
cattle, officially estimated 1 Jan. 1915, was 30,- 
000,000 — 3.8 per capita — valued at $955,350,000, 
in addition to 80,000,000 sheep, valued at $203,- 
808,000, 4,564,000 goats, valued at $3,875,748, 
and 3,200,000 swine, valued at $33,968,000. Of 
a total of exports amounting to $558, 280 ,643 in 
1915, animals and animal products ageregated 
218, 780, 416 gold pesos ($0.965), or $211,516, 181.44. 

From the days of the earliest settlers the 
raising of cattle has been the important in- 
dustry of the country, the immense “pampas,” 
or prairies, and the salubrious climate being 
particularly adapted for livestock. But com- 
mercially, as far as exports were concerned, 
cattle were raised chiefly for their hides, the 


LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE 


AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 


meat being consumed at home, with the ex- 
ception of a small export trade in dried beef, 
or “tasajo,” the only form of preservation gen- 
erally known, and a limited number of stock 
on the hoof sent to neighboring countries. The 
result locally was that the inhabitants of Ar- 
gentina became the greatest consumers of beef 
in the world, a reputation they still maintain, 
the per capita consumption being 275 pounds in 
the cities, and about 300 pounds in the country, 
as against 112 pounds for Great Britain, 102 
pounds for Germany, 80.3 pounds for the 
United States and 77 pounds for France. The 
first shipment of refrigerated beef was ex- 
ported from Buenos Aires to Havre in 1877 — 
80 tons. While it was hailed as a success, it 
was not until the period beginning 1885 that 
it became of commercial importance. The 
amount shipped in that year was small—a 
valuation of only $1,680—but sufficient to 
show its commercial practicability, and from 
that time it has grown to immense proportions, 
being to-day the greatest staple of the country, 
and a product that will not attain to its poten- 
tialities for years to come. It is sufficiently 
large at the present time to control the world 
quotations of meat, and has been responsible 
for the introduction of hundreds of millions of 
dollars not only into the exploitation of Ar- 
gentine industry but that of the entire Rio 
Plata territory and the whole semi-tropic 
South America southward. 

During the past generation the leading 
ranchmen, supported by. the government in the 
realization of the need for better beef stock, 
have imported the best examples obtainable of 
well-known European breeds, which they have 
either crossed with the native cattle or kept 
pure. This movement has taken place largely 
during the past decade. Considered from all 
points of view, the Shorthorn has been accepted — 
as the animal best adapted to Argentina’s needs, 
figures from the Argentine Herd Book for the 
year (1917) showing 15,127 bulls and 27,422 
cows of this breed. Other breeds are in the 
following order: Hereford, 2,294 bulls and 
4,280 cows; Aberdeen Angus, 1,638 bulls and 
2,054 cows; Flemish, respectively 62 and 185; 
Red Polled, 56 and 71; Jersey, 34 and 41; Red 
Shorthorn, 17 and 30; and Devon, 4 and 16. 
This does not represent all the cattle of 
pedigreed stock, but those registered only. The 
number, of various breeds, registered in the 
Herd Book from 1908 to 1917 is 60,107 bulls 
and 66,091 cows, of which approximately 54,000 
are alive to- day. From 1901 to 1914 there were 
brought .into the republic 12,761 pedigreed 
animals, chiefly from Great Britain, valued at 
$8,000,000, or an average of $637 each. The 
interest in livestock improvement is so keen 
that animals of real promise command the high- 
est prices. At the show sale of 1913 at Buenos 
Aires, the Shorthorn bull, Americus, sold for 
$33,968, the world’s record price, other high 
figures being Durham Shorthorn (in 1915), 
$25,476, and the Shorthorn reserve champion 
(1916), $23,353. The average price brought for 
200 bulls auctioned in 1915 was $2,420. 

The great majority of stock for breeding 
purposes is brought from Great Britain, the ~ 
government regulations being extremely strin- 
gent as to the country of origin, the purpose of 
which is to prevent the entry of stock afflicted 
with the foot-and-mouth disease and other 


LATIN AMERICA —CATTLE AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 55 


plagues. The regulations were in fact so strict 
that it has been, until quite recently, impos- 
sible to introduce any livestock whatever from 
the United States, the fact of the foot-and- 
mouth disease existing in any part of the 
country operating as a bar to cattle from any 
other part, even across the continent where the 
plague might be unknown. However, at the 
solicitation of the American Shorthorn 
Breeders’ Association the regulations were 
modified by decree of 6 Oct. 1915, in the sense 
that, while importation is prohibited from 
any country while the foot-and-mouth disease 
“exists or has existed in an epizootic or gen- 
eral form; or from departments, provinces, 
countries, or states where the disease exists or 
has existed within three months previous to 
shipment, the three months counts from the 
date of the official declaration of the extinc- 
tion of the disease, provided that such declara- 
tion has not been made until 15 days have 
elapsed from the last case.” The government 
feels that it is able now to successfully cope 
with the cattle plague. 

Under the patronage of the government, the 
Sociedad Rural Argentina—the national or- 
ganization interested in livestock — holds 
annual international livestock exhibitions at 
Buenos Aires, at which prizes for excellence 
are awarded by a jury sent to Argentina by 
the Royal Agricultural Society of London, thus 
maintaining breed standards, the while keeping 
alive the interest between Argentina and her 
greatest meat customer. Further encourage- 
ment is given to the meat industry by the gov- 
ernment agricultural schools, and also by the 
sending abroad of students, or “becados,” to 
study veterinary science in leading institutions 
of France, Germany, Great Britain and the 
United States. These young men, fresh from 
the latest and most advanced instruction abroad, 
return to take up their work on the great 
ranches or with the department of the govern- 
ment concerned with livestock where they are 
a strong factor in the promotion of animal 
industry. 

With the exception of those parts of Argen- 
tina devoted to agriculture in whole or part, 
cattle run on immense ranges similar to those 
of a generation ago in the western United 
States. Under ordinary conditions but little 
care is required, the pasturage and climate 
being favorable. There is, however, the danger 
every few years of droughts diminishing the 
supply of water and grass, causing poorly con- 
ditioned stock to be rushed to market. The 
results are commercially bad for the industry, 
in that the country is depleted of its stock of 
calves and breeding cows, as is shown by the 
varying gains and losses indicated in the national 
census. Of late, however, since the success of 
the refrigerating packing-houses has been dem- 
onstrated commercially, a great acreage has been 
-regularly devoted to the raising of feedstuffs 
for cattle, the principal ones being corn, 1,250,- 
000 bushels, 1915-16, and alfalfa, known locally 
as “lucerne,” 18,219,997 acres, 1914. Recently 
the silo system has been installed as a remedy 
to overcome the effects of droughts, largely 
through the encouragement of the railroads. 
These measures, taken in connection with the 
improvements in breeding and the increasing 
world demand for cattle products, promise the 


continuance and growth of Argentine cattle 
raising and meat packing. 

The packing-houses of Buenos Aires, La 
Plata and other Argentine cattle markets 
rank with the best in the world, and in 
connection with their output a fleet of vessels 
fitted for the carrying of frozen and chilled 
meats plies between the Rio Plata and Euro- 
pean ports, with lesser facilities for meeting 
the requirements, just beginning, of North 
America. It is estimated that of the British 
investments of approximately $2,500,000,000, - 
more than one-half is devoted in one way or 
another to the cattle or packing industries. 
Likewise, Argentina has been a favorite field 
for American investments, particularly in ex- 
tensive packing establishments. Due to the 
European War demands they have been operated 
at their capacity. Southern Patagonia, formerly 
considered a bleak, waste territory, has be- 
come an important producer of meat, prin- 
cipally mutton, the packing-houses for which 
are located at Punta Arenas, Chile. 

The exports of “pastoral products,” compris- 
ing frozen and chilled beef, frozen mutton, 
sundry frozen meats, preserved meats, extract 
of beef, powder of meat, preserved tongues, 
livestock — cattle and sheep — condensed soup, 
and jerked beef —“tasajo,» according to the 
figures of the DirecciOn General de Comercio y 
Industria, at five-year periods from 1885 to 


1913, are as follows: 1885, $6,684,945; 1890, 
$9,971,249; 1895, $14,768,972; 1900, $13,894,206; 
1905, $33,170,104; 1910, $43,440,235; 1911, 


$53,167,086; 1912, $56,502,816; and 1913, $53,- 
486,761. Under the general heading “pastoral 
products,» the United States consul at Buenos 
Aires states the exports for 1914 as $146,389,- 
581; for 1915, $211,057,640. These.last two 
years doubtless include hides, an important item 
of exports, the total of cattle hides, in pounds, 
for the year 1914 being 122,552, 518 (of which 
102,541,570 to the United States) : and 1915, 
182,848,061 (of which 142,564,077 to the United 
States). Of the beef exported, the United 
States bought, in pounds, in 1914, 115,784,599; 
United Kingdom, 604,866,777; 1915, United 
States, 84,077,633; United Kingdom, 637,903,108; 
the other large purchaser being France, 1915, 
46,626,817 pounds. 

Bolivia.— Bolivia is concerned chiefly with 
the mining and rubber industries. While stock 
raising might be successfully carried on in 
many portions of the country, it has, despite 
the encouragem nt of the government, been 
neglected except for local needs. While there 
are sufficient cattle for domestic purposes, and 
many thousands running wild, the export of 
meat will probably be delayed many years, as 
the grazing lands are located far in the interior 
of the continent and the means of transporta- 
tion to the sea coast are difficult and costly. 
In that part of the Andes occupied by Bolivia 
and Peru are found the llama, alpaca, vicufia 
and the domestic sheep, all producing meéat for 
local demands, besides a very fine quality of 
wool for export. In 1913, 465 metric tons (2,205 
pounds) of cattle hides were exported; in 
1914,.374; and in 1915, 613. In addition, 6,558 
head of cattle on hoof were exported to Brazil 
and Argentina. In view of this threatened de- 
pletion of the herds, the government is at pres- 
ent considering the prohibition of shipments of 


56 LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE 
livestock, at the same time having already 
authorized the free importation of cattle, with 
a view of introducing the better breeds. 

Brazil.— Brazil has devoted her greatest 
attention to the coffee and rubber industries, 
her exports in 1915 of these products being 
respectively 60 per cent and 13% per cent of all 
products sent abroad. (See articles CorFrEE; 
Russer). The attention paid to this source of 
wealth has, consequently, resulted in the neglect 
of other industries, except such as have been 
required for home needs. Stock raising has 
only recently been attempted with a view to 
export. It is true that Brazil has long been a 
great source of cattle hides, but their number 
has been measured by the domestic consumption 
of meats. It is since the outbreak of the 
European War that serious attention has been 
paid to a diversification of industries, par- 
ticularly meat. The increasing home demand 
for coffee, due to the increase of population — 
threatening a curtailment of exports—and the 
competition of cultivated Oriental rubber 
plantations, has aroused the government officials 
and economists, and late in 1916 the pre- 
liminary session of the Sociedade Nacional de 
Agricultura (National Agricultural Society) 
was held at Rio de Janeiro, called for the pur- 
pose of studying the Brazilian livestock situa- 
tion, particularly as regards cattle. Among 
other phases considered were: domestic breeds, 
their degeneration and means for their im- 
provement; relative productive capacity; world 
-supply and demand; possible federal, state and 
municipal assistance. Plans were formulated 
for special courses in all subjects related to the 
cattle and meat industries, and the formation 
of an efficient corps of veterinarians and bac- 
teriological experts to uniformly control cattle 
rearing and meat sanitation, with the establish- 
ment of zootechnic stations and model farms. 
In addition consideration was given in detail to 
the transportation of stock, packing and re- 
frigeration, domestic and oversea freights and 
the question of direct government supervision 
over same. As a result of this meeting, a 
cattle exposition was held at Rio de Janeiro, 
13-28 May 1917, cash prizes and diplomas being 
provided by the society, and Chicago packing 
firms contributing handsome cups. 

The number of cattle in Brazil at the present 
time is conservatively estimated at 30,705,400 
— 1,222 per capita, and 9.03 per square mile — 
the greater number being found in the southern 
and western parts of the country. Of the States, 
Sao Paulo has 1,312,000, Piauhy, 1,163,000, Ceara, 
1,162,000, Rio Grande do Sul, 7,249,000, Minas 
Geraes, 6,861,000, Bahia, 2,683,000, Matto Grosso, 
2,050,000, and Goyas, 1,873,000. In addition, the 
estimate of sheep is 11,000,000; goats, 10,- 
000,000; and swine, 20,000,000. With the ex- 
ception of the southern part of Parana, frosts 
are unknown, and the native pasturage, known 
as “caipam gordura”— fattening grass —is 
abundant the year around. In addition, water 
is plentiful and shade trees, necessary in the 
more tropic portions, are abundant. It is 
generally reckoned that in the cattle states 
four acres of grass is required for each animal. 
Certain parts of the country, in the northern 
and eastern portions, are totally unfitted to 
cattle raising, and other portions are occupied 
with agriculture, mining and rubber, and these 
must be served by the meat-producing states. 


AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 


Besides the newly-organized Sociedade Nacional . 
de Agricultura, many of the individual states 
have their local cattle fostering organizations, 
under whose auspices fairs and expositions are 
held annually, In Rio Grande do Sul a state 
union — the Uniao dos Criadores — was organ- 
ized in 1915 with the purpose of inducing the 
government to promote rural development; in- 
cluding improved transportation facilities, co- 
operation in the purchase of necessities re- 
quired in the cattle industry, particularly cattle 
for breeding, barbed wire, salt, wind-mills, etc. 
In two years the Union enrolled 1,600 members, 
and attained a flourishing condition. From its 
headquarters at Porto Alegre a monthly maga- 
zine is issued, for the use of its members, 
the public and for exchange purposes with like 
organizations throughout the world. The presi- 
dent of the commonwealth of Minas Geraes, 
the fifth state in size in the country, in his last 
annual message (1916) called particular at- 
tention to the lack of transportation facilities, a 
general need throughout the republic, and pro- 
posed a concerted effort to increase the frozen 
meat industry in that particular state. He 
mentioned in particular the shipments of this 
product from Santos, beginning in September 
1914, with 3,100 kilos, valued at $270, and in- 
creasing during the calendar year 1915 to 
nearly $1,500,000, and during the first four 
months of 1916 to $1,177,000, the bulk of this 
being raised in Minas Geraes. Government aid 
has been given in this commonwealth with good 
results, cattle fairs having been established at 
Tres Coracées, Sitio, Bemfica, Lavras and 


‘Campo Bello, at which 192,336 head were sold 


in 1913. 

The native livestock of Brazil—of Portu- 
guese origin —is well suited to the climate and 
pasturage of the country, and has recently been 
successfully crossed with foreign breeds. 
While small, the domestic animal, known as 
the “gado criouli” (creole), is not unsuited to 
beef purposes, and by selective breeding has at- 
tained an excellence that fits it for exhibition 
purposes in competition with foreign breeds, 
or with the “mestico,» the native crossed with 
imported sire. Of the domestic strain, the 
most desirable are of the four types known as 
“caracu,” © “curraleiro”  “cortaleiro” ~ and 
“mocha.” Of the foreign breeds introduced, the 
Polled Angus is considered the best, the Here- 
ford and Shorthorn being second and _ third 
choice. Some attempt has been made to cross 
the zebu, from India, with domestic stock, as 
being adapted in Certain parts of the country to 
withstand the intense tropic heat and insect 

ests. 

f As regards meat production, Brazil has long 
supplied her domestic needs, in addition to ex- 
porting quantities of dried beef, known as 
“xarque,” “charquai,» “tasajo”» and “biltong» 
In the city of Rio de Janeiro alone 31,150,020 
pounds were consumed in 1916, and 9,912,056 
pounds re-exported, principally to the Amazon 
ports. Of these amounts, the states of Rio 
Grande do Sul supplied 2,843,302 pounds, Matto 
Grosso, 5,044,930, and Minas Geraes and Sao | 
Paulo, 22,806,366 pounds, figures that indicate 
the extent of local production. The dried beef 
industry continues as an important branch of 
Brazilian commerce as well as that of other 
South American states —the product is cheap, 
wholesome, may be produced without expensive 


LATIN AMERICA—CATTLE AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 57 


equipment, requiring no coal or ice, both ex- 
tremely expensive, and is easily transported. 
However, coincident with the European em- 
broglio, the country awoke to the fact that a 
handsome profit was in store for foodstuffs, 
particularly meat, with the warring nations, 
and during the period following 1914 rapid 
strides were made in the installation of frozen 
and chilled beef packing plants. 

The exportation of refrigerated meat, in 
consideration of the short time that it has been 
a subject of Brazilian trade, has been import- 
ant. The first shipment was made from Santos, 
consigned to New York, in July 1915, amount- 
ing to 205,350 pounds, the whole amount ex- 
ported. from that port during the same year 
amounting to 17,482,839 pounds; from Rio de 
Janeiro, 1,239,992 pounds; and from Para, 7,902 
pounds, a total for the six months of 18,730,733 
pounds, valued at $1,530,399. Of this quantity, 
the United States received 4,393,287 pounds; 
France, 222,910 pounds; United Kingdom, 
9,592,626 pounds; and Italy, 4,521,910 pounds. 
During the first 11 months of 1915, 14,686,386 
pounds were exported, and in a like period. of 
1916 the number was 70,268,566 pounds, an in- 
crease: of approximately 400 per cent, a ratio 
that.is maintained in the shipments during the 
early months of 1917, with Rio de Janeiro, 
however, leading Santos in the quantity shipped. 

Shipping facilities had to be created to 
handle the export meat trade, the regular 
steamship lines calling at Brazilian ports adapt- 
ing themselves to the new requirements. The 
steamship Rio de. Janeiro of the Lloyd- 
Brasileiro Line — owned by the Brazilian gov- 
ernment — made its first trip with refrigerating 
installation leaving .Santos for New York 4 
July 1915, with 205,350 pounds of beef. Other 
boats of the same line, the Minas Geraes, the 
Acré and the Sado Paulo, have since been fitted 
with cold storage holds for the same trade. In 
addition, the English and French lines making 
Brazil have every facility for handling meats. 
Qn 15 Sept: 1916, the Highland Harris (Eng- 
lish) carried a cargo of 6,398,000 pounds from 
the packing-house at Vera Cruz (Rio de 
Janeiro) ; and on 19 Nov. 1916, the Cravonshire 
(English) carried 8,132,500 pounds, in addi- 
tion to 1,100 cases of canned meats from the 
packing plants at Barretos and Osasco. Thus 
far, the greater quantity of refrigerated meats 
has gone to Europe. While a large quantity 
has been cleared for the United States, the 
Summary of Commerce makes no mention of 
imports from Brazil, the quantity shipped here 
doubtless. having been transshipped. 

On the. by-products of the meat industry, 
hides have ‘been the most important. In 1913, 
the total exports were 35,075 metric tons 
(2,204.6 pounds), of which the United States 
received 1,122, Germany, 9,823, France, 9,892 
and Great Britain, 1,585; for 1914, the total was 
31,434 metric tons, of which the United States 
received 5,617, Germany, 8,964, France 5,432 
and Great Britain, 1,845; for 1915, the total 
was. 37,080 metric tons, of which the United 
States received 19,796, Germany, none, France, 
2,701 and Great Britain, 3,386 — the exports of 
the United States approximating 54 per cent of 
the total. In addition, the exports of sheep 
and. goat skins for the years 1913-14-15 
amounted to 3,232, 2,487 and 4,573 metric tons 
respectively, the United States buying from 


75 per cent of the total in 1913 to 98 per cent 
in 1915. 

Chile.— Chile, with her mineral and chem- 
ical industries and shortage of grazing lands, 
has been unable to produce sufficient beef for 
her own consumption. In 1914, animal products 
to the amount of $4,500,000 were imported, 
The number of horned cattle in the country in 
1915, according to the official estimate, was 
2,083,997, Besides, there are about 4,600,000 
sheep and 221 000 hogs in the country. With 
the opening up.for settlement of the six south-_ 
erly states of Chile for agriculture and stock 
raising, there is a probability of the country 
excelling in the packing and export of meats, 
particularly mutton and sheep products. The 
great centre for livestock production extends 
southward from Llanquihue to Cape Horn, the 
commercial centre being Punta Arenas, on the 
continent side of the Strait of Magellan. A 
city of 17,000 inhabitants, it has grown up dur- 
ing the past decade as the packing centre of 
Chile and Argentine Patagonia. In 1914, the 
shipment of animal products, chiefly to Europe, 
amounted to $5,405,120; in 1915, $6,853,229. 
Although Punta Arenas is in Chilian territory, 
there is no indication in the statistics of the 
country as to what part of these exports is to 
be credited to the nation, and in fact a great 
proportion should be credited to Argentina. 
The cattle and sheep.and packing interests in 
and around the city of Punta Arenas represent 
a Capitalization of approximately $8,000,000. 

Colombia.— Columbia has thousands of 
acres of fine grazing lands open the year 
around, principally in the Magdalena and Sinu 
valleys, on the Pacific highlands and the Carib- 
bean coast. The number of cattle is estimated 
at 5,000,000 —1 per capita. Locally, the cattle 
industry is of importance for the domestic sup- 
ply of meat afforded, and for the quantity of 
hides exported. Some few cattle are sold 
abroad. In. 1914, 400. head of beef steers were 
shipped to Panama; in 1915 the number was 
850, increasing in 1916 to an estimated 1,000 
per month. During the same year (1915) 41,- 
255 head of cattle were shipped to the United 
States, which fact vouches for their sanitary 
excellence, in striking contrast to former con- 
dictions that kept Colombian livestock off the 
United States and Cuban markets. Lately the 
government has taken strong measures to as- 
sist the cattle industry, one being the law of 
1915 providing for the establishment of pack- 
ing plants on the Atlantic Coast, the products 
of which may only be exported, under govern- 
ment inspection and supervision. In March 
1917, announcement was made of the govern- 
ment contract with Evaristo Rivas Groot for 
the erection of a plant on the Gulf of Morros- 
quillo. The shipment of hides is an important 
source of income, those sent abroad in 1912 
amounting to $2,661,721.50; 1913, $3,180,781.68, 
of which the United States received $1,024,955 
(1912) and $966,759 (1913). The exports of 


hides to the United States in 1914 were $1,042,- 


174; in 1915, $1,904,558; and.in 1917, $1,639, 167. 

Costa Rica.— Costa Rica had, in 1905, 304,- 
662 head of cattle, and 79,730 hogs: 1910, eke 
417 head of cattle, ‘and 69, 712 head of hogs; and 
1915, 347,475 head of cattle, and 76,198 head of 
hogs — 845 head of cattle per capita, and 18,54 
per-square mile. According to the report of the 
United States consul, Costa Rica offers. rich 


58 LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE 
possibilities for the cattle industry, there being 
large- tracts of suitable grazing land procurable 
in fee at from $0.50 to $1 per acre, or on 
lease for about one-tenth of these sums. In 
addition, cattle are easily moved, no great dis- 
tances having to be traveled, and the climate 
being favorable, no shelter is required. The 
most available cattle lands are situated in the 
provinces of Alajuela, Cartago and Guanacaste. 
The present stock of cattle consists of the native 
breeds crossed with the Holstein, Guernsey and 
Durham. There is no refrigerating packing- 
house in the country, but a considerable number 
of cattle on the hoof are shipped to the Canal 
Zone. The number of cattle slaughtered in 
1905 was 34,081; 1910, 48,371; and 1915, 50,111. 
From these, hides were expored in 1905 to the 
value of $108,810; 1910, $125,419; and 1915, 
$160,124. Exports of cattle and calf hides to 
the United States amounted in 1911 to $63,853; 
1912, $39,392; 1913, $49,906; 1914, $50,634; 1915, 
$87,749, and 1917, $308,275. 

Cuba.— In Cuba, according to the registra- 
tions of the Department of Agriculture the 
number of cattle (1914, 3,395,000 — official) 
(1916) is 4,000,000—87 per square mile and 
1.62 per capita. (Commerce Reports, 20 Sept. 
1916, p. 1079). The republic, due to the diver- 
sity of its particular tropical productions, 
tobacco and sugar, and the high price of land, 
has not paid uniform attention to the cattle in- 
dustry. At the conclusion of the War for Inde- 
pendence there were few cattle left on the 
island, and importations were made from Porto 
Rico, the United States, Mexico and South 
America in 1899 of range cattle to be fattened 
on the domestic pastures. At the same time, 
and since, breeding animals have been im- 
ported, principally from the United States, with 
the result that in the provinces of Camagiiey, 
Oriente and Santa Clara many fine ranches 
are found. In these provinces land is reason- 
ably cheap, grazing is good and water is plenti- 
ful. Most of the grazing land is fenced, and 
from two to three acres of native grass — 
either Guiena or Parana — is sufficient for each 
animal the year around, with necessity for 
extra feeding during the frequent droughts. 
The favorable natural conditions resulted in a 
rapid increase in the number of cattle, and in 
1905 the island was considered as being over- 
stocked, from the fact that the supply was too 
limited to warrant important refrigerating 
plants and shipping facilities for dressed meats, 
and, being grass fed, the cattle could not be 
exported on the hoof. successfully. Since 1905, 
the number of cattle has increased with the 
population, while a steady improvement has 
been shown in their breed and weight, and a 
marked improvement in their sanitary condition. 

Within the past 10 years cattlemen have 
recognized the advantage of proper facilities on 
their ranches, and numerous extensive improve- 
ments have been made in the matter of con- 
veniences, such as wind mills, tanks, ponds and 
silos, and in some rare cases efforts have been 
made to utilize the by-products of the sugar in- 
dustry in the fattening of cattle. Alfalfa has, 
likewise, been introduced, and, when the soil is 
inoculated with the alfalfa bacteria, it has 
proven of great utility in supplementing the 
native feedstuffs. At present there are no 
packing-houses in Cuba. There is, however, at 
Habana a refrigerating establishment of limited 


AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 


capacity for supplying the local hotels and 
steamship companies with frozen meat. Due 
to this fact, the general method of meat 
preservation ‘is that of dried beef, large quanti- 
ties of which are consumed in the republic, 
the domestic supply being at present insuf- 
ficient. 

The exports of live cattle in 1914 amounted 
to $14,925; 1915, $7,715; hides and skins, 1914, 
$2,365,498; 1915, $3, 038,429 ; other animal prod- 
ucts, 1914, $148, 901 ; 1915, $76,653. With the 
exception of a small part, all these exports 
were made to the United States. During the 
same years there were imported, 1914, 22,808,- 
429 pounds of salt, fresh, canned and jerked 
beef, valued at $2,746,485; in 1915, the amount 
was 15,498,600 pounds, valued at $2,137,642, 
nearly all (jerked beef) coming from Argen- 
tina; 1914, 6,829,067 pounds; 1915, 3,744,766 
pounds; and Uruguay, 1914, 14,426,820 pounds; 
and 1915, 11,617,423 pounds. 

Ecuador.— Ecuador is mountainous over 
much of its area, and is industrially concerned 
with the production of cocoa and other tropical 
products, to the neglect of the cattle industry. 
There is, however, much available land suited to 
livestock, particularly on the Esmeraldas and 
Santiago rivers and on the table-lands to the 
east of the Andes. The entire stock of cattle, 
nearly all of native breed, is consumed at home, 
the hides alone being exported. These latter 
amounted in 1909 to $220,600; in 1910, $257,252; 
in 1911, $210,428; and in 1912, $204,898, Many 
attempts have been made by large landholders 
and corporations doing business in the country 
to encourage the industry of cattle raising, and- 
annual fares are held at Quito. Hides to the 
amount of 2,217,529 pounds. 

Guatemala. Guatemala has, according to 
official estimates (1915), 655,386 head of cattle 
— 13.57 head per square mile, and _.309 per 
capita. The great majority are of the native 
strain, weighing on an average 850 pounds. Im- 
ported breeding stock has lately been intro- 
duced, among which were 400 bulls from the 
United States, in 1915. For crossing purposes 
the Hereford and Little Holstein are the 
favorites, the animal produced by the crossing 
weighing from 1,100 to 1,200 pounds. 

All sections of the republic are suitable for 
cattle, but the favorite portion for fattening 
purposes is the Pacific Coast slope, where on 
an acre and a half of Guinea or pampas grass 
per animal they are prepared for market. The 
advantages of this particular section have at- 
tracted cattle from the other parts of Guate- 
mala, as well as Honduras. The drive from 
the latter country is estimated at 40,000 head 
annually. Meat being abundant and cheap its 
consumption is very high. The late ruling 
price of beef cattle on hoof at the principal 
market, Guatemala City, is $0.04 per pound. 
In 1914 the prices for 122,000 head of cattle 
slaughtered ranged from $0. 0075 to $0.03 per 
pound. In 1915, under a special concession, 
three shipments of cattle — amounting to 2,198 
head — were made to the United States through 
the port of New Orleans. They were sold to 
the packing-houses at Chicago and Saint Louis 
for $0.065 per pound. As evidence of tick in- 
fection was found, further shipments were 
prohibited by the United States Bureau of 
Animal Industry. A recent concession for a 
packing plant near Quiriga, Guatemala, on 


LATIN AMERICA—CATTLE AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 59 


which construction has commenced, promises 
to give an increased impetus to the cattle in- 
dustry in both republics. Arrangements have 
been made for the shipment of the prepared 
beef direct to the United States. The exports 
of cattle and calf hides to the United States 
amounted in 1911 to $11,852; 1914, $6,871; 
1915, $210,805; and 1916, $197,107. 

Honduras.— Honduras has, according to 
conservative estimates, 489,000 (1914) head of 
cattle — 10.57 per square mile and 1.78 per 
capita — with a present annual increase of from 
12 per cent to 15 per cent. It was recently the 
subject of a special investigation of the United 
States Department of Agriculture with regard 
to its livestock prospects, and a favorable 
report was made. The greater number of 
cattle is found in the departments of Olancho 
Choluteca, with numerous herds in the de- 
partments of Cortes, Colon, Atlantida and Yoro. 
Water and shade are abundant, and the Guinea 
and Para grass is at times so rank that it 
hides the cattle that graze in it. Formerly many 
cattle were shipped annually to Cuba, and at 
present large numbers are being sent to Guate- 
mala, Salvador and British Honduras. A beef- 
packing plant near the town of Quiriga, Guate- 
mala, on the Honduras side of the boundary, 
has a capacity of 50 head per day. The con- 
cession controls 100,000 acres of land in Hon- 
duras alone, well stocked. The exports of hides 
to the United States in 1911 amounted-~ to 
$35,563; 1914, $82,332; 1915, $137,773; 1916, 
$325,460 and 1917 to $291,472. 

Mexico.— Due to the recent disturbances in 
Mexico, it is difficult to estimate the extent of 
the cattle industry to-day. In 1902 the num- 
ber of cattle was reckoned at 5,142,457 head, a 
low estimate. At present, the supply of cattle 
for the meat demands of the country is inade- 
quate, so much so that in October 1916 a par- 
tial embargo was placed upon their export, 
which embargo was in May 1917 made com- 
plete. The statement of Consul Philip C. 
Hanna at Monterey, made ‘to Washington 
(Consular Reports, 9 Aug. 1916), is generally 
true for the whole republic: “Large areas 
: over which large herds of cattle 
roamed, are to-day empty pastures. A large 
sum in export duties was collected, but the 
meat supply has been greatly reduced. 
Hr The declared export value of hides and 
bones from this consular district for the year, 
as compared with 1914, reveals the fact that 
there was a falling off of 10 per cent in dry 
cattle hides, 72 per cent in green (or butcher) 
cattle hides, 54 per cent in goat skins, 80 per 
cent in pig skins, and 36 per cent in crude 
bones. One of the many serious problems con- 
fronting the nation at present is the replenish- 
ing of its meat supply and at prices within the 
purchasing power of the poor.” Supplement- 
ing this, Consul Frederick Simpich, of No- 
gales, reported (1916): 
cattle have greatly depleted the herds, but own- 
ers were compelled to sell, in many cases, in 
order to protect themselves. The wholesale 
stripping of the ranches, wherein cows, heifers, 
and all were sold, has discounted the future 
for several seasons ahead.” In 1915, the ex- 
ports from Mexico of cattle amounted to 13,907 
head, valued at $332,699; 1916, 24,919 head, val- 
ued at $556,540. Of cattle and calf hides ex- 
ported to the United States the number of 


“Heavy exports of. 


ounds was: 1911, 22,871,509, valued at 
$2,796,652 ; 1912, 28,264,745, valued at $3,583,851 ; 
1913, 29,559,779, valued at $4,230,382; 1914, 37, 
750,732, valued at $6,367,721; 1915, 50,808,523, 
valued at $8,357,078; and 1916, 44,101,773, val- 
ued at- $7,661,104. The exports of fresh beef 
and veal to the United States in 1914 amounted 
to 212,865 pounds, valued at $14,114; 1915, 3,- 
941,131 pounds, valued at $384,497; and 1916, 
1,316,698 pounds, valued at $127,800. 

Nicaragua.— Nicaragua has about 509,000 
(estimated) head of cattle—10.1 per square - 
mile, and 833 per capita. Cattle raising has 
been up to the present one of the greatest in- 
dustries in the republic, there being produced 
sufficient for domestic demands and a surplus 
available for shipment to Costa Rica, Salvador, 
Honduras and Nicaragua. The number ex- 
ported annually is on an average 50,000 head. 
The departments of Chonales, Leon and Sego- 
via in the western part of the country are ad- 
mirably adapted to the industry, and recently 
(1916) the United States consul at Bluefields 
in a report to Washington recommended very 
highly the territory in his district for cattle 
raising, mentioning it as the only industry 
within the country wherein the producer was 
independent of the middleman, the demand for 
beef being so great that buyers were constantly 
scouring the country for livestock. The prin- 
cipal cattle market is Tipitapa, department of 
Managua. Good grazing land is obtainable at 
from $0.75 to $1 per acre. The exports of 
cattle and calf hides to the United States in 
1911 amounted to $142,589; 1912, $124,403; 1913, 
$205,817; 1914, $173,281; 1915, $358,642; and 
1916, $454,648 and 1917, $460,738. 

Panama.— Panama has, according to the 
Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, 166,937 
head of cattle —5.15 per square mile, and .49 
per capita — with estimated facilities for caring 
for 5,000,000. One-third of the cattle in the 
country are in the province of Chiriqui, the 
other cattle-producing provinces being Cocle, 
Veraguas, Los Santos and Panama. The ex- 
ports of hides to the United States in 1911 
amounted to $102,502; 1912, $112,480; 1913, 
$118,380; 1914, $172,443; 1915, $264,244; 1916, 
$301,633 and 1917, $332,512. 

Paraguay.— Paraguay ranks her cattle in- 
dustry as her chief resource. In 1877 there 
were 200,525 head of cattle in the republic; in 
1886, 729,796; in 1899, 2,283,039; in 1902, 2,460,- 
960; and in 1915, 5,249,043, the rapid increase 
being due to the lack of market, in addition to 
the large number brought in from Argentina 
and Brazil to occupy the cheap grazing lands. 
The natural increase, above those slaughtered, 
is reckoned at 6 per cent annually. The num- 
ber per capita is 5.249, second only to Uruguay 
with 6.518 per capita, and 8.8 times that of the 
United States with .59 per capita. Due to its 
importance as a national asset, the government 
has been very liberal in the matter of granting 
concessions for stock raising and in the elabo- 
ration of meat and its allied industries. As a 
result, at the present time most of the avail- 
able grazing land is taken up by settlers or 
large cattle companies, even in the Chaco, the 
extensive prairie territory lying west of the 
Paraguay River. The existence of cheap land 
has attracted many stockmen from Argentina, 
excellent pasturage being purchasable at from 
less than $1 up to $4 per acre. Land values 


60 LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE 


are reckoned according to their access to trans- 
portation, rather than according to their avail- 
ability for stock raising. A thoroughly regu- 
lated Department of Animal Industry is main- 
tained by the government, and sanitary regula- 
tions are enforced against the introduction or 
spread of the foot-and-mouth disease or other 
plagues. The experts and veterinarians in 
charge are chiefly men that have been educated 
at government expense in the technical schools 
of the United States and Europe.. In addition, 
the Sociedad Ganadera del Paraguay (Live 
Stock Association of Paraguay), an organiza- 
tion of stockmen and business men, under the 
patronage of the banks of the country, has-been 
an important factor. 

The native, or “criollo” (creole), breed is a 
small animal, weighing from 850 to 1,000 
pounds, incapable of putting. on much fat. 
When crossed with European stock it is known 
as. “mestico,». and compares. favorably with 
ordinary unpedigreed stock, and thrives and 
fattens on the luxuriant pasturage afforded the 
year around. Efforts have been successfully 
made to cross the “criollo». with Zebu stock 
from India, and in addition at the present time 
many bulls of the Shorthorn, Hereford, Hol- 
stein and Polled Angus breeds are being intro- 
duced. Of. all the stock in the country, it is 
estimated that 80 per cent is native and 20. per 
cent mixed with European breeds. 

The abundance of pasturage, supporting 
from 25 to 40 animals per 100 acres, with fat- 
tening herbs indigenous to. the upkeep of a 
‘cattle ranch very low as compared with neigh- 
boring countries, and with the introduction of 
more adequate transportation facilities, along 
with refrigerating plants, Paraguay promises 
to be the great livestock region of South 
America. At present no fresh meat is ex- 
ported. In dried beef, or “tasajo,» however, 
the trade has always been considerable, the 
amount exported. in. 1913. being © 3,771,625 
pounds; 1914, 1,638,232 pounds; and 1915, 
2,363,905 pounds. The first shipment of this 
product made to the United States -— 4,500 
pounds— was made in April 1917. It is ex- 
pected that within a year regular shipments of 
refrigerated beef will be made, one packing 
plant, or “frigorifico,» at Trinidad being just 
completed, and the materials for the erection 
of another at Asuncién being now on the 
ground. In 1917, 241,344 hides were exported. 

An increasing number of fat steers is ex- 
ported annually, most of them being purchased 
by the Buenos Aires packers. The number for 
1910 was 11; 1911, 137; 1912, 4,661; 1913, 36,- 
564; 1914, 24,385; and 1915, 29,509. During the 
same period the number of cattle slaughtered 
for local consumption, representing also the 
number of hides produced—of which 90 per 
cent were exported—was: 1910, 343,447; 
1911, 302,375; - 1912, 238,042; 1913, 362,484; 
1914, 318,397;. and 1915, 340,692. The market 
~ price for steers tor local slaughter during 1915 
averaged $20 per head; for export, $25; and 
cows, $14. 

Peru.— Peru is not_a cattle country, other 
than for local needs. The mountainous nature 
of the country and the profits arising from cer- 
tain minerals and special products of the coun- 
try have relegated the livestock industry to a 
minor position. The llama, alpaca and vicufia, 
all native to the region, furnish wool and meat 


AND MEAT INDUSTRY (10) 


in small quantities, domestic sheep raising being 
in addition an industry of some importance. 
As concerns beef and cattle products, a con- 
siderable quantity is imported, the figures for 
1912. being $206,706; for 1913, $118,864; and 
for 1915, $113,193. In addition, in 1913, there 
were imported from Chile cattle to the value 
of $46,834, and from the United States $7,991, 
the former being chiefly for slaughter, and the 
latter for breeding. Of exports, live cattle 
valued at $9,811 were sold in 1912, the amount 
in 1913 being $177,832. Hides of all kinds of 
livestock exported in 1912 amounted to $617,- 
410; in 1913, $930,629. Of this last, cattle hides 
comprised $641, 624, the same item amounting in 
1914 to $521, 947. 

Salvador.— Salvador is essentially an agri- 
cultural country, coffee, sugar and rice 
being the great staples. The result is that 
the cattle industry, other than for dairying and 
domestic consumption, has. been neglected, 
despite the efforts of the government to foster 
it. The number of cattle in 1906 was 284,000, 
later estimates indicating a small increase. So 
small is it in comparison with the size of the 
country and the population that during the 
year 1914 the total exports of hides amounted, 
according to the figures of the Salvador goy- 
ernment, to only $48,669, of which $31,313 went 
to Germany, and $14,906 to the United States. 
Evidently on a different basis of valuation, the 
United States figures regarding imports of 
hides from Salvador are ‘as follows: 1911, 
$32,248; 1912, $45,393; 1913, $69,960; 1914, $78,- 
650; 1915, $135,799; and 1916, $149,577. 

Uruguay.— Uruguay partakes of the ad- 
vantages afforded to the cattle industry by its 
geographical location, being of that group com- 
prising southwestern Brazil, Argentina and 
Paraguay, the natural pasture of livestock. 
The number of cattle in the country (1916) 
was 8,192,602 — 6.518 per capita, the highest in © 
South America, and approximately 17 head per 
square mile. This branch of industry has been 
the main resource of the country, formerly in 
the shipment of cattle on the hoof, the export 
of dried beef, or “tasajo,» hides, beef extracts, 
and in addition, its sheep products, its sale of 
wool alone for 1909 being $18,682,112; 1910, 
$15,036,977; 1911, $19,491,761; and the first six 
months of 1913, $18,740,037. Meat and meat 
extracts (including mutton) were exported in 
1909 to the amount of $6,190,979; 1910, $7,571,- 
611; 1911, $7,017,944; and in the first six months 
of 1913, $1,083,900: during this last period 
slaughter-house products and frozen and 
chilled beef were classified separately, the 
former amounting to $8,404,900, and the latter 


to $3,868,995, a total of $13,358, 795 for the half 


year, the quantity exported since that time 
being greater per annum, as is indicated by 
the imports into the United States of fresh beef 
and veal— 1914, 38,712,846 pounds, valued at 
$3,313,618; 1915, 13,802,565 pounds, valued at 
$1,175,293; and 1916, 116,549 pounds, valued at 
$10,486. The sharp decrease for 1916 is ex- 
plained by the great European demand, a de- 
mand that also called for the re-export of 
18,000,000 pounds of the quantity imported in 
1914. Animal products exported in 1917 were 
valued at $93,456,574. 

Realizing the importance of the meat in- 
dustry, the government of Uruguay has de- 
voted the greatest attention to measures for 


LATIN AMERICA— HIDES AND LEATHER (11) 61 


its encouragement, promoting exhibitions of 
livestock and establishing experiment stations, 
decreeing sanitary regulations with regard to 
the cattle plague, quarantines, abattoirs, certifi- 
cation of meat, etc. In October 1916, the Pres- 
ident recommended to the General Assembly 
the creation of a Department of Live Stock to 
operate under the Ministry of Industries, at the 
same time outlining the need for a central or- 
ganization to direct the industry, to combine in 
one department the various offices in charge of 
inspection, animal diseases, marks and brands, 
and import and export requirements. 
Venezuela.— Venezuela, formerly the home 
of great herds, has to-day about 3,500,000 head 
of cattle, although estimates have given as high 
as 9,000,000. About 500,000 are slaughtered 
annually, the great majority for domestic con- 
sumption. It is estimated that there are more 
than 100,000 square miles available for stock 
raising. On 12 March 1917 a presidential de- 
cree was issued establishing an experiment sta- 
tion near Caracas, to take up the problems of 
intensifying the industries of the republic, in- 
cluding livestock. In the valley of the Orinoco, 
and particularly along the Colombian boundary 
in the state of Tachira, are splendid pastures, 
well watered and of uniform climate, where 
the cattle industry flourishes. The exports of 
hides (principally to the United States) -in 
1913 amounted in round numbers to $1,492,000; 
in 1914, $1,390,000; and the first six months of 
1915, $845,000. Of cattle exported in 1913, the 
valuation was $625,000; in 1914, $285,000; and 
the first six months of 1915, $138,000. In 
addition, a small quantity of dried, salted and 
frozen meat was exported. \. B. GraHAmM, 


Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War 
Trade Board, Washington, D. C. ° 


11. HIDES AND LEATHER IN LATIN 
AMERICA. During war conditions, the price 
of hides and leather became unprecedented. But 
aside from war, the natural world demand is 
increasing faster than the production. During 
the decade, 1890-99, inclusive, the average price 
of hemlock tanned sole leather was $0.1939 per 
pound. At the beginning of 1916 it sold for 
$0:3250, an advance of 67 per cent. Oak tanned 
sole leather in the same period advanced 57.6 
per cent; calf-skin, 58.8 per cent, and oak 
tanned harness, 49.9 per cent. During 1916 and 
1917 a more than appreciable advance was 
made, and leather manufacturers protested 
their inability to secure the raw stock of hides. 
This upward movement was reflected strongly 
in the great cattle states of Latin America and 
in some it was the temporary financial salvation 
during the early commercial depression follow- 
ing the outbreak of the European War — as be- 
ing a staple of immediate and cash demand. 

Despite increasing production, little attempt 
has been made to use hides industrially in their 
respective countries.’ 
. ported in its raw state, despite the fact of the 
vast quantities of tanning materials available 
throughout Latin America — quebracho, man- 
grove, divi divi and innumerable others. These 
tanning materials are, in their turn, particularly 
during the past decade, an important export 
item, many shipments abroad being carried by 
the same bottoms that transport the hides for 
which they are intended. 

As the greatest cattle country of South 
America, Argentina is the greatest producer 


The great bulk is ex- 


of hides. Exports in 1885 amounted to $12.- 
040,113; 1890, $10,931,216; 1885, $15,273,154; 
1900, $13,436,361; 1905, $19,076,544; 1910, $30,- 
711,408: 1911, $34,440,015; 1912, $42.129,576: 
1913, $38,532,700; 1914, 124,552,518 pounds, and 
1915, 182,879,061 pounds. Of this number 46.5 


- per cent was wet and 53.5 per cent dry. In 


this connection it may be stated that all pack- 
ing-houses and most of the metropolitan 
butchers’ hides are wet, while the hides of 
beeves killed for individual consumption are 
usually dry, the former commanding a uni- 
formly higher price, as their texture is devoid 
of the unevenness caused by unequal drying, 
as is‘ frequently the case with the dry hides, 
these latter also frequently showing the marks 
of the unpracticed skinner’s knife. Exports to 
the United States during the fiscal year ending 
30 June 1912, amounted to $15,220,904, and 1916, 
$32,754,929, in addition to goat, sheep and other 
skins. The United States is the greatest buyer. 
Bolivia has many cattle, the greater number 
on ranches, but:many running wild. The ex- 
ports of hides in 1913 amounted to 465 metric 
tons (2,204.6 pounds), valued at $143,916; 1914, 
374 metric tons, valued at $104,666, and 1915, 
613 metric tons, value not stated. Only a small 
part was consigned to the United States. 
Brazil, according to the report of the United 
States consul at Rio de Janeiro (Commerce 
Reports, 26 May 1917), concerning the market 
for shoes, states that local industry in the man- 
ufacture of this article is increasing. Other re- 
ports also indicate that leather is being pre- 
pared from domestic hides in increasing quan- 
tities, due to the availability of so many excel- 
lent tanning materials, not, however, on an ex- 
port scale. Cattle hides to the amount of 
35,075 metric tons (2,204.6 pounds), were ex- 


‘ported in 1913; 1914, 31,434 metric tons, and 


1915, 37,080 metric tons (see LATIN AMERICA, 
CATTLE AND Meat INpuUstry oF). During the 
fiscal year ending 30 June 1916 the exports of 
cattle hides to the United States amounted to 
59,729,930 pounds, valued at $12,282,472. 

Chile, in 1913, exported hides to the value 
of $1,537,850; 1914, $918,260, and 1915, $1,670,- 
750; the export of leather during these last two 
years being $225,627 and $261,342, respectively. 
No exports of consequence have been made to 
the United States until recently, the amount in 
1915 (fiscal year ending 30 June) being 802,585 
pounds, valued at $122,152, and 1916, 6,887,970 
pounds, valued at $1,091,343. Leather to the 
value of $49 was exported to the United States 
in 1915 (fiscal year), and $2,555 in 1916. 

Ecuador exported hides in 1912 to the value 
of $29,839; 1913, $5,604; 1914, $120,730; 1915, 
$66,459; 1916, $148,864. In a statement from 
the United States consul at Guayaquil (Com- 
merce Reports, 13 Jan. 1917), it is said that the 
total for the year 1916 was shipped to the 
United States. Evidently on a different valu- 
ation, the reports of the United States Bureau 
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce give the 
amounts purchased from Ecuador as follows: 
1916,. 2,059,616 pounds, valued at $409,047 and 
1917, 2,217,529 pounds, valued at $613,417. 

Paraguay, during its entire history, has rec- 
ognized the raising of cattle for their hides as 
one of its most important resources, and at the 
present time there is a marked increase in the 
production and export of this staple. The num- 


ber exported, in 1910, was 343,447; 1911, 302,- 


62 LATIN AMERICA— COFFEE INDUSTRY (12) 


375; 1912, 238,042; 1913, 362,484; 1914, 318,397, 
and 1915, 340,692. In 1915 the greatest num- 
ber sent to any one country was 75,175 hides, 
to the United States, the other large purchasers 
being Holland, Great Britain, Argentina and 
Uruguay. Evidently .a part was credited to 


some of the transshipping countries, as the. 


statistics of the United States Department of 
Commerce credit Paraguay with hides as fol- 
lows: 1915 (fiscal year ending 30 June), 129 
pieces (8,531 pounds), valued at $933, and 1916, 
141 pieces (8,632 pounds), valued at $1,733. 
These are the only exports to the United States 
noted within recent years. 

Peru exported hides, in 1912, to the value 
of $617,410; 1913, $930,629; 1914, $641,624, and 
1915, $521,947. United States government 
statistics specify imports of hides from Peru, 
in the fiscal year 1915, at 1,003,134 pounds, 
valued at $174,375, and 1916, 3,263,109 pounds, 
valued at $584,542. 

Uruguay, during the year 1909, exported 
hides to the value of $11,165,155; 1910, $11,- 
147,242; 1911, $9,976,291, and in 1914, 2,079,514 
pounds, valued at $8,015,476. Exports to the 
United States during the fiscal year ending 30 
June 1915 amounted to 21,875,639 pounds, 
valued at $4,117,359; 1916, 44,254,341 pounds, 
valued at $9,275,658, and 1917, 47,314,408 pounds, 
valued at $9,879,167. 

Venezuela exported hides, in 1913, to the 
value of $1,492,000; 1914, $1,390,000, and the 
first half of 1915, $845,000. Her principal 
-market is the United States. On an apparently 
different valuation, the statistics of the Depart- 
ment of ‘Commerce state the imports of hides 
from Venezuela, during the fiscal year ending 
30 June 1915, as 7,033,382 pounds, valued at 
$1,639,456, and 1916, 7,530,524 pounds, valued 
at $1,901,421. 


Regarding the northern group of Latin- 


American states, comprising Costa Rica, Cuba, 
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Hon- 
duras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Sal- 
vador, reference is made elsewhere in this work 
(see LATIN AMERICA, CATTLE AND MEaT INDUS- 
TRY OF). Of exports to the United States in 
1916, Central America contributed $1,523,209 
worth of hides, with the greatest proportion 
coming from Nicaragua, Panama and Hon- 
duras. During the same year Mexico exported 
to the United States hides to the value. of 
$7,661,104; and the West Indies, including for- 
eign possessions, $3,433,804, of which Cuba con- 
tributed $2,922,298. W. B. GRAHAM, 

Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War 

Trade Board, Washington, D. C. . 


12. COFFEE INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. The coffee crop of the world, ac- 
cording to the New York Coffee Exchange, 
amounts to about 2,403,324,000 pounds, or 18,- 
207,000 bags of 132 pounds each annually. The 
crop of 1915-16 was above the average and is 


estimated at 2,487,792,000 pounds, or 19,756,000 
bags. Of the total world’s crop marketed in 
1915-16 (19,192,317 bags) the United States 
. took 47 per cent and Europe 53 per cent. And 
of the total taken by the United States (9,099,- 
276 bags) 8,973,863 bags, or 98.6 per cent, were 
the growth of Latin-American countries, while 
we received only 125,413 bags, or 1.4 per cent, 
from all other countries. 

The following will show the amount of 
coffee in bags of 132 pounds imported into the 


United States from Latin America and all 
other countries during the past five years: 


Total From From Per cent 
all Latin other Latin 

YEAR kinds America countries America 
1915-16...... 9,099,276 8,973, 863 125,413 98.6 
1914-15 . 8,474,928 8,328,331 146,597 98.3 
1913-14...... 7,587,336 7,415,975 171,361 O77 
1912-13...... 6,538,869 6,366,861 172,008 97.4 
1911-12....... 6,706,070 6,249,218 456,852 93.2 


Brazil.— Coffee is by far the most import- 
ant product of Brazil, and constitutes fully 60 
per cent of the total value of all exports. Not 
only is coffee the leading product, but Brazil 
leads the world in the production of this staple, 
its average crop the past five years being 72 
per cent of the world’s crop for the same 
period. 

The states producing the bulk of the coffee 
crop are Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas 
Geraes and Bahia. Of the total crop the Sao 
Paulo district produces about 80 per cent, the 
Rio de Janiero districi 1514 per cent and the 
Bahia and Victoria districts 4% per cent. Thus, 
in 1915 it is estimated that the crop of the Sao 
Paulo district amounted to 14,000,000 bags (132 
pounds each), that of the Rio de Janeiro dis- 
trict to 2,750,000 bags and that of the Bahia 
and Victoria districts to 750,000 bags. 

The largest crop ever produced in Brazil 
was that of 1906-07 amounting to 19,654,000 
bags, or 2,594,328,000 pounds, but in later years 
the crops averaged much less than this, the 
average production for five years (1910-15) 
being about 13,125,000 bags, or 1,732,500,000 
pounds. 

The importance of the coffee crop as a 
source of wealth to Brazil may be illustrated by 
the following tabular statement showing the 
value of coffee exported as compared with that 
of other exports: 


Coffee’s 
er- 

Value of Value of centage 

EAR coffee exports other exports to total 
1910202017, 23 $127 ,212,875 $182,793,563 41.0 
1912 hats Ss 225,992,915 136,253,036 62.4 
TOES 6 ah eee ta: 197 ,936 , 296 115,691 , 782 63.1 
19949 ee ees: 129,713,673 91,825,356 58.5 


The following table shows the exports of 
coffee (in bags of 132 pounds each) from 
Brazil to the various countries named during 
the years ended 31 July 1914 and 31 July 1915. 
It is interesting to note changes in the markets 
brought about by the European War: 


COUNTRY EXPORTED TO 1914 bags 1915 bags 
United.oratess tot ee eee 5,817,628 5,880,619 
TANCE Fh Rowe. Go Oc tles 1,902 , 647 1,808,815 
Sweden: ixgyeF.. eee. des. See 245,851 1,346,839 
TAs. 54. dane edehicie eke ne eee 240, 844 688,252 
Great: Britaine cn. cen eon eine 272,493 479,701 
jtway 1) Boies, PRT 36,375 306 , 669 
Detimarkitnn is eee ee 45,413 279, 865 
ATCO TIN ais ie tte cat he ncuteieioua AG 240 ,932 261,457 
British South Africa. 2.0.07." 123 ,690 183 ,457 
CECE ste EE EI OEE REE 7,500 117 ,800 
Spahr westad bye ete ie lee eee 106,475 111,843 
Hg ynte ftittce Morita Sheen 51,820 85,310 
WP ett Ay oie oe pe se et whore hens 35,654 52,763 
Algeriaia - 195.23, Fees Ua 72,758 49 ,425 
Heletiyn. welaa et wens ae 26, 684 39,692 
Ghibraltars te cis acs ot) eee 12,200 14,100 
Tittey in asia. oe. eke 64, 682 2,550 
Rumania, cron ers cose 11,813 2,220 
Turkey in, Europe...) ..i.2..0%- 70,122 2,000 — 
SISSIA. weds co Pee esi koh ae ee 18,913 800 
Germany 2 U7 aad 1 ,876;138-0 2 eae eae 
Atistria ts-13. Reese. eee 1750333173; nee eee 
Belviumt4d.:. gts 2 aipyreeweeee as 522 195) “Saas 
JATEOL ETS <.0t4:cctlcis aie a naee cen e 53,352 56,170 
Totalix: . Saree. ees 14,533,581 13,401,515 


ans TY EY 


LATIN AMERICA — COFFEE INDUSTRY (12) 63 


A comparison of the exports for 1915 with 
those of 1914, the year immediately preceding 
the World War, shows a decrease of only 
1,132,066 bags, or 7.7 per cent. The increase 
of 1,605,334 bags exported to Scandinavian 
countries may be accounted for by the cessation 
of any direct exports in 1914 to Germany and 
Austria. The United States continues to be 
the largest purchaser of Brazilian coffee, the 
average imports from that country in the five 
years, 1910-15, amounting to 5,646,000 bags, or 
nearly 45 per cent of the entire crop.. The total 
value of all the coffee exported from Brazil to 
the United States in 1917 was $110,052,616. 


Colombia. Of all the Latin-American 
republics, Colombia ranks next to Brazil both 
in the production and exportation of coffee. 
Of the average value of all exports from 1911 
to 1914, inclusive, amounting to $24,309,000, the 
average value of coffee for the same period was 
$12,144,000, or 50 per cent of the whole. The 
coffee crop of the republic averages about 126,- 
450,000 pounds, or 958,000 bags (132 pounds 
each) annually. About 25,000 bags are re- 
tained for home consumption, the remainder 
being shipped to the United States and to_Euro- 
pean countries. The United States is Colom- 
bia’s best customer for its coffee crop, its im- 
ports from that country averaging more than 
70 per cent of the annual. production. The im- 
ports in 1915-16 amounted to 109,363,456 
pounds and in 1916-17 to 118,410,000 pounds. 

The principal coffee producing districts are 
the department of Cundinamarca, which pro- 
duces the renowned Bogota brand; the Ocana, 
Cucuta and Bucaramanga districts, in the de- 
partment of Santander, and in the Tolima and 
smaller valleys of the Cordilleras. It is esti- 
mated that there are 125,000,000 coffee plants 
in these districts, and as they are valued at 30 
cents each, they represent an investment of 
$37,500,000. 

Guatemala.— Coffee is the principal crop of 
Guatemala. The districts best suited to its 
culture are Antigua, Barbereno, Costa Chuva, 
Alta Verapaz, Costa Cuca, Costa Grande, 
Pochuta and Tumbador. In some of the dis- 
tricts coffee of very fine quality is grown at an 
altitude of 5,000 feet, but the yield of the trees 
is comparatively light. The total area under 
cultivation is about 98,800 acres. Germans own 
and control between 50 and 60 per cent.of the 
plantations. The best coffee is grown in the 
department of Alta Verapaz. 

The total production of coffee in Guate- 
mala in 1913 amounted to 104,623,600 pounds, 
and in 1914 to 91,852,200 pounds. Prior to the 
World War about three-fourths of the crop 
was marketed in Europe, Germany taking the 
largest share. The following statement shows 
the exports to the various countries just prior 
to the war, 1913: 


EXPORTED TO Pounds Bags 

RETA Vs, Sides. Bs Sys aes Sie 53,765,128 407 , 311 
United States 2) 2h. PP ere 21,400,385 162,124 
Great Britain 6 ee oR Sue. 10,773,165 81,615 
AMStia Ungar yy foods cscicbe rs cued 4,247 , 353 32,177 
SOME AMmericd.... ai. nittu a ore ops sss 1,824,060 13,819 
Netherlands 2s7 ere. AT, 412 ,484 3,125 
Bramcestit . AGA wh GELS | | 143,723 1,089 

RROLAL oe Bek eten See mak Pee 92 , 566,298 701 , 260 


During the past two years special efforts 
have been made to create a greater demand for 


Guatemala coffee in the United States, which 
have met with marked encouragement. In 1915 
the United States imported from that country 
60,363,716 pounds of coffee, which was an in- 
crease of 15,758,677 pounds, or 35 per cent over 
the previous year, and was 66 per cent of the 
entire crop. It has been estimated that in 1916 
the United States took from 75 to 80 per cent 
of the coffee produced that year. 

Costa Rica.— Coffee planting has been 
carried on in Costa Rica for many years, and 
until banana culture assumed its present pro-- 
portions was the leading industry. At one time 
as much as 45,000,000 pounds were produced, 
but the crops now average much less, due to 
the enormous crops of other Latin-American 
countries and the consequent fall in value. But 
Costa Rican coffee is still highly prized in 
Europe, especially in England, where, on ac- 
count of its exceptional quality and flavor, it 
commands a good price. According to a recent 
official publication the total exports from all 
Costa Rica from August 1915 to April 1916 
amounted to 37,134,182 pounds. The exports 


for the years 1911-12 to 1915-16, inclusive, 
were as follows: 
Bags 

YEAR Pounds (132 lbs.) 
199{LTYO SO, COMO eY, SOF, 26,979,893 204,393 
{orssisinta oh. sulky] ei eons 28,702,108 217,440 
PETERS PPR Se pe ied 39,058,444 295,897 
TOS eNS. Move gene Bribe, uta at 26,910,407 203,867 
POLS —16 3 he ES a 


37,134,182 281,320 


Of the amount exported in 1915-16 Great 
Britain took 50 per cent, the United States 42 
per cent, the remainder going to France, Spain, 
Italy, Panama and Chile. Prior to the World 
War Germany, in 1913, was the second best 
market for Costa Rican coffee; but the United 
States has now taken this rank, its imports in 
1915-16 having reached 13,292,365 pounds, 
which is 6,521,400 pounds, or 92 per cent, 
greater than the imports in 1914-15, and 
9,269,000 pounds, or 230 per cent in excess of 
the imports in 1913-14. Coffee to the aggregate 
value of $3,779,747 was exported from Costa 
Rica in 1917. 

Nicaragua.—The value of coffee production 
in Nicaragua, as compared with other products, 
is indicated by the export statistics for five 
years (1910-15), which show that of the total 
average value of all exports coffee represented 
55 per cent. The following tabular statement 
gives the quantity and value of coffee ex- 
ported to different countries in 1913 and 1915, 
and indicates the changes that resulted from 
the World War: 


Bags 
(132 Ibs.) 


COUNTRY Pounds Value 
France. (1913 )0) etic erste 10,293,437 77,981 $1,715,186 
France (1915)). sas wt 4,382,319 33,199 607 , 737 
Germany (1913)....... 7,653,182 57,979 1,844,262 
(sérmaany.( O05) ttevere el eee ase. oye, a eR Ube ot Oo 
Great Britain (1913)... 3,321,692 25,164 595 ,613 
Great Britain (1915)... 4,068,766 30,824 409 ,171 
United States (1913)... 3,715,012 28,144 615 , 644 
United States (1915)... 6,303,693 47,755 668 , 393 
tal vl 1.5) cutee. diese sate 621 , 667 4,711 97,445 
Haly/A915) . Bos of 3,045,698 23,074 258,166 
Other countries (1913).. 662,028 5,015 122,845 
Other countries (1915).. 626,626 4,747 64,317 

"Total (i983)? -20).% 26,267,018 198,994 $4,990,995 
Totak 1985); ewe. 18,427,102 139,599 2,007 , 784 


Nicaragua’s coffee trade with the United 
States increased immensely within the five years 


64 LATIN AMERICA — FRUIT TRADE OF LATIN AMERICA (13) 


(1910-15), the imports rising from 1,144,182 
pounds in 1911-12 to 9,074,757 in 1915-16, or 
693 per cent in the five years. The exports of 
coffee in 1917 reached the amount of $3,000,000. 

Venezuela. Great efforts have been made 
since 1910 to increase the coffee, bearing area 
of Venezuela. The crop of 1910 amounted to 
about 440,920 bags. Of this about 160,000 bags 
were expected to be received at the ports of 
La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Guantu and Sucre 
and the balance from Maracaibo, Vel de Coro, 
etc.. The exports from Maracaibo in 1911 
were 54,716,265 pounds, of which 37,062,068 
pounds were sent to the United States. In 
1912 the exports were 71,457,942 pounds, of 
which the United States took 50,273,888 pounds. 
The average exports for the preceding 10 years, 
1902-11, was 53,130,326 pounds. The imports 
of coffee from Venezuela from 1911-12 into the 
United States were as follows, in bags of 132 
pounds each: 1911-12, 356,890; 1912-13; 376,- 
296; 1913-14, 378,435; 1914-15, 548,963; 1915- 
16, 556, 101 bags, the increase in the five years 
amounting to 199211 bags, or nearly 56 per 
cent. 

Ecuador.— While the quantity of coffee 
produced in Ecuador does not compare with 
that of most other South American countries, 
it is still one of the most valuable agricultural 
products of the republic. Considerably more 
than half of the crop is sent to Chile. The 
following shows the distribution of the crop to 
various countries in 1914 and 1915: 


COUNTRY 1914 1915 
Cittle 23 aoe lasts 2 2,468, 317-1bs~ ..2);528,.834, lbs. 
Prance #1 hicn << ba oe ee 1,323,725) Ibs. 599 ,938 Ibs. 
United’ States .2 4 Senn. 808 , 815 lbs. 175,143 lbs. 
Spain “8 ao. ook «Mae 767,298 lbs. 558,956 lbs. 

Great Britain............ 466 7979 TbSHy ase.o bossa ake 
Panamar vast 2 ee ec « 193 ,536 lbs. 478,077 Ibs 

Germanyii Ps; Fst ass... 1463-260 IbsOil.ghie G23 
léalyetied .... aX. SES. 2 ae 287 , 833 lbs. 
POT ih 6s focrars con's ROE 0 a Oe pee ee 16,437 lbs. 
"Totals til oak ate 6,474,930 lbs. 4,645,218 lbs. 


Mexico.— The coffee crop of Mexico, which 
may be produced in the highland regions 
throughout the republic, varies. from 77,000,000 
to 110,000,000 pounds annually, about 40,000,000 
pounds, or 43 per cent, being exported, and the 
remainder held for home consumption. Of 
course the amount of the latter is largely con- 
trolled by the market price of the product, 
Mexican coffee of the best brands being highly 
esteemed. The imports of coffee from Mexico 
into the United States from 1911-12 were as 
follows in bags of 132 pounds each: 1911-12, 
258,758; 1912-13, 197,890; 1913-14, 374,133; 
1914-15, 399,289; 1915-16, 377,521 bags. This 
shows an increase in the five-year period of 
118,763 bags, or about 46 per cent. 

Salvador.— The coffee crop of Salvador, as 
represented by its exports, in 1910-11 amounted 
to 74,000,000 pounds, of which 64,000,000 were 
exported and 10,000,000 retained for home con- 
sumption. The crop of 1911-12 is estimated at 
approximately 70,000,000, of which 60,000,000 
were exported and 10,000,000 held for home 
consumption. According to government statis- 
tics the average exportation of coffee for the 
past 10 years is 60,553,377 pounds, and the 
average production 70,533,377 pounds, or 534,- 
344 bags of 132 pounds each. The imports of 
coffee into the United States from Salvador 
since 1911 in bags of 132 pounds are as follows: 


1911-12, 86,466 ; 1912-13, 66,335 ; 1913-14, 66,353 ; 
1914-15, 119,874; 1915-16, 88,298. 

Haiti The coffee industry of Haiti was 
seriously affected by the continuous political 
upheavals of recent years. In 1906 nearly 60,- 
000,000 pounds of coffee were exported to the 
United States, whereas we received from that 
republic in 1916 only 3,320,000 pounds, and an 
quae aR of only 3,585,000 pounds from 1910 to 
191 

Other Countries of Latin America.— The 
coffee crops of the other and lesser producing 
countries may be illustrated by the exports 
from each to the United States during the 
three years (1913-16) as follows (in bags of 
132 pounds each): 


COUNTRY 1915-16 1914-15 1913-14 

Dominican Republic............ 26,785 27,048 8,136 
Parameter eee eee 4,959 7,659 2,337 
HMonduris ts) Sits en 3,974 5,045. 5,037 
MBA ile eee ee ae 82 2,151 -108 
Chilled, ohad oc veto ae ei eS 190 1,921 1 
Petia? hs 2 a Ti AU 2 537 1 
Argeritina. S2i Ps he ae LIT Ree 650 


Marrion WILcox. 


13. FRUIT TRADE OF LATIN AMER- 
ICA. The most impressive fact in the history 
of the cultivation of valuable fruits in the 
Latin American tropics is not that so much 
has been accomplished but that so’ much still 
remains to be achieved. The past success 
amply justifies a confident outlook for the 
future in this great industry. The true propor- 
tions of the opportunity presented are brought 
out more clearly by reversing the ordinary 
arrangement of statistics, and beginning with 
the smaller items. Thus, a study of imports 
into the United States during the fiscal year 
ending 30 June 1916 shows: 

Value of oranges imported from Costa Rica 
$4,343; from Honduras $1,495; from Panama 
$914; from Jamaica $43,843; from ‘Cuba $9,826. 
Value of lemons imported from Mexico $239 ; 
from Cuba $1,800; from Brazil $33. Value of 
pineapples imported from Cuba $960,832; and 
of preserved pineapples from Cuba $35, 867 ; 
from Haiti $300; from Guatemala ‘$1, 901. 
Value of all other fruits (with the exception 
of bananas) imported from tropical or sub- 
tropical America: Costa Rica $810, dutiable; 
Guatemala $240, free; Honduras $5,142, free, 
and $48, dutiable; Mexico $3,113, free, and 
$16,532, dutiable; Jamaica $1,301, free, and 
$29,272, dutiable; Cuba $63,614, free, and $404,- 
701, dutiable; Dominican Republic $127, free; 
Haiti, $644, free, and $280, dutiable; Brazil 
$272, dutiable; Colombia $4,122, free; WVene- 
zuela $75, free. 

The quantities and values of the bananas 
imported during the same period of 12 months 
into the United States from the new world’s 
tropics were given as follows by the Depart- — 
ment of Commerce of the government of the 
United States: From ‘Costa Rica 4,058,000 
bunches, valued at $2,268,844; from Guatemala 
3,811,750 bunches, valued at $958,189: from 
Honduras 9,702, 79] bunches, valued at $1,964,- 
822: from Nicaragua 1,548, 500 bunches, valued 
at $250,883 : from Panama 4,516,307 bunches, 
valued at $2,113,855; from Mexico 1,527,025 
bunches, valued at $424,631; from Jamaica 
4,926,944 bunches, valued at $1,445,392; from 
Cuba 2,859,021 bunches, valued at $1,072,035; 
from the Dominican Republic 289,091 bunches, 


LATIN AMERICA —FRUIT TRADE OF LATIN AMERICA (13) 


valued at $140,264; from Colombia 2,710,047 
bunches, valued at $1,264,992. And in the short 
month of February 1917, imports of bananas 
into the United States were: 1,527,620 bunches, 
valued at $519,489, from the Central American 
states and British Honduras; 48,017 bunches, 
valued at $18,026, from Cuba; and from South 
America 226,000 bunches, valued at $113,000. 

In Porto Rico (which we include in the 
present survey, although that island can no 
longer be called strictly “Latin American») 
the successful cultivation of grapefruit, oranges 
and pineapples attracts attention. In the year 
1916 shipments from Porto Rico to the United 
States included 296,613 boxes of grapefruit, 
valued at $836,932, and 404,367 boxes of oranges, 
valued at $790, 667; pineapples valued at $1,176,- 
319 and canned pineapples $122,858, etc. Porto 
Rico’s experience demonstrates the possibility 
of expanding the fruit industry by diversifying 
the products; there is no practical limit to the 
varieties of valuable fruits that the Latin 
American tropics can produce; and “In the 
Caribbean fruit trade the United States’ mar- 
ket is, with a trifling exception, the only prof- 
itable one.” (Consult Jones, C. L., ‘Caribbean 
sore of the United States, New York 
1916. 

The records of achievement recorded in the 
first paragraph as “justifying a confident out- 
look” relate principally to a single species, 
the Musa sapientium or banana the fruit of 
which was not produced on a large scale in 
the Latin American tropics until citizens of 
the United States had established the banana 
trade, in 1866,— at first importing from Coldén 
only —— and then had developed the industry 
during years and decades of unremitting effort. 
Many groups of citizens of the same country 
have been actively engaged in this work of 
development and share the’credit accorded to 
all for the successful application of northern 
initiative, enterprise and capital to the prob- 
lems of tropical agriculture. It is especially 
important to remember and register the circum- 
stance that such efforts have been in a wide 
sense constructive or well nigh creative; that 
northern commercial methods have supplied 
new transportation and communication facili- 
ties, and (taking in their stride obstacles that 
for centuries had been regarded as insur- 
mountable) have expelled tropical fevers from 
their strongholds. As Mr. F. U. Adams writes 
in his ‘Conquest of the Tropics? (New York 
1914): “In 1871 there was not a mile of rail- 
road in all of Central America [the Republics 
of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua 
and Costa Rica] with the exception of a short 
line having its terminal at Puerto Cortez, Hon- 
duras. There were no dependable foot or 
wagon roads from its capitals. There 
was no steamship service from the United 
States or from any part of the world. 

There probably was no inhabited spot on earth 
more isolated. These republics were cut off 
not only by the sea but also by barriers of 
pestilential lands, which the natives dreaded to 
cross and which the outside world could not 
enter. To-day these former wildernesses con- 
stitute one of the most productive agricultural 
sections of the globe. To-day the ships from 
all the world enter the beautiful harbors of 
Central America and land their passengers in 
ports which are as sanitary as those of Massa- 
VOL. 17—5 


65 


chusetts. To-day most republics of Central 
America are served with well-managed and 
modernly equipped railway lines. . . . Who 
performed these miracles?” His answer is that 
they were wrought by citizens of the United 
States “who had the imagination, the courage | 
and the ability to attack and conquer” the prob- 
lems of tropical wildernesses; and he adds that 
when actual results had demonstrated to the 
world that the industrial and commercial con- 
quest of the tropics was possible, this should 
have proved to the United States that it was 
the bounden duty of its people, its press and 
its government to encourage and foster the 
speedy development of those regions, not for 
the mere purpose of obtaining money rewards, 
but with the larger, broader and truly states- 
manlike object of “obtaining from the tropics 
such of its other products as would add to the 
happiness and raise the standard of living of 
the people of the United States» And in other 
passages of the same book the benefits accru- 
ing to the citizens of the Latin American 
republics are discussed with equal interest. 
Under the command of a single northern com- 
pany 60,000 trained men are working in the 
Latin American tropics at the present time. 
Tens of millions of dollars have been ad- 
vanced to those who otherwise would not have 
been able to use their lands for banana cul- 
tivation— such loans having been made, <at 
reasonable or relatively low rates of interest 
—much lower than the prevailing rates for 
similar advances in the same localities —to 
residents in or citizens of Costa Rica,:Panama, 
Colombia, Guatemala and other Caribbean re- 
gions that have become important sources of 
fruit supply. The problems of tropical sanita- 
tion have been attacked and mastered — not 
less vigorously attacked and not less thoroughly 
mastered on the extensive banana plantations 
than in the Canal Zone, Panama, or in Havana 
and Santiago de Cuba. 

The last-mentioned achievement — the mas- 
tery of problems of tropical sanitation for the 
safeguarding of the health of all who labor 
on the fruit plantations — deserves our special 
consideration at this moment. The head of 
the Tulane School of Tropical Medicine of 
New Orleans observes: “The vast improve- 
ments there [in the Latin American tropics] 
do the genius of American medical men a 
credit’ that only future ages will appreciate. 
Every one knows what great sanitary work the 
American Government has accomplished in the 
Canal Zone, but few realize that a similar im- 
provement has been worked in the rich fruit 
centres.» The facts adduced in support or con- 
firmation of this statement are substantially 
the following: In 1900, about three years be- 
fore the United States took over the Panama 
Canal and began the work of sanitation in the 
Canal Zone, more than 15,000 men were at 
work fora fruit company on Caribbean tracts 
of coastal lands which had been regarded al- 
ways with fear and aversion, as though’ they 
had been necessarily and permanently disease- 
breeding areas. But the rate of mortality 
among laborers and officials was not high, for 
the simple reason that the basic principles of 
that system which afterward made possible 
the completion of the Panama Canal (q.v.) 
without terrible sacrifices of human life had 
already been studied, tested, accepted, and the 


66 LATIN AMERICA — RICE PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA (14) 


appropriate remedies had been already applied. 
“In the selection of sites for new towns and 
settlements careful. attention was given to the 
requirements of drainage. . All adjacent swamps 
were cleared, and. the grass and underbrush 
kept cut about the houses. The laborers were 
verbally instructed how to. take precautions 
against the known dangers. of. these districts, 
and the medical employees of the company 
made regular inspections: of their places of 
living,» to enforce compliance with such: in- 
structions. “Hospitals were erected and prompt 
measures taken to; isolate any victim of con- 
tagious diseases.” , With the co-operation of the 
various governments, strict: quarantine was en- 
forced against certain foreign ports whenever 
such action. became advisable. The medical 
officers of the banana companies very promptly 
turned to good account the discovery (confirmed 
practically in 1898) of the causes of yellow fever 
and malarial fevers, and employed the most 
effective methods for the extermination of the 
disease-bearing insects; indeed, there seems to 
be no good reason for withholding endorsement 
of the assertion that sanitary work and experi- 
ments conducted by the pioneer banana. com- 
“panies in Costa Rica and elsewhere in the years 
between 1873 and 1899 were of value to those 
medical scientists who finally- were “able to 
announce to the world that the mysteries of 
yellow -fever and malaria had been. solved.” 
After 1899 all houses occupied: by employees 
not immune to such fevers were: screened — 
sometimes doubly screened — to: exclude per- 
nicious-mosquitoes. Petroleum was used freely 
in stagnant: pools and slow-running ‘streams. 
All expedients for eliminating. the tropical 
menaces to health: were tested and, if approved, 
installed.on a liberal scale. For example, we 
may» mention the adoption ‘of the: following 
sanitary measures -at “Puerto Barrios, Guate- 
mala: All low-lying. places: near that town 
were filled in or flushed with salt water and 
danger-spots: above high tide were — drained. 
The camps out onthe neighboring plantations 
were located on high, well-drained: ground, and 
all grass and other vegetation kept low for 
150 yards around these camps; tanks ‘holding 
the water supply were thoroughly «screened; 
all surface water was. oiled at stated periods. 
The results are satisfactory; for no case of 
any quarantinable disease has appeared during 
several recent years at this port or’ at: others 
to. which similar’ preventive. measures» and 
methods have been applied:. 

The banana lands owned by a single nog 
ern company are 150,000: acres in extent, and 
those owned. by its competitors and by ‘inde- 
pendent growers whe sell tos the various im- 
_ porting houses, about 370,000 acres. Even now, 
the total area devoted to this agricultural. in- 
dustry approximates, 520,000 acres. We have 
mentioned already the. development of railroad 
transportation facilities.in the Central American 
republics. that stood most in néed. of . them. 
Not. less ‘noteworthy is another outgrowth of 
this international dealing in the fruits of the 
Latin American -tropics— the establishment; of 
new steamship transportation facilities. .Qne of 
the, fruit companies’ ‘operates 90 vessels» (248,- 
607 tons in all), with accommodations: for 3,000 
passengers and carrying about 360,000 tons 
annually of general. freight for the public — 
thus opening not only new markets to manu- 


necessary landing pier. 


in importance, 


facturers in the United States but also open- 
ing the markets and the opportunities of the 
great world to;the people of Central America 
who: had. been ‘shut off from’ both during long 
and sometimes depressing, though never, to the 
people there who inherit traits of the Indomi- 


table Iberian, wholly discouraging ages.— Pro- 


fessor’ C. L. Jones, of the University. of Wis- 
consin, writes: “One company chiefly engaged 
in the exploitation of the banana trade claims, 
with its allied interests, to have expended $200,- 
000,000 in the [Latin] American tropics. It 
reports its resources devoted to Caribbean. de- 
velopment as $88,867,408.27 Again, on pages 


296-297 of ‘Caribbean Interests of the United 


States, he says that the fruit trade has under- 
gone a development similar. to that of the 
asphalt. industry. | Production to some extent 
may be left in the. hands of small planters 
anda minor part of the total amount marketed 


is still thus grown; but the work even in this 


stage of the industry is more efficiently per- 
formed by aggregations of capital which can 


assure a steady supply and transportation facili- 


ties that can be depended upon. The. small 
planter must ordinarily .market his fruit by 
sending it to tidewater or to the railroad on 
muleback. The large company can build branch 
railroads at a fractional part of, the cost of 
animal transportation; and in this manner it 


-can exploit regions which otherwise lie too. far 


distant to. permit their profitable cultivation. 
If. a steamship cannot. berth at-his dock, the 
small producer is at a disadvantage. because 
he can neither buy a lighter nor build. the 
Moreover, in many of 
the Caribbean banana regions the public author- 
ities neglect to supply him with these facilities. 
Shipments of fruits to foreign countries, he 
adds, cannot take place in the ordinary cargo 
vessels. Specially constructed steamships with 
refrigerating appliances are required, to keep 
the. fruits from ripening too rapidly. “As a 
result of these conditions the export of fruit 


in the Caribbean has come to be almost entirely 


controlled by a few large concerns, the pioneer 
companies.» Particularly interesting are the 
same writer's comments on Cuba and Honduras. 
In his opinion the fruit trade of Cuba, still 
in its infancy, shows promise of healthy. de- 
velopment. Bananas for home consumption 
are grown over. the entire island, but are ex- 
ported only from the north coast at the éx- 
treme eastern end where soil and climate are 
especially favorable. The Cuban citrus fruit 
(especially grape fruit) industry is increasing 
His studies of Central Ameri- 
can countries lead him :to say that the pros- 
perity of the foreign trade of Honduras “de- 
pends, even more than in Costa Rica, upon the 
banana industry. In the production of 
fruit the country has. great. possibilities. As - 
yet, this development .is confined chiefly to the 
north-east coast, near the ports of Tela, Ceiba 


sand Trujillo” Hhe heterogeneous population of 


the Trujillo region is almost entirely dependent 
upon the banana trade, which in Honduras has 
apparently unlimited possibilities of develop- 
ment. 
-MARRION Wicox. 

14..RICE PRODUCTION IN LATIN 
AMERICA. The use of rice as an article of 
food is more uniformly widespread in Latin 
America than in the United States. It is the 


LATIN AMERICA — RICE PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA (14) 67 


mainstay of the laboring classes, and, by itself 
or incorporated with other foods, is found, as 
well, on the tables of the wealthy. From the 
universal demand for this cereal, it is found 
to a greater or less extent in all of the Latin 
American states, with the greatest acreage in 
Brazil, where its cultivation is mentioned as 
early as the middle of the 15th century. From 
the days of its earliest production it has been a 
subject of government control and encourage- 
ment. At the present time it is being fostered 
by the Ministry of Industry and Agriculture, 
whose efforts are directed to an increased pro- 
duction to reduce the cost of living—a real 
service in view of the fact that the greater part 
of wheat and other breadstuffs is imported. 
Under the auspices of this ministry there was 
published in 1914 a comprehensive work on the 
subject by Dr. L. Granato, entitled ‘O Arroz,? 
and in connection with the conclusion of ar- 
rangements for a direct shipping line between 
Brazil and Japan, plans were perfected for the 
introduction of several thousand laborers “to 
be employed in accordance with the regulations 
of the national authorities in the cultivation of 
rice, etc”. With experienced labor and the nat- 
ural facilities offered by the Brazilian climate, 
lands and natural streams adaptable for irri- 
gation uses, the future of the country as a rice 
producer is promising. 

Brazil— The chief rice-raising state of 
Brazil’ is Sao Paulo. In 1912 its crop 
amounted to 222,992,643 pounds, 1913, 178,013,- 
824 pounds, and 1915, 192,000,000 pounds. Of 
the other states, Minas Geraes, producing about 
half as much as Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, 
Rio Grande do Sul, Ceara, Parahyba, Santa 
Catharina, Maranhao, Para and Espirito Santo 
follow in the order named. The total production 
of the whole of Brazil was estimated in 1911 at 
15,823,372 bushels, a figure that is exceeded at 
the present time. Due to the domestic demand, 
only a negligible quantity of rice is exported, 
but a large amount is imported each year, the 
quantity for 1913 being 17,110,195 pounds, and 
for 1914, 14,377,073 pounds, of which about 70 
per cent was purchased in India, the remainder 
coming principally from Germany, the United 
Kingdom and The Netherlands... Of purchases 
from the United States the quantity in 1912 was 
191 pounds, valued at $8; 1913, 13,530 pounds, 
valued at $636; 1914, 190 pounds, valued at $9; 
1915, 274,104 pounds, valued at $11,789; 1916, 
700,574 pounds, valued at $26,904; and 1917, 
126,429 pounds, valued at $4,973. Due. to 
the high customs duties and surtax, amount- 
ing to about 3% cents: per pound, the cost of the 
low and medium grades of foreign rice when 
offered on the domestic market is too high to be 
able to compete with the local cereal of the 
same quality and the greater part. of all the 
imports, consists of the fancy high-priced grain, 
the favorite grades being those known as the 
Patna and. Siam: 

Argentina.— In accordance with the policy 
of the government in its scheme for the en- 
couragement of national industry, to make. the 
country self supporting, the Ministry of Agri- 
culture of Argentina has lent its assistance to 
the rice-growing industry, which has. long 
passed its experimental stage. Due to climatic 
fitness, the northern part of the republic has 
seen the greatest development, In a special 're- 


port by the United States consul at Rosario 
(15 June 1915) to Washington, it was stated 
that approximately 12,000 acres were under rice 
cultivation at that time, a decrease from the 
19,664 acres shown by the government statistics 
of 1908 Of this latter the number of acres de- 
voted to rice in the various provinces and ter- 
ritories was. divided as follows: Santa Fé, 
5,421; Tucuman, 4,823; Buenos Aires, 2,469; 
Cordoba, 1,997; Entre Rios, 1,838; Misiones, 
1,530; Salta, 598; Jujuy, 526; Pampa, 334; San 
Juan, 54; Corrientes, 54; La Rioja, 10 and 
Santiago del Estero, 10. In a supplemental re- 
port (2 June 1916), certain changes are indi- 
cated in the localities of production, Tucuman, 
Salta and Jujuy being mentioned as the prin- 
cipal producers, with cultivation on a smaller 
scale in San Juan, Mendoza, La Rioja, Cata- 
marca, Corrientes, the Chaco and Misiones. 
Experiments have been made with the prin- 
cipal varieties of Chinese, Japanese, Italian and 
Spanish rice, and those known as vialonne, 
kinska and Valencian are mentioned as being 
best adapted for the localities under experiment. 
To place the industry upon a stable basis, ex- 
perts from Japan were called to study and re- 
port upon rice-growing possibilities. The 
climate, soil and irrigation of the northwestern 
provinces of Salta, Jujuy and Santiago del 
Estero have been reported suitable for rice 
culture on a large scale, with particular recom- 
mendation for the departments of Campo 
Santo and Santa Ana in Salta and La Banda 
in Santiago del Estero. Later reports will be 
made regarding possibilities in‘Catamarca and 


‘La Rioja, where conditions are already known 


to be favorable. 

The national production of rice doubled 
after the breaking out of the European War, 
due to the general increase in the prices of 
cereals of all kinds resulting from the general 
world. demand, and, particularly as concerns 


_ Argentina, the excessive oversea freight rates 


on imports. In the three provinces alone of 
Tucuman, Salta and Jujuy, the acreage de- 
voted to rice growing in 1916 was five times 
that of 1915, and with the exception of certain 
localities — notably Corrientes — where drought 
was .experienced, the yield per acre was the 
maximum. As indicating the increase, the 
province of Tucuman may be taken as an ex- 


~ ample, the yield being, in 1913, 4,190,000 pounds; 


1914, 7,120,000 pounds; 1915, 15,430,000 pounds; 
and in 1916, between 15,000,000 and 16,000,000 
pounds (estimated). 

On the occasion of a competitive exhibition 
of native rice (1917) held at Buenos Aires, un- 
der the auspices of the Argentine Rural Soci- 
ety, it was pointed out that with an acreage of 
from 60,000 to 75,000 acres devoted to this 
cereal, the country would no longer be depend- 
ent on imports. The amount bought abroad 
amounted, in 1913, to 97,721,190 pounds; 1914, 
123,417,935 pounds, of which the greater part 
came from Italy and the British possessions. 
The United States (supplying none in 1911 and 
1912) sold Argentine, in 1913 (fiscal year end- 
ing 30 June), 7,619,152 pounds; 1914, 3,000 
pounds; 1915, 3,923,611 pounds; 1916, 3,442,042 
pounds; and 1917, 36,887,737 pounds. 

In accordance with the policy of encourage- 
ment given to the industry, the National and 
Provincial. governments have perfected agree- 


68 LATIN AMERICA — RICE PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA (14) 


ments, the former through the Banco de la 
Nacion, providing for the milling and grading 
of rice at actual cost to the grower. In addi- 
tion, plans have been made for giving expert 
instruction as to its culture; for furnishing 
suitable seed and other inducements; and sea- 
sonable markets. 

Peru.— Peru is one of the Latin American 
countries whose production of rice corresponds 
closely to domestic requirements. In mention 
of the industry (Bulletin of the Pan American 
Union, February 1917), rice culture is stated 
as having been a national industry for several 
centuries, the importance of which has only 
recently come to be realized. In the same arti- 
cle the annual production is estimated for the 
past several years as being from 70,000,000 to 
100,000,000 pounds. While obsolete methods of 
growing and handling the cereal are still in 
vogue in parts of the country, there has been a 
noticeable advance generally in the utilization 
of modern appliances, due to the encourage- 
ment of the government through the Ministry 
of Public Industry. Rice mills are being in- 
stalled, for which there is a growing demand 
for equipment from the United States (Com- 
merce Reports, 3 Feb. 1916). 

The quality of the Peruvian rice is stated 
by the United States consul at Lima (Report 
of 10 June 1916) as being superior and. better 
than that imported from China, a fact that ac- 
counts for both imports and exports appearing 
in the annual trade reports of the country, as 
the former are intended to supply the cheaper 
grades of consumption, releasing for foreign de- 
mand the higher priced domesticproduct. Recent- 
ly, however, tn order to conserve domestic food- 
stuffs, an embargo has been placed on its expor- 
tation, a measure that has been the subject of 
criticism.. The exports of rice amounted in 1912 
to $289,411; 1913, $380,690; 1914, $305,484; and 
1915, $788,061. During the same period the im- 
ports were, 1912, $598,399; 1913, $546,313; 1914, 
$404,592; and 1915, $603,700. Of the imports since 
1911, those from the United States were as fol- 
lows: 1911 (fiscal year ending 30 June), none; 
1912, 30,000 pounds, valued at $1,200; 1913 and 
1914, none; 1915, 541,662 pounds, valued at 
$24,255; 1916, 57,890 pounds, valued at $2,410; 
and 1917, 493,912 pounds, valued at $21,395. 

Costa Rica.—The annual per capita con- 
sumption of rice in Costa Rica is at least 100 
pounds, it being eaten at least twice a day by 
every inhabitant of the republic. The total 
consumption exceeds 30,000,000 pounds per 
year, from 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 pounds being 
imported annually, notwithstanding the heavy 
domestic production, largely on the mountain 
and hill slopes of the interior of the country. 
Of late there has been a movement toward the 
utilization of the swamp lands in the neighbor- 
hood of Port Limon, it being practicable to 
flood these during certain months of the year. 
The imports of rice — formerly 60 per cent from 
Germany, 22 per cent from the United States, 
10 per cent from England, and the remainder 
from China and other countries — have lately 
been as follows: 1913, $143,391; 1914, $160,- 
311; and 1915, $108,649. The amount imported 
from the United States since 1912 is as follows: 
Fiscal year ending 30 June 1912, 1,034 pounds, 
valued at $38; 1913, 4,558 pounds, valued at 
$152; 1914, 10,236 pounds, valued at $421; 1915, 
876,014 pounds, valued at $34,944; 1916, 541,547 


pounds,’ valued at $21,031; and 1917, 195,357 
pounds valued at $8,043. 

* On 28 April 1917, the United States consul 
at San José reported that the available supply 
of rice in the country amounted to 1,721,800 
pounds, and that the present year’s crop, ac- 
cording to government estimates, would be 
5,131,600 pounds. 

_ Paraguay.— As regards natural facilities — 
climate and irrigation — for the production of 
rice, the conditions in Paraguay are ideal. The 
production, however, has never been equal to 
the demand and it is only recently that the gov- 
ernment, through the Banco Agricola, has taken 
the matter seriously in hand. The area de- 
voted to rice growing in 1915, amounting to 
2,480 acres, was more than double that of 1914, 
and in 1916 the acreage was still greater. The 
production for 1915 was estimated at 40,000 
bushels. The numerous river bottom lands, 
convenient to the larger population centres, are 
being investigated and plans are being formu- 
lated for the study of the problem of efficient 
rice culture by Japanese experts. The price of 
refined. rice, 26 May 1915, was $0.14% per 
pound, and the domestic production, unrefined, 
averaged about $0.04 per pound. Early in 1916 
the Banco Agricola instructed its agents that 
the Committee of Agriculture and Industry, to 
protect the producers of agricultural products, 
had authorized the purchase of Paraguayan 
grown rice in the husk, at $0.2%4 per pound de- 
livered to the agencies of the bank. This mini- 
mum price was intended merely to maintain 
values and did not prevent others from pur- 
chasing the product at the same or a higher 
figure. This activity is within the scheme of 
the same institution for several years, in pur- 
chasing rice in the open market and furnish- 
ing it to the poorer classes at cost. Due to the 
fact that rice appears in the government statis- 
tics under the heading of foodstuffs, the quan- 
tity imported cannot be estimated. Before the 
war the greater part came from Germany. 
Much is purchased through Buenos Aires com- 
mission houses. Imports from the United 
States began with 1915, 37,212 pounds, valued at 
$2,323; 1916, 44,440 pounds, valued at $2,250. 

Ecuador.— Rice is the principal article of 
diet of all Ecuadorians and is raised locally to 
a considerable extent. The production varies 
from 7,500 to 10,000 tons annually, being sub- 
ject at long intervals to serious droughts. In 
1916, due to prolonged lack of rainfall, the crop 
was reported by the United States consul (23 
March 1916) as almost a total failure. The 
average imports of rice, 1909 to 1913, amounted 
annually to 4,600 tons, the valuation being, 1909 
and 1910, per ton, $44; 1911, $49; 1912, $47; 
and 1913, $52. In 1916, the price had advanced 
to between $70 and $75 per ton. The most pop- 
ular rice consumed is that imported from Peru, 
the next being the domestic grain, while: that 
from India ranks third. The production is 
largely in the hands of small farmers and the 
crop is usually sold or bartered in-its raw 
state to the local merchants, who send it to mill, 
receiving back 100 pounds of the hulled product 
for every 160 pounds of the unhulled. There 
are 19 rice hulling machines in the country. 
Imports from the United States amounted, in 
1911 (fiscal year ending 30 June), to 5,625 
pounds, valued at $132; 1912 and 1913, none; 
1914, 6,771 pounds, valued at $283; 1915, 127,- 


LATIN AMERICA — RICE PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA (14) 69 


092 pounds, valued at 
pounds, valued at $1,955; 
pounds, valued at $37,774. 

Remaining States of Latin America— 
Special industries and special products of many 
of the remaining Latin American states are 
such that the local production of rice is of 
comparatively small importance, and; while 
carried on to a greater or less extent, it is in- 
cluded in the statistics of “agricultural prod- 
ucts.” As an industry, for example, in Bolivia, 
the United States consul (Supplement to Com- 
merce Reports, 18 April 1917) states that it has 
“remained undeveloped because of the lack of 
adequate means of transportation.” The im- 
ports of rice for the year 1915 amounted to 
$209,963, of which the United States contrib- 
uted $13,530. 

Chile raises very little rice, although a great 
deal is consumed in the country. The United 
States consul at Valparaiso (Commerce Re- 
ports, 4 Aug. 1915) states that the annual im- 
ports, taken on the basis of the statistics and 
tables of 1913, total 40,350,340 pounds, valued 
at $935,281, the United States supplying 99,427 
pounds, valued at $2,305; United Kingdom, 
484,240 pounds, valued at $11,224; Germany, 


$5,106; 1916, 50,000 
and 1917, 709,379 


15,684,406 pounds, valued at $363,546; Italy, 
9,217,532 pounds, valued at $213,649; India, 
8,356,536 pounds, valued at $193,695; Java, 


80,688 pounds, valued at $1,870; Peru, 5,247,499 
pounds, valued at $121,631; all other, 1,180,012 
pounds, valued at $27,361. In 1914, the im- 
ports amounted to $668,357, and in 1915, $1,106,- 
187. No imports were made from the United 
States in 1911, 1912 or 1913. In the fiscal year 
ending 30 June 1914, however, 19,315 pounds, 
valued at $270, were purchased from the United 
States; 1915, 1,829,700 pounds, valued at $74,- 
346; 1916, 7,295,271 pounds, valued at $312,387: 
and 1917, 9,407,693 pounds, valued at $449,940 
—a remarkable gain, bespeaking the Chilean 
appreciation of the United States product. 
Colombia consumes vast quantities of rice. 
As to its domestic production, the United 
States consul at Barranquilla (Supplement to 
Commerce Reports, 30 June 1915) says: “Rice, 
an important article of consumption, is culti- 
vated by small farmers in a primitive way, the 
chief implements being a few hides, wooden 
poles, and a winnowing fan of palm leaves.” 
In view of the favorable climate, the unlimited 
facilities for irrigation, and, above all, the ex- 
pressed intention of the government to foster 
agrarian pursuits, along with the present, in- 
creasing price of foodstuffs, the time seems 
opportune for making rice culture of com- 
mercial importance. Prior to the European 
War, the quantities imported amounted to ap- 
proximately $800,000 annually, 86 per cent being 
furnished by Germany. At the present time 
Great Britain and the United States are supply- 
ing the market. During the fiscal year ending 
30 June 1912, the United States supplied 73,353 
pounds, valued at $2,741; 1913, 45,740 pounds, 
valued at $2,113; 1914, 17,680 pounds, valued at 
$629; 1915, 2,584,076 pounds, valued at $98,013; 
1916, 8,934,829 pounds, valued at $343,105; and 
1917, 3,383,644 pounds, valued at $142,775. 
Uruguay is essentially a pastoral country, 
and, with the exception of wheat, has, until re- 
cently, given but little attention to the raising 
of cereals. As to her imports of rice, the fig- 
ures are included among other “food products.” 


No imports were made from the United States 
in 1911, 1912, 1913 or 1914. Those made in 
1915 amounted to 93,175 pounds, valued at 
$4,635; 1916, 48,660 pounds, valued at $2,513; 
and 1917, 1,758,226 pounds, valued at $88,329. 

Venezuela raises a comparatively small 
amount of rice. According to -the United 
States consul at La Guaira (Supplement to 
Commerce Reports, 17. April 1916), “rice is 
grown, but in far from sufficient quantity, and 
it is one of the principal articles of import.” - 
Imports in 1913 amounted to $288,607, of which 
The Netherlands supplied $150,986: Germany, 
$106,088; the United States, $16,281; Great 
Britain, $9,635; and France, $14,104. In 1914, 
the imports amounted to $396,906, of which 
The Netherlands supplied $196,052; Germany, 
$86,922; the United States, $63,630; Great Bri- 
tain, $5,837; others not reported. In 1915, the 
amount was $619,952, of which the United 
States supplied $424,518; Great Britain, $91,- 
415; Trinidad, $23,866; Spain, $24,029; and 
France, $656 (Supplement to Commerce Re- 
ports, 17 April and 29 Dec. 1916). According 
to the reports of the United States Department 
of Commerce (1915, 1916), the exports from 
the United States to Venezuela for the year 
ending 30. June 1912, amounted to 46,388 pounds, 
valued at $1,490; 1913, 42,650 pounds, valued at 
$1,589; 1914, 25,018 pounds, valued at $800; 
1915, 4,253,399 pounds, valued at $175,408; 1916, 
6,559,777 pounds, valued at $262,448; and 1917, 
9,411,231 pounds, valued at $424,389. 

Guatemala in 1913 raised 3,501,000 pounds 
of rice; 1914, 22,753,200 pounds; and 1915, 
24,015,000 pounds, indicating an increased in- 
terest in the development of this industry, a 
condition resulting from general world condi- 
tions and the appreciation of the possibilities, 
in an agricultural way, of the country. In 1916 
the production, due to labor demands for other 
industries, fell to 13,554,700 pounds, estimated 
(Commerce Reports, 5 April 1917). Rice, being 
the principal article of diet, large quantities 
are also imported, the quantity from the United 
States being, in 1911 (fiscal year ending 30 
June), 164,675 pounds, valued at $4,164; 1912, 
130,330 pounds, valued at $3,513; 1913, 68,200 
pounds, valued at $2,524; 1914, 81,295 pounds, 
valued. at $3,422; 1915, 671,299 pounds, valued 
at $27,172; 1916, 235,814 pounds, valued at 
AS. and 1917, 181,546 pounds, valued at 

Honduras, according to the report of the 
American Consul at Tegucigalpa (Supplement 
to Commerce Reports, 7 July 1915), is pecu- 
liarly adapted to the raising of rice, but never 
“on a large scale until highways are built and 
transportation facilities afforded the people.” 
In a later report, his successor at the same 
place said (Supplement to Commerce Reports, 
3 May 1916): “Honduras at present imports 
a vast quantity of rice; yet Honduran rice is 
considered the best on the market, and avail- 
able rice lands in the Puerto Cortes. district 
cover a large area.» The production in 1915 
amounted to 3,252,000 pounds. The imports, 
1913-14 (fiscal year ending 1 August), 
amounted to $82,124, of which the United 
States supplied $72,218, and Germany, $9,310; 
1914-15, total, $112,627, of which the United 
States supplied $110,194, and Germany, $1,421 
(Supplement to Commerce Reports, 18 Dec. 
1916). Evidently on a different basis of valua- 


70 LATIN AMERICA — RUBBER INDUSTRY (15) 


tion, the United States Department of Com- 
merce gives the exports of rice to Honduras as 
follows: 1912, 1,101,230 pounds, valued at $33,- 
267; 1913, 1,083,045 pounds, valued at $44,599; 
1914, 1,501,472 pounds, valued at $65,101; 1915, 
2,119,055 pounds, valued at $83,748; 1916 2,264.- 
256 pounds, valued at $90,650; and 1917, 2,601,727 
pounds, valued at $115,157. 

In Nicaragua “some rice is grown, but not 
enough for local requirements” (Supplement to 
Commerce Reports, 1 Dec. 1915). The imports 
of this cereal amounted in 1913 to $172,645; 
1914, $134,882; and 1915, $145,550. Imports 
from the United States have been as follows: 
1911, 330,393 pounds, valued at $10,242; 1912, 
583,476 pounds, valued at $17,328; 1913, 812,911 
pounds, valued at $32,448; 1914, 697,612 pounds, 
valued at $29,719; 1915, 807,672 pounds, valued 
at $32,601; 1916, 1,164,645 pounds, valued at 
re 232: and 1917, 1,529, 180 pounds, valued at 

Banat Sarnia: adaptable to agriculture, 
is in a backward state, due to lack of trans- 
portation facilities, the principal industry being 
that of utilizing the natural products of the 
country, balata, bananas, etc. While suited to 
rice culture, very little is raised. The imports 
of this cereal in 1914 amounted to $351,000. 
Imports of rice from the United States 
amounted in 1912, 170323 pounds, valued at 
$4,864; 1913, 170,111 pounds, valued at $7,614; 


1914, 281,516 pounds, valued at $11,839; 1915, 
_ 4,861,604 pounds, valued at $195,031; 1916, 
2,300,577 pounds, valued at $90,573; and 1917, 


1,959,561 pounds, valued at $93,223. In a report 
by the United States Consul General (Com- 
merce Reports, 14 Aug. 1915), it was stated 
that the preference in imports was for the 
grains known as Siam No. 1 and Saigon No. 1, 
formerly procurable from Hamburg, but pur- 
chased at present in San Francisco. Some do- 
mestic United States rice has been purchased 
at New Orleans. 

Salvador is one of the Latin American 
countries raising sufficient rice for its own 
needs and a surplus for export. In 1914 the 
area under cultivation was 27,000 acres, pro- 
ducing 12,344,000 pounds. During the same 
year, the exports amounted to $10,983, of which 
the United States received $4,032; Guatemala, 
$2,050; Nicaragua, $3,632; Honduras, $366; 
Panama, $197; Costa Rica, $702; and France, #4. 

Mexico produces a large quantity of rice, 
but, due to the large domestic consumption, 
quantities have to be imported every year, par- 
ticularly at present on account of recent politi- 
cal and industrial troubles. The area under 
cultivation in 1914 was 41,000 acres, producing 
33,921,000 pounds. Figures regarding importa- 
tion as a whole, for recent years, are not avail- 
able, but the imports from the United States 
amounted in 1912, 21,621 pounds, valued at $9,- 
381; 1913, 439,937 pounds, valued at $22,711; 
1914, 1,292,466 pounds, valued at $55,573; 1915, 
1,742,531 pounds, valued at $76,716; 1916, 6,099,- 
932 pounds, valued at $229,196; and 1917, 7,616,- 
038 pounds, valued at $346,452. In 1914, Mexico 
exported to Cuba rice to the amount of 1,451,- 
692 pounds, valued at $44,734. 

Cuba raises sugar and tobacco, lands are 
dear and labor is in great demand, a combina- 
tion of elements that militates against the com- 
mercial exploitation of rice in competition with 


the fields of the Orient. While some rice is 
raised, its quantity is negligible and as a result 
the great demand of the island is met by im- 
portation. The imports in 1913 amounted to 
279,952,741 pounds, valued at $7,772,634; and in 
1914, 250,641,198 pounds, valued at $6,529,735. 
In 1913, Germany supplied, in round numbers, 
106,000,000 pounds and British India, 61,000,000 
pounds; the respective quantities in 1914 being 
44,000, 000 and 48,000,000 pounds. Imports from . 
the United States amounted in 1912, 9,140,407 
pounds, valued at $246,214; 1913, 669, 179 pounds, 
valued at $28,793; 1914, 11,378,020 pounds, val- 
ued at $414,768; 1915, 25,340,501 pounds, valued 
at $999,810; 1916, 49,127,404 pounds, valued at 
$1,897,354; and 1917, 21,906,928 pounds, valued 


~ at $891,181 — Cuba being the best customer of 


the United States in this product. 

Special Agent Garrard Harris in a report 
to Washington (Commerce Reports, 27 Jan. 
1916), calls particular attention to the high 
quality of-the rice demanded for Cuban con- 
sumption. The varieties in universal demand: 
are the Rangoon, or “Semilla,» as it is gener- 
ally termed; the Calcutta, otherwise known as 
“Old Hard Patna, > or “anilla viejo»; the Siam 
Garden, - called “anilla nuevo,” and a small 
quantity of Valencia rice, the last named in 
packages and called locally “Bomba,” similar 
to the Domestic Japan so well known on the 
New Orleans market. 

The Dominican Republic is concerned with 
the tobacco, coffee and cacao industries and 
very few cereals are raised, rice being grown 
to only a small extent. The imports of this 
cereal in 1913 amounted to $736,751; 1914, 
$485,776; 1915, $908,876; and 1916, $1, 080,068. 
The United States supplied, in 1911 (fiscal year 
ending 30 June), 35,000 pounds, valued at 
$1,007; 1912, 43,703 pounds, valued at $1,498; 
1913, 54,290 pounds, valued at $2,367; 1914, 
48, 750 pounds, valued at $1,418; 1915, 6,706, 158 
pounds, valued at $289,874; and 1916, 9.301 067 
pounds, valued at $369,770. 

Haiti, as regards industrial conditions, is 
closely allied with the Dominican Republic. 
The production of rice is exceedingly small. 
Imports from the United States in 1912 (fiscal 
year ending 30 June) amounted to 71,660 
pounds, valued at $2,725; 1913, 109,055 pounds, 
valued at $4,357; 1914, 33 5659 pounds, valued at 
$1,253; 1915, 6,706, 158 pounds, valued at $289,- 
874: 1916, 9,301,967 pounds, valued at $369,770; 
and 1917, 15,476,048 pounds, valued at $681,837. 

W. B. GRAHAM, 
Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War 
Trade Board, Washington, D. C. 


15. RUBBER INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. Latin America holds the cradle 
of the rubber industries of the world, in the 
southwestern section of the great basin of the 
Amazon, where the “black hevea” is at its best, 
and Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador share in 
providing its most favored habitat. It was 
from this region that the first specimens of rub- 
ber were sent to Paris by a scientific expedi- 
tion in 1736. It should be remembered, how- 
ever, that historical mention of the use of rub- 
ber among the native Indians of that country 
had been made 200 years before, but without 
attracting serious attention. Although the rub- 
ber production of the Amazon basin has been 
for the last few years overshadowed by the 


LATIN AMERICA — RUBBER INDUSTRY (15) 71 


yield of the great rubber plantations of the 
East, the seeds, plants and stumps with which 
those plantations were established came from 
the Amazon and to-day the Amazonian hevea 
(Hevea Brasiliensis) occupies 1,500,000 acres 
-in Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, 
southern India, Borneo and Burma. ~ Notwith- 
standing even these widespread enterprises in 
cultivated rubber, the fact remains that the 
most remarkable rubber producing region of 
the world lies in the valley of the Amazon. It 
extends from the Atlantic Ocean on the east 
to the southern boundary of Colombia on’ the 
west, a distance of 3,000 miles. This valley, 
perhaps 200 miles across at the Atlantic end, 
broadens toward the south until it is 1,500 miles 
across, comprising a total area of about 
2,400,000 square miles. By far the greater part 
of this territory lies in Brazil, but parts of 
Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia are in- 
cluded. Practically the whole region is cov- 
ered with forests, and it is estimated that 
hardly more than 5 per cent of this vast area 
has been exploited by the rubber gatherers. 

In the larger survey, however, Latin Amer- 
ica contributes to the markets of the world six 
different kinds of rubber from as many differ- 
ent species of plants. Their market names and 
sources are as follows: 

Para rubber — obtained from several varieties of Hevea, 


chiefly H. Brasiliensis, though usually a mixture, sometimes. 


containing rubber from Sapium Taburu, and, separately, 
that from Micrandia siphonioides; produced in the states of 
Para and Amazonas, the government province of Acre, and 
the states of Maranhao and the northern parts of Matto- 
Grosso and Goyaz, of Brazil; and in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia 
and southeastern Colombia. 

Ceara, or Manicoba rubber, also Ceara scrap — obtained 
from several species of Manthot, mainly M. Glaziovii and 
M. dichotoma; produced in northeastern Brazil, chiefly in the 
state of Ceara. 

Colombia Virgen, or Cartagena scrap — obtained from 
several species of Sapium, mainly S. Tolimense and S. verum; 

roduced in Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, British Guiana, and 
ocalities in Central America. i 

Mangabeira, or Bahia rubber, and Matto-Grosso sheets — 
obtained from Hancornia speciosa; widely distributed 
throughout Brazil, but collected chiefly in the states of Bahia, 
Pernambuco and Matto-Grosso, and to some extent in 
Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Sado Paulo. 

Caucho rubber, Mexican strips, Centrals, etc.— from 
species of Castilloa, principally C. Ulei in Peru and Ecuador, 
and C. elastica in southern Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, 
Honduras, Salvador and Guatemala, and in Trinidad and 
Tobago. 

Guayule rubber — obtained from the shrub Parthenium 
argentatum; produced in northern Mexico. 


In the Amazonian Basin, where Para rubber 
originates, there are three districts in which 
rubber gathering is active, all lying south of 
the river and along its southern tributaries: 
(1) The island section, including the numerous 
islands forming the Amazonian delta and yield- 
ing what is commonly termed “island rubber” ; 
(2) a district in the neighborhood of Manaos, 
including the lower reaches of the Rio Purus 
and the Rio Jurua and a part of the Rio Ne- 
gro; (3) the upland districts of Bolivia, Peru 
and Ecuador. The product of all these dis- 
tricts is known as wild Para rubber, that of the 
“Up-river” country (above Manaos) being gen- 
erally “hard cure,” and that from the more 
easterly sections, “soft cure” The wild Para 
rubber of the Amazon Valley is regarded as the 
best raw rubber supplied to the world’s mar- 
kets. Its excellence is attributed by some au- 
thorities to a probable mixing of the saps of 
several different trees, but by the resident rub- 
ber gatherers the superior quality is declared 
to be due to the soil and climate of the region, 


which are not duplicated in any of the sections 
where the same varieties of rubber-producing 
trees are cultivated in plantations. Whatever 
the true reason, the industrial fact is that man- 
ufacturers hold that the wild Para rubber of 
the Amazon is absolutely dependable as’ to 
quality, while “plantation Para” needs a cer- 
tain amount of manipulation before it can be 
worked through the processes commonly em- 
ployed with unvarying success for wild Para. 
The production of Para rubber is largest - 
in the island district, extending from the mouth 
of the Amazon about 500 miles up the river, 
and comprising a multitude of low, tide-flooded 
islands and the low alluvial shores of the main 
stream and its affluents from the south. Here 
the principal rubber-yielding tree is the “white 
hevea,” a variation of Hevea Brasiliensis, re- 
garded by botanists as having “migrated” down 
the river from its original habitat'in the up- 
land region near’ the headwaters toward the 
southwest. Its white color is attributed to the 
peculiar whitish lichens which grow upon its 
trunk in the down-river country. On the 
higher lands the lichens are dark gray or black, 
giving rise to the title “black hevea.” This 
explanation, however, does not account for the 
decided difference in the cortex of the two 
trees even when found growing close together, 
nor for the “red hevea” growing in both dis- 
tricts. The trees are scattered through the 
forest, generally from 200 to 300 feet apart, 
although occasionally in groups of two to six. 
A trail is laid out to cover from 130 to 150 
trees, a distance of about six miles. The 
hevea sap flows very slowly, and requires from 
100 to 150 tappings a season. In some sections 
a new tapping is made every day, in others 
every other day. At the camps the rubber is 
separated from the sap by drying out the 
moisture over a smoky fire made in such a 
way that the smoke contains a considerable 
proportion of acetic acid and creosote —a slow 
process. A great saving of time in this coagu- 
lation process has been accomplished by the 
introduction of a new treatment of the raw sap 
with a mixture of benzine and wood alcohol. 
The output of Amazonian rubber is con- 
trolled primarily by: the cost of getting the 
rubber to navigable water, and also to a large 
degree by the reluctance of laborers to go far 
into the forests. The population which is de- 
pended upon for laborers is apathetic, due to 
an anzmic condition of health, this in turn 
being the result chiefly of climatic conditions. 
The rainy season begins in November, and 
from March to May the entire river country 
is subject to flooding, in some localities the 
waters rising as much as 50 feet. Owing to 
the low gradient the water is very slow in 
running off. The impossibility of maintaining 
roads under such conditions operates oppress- 
ively against development of the industry.. 
Whatever rubber collecting is done must begin 
not earlier than May and be completed by the 
end of October. On the higher lands toward 
the western and southwestern part of the basin 
the rainfall is less and the floods run off more 
rapidly and the rubber season is longer. Com- 
plaint is made that the average laborer works 
but 100 days in the season, and that in a large 


part of the rubber-producing region the work 


could be and should’be carried on for 200 days, 


7 LATIN AMERICA — RUBBER INDUSTRY (15) 


adding from 50 to 60 per cent to the annual 
output. 

The figures for the 1916 output of wild 
rubber in the Amazonian region are only par- 
tially complete. They show that in that year 
17,747 tons were shipped from Manaos to New 
York and European ports, and that 38,682 tons 
were shipped from Para to the same destina- 
tions, a total from these two principal ports of 
56,329 tons. Of the whole, 20,334 tons went to 
Europe (26,792 tons in 1915) and 35,995 tons 
to New York (33,597 tons in 1915). The 
world’s yield of plantation (cultivated) rubber 
for 1916 is officially estimated at 160,000 tons. 
The latest available complete figures are those 
for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1913: they 
are quoted here for purposes of comparison. 
The output of the Amazon valley in that year 
was 43,362 tons. Of this 31,362 tons were pro- 
duced in the upper rivers section, including 
parts of the Bolivia and Peru rubber districts, 
and 12,000 tons in the lower Amazon country. 
As classified, this output consisted of 16,971 
tons (39.12 per cent) of “Fine Hard Para”; 
8,860 tons (20.44 per cent) of “Entre-fine” and 
“Fraca” (medium-fine and weak); 7,400 tons 


(17.07 per cent) of “Sernamby” (scraps and 


niggerheads) ; and 10,131 tons (23.37 per cent) 
of “Caucho” Outside of this yield other 
Brazilian states shipped about 4,000 tons, mostly 
Ceara rubber. The total Brazilian output 
for that year was therefore about 47,000 tons, 
or about 40 per cent of the world’s production. 
_ The territory which produces Ceara rubber 
includes the Brazilian states of Ceara, Piauhy 
and Bahia. The Manihot trees from which this 
kind of rubber is collected thrives on compara- 
tively poor soil, on desert plains and dry hill- 
sides up to an elevation of 3,500 feet above the 
sea. It withstands the long drought from May 
to November, and is indifferent to occasional 
hoar frosts. There are some plantations of 
the Manihot in Brazil, and tapping is begun as 
early as the second year. The yield of this 
district is about 4,000 tons annually. 

North of the Amazon the Hevea Brasil- 
icnsis does not grow in commercial quantity, 
but the Hevea Benthamiana is plentiful and 
yields an excellent rubber. As a rubber dis- 
trict, however, this territory has not been seri- 
ously exploited, except in the Rio Araguaya 
district near the Atlantic coast. H. Bentham- 
ana is plentiful also along the river Tocantins, 
south of the mouth of the Amazon. 

In Colombia there are three rubber-produc- 
ing districts: in the southern and southeastern 
section, along the valleys of the Japura and 
Ica rivers and the Rio Negro; in the north, 
along the valleys of the river Magdalena and 
its tributaries; and in the northwest in the 
basin of the river Atrato. The production is 
chiefly “caucho,” although a considerable quan- 
tity of fine Para is collected from the “black 
hevea” of that section. Heretofore the system 
of collecting the “caucho” sap has included 
cutting down the trees, so that the productive 
area has been constantly diminished. This prac- 
tice is being regulated by law, and eventually 
will be abolished. The exports of all rubber 
from Colombia in 1915 amounted to a value of 
$91,953. 

In Peru the rubber district embraces the 
departments of Loreto and San Martin and 


parts of Junin, Huanaco and Cuzco, including 
the valleys of the rivers Huallaga, Maranon, 
Ucayali and Putumayo. This region yields 
some of the finest Para and a much larger 
quantity of the best caucho. In this country 
there is a dependable supply of laborers — na- 
tive Indians —to be had at no other locality in 
the Amazonian basin. 

Bolivia's rubber-yielding territory covers the 
northern part of that country, including the 
valleys of the Rio Beni, Rio Mamore, Rio 
Madre de Dios and other headwater affluents 
of the Rio Madeira. 

The eastern part of Ecuador lies in the most 
favored section of the Amazonian basin and 
produces both fine Para and caucho. On the 
Pacific coast near Guayaquil some plantations 
have been started. 

In Venezuela the rubber country lies along 
the southern border and along the basin of the 
Orinoco. The available sources are Hevea 
Benthamiana and Hevea Guyanensis. Large 
plantations have been made in Trinidad and 
Tobago, but with indifferent results. Other 
varieties will be tried. 

In Panama rubber-gathering is one of the 
native occupations. The source is a variety 
of Castilloa. In 1915 the exports amounted to 
70,604 pounds, valued at $18,874. 

In Central America various species of Cas- 
tilloa flourish on both sides of the mountain 
chain, and small plantations have been estab- 
lished in most of the countries. For some 
years the collecting of wild rubber was the 
chief industry of eastern Nicaragua, but the 
increasing supply of East Indian plantation 
rubber in the market has so lowered the price 
that the pursuit has become unprofitable. The 
same conditions exist in Honduras, the dealers 
being unable to pay living wages to the laborers. 
As a consequence, rubber-gathering has nearly 
ceased. 

In British Honduras the rubber industry is 
carried on along the banks of the Mullins River 
and in the valleys of its tributaries, along the 
Sittee River and the Rio Grande in the south 
and the Sibun River and the upper Belize River 
in the west. There are also several plantations 
in the country. 

In Mexico, south of the parallel of 22° 
north latitude, there are no less than nine 
species of rubber-yielding Castilloas, C. lacti- 
fiua being the most productive. Some of these 
Castilloas flourish on the Pacific coast, some 
in the semi-arid regions and others on the 
humid Atlantic coast lands. The rubber area 
includes the states of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, 
Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeche and the terri- 
tory of Tepic. In recent years large plantations 
of Castilloas have been set out in the 
Soconusco and Palenque districts in the state 
of Chiapas. The “guayule” rubber country lies 
in the northern part of Mexico in what is 
known as the Chihuahua Desert on the great 
central plateau. It covers an area of about 
125,000 square miles, though actually occupying 
only about one-tenth of the acreage. In gen- 
eral its habitat may be delimited as the Texas 
boundary on the north, the northern boundary 
of the Mexican state of Durango on the south, 
the meridian of Santa Barbara, Chihuahua on 
the west and the meridian of San Luis Potosi 
on the east. The plant grows most freely 


LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) 73 


along the lower portions of the slopes and on 
low ridges, but not on the alluvial bottom lands. 
As to elevation, it is found on levels from 2,000 
feet to 10,000 feet aLove the sea, but is most 
plentiful at 6,000 to 6,500 feet, and where the 
rainfall is from 7 to 10 inches annually. The 
average stand is about one plant to each square 
yard. The full-grown plant is 30 to 36 inches 
high and 40 inches in diameter and weighs 
from 8 to 10 pounds. The yield of rubber is 
from 7 to 8 per cent of the weight of the plant. 
It is estimated that the guayule-growth amounts 
to 500,000 tons, with the total possible yield of 
35,000 to 40,000 tons of rubber. The annual 
output is about 5,000 tons. Formerly, and in 
some sections to-day, the guayule plants were 
torn up bodily with the roots. This had the 
effect of extirpating the plant in those locali- 
ties. The conservative practice is to cut the 
plant above the root-stock which sends up new 
branches, and is ready to be cut again in three 
or four years. The guayule rubber is of supe- 
rior quality when a part of its large content 
(30 per cent) of resin is removed. 

The rubber industry of Latin America has 
had to meet the momentous industrial fact of 
the rapid increase in recent years of cultivated 


rubber raised on plantations where labor is’ 


plentiful and cheap. This supply has doubled 
the market offerings since 1908, during which 
the cost of collecting wild rubber has been 
continually increasing. To meet the new con- 
ditions which still larger yields of plantation 
rubber will bring into the market situation a 
reorganization of the labor system and a great 
improvement in transportation facilities seem 
imperative, if the wild-rubber industry is to 
continue prosperous. 
RICHARD FERRIS, 
Editorial Staff of The Americana. 


16. SUGAR INDUSTRY IN. LATIN 
AMERICA. The cane sugar production of the 
world for the past few years has averaged ap- 
proximately 10,280,000 tons or 22,670,400,000 
pounds. Of this quantity the countries of Latin 
America —not including any foreign posses- 
sions in America—produce about 4,138,000 
tons or 9,124,290,000 pounds, which is equivalent 
to more than 40 per cent of the world’s total 
crop of cane sugar. The following tabular 
statement fairly represents the cane crops of 
the countries named (in tons): 


[PTL aye ee, Sie an ate 3,000,000 Mexico...... qe er oo, 000 
Argentina........ 336,000 Central America.. 35,000 
emits itis tres. 263,000 Venezuela....... 20,000 
Brazil. . G6. - .o03« 240,000 Paraguay........ 2,821 
Dominican Repub- Colombia-:.. 34. 2 1,667 
TFET) ARS. 150,000 a 


The United States, the largest consumer of 
sugar per capita of all other countries, in 1915- 
16 imported from all sources 2,455,366 tons or 
5,414,081,941 pounds of cane sugar, and of this 
quantity 2,451,329 tons or 5,405,180,430 pounds 
were imported from Latin America, leaving 
only 4,037 tons or 8,901,585 pounds brought in 
from all other countries. Our imports from 
Latin America increased from 1,963,485 tons in 
1912-13 to 2,451,329 tons in 1915-16, or 25 per 
cent. 

Cuba.— The republic of Cuba is now the 
largest cane-sugar-producing country in the 
world. For a long time it ranked next to 
British India, but since the establishment of the 
republic it has risen to the first rank. These 


two countries together furnish approximately 
one-half of the world’s supply of cane sugar, 
each producing from two to more than three 
million tons. 

Climatic conditions and the soil of Cuba are 
so well adapted to the growing of sugar cane 
that nearly one-half of the tillable area of the 
island is devoted to this crop. The cane ma- 
tures in from 12 to 18 months, but the crop is 
so planted that it is harvested more or less 
throughout the year, though the principal har-. 
vest season is from December to June. The 
lands in the western provinces have been 
planted in cane so many years and have be- 
come so impoverished that not more than four 
to seven crops can be harvested without re- 
planting. In the newer and richer lands of 
the eastern provinces 10 or 12 crops and some- 
times twice as-many may be harvested without 
replanting. Recent statistics show that the 
yield of sugar per acre was 4,900 pounds har- 
vested from 1,384,812 acres. The Cuban sugar 
factories have ‘been greatly improved within 
the past few years. Keen competition has 
forced Cuba to adopt more economical methods 
in the manufacture of sugar, and this has re- 
sulted in an almost constant decline in the 
number of factories, but an increase in their 
size and capacity. Some years ago there were 
473 factories, but now there are only 190 to 
200. The plantations are equipped with pri- 
vate railway lines to transport the cane from 
the fields to the factories. There are approx- 
imately 3,000 miles of these railways. 

Recent statistics show that of the total area 
under cane about 56 per cent was either culti- 
vated or controlled by the factory owners, 
while 44 per cent was cultivated by independent 
farmers who sold their cane to the factories. 
As an incentive to produce high grade cane 
it is paid for according to the sugar content 
and not the gross weight. During the 10 years 
ending with 1912-13 there was an average of 
175 factories in operation, which ground an 
average of 15,925,000 tons of cane annually and 
produced 1,687,000 tons of sugar, or 3,778,880,- 
000 pounds annually. The production since 
1912-13 in tons is as follows: 1916-17, 3,000,000 
tons; 1915-16, 3,007,915 tons; 1914-15, 2,592,667 
tons; 1913-14, 2,597,732 tons. The greater por- 
tion of the Cuban crop of sugar is exported, 
the average the past 20 years being about 95 
per cent, of which the United States has taken 
about 90 per cent. In 1913 the United States 
took 2,129,748 tons, valued at $107,975,360, and 
2,164,621 tons valued at $116,479,869 in 1914. 
Great Britain took 240,870 tons, valued at $12,- 
598,817, in 1913, and 231,541 tons, valued at 
$10,910,416, in 1914. The total exports in those 
years were 2,411,188 tons, valued at $122,388,062, 
in 1913, and 2,454,334 tons, valued at $130,413,- 
769, in 1914. In 1915 the United States im- 
ported 2,136,110 long tons of sugar from Cuba, 
and 2,299,488 long tons in 1916. The following 
values of the sugar crops since 1910 will serve 
to indicate the remarkable growth of this in- 
dustry, as well as how prosperity has come to 
Cuba in recent years: 


a he) Ih I OS $121,468,000 1914-15...... $205 ,000 ,000 
1912-137... 115,395,000 1915-16...... 250,000 ,000 
1913-14..... 130,424,000 1916-17...... 246,000 ,000 


Dominican Republic.— The sugar planta- 
tions of the republic are located on the south- 


74 LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) 


ern coast. In the adjoining hinterland are many 
of the most. important sugar centres of the 
island,, namely, Angelina, Consuelo, Porvenir, 
Cristobal, Colon, Santa Fé and Quisqueya, and 
the value of the sugar exported through the 
chief sugar port, San Pedro .de Macoris, in 1915 
amounted to over $3,000,000. 

The sugar land extends along the coast, and 
going westward in the vicinity of-the city of 
Santo Domingo are to be found the centrals 
Italia, San Isidro and San Louis, and toward 
the western border of the republic in the Azua 
and Barahona district Azana, Ocoa and An- 
sonia estates. Nearly all of these sugar estates 
have prospered greatly in recent years. The 
sugar acreage is increasing annually and new 
centrals are in process of construction. 

The soil is well adapted for sugar cultiva- 
tion and produces on an average 25 years of 
ratoon crops with an output of .70 tons of cane 
per acre from virgin land: during the first year. 
The sugar’ season. extends from December to 
June or July. The local labor supply is lim- 
ited, and in normal times is increased by im- 
portations from. the «nearby British West 
Indies. cs Ie ) 

The estimates in tons of the sugar crops of 
the three seasons, 1914 to 1917, are as follows: 


DISTRICT 1914-15 1915-16 -1916-17 

Macotisi:. = 4uh5 een aS 75,970 91,738 112,273 
Santo Domingos. -2..... 20,205 21,925 33 ,906 
Azua ORD, Pe. Vee 3,472 5,071 5,812 
{LOtal’ on: ay, cote eek 118,734 151,991 


99 , 647 


The imports of raw sugar into the United 
States from the Dominican Republic were 1,927 
tons in 1914, 34,012 tons in 1915 and 47,992 tons 
in 1916. 

Peru.— The area suitable for growing sugar 
cane on the west coast of Peru-is limited only 
by the available supply of water for irrigation. 
There is also a small area east of the Andes 
planted in cane, but at least 97% per cent of 
the crop is. grown in the rich valleys along the 
coast. The crop is planted and harvested 
throughout the year, but the principal harvest 
season is from October to February. The cane 
in the coast region requires 18 to 20: months 
to mature and from 8 to 12 crops may be 
harvested from one planting. The area of cane 
under cultivation is about 101,000 acres. .The 
number of laborers employed-in the industry 
is estimated at 21,881. The average produc- 
tion per hectare of 2.471 acres is a little over 
10 metric tons (equal to about 4%4 short tons 
per acre). In the Chicama Valley where there 
are a number of fine modern mills the produc- 
tion runs as high as 13% metric tons per 
hectare (equal to a little more than six short 
tons per acre). 

The growth of the sugar industry of Peru 
may be seen from the following, showing: the 
yield in metric tons for the years specified of 
white and granulated, muscovado and Chancaca 
sugar. The exports for the same years are 
given as an indication of the growth of this 
branch of the industry: 


Production, Exports, 
YEAR tons tons 
10 errr cicle slgpel sicce 0 wie av eelons 192,754 147,410 
POU Seite beats cee bee oe ormsagiaas 183 ,954 142,901 
TOTES CAN Se eres Se ate SAN. 228,054): 176,670 
TOUS Ws Hat iid Ha). shy S 262 , 840 220, 257 


The disposition of the crop of 1915 to the 
various countries was in the following propor- 
tions: . Chile, 39.93 per cent; United States, 
21.69 per cent; Great Britain, 17.80 per cent; 
Spain, 4.17. per cent; Bolivia, 1.68 per cent; 
consumed locally or stored, 18.73 per cent. 

From 1911-16 the United States imported 
the following amounts of raw sugar from 
Peru, the imports in the last two years being 
remarkable as compared with former years: 
1911-12, 5,917 tons; 1912-13, 6,201 tons; 1913-14, 
3,126 tons; 1914-15, 32,252 tons; 1915-16, 37,549 
tons. 

Mexico.—Almost the whole of the lowland 
region of Mexico is adapted to growth of sugar 
cane, and it is grown in 18 of the 28 states, 
but approximately one-half of the crop is pro- 
duced in the two states— Morelos and Vera 
Cruz. The two other states of most import- 
ance are Puebla and Sinaloa. In the lowlands 
along the coast as many as 10 crops may be 
harvested from one planting. In this: region 
very little cultivation is needed, and the yield 
has been as high as 35 tons to the acre. Owing 
to the disturbed condition of the country the 
sugar industry has not made the progress that 
may be noted in other Latin-American coun- 
tries and very litthe modern machinery is in 
use, the old open-kettle process being still 
mostly in use, which extracts only about 6 per 
cent of sugar per weight of cane. 

Notwithstanding the continuous: revolutions 
of recent years the quantity of sugar produced 
in Mexico increased considerably, until the past 
two seasons. The crop of 1903-04 decreased 
from 112,930 to 102,931 in 1905-06, increased 
to 178,134 in 1910-11, decreased to 167,258 in 
1911-12, to 143,000 in 1913-14, and to 121,000 
in 1914-15. But the crops of the last two 
seasons are estimated at only 65,000 tons for 
1914-15, and 50,000 tons for 1916-17... The quan- 
tity of sugar, in tons imported into the United 
States from Mexico in recent years, is as fol- 
lows: 1913-14, 922 tons; 1914-15, 34,371 tons; 
1915-16, 6,636 tons. 

Brazil.— The cultivation of sugar cane, one 
of the oldest industries of Brazil, owing to in- 
creased demand for sugar, has again been re- 
vived and promises to assume much greater 
importance. It is now grown in more than half 
the. states, from the mouth of the Amazon 
down to the Laguna Mirim. The most flour- 
ishing centres of sugar production are in the 
state of Rio de Janeiro, where Campos is the 
focus of sugar deliveries, and Pernambuco, a 
thousand miles farther north; Sao Paulo has 
also an increasing sugar industry as may be 
seen from the following list of large sugar 
mills in each state: Alagoas, 9; Bahia, 7; Ma- 
ranhao, 3; Minas. Geraes, 7; Parahyba, 2; Per- 
nambuco, 46; Rio de Janeiro, 31; Santa Catha- 
rina, 2; Sado Paulo, 20; Sergipe, 15; Piauhy, 
1; Rio Grande do Norte, 3; total, 139. 

The cane is planted at the beginning of the 
rainy season and is harvested from 12 to 18 
months later in the southern states and from 
11 to 14 months-in the northern states: From 
4 to 6 crops are cut from one planting. The 
yield of cane per acre varies from 15% to 
16%4 tons, depending upon the character of the 
soil and season. The sugar extraction is low 
compared with other cane-growing countries 
and ranges from 4 to 9 per cent of the weight 


._ of the cane. 


LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) 75 


The low yield is due mainly to 
continuous planting in the same soil for many 


years. The sugar production in recent years is 
as follows: 1912-13, 343,000 tons; 1913-14, 
203,394 tons; 1914-15, 240,000 tons : 1915-16, 


194,000 tons. 

The principal markets for Brazilian sugars 
are Great Britain, the United States,. Uruguay, 
Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Cape Verde and France. 
The exports to the United States increased 
from 312 tons in 1910-11 to 14,937 tons in 1914— 
15 and to 9,095 tons in 1915-16. 

Colombia.— Sugar cane grows in the rich 
valleys of Colombia year after year without 
replanting, and it is said that there are fields 
in the valley of Cauca that have been har- 
vested every year for nearly a century without 
renewal, although in Cuba the cane yields only 
from 5 to 10 crops, and in many sugar-pro- 
ducing countries it must be set out every year. 
The yield of each hectare (2.47 acres) is also 
very high, being 800 to 1,000 quintals (112 
pounds), in comparison with 600 to 800 in 
Cuba and 900 to 950 in Hawaii; and with irri- 
gation, which is available without much diff- 
culty on account of the nature of the land, the 
yield would be still higher. 

There are no statistics available, other than 
the exports to the United States, that would 
indicate | the production of sugar in Colombia, 
though it is well known that the industry has 
shown a rapid development in recent years. 
The imports into the United States in 1910-11 
amounted to 2,447,314 pounds, but for some un- 
accountable reason there appears to have been 
no receipts from that country either in 1911- 
12, 1912-13 or 1913-14. . In 1914-15 the imports 
reached 3,675,812 pounds, and in 1915-16, 3,376,- 
700 pounds. 

Guatemala.— Next to coffee, sugar is the 
most important crop of Guatemala. While the 
cane flourishes in almost every region from the 
level of the sea to an altitude of 5,000 feet, the 
chief sugar districts are in the provinces of 
Escuintla, Mazatenango and Solola, all on the 
Pacific coast. The principal variety cultivated, 
known as “Jamaiquina,» was brought into the 
republic from Jamaica. The area devoted to 
sugar in 1916 was 76,352 acres. The average 
production is about 4,200 pounds per acre, In 
the Pacific coast region there are 20 sugar 
mills. The grades of sugar manufactured are 
86 to 89 brown sugar and from 96 to 99 white 
sugar. The quality is said to be excellent and 
there is a large local demand for the product. 
The sugar exported is principally the raw prod- 
uct known as “moscabado”” The following are 
the estimates of the production of sugar in 
tons for the years named: 1913, 10,884 tons; 
1914, 11,338 tons; 1915, 13,605 tons. In 1915 
10,918,800 pounds, equal to 4,952 tons, were ex- 
ported, all of which was sent to the United 
States and Central American countries. The 
exports to the United States for the years 
named are as follows: 1913-14, 1,258,202 
pounds; 1914-15, 3,193,297 pounds: 1915-16, 
3,459,144, pounds. 

Costa Rica— The cane sugar lands of 
Costa Rica are located in the central and Pacific 
coast regions. About two-thirds of the cane 
area is in San José and Alajuela, and one- 
third on the Pacific coast. The area devoted to 
cane increased from 25,590 acres in 1905 to 
27,636 in 1907-08, to 32,331 in 1910, but de- 


creased to 29,474 in 1914. The high prices and 
great demand for sugar has, however, undoubt- 
edly resulted in a considerable addition to the 
area since 1914. This is plainly evident from 
the fact that Costa Rica exported to the United 
States 1,598,737 pounds of raw sugar in 1915 
and 4,947,289 pounds in 1916, whereas previous 
to these dates the crops did not meet the local 
demand and sugar had to be imported every 
year. The cane grown along the coast ripens 
in about 18 months, while that grown in the. 
more elevated regions of the interior requires 
24 months to ripen. 

Venezuela.— The high prices and great de- 
mand for sugar have resulted in plans being 
consummated for its manufacture on a large 
scale in Venezuela, The progress already made 
is evidenced from the large increase in the ex- 
ports of raw sugar the past two years. The 
sugar plantations in the vicinity of Caracas are 
all under irrigation, and the same is true in 
lesser degree of the plantations in the states of 
Aragua and Cafabobo. The most remarkable 
cane in the republic grows around and especially 
at the south end of Lake Maracaibo, where 
four big centrals are in operation. It is said 
that the cane at the south end of this lake 
produces readily for 25 years. 

The exports of cane sugar from Venezuela 
to the United States in 1910-11.amounted to 
653,077. pounds and in 1911-12 to 269,530 
pounds. There were no exports worth men- 
tioning in either 1912-13, or 1913-14. In 1914 
15 there was a revival of this trade and 330,- 
789 pounds were sent to the United States and 
the year following 8,293,531 pounds. 

Argentina.— The cane sugar lands of Ar- 
gentina are located in the northern part of the 
republic, chiefly in the province of Tucuman, 
which comprises about 80 per cent of the total 
area planted. In 1912-13 this province con- 
tained 72 per cent of the sugar mills, and pro- 
duced 84 per cent of the cane and 83 per cent 
of the sugar. The principal harvest season is 
from 1 June to 31 October. The yield per acre 
is estimated at from 10 to 20 tons. The pro- 
duction of sugar increased from 157,513 tons 
in 1903-04 to 304,389 tons in 1913-14. The do- 
mestic supply of sugar in Argentina is approx- 
imately equal to the demand. Some years the 
production exceeds the home demand and the 
surplus is exported. At other times the short 
crops necessitate the importation of a consid- 
erable quantity, as was the case in 1913 when 
83,289 tons were imported, and again in 1916 
when 75,000 tons were imported. But mean- 
while (1914) 71,308 tons were exported. The 
government, to encourage the industry, pays a 
bounty on all sugar exported. A maximum 


price has been fixed by law which is equal to 
the import duty; when the price of domestic 
sugar exceeds the price fixed by law, sugar is 
imported to equalize prices. 

The production of cane sugar the past five 
years is estimated as follows: 1912-13, 221,- 
004 tons; 1913-14, 280,319 tons; 1914-15, 335,- 
833 tons; 1915-16, 152,301 tons. 

There are 37 mills in the republic, with an 
estimated capital of $31,594,882. The annual 
sales of these mills is put at $19,841,855, and 
the raw material employed is valued at 
$7,820,907. 

Other Latin-American Countries,— There 
are no available data or statistics for other 


76 LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 


Latin-American countries producing cane 
sugar, but in addition to the countries already 


reviewed (and excluding European colonies) | 


considerable quantities of sugar are produced 
in Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Haiti, Hon- 
duras and smaller quantities in Bolivia, Ecua- 
dor, Paraguay and Chile. The imports from 
these countries into the United States are given 
in the introductory table, which will in some 
degree indicate the production of those coun- 
tries. 
James L. WATKINS, 
Statistician, New York City. 


17. TOBACCO INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. Argentina.— The domestic pro- 
duction of tobacco in the Argentine Republic 
is used exclusively in the domestic cigar and 
cigarette factories. Due to its medium and 
inferior quality it is used for the cheaper 
grades of consumption, either by itself or 
mixed in proportions of 50 per cent or 55 per 
cent with the imported leaf. In 1895 the num- 
ber of acres under tobacco cultivation was 39,- 
030, and in 1912, 23,860, a decrease attributed 
to the high internal revenue taxes and the low 
import duties for the imported product. In 
view of this phase of the Argentine tobacco 
situation, the Section of Tobacco of the Argen- 
tine Department of Agriculture in July 1916 
issued a report on the subject, in which it was 
stated that, despite the inferior quality of the 
product, it was of domestic importance, and 
recommendations were made to increase both 
the acreage and quality, the latter by the intro- 
duction of the approved scientific methods of 
cultivation and handling, as otherwise the do- 
mestic leaf will continue selling in the market 
for a third of the price of the imported leaf. 
The production for the decade, 1903-13, in 
pounds, was 149,995,150.8, the individual years 
being as follows: 1903, 8,382,675.4; 1904, 17,- 


749,214.4; 1905, 18,417,847.8;. 1906, 8,312,191.8; 
1907, 10,051,960.6; 1908, 13,750,024.2; 1909, 21,- 
829,029.2; 1910, 15,146,760.2; 1911, 12,825,696.4; 


1912, 12,241,435.8; and 1913, 11,238,315, showing 
a wide variation in the amount raised, the 
greater part of which is cultivated in the prov- 
inces of Corrientes, Salta and Tucuman, all 
situated in the northern part of the republic. 

The principal tobacco consumption of the 
country is of cigarettes, most of which are of 
domestic manufacture, and retail, per box of 
14, for from 4% to 17 cents, the demand for 
foreign cigarettes being supplied chiefly by the 
foreign element. Of cigars, the “Toscano,” an 
Italian imported cigar, is the most popular, re- 
tailing for four and one-fourth cents, and an 
Argentine imitation known as the “Avanti,” 
retailing at two and one-twelfth cents. The 
well-to-do Argentinian smokes Habanas exclu- 
sively; in addition there are various Brazilian, 
Dutch and German brands that have a consid- 
erable sale. Very little tobacco is chewed. 
The imports during the five-year period, 1908- 
12, were as follows: Habana leaf, 1,587,344 
pounds; Paraguayan, 2,554,665 pounds; others, 
10,604,643 pounds, of which about 70 per cent 
came from Brazil and 18 per cent from the 
United States. Of manufactured tobacco dur- 
ing the same period, 74,097 pounds from Uru- 
guay, United Kingdom, Cuba, Italy, France, 
Spain, Egypt,: etc.; Habana. cigars in boxes, 
87,989 pounds; other cigars in boxes, 2,044,902 


pounds — three-fourths from Italy and the re- 
mainder largely from Switzerland and The 
Netherlands; other cigars, not in boxes, 55,193 
pounds — Switzerland arid:, Italy; 2eut tobacco 
(“picadura”), Paraguay, 7,738 pounds, and 
other, chiefly United Kingdom, 4,969 pounds; 
and snuff, 6,534 pounds, Italy and France. 

Brazil Brazil, of the Latin-American 
countries, is the greatest producer of tobacco, 
an industry that has been carried on since the 
days of the colonial governments. In 1796 the 
exportation of tobacco to Portugal amounted 
to more than 18,000,000 pounds, an amount that 
has steadily increased since that time until the 
formation of the republic, since which time, 
due to labor conditions, the production has 
changed but. little, being conservatively esti- 
mated at 77,640,000 pounds annually. In 1912 
the exports amounted to 54,449,820 pounds; in 
1913, 64,771,152 pounds. Ninety-five per cent 
of the exports are made from Bahia, the chief 
port of the tobacco district, and the greatest 
amount is sent to Europe. Taken in its_en- 
tirety tobacco is the sixth in size of all Bra- 
zilian exports, the republic, besides supplying 
her own domestic needs, supplying the greater 
part of the requirements of her neighboring 
countries. Besides the state of Bahia, the entire 
east coast is interested in tobacco cultivation, 
particularly the state of Maranhao, and lately it 
has become an industry of future promise in 
the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catha- 
rina, Minas Geraes and Pernambuco. The 
average exports from Bahia to the other non- 
producing parts of Brazil is about 6,600,000 
pounds annually, in addition to about $500, 000 
worth of cigars, cigarettes and other elaborated 
tobaccos. In 1915 these last amounted to 37,- 
000,000 cigars and 17,000,000 cigarettes. 

Prior to the outbreak of the European War 
40 per cent of the exports went to Hamburg, 
40 per cent to Bremen and 17 per cent to Ar- 
gentina, with practically none to the United 
States, the figures being as follows: 1913, 
total, 29, 388 metric tons (2,204.6 pounds), of 
which to the United States, 6; Germany, 24,- 
473; Argentina, 4,359; Uruguay, 343 ; 1914, 


‘total 26,980, of which to the United States, 192: 


Germany, 22.133: Argentina, 2,873; Uruguay, 
664; 1915, total 27,096, of which to the United 
States, 1,953; Germany, 1; Argentina, 7,302; 
Uruguay, 866; the Netherlands, 3,980; and 
France, 6,581. The shipments made to the 
United States were largely for re-export and 
for temporary storage to avoid the tobacco 
worm prevalent in Brazil. Imports of tobacco 
leaf, for blending with the domestic leaf, were, 
1914, total, $386,069, of which the United States 


supplied $100,136; Holland, $60,805; Turkey in 
ae bs $30,818; China, $40,202; and Cuba, 
16,012. 


Cuba.— While Cuba is not as great a pro- 
ducer of tobacco as certain other countries, 
the reputation that its raw and manufactured 
product has achieved has made the name 
Habana synonymous for excellence of tobacco, 
a reputation that the island has held since its 
first discovery. Next to sugar, it is Cuba’s 
most important crop. The manufactures of 
this staple amounted in 1913 to $29,014,114, of 
which 387,376.230 cigars were valued at $22,- 
055,008; 289,334.064 packages of 16 cigarettes 
valued at $6,516,344; 918590 pounds of cut 


LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 77 


tobacco, valued at $442,762. In 1914 the total 
was $23,564,686, of which 312,767,343 cigars 
were valued at $17,626,391; cigarettes, 247,872,- 
578 packages of 16, valued at $5,574,887 ; 770,- 
829 pounds of cut tobacco, valued at $363,408, 
a general decrease in every class. In addition 


there remained leaf to the amount of $18,093,-_ 


754 unmanufactured. Of the cigars manufac- 
tured in 1914, 188,816,225 were consumed in 
Cuba, and 123,951,118 exported. The exports 
for the year 1914 amounted to $26,353,170, 
divided as follows: Leaf, $16,584,078; cigars, 
$9,129,661; cigarettes, $429,147; and cut tobacco, 
$210,284. Of the leaf tobacco the number of 
bales exported in 1913 was 322,121; in 1914, 
314,732. Of these amounts the greatest buyer 
was the United States, 1913, 259,758; 1914, 239\- 
922; followed by Germany, 1913, 20,572; 1914, 
18,838; Canada, 1913, 16,880; 1914, 7,861; Spain, 
1913, 4,518; 1914, 25,802; and Argentina, 1913, 
12,102; 1914, 10,281. Of cigars exported in 
1913, the number was 183,226,330, the nine 
countries buying more than 1,000,000 each 
being: England, 66,842,801; United States, 
53,577,563; Germany, 14,028,326; Canada, 13,- 
319,147; France, 9,362,492; Australia, 6,316,505 ; 
Spain, 5,428,515; Argentina, 3,928,061; and 
Chile, 3,488, 234. Of the 123,951, 118 cigars ex- 
ported in 1914, the nine countries buying more 
than 1,000, 000 were: England, 43,951,994; 
United States, 37,732,728; Spain, 8,274, 730; Can- 
ada, 8,229 412: France, 7,230, 825 ; Germany, 
5,187, 946: Australia, 5121; 363 ; Chile, 1,730,502 ; 
and ‘Argentina, 1,146,432. In 1917 the total ex- 
ports of leaf and manufactured tobacco 
amounted to $22,617,648, a decrease of about 
$2,500,000 in leaf and $1, 800,000 in manufactured 
tobacco, caused in part by. the European War 
and in part by the deflection of the ordinary 
transport service. This resulted in a depression 
among tobacco growers and a disorganization 
among labor, the result being that many of the 
plantations were temporarily planted with sugar 
cane, due to the great demand for this com- 
modity. 

In Cuba the greatest attention has been 
paid to the scientific raising of tobacco, so 
that the product of each locality has its spe- 
cial characteristic, it being said that the poorest 
tobacco grown on the island is equal to the 
best grown elsewhere. The highest prized, as 
being the choicest cigar leaf in the world, is 
the “Vuelta Abajo,» grown in the aE. of 
Pinar del Rio, near the western end of the 
island. It in turn is divided into other classes 
known as “Mantua,” “Remates,»” “Guane” and 
“Vinales,» all of the heavier type, used in 
blending, “San Luis” and “San Juan y Mar- 
tinez,” superior wrapping leaves, “Rio Hondo,” 
aromatic, “Consolacion del Sur,» “Pinar del 
Rio,” and the less desirable grades known as 
“Bajas,> “Consolacion del Norte,” and “Parti 
Sur.” The annual production of these is about 
250,000 bales. Likewise in the province of 
Pinar del Rio is the “Simi- Vuelta,” heavy and 
aromatic, a favorite with smokers in the United 
States, and produced to the amount of about 
20,000 bales annually. In the province of 
Habana, with an annual yield of about 80,000 
bales, is the “Partidos,” lighter in quality than 
the “Vuelta Abajo,” and producing a desirable 
wrapper leaf. Of its subdivisions, the “Tum- 
badero” is the most prized, followed by “La 
Salud,” “Artemisa,” a filler, “Govea,” supplying 


produced also 


wrappers, “Bejucal,” and its three ordinary 
classes, “ka Seiba,” “Wajai Caimito” and “San 
José de Jas Lajas” The province of Santa 
Clara is noted for its “Remedios,” a name that 
is erroneously applied also to tobaccos grown 
in the province of Camagiiey. Santa Clara 
another excellent. leaf, the 
“Santa Clara,» in addition to other classes, 
less known, called “Cienfuegos,” . “Colonia,” 
“Santo Domingo,” “Sagua” and “Trinidad,” all 
of the last four named being substituted at 
times for “Remedios.” Another, and a medium 
grade, is the “Sancti Spiritus,» also of Santa 
Clara. The province of Oriente produces the 
“Yara,” the least desirable of all. Cuban to- 
baccos, subdivided into “Mayri” and “Gibari.” 
The annual yield of “Yara” is about 12,000 
bales, exported chiefly to Germany, Canada and 
Central America. Its leaves are heavy and 
coarse, and being totally unlike the other grades, 
is unsuitable for use in cigars for export. 

For the purpose of protecting the reputa- 
tion of tobaccos and cigars produced in Cuba, 
a law was passed on 16 July 1912, providing 
for a national collective trade mark on the 
containers of all tobaccos and tobacco products 
intended for export, under heavy penalties, and 
in consequence the Bureau of Agriculture, Com- 
merce and Labor registered a distinctive mark 
for each, “tobaccos and cut tobacco” and 
“cigars manufactured in Cuba.” 

Paraguay.— The most widely cultivated, al- 
though not the most important, crop in Para- 
guay is tobacco. Its production was formerly 
carried on on an extensive scale, and a ready 
market was found in Europe, particularly in 
Germany, but due to internal troubles its acre- 
age decreased and until recently it was prac- 
tically unknown beyond the Paraguayan bor- 
ders. It is now under the special patronage 
of the Banco Agricola, the government institu- 
tion concerned with betterment of agricultural 
matters. Soils have been analyzed, seeds from 
Cuba introduced and scientific instruction given 
as to the cultivation and handling to meet the 
demands of export buyers. In 1910 a regula- 
tion was passed providing for the classification 
under the Tobacco Revision Office (Oficina 
Revisadora de Tobacos) as follows: Pito,» 
“Media,” “Regular,>, “Buena,” “Doble,” “Para 
la» “Para 2a,» and “Fuerte,” the “Pito” to 
“Buena” being mild, and “Doble” to “Para” 
strong, to standardize the production and pre- 
vent fraud, unclassified exports being subject 
to a special export tax. 

The exports in 1900 amounted in pdéunds 
to 6,590,644; 1901, 5,103,265; 1902, 6,200,014; 
1903, 7,012,870; 1904, 9,997,724 ; 1905, 7,980,119: 
1906, 5,076, 104; 1907, 3,391, 762: 1908, 10,977, 164; 
1909, 10,580,998 : 1910, 11,259,230; 1911, 14,219,- 
781; 1912, 8,842 216: 1913, 11,897,609: 1914, 
9,908,921 ; ‘and 1917, 18, 479, 000. The great bulk 
of the lighter grades is exported to Europe, 
more than half going to Amsterdam and 
Bremen, being in large part destined for the 
Spanish trade. Of the heavier grades Argentina 
is the greatest buyer. 

Chile— In the year 1913 there were under 
cultivation in Chile 3,430 acres of tobacco, 
producing 8,523,645 pounds. For 1914, with a 
slightly smaller acreage, the production was 
6,282,228 pounds. All of this was consumed in 
the republic. In addition there were imported, 
in 1913, 411,031 pounds of tobacco, valued at 


78 LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 


$456,384, of which 115,181 pounds were ciga- 
rettes, valued at $229,032; 67,623 pounds cigars, 
valued at $111,943; 156,762 pounds, leaf to- 
bacco, valued at $77,913; and 71,465 pounds 
cut tobacco, valued at $41,406. The cigarettes 
were imported from 16 countries, of which 
France supplied 27,119 pounds, Belgium, 25,- 
097 pounds, Cuba, 24,286 pounds, Great Britain, 
19,923 pounds, Germany, 9,217 pounds, the re- 
minder from other countries, the United States 
being credited with 888 pounds. Of the cigars, 
Cuba supplied 36,854 pounds; Italy, 7,553 
pounds; Germany, 8,305 pounds; France, 3,640 
pounds; Panama, 3,494 pounds; Great Britain, 
3,225 pounds; and Belgium, 3,045 pounds, the 
remainder being distributed among seven other 
countries, the United States supplying 547 
pounds. Of the leaf tobacco, Cuba supplied 
131,548 pounds; Germany, 11,224 pounds; the 
United States standing third with 3,741 pounds; 
the remainder being distributed among eight 
other countries. Of the cut tobacco, Cuba sup- 
plied 22,297 pounds; France, 14,850 pounds; 
Belgium, 11,173 pounds; Great Britain, 11,164 
pounds; the United States standing fifth with 
6,292 pounds, the remainder being distributed 
among six other countries. According to the 
United States Commerce Reports, the imports 
in 1914 of leaf tobacco amounted to $66,135, 
cut tobacco $40,369, cigars $78,876 and ciga- 
rettes $157,106, a total of $342,486; and in 1915, 
the imports of leaf and cut tobacco amounted 
to $129,377. ; 

. In 1913 there were 192 tobacco factories in 
Chile, of which 59 were located in Valparaiso 
and 61 in Santiago, 129 being of Chilean owner- 
ship and 63 belonging to foreigners. The num- 
ber of persons employed was 1,960, and the 
value of their production, from foreign and 
domestic leaf, was $3,338,807. The greater part 
of the manufactures was of cigars, with a small 
portion of cigarettes, and a still smaller one of 
smoking tobacco, The favorite form of tobacco 
is the cigarette, the domestic being the cheapest. 
Of the foreign brands, nearly all the well- 
known English cigarettes are sold, as well as 
the French, Italian, Cuban, Turkish and Egyp- 
tian, the black Cuban type being a favorite 
by a large percentage. Of cigars, the Cuban 
and Mexican are most popular. Due to the 
war many of the lighter brands of European 
cigars and cigarettes have been unobtainable, a 
deficiency that is beginning to be supplied by the 
United States. 

Colombia.— With proper encouragement, 
Colombia promises to be one of the important 
tobacco producing countries of America, as the 
plant thrives in almost every portion of the 
country. It is even claimed that certain small 
sections produce a quality rivaling the Cuban 
tobacco. Due, however, to the failure to adopt 
approved scientific methods of raising, handling 
and grading, the qualities of the better grades 
are not uniform from year to year, and for 
export purposes the whole crop is considered 
under one standard —a leaf of average quality, 
largely used as filler. The country produces 
more than sufficient for domestic consumption, 
quantities being raised near the coast and in 
the department of Santander, while the leaf of 
the best quality comes from the district of 
Ambalema, where also the greatest quantity of 
tobacco is found. 

The exports of tobacco (mostly leaf) in 


1913 amounted to 13,811,000 pounds (esti- 
mated) ; and in 1914, to 5,806,737 pounds, valued 
at $393,096; 1915, 4,562,122 pounds, valued at 
$334,642. Of the total amount, 5,089,342 pounds, 
exported in 1914, from the port of Barranquilla, 
5,089,893 pounds were consigned to Europe, 
and 15,449 pounds to the United States. Of 
the amounts shipped from the port of Carta- 
gena in 1914 and 1915, the respective figures 
are as follows: France, $378 and $52,476; Ger- 
many (1914 only), $149,371: Great Britain 
(1915 only), $29,583; United States, $3,051 and 
$31,810; other countries, $26,100 and $25,404. 
During the fiscal year ending 30 June 1916 the 
amount exported to the United States was 
$35,325, of which $1,013 was cigar wrappers and 
$34,325 leaf. 

The decline of exports following 1913 is 
indicative also of the reduction of the quantity 
raised, the reduced demand by Germany — the 
greatest customer— being discounted by the 
utilization of much of the former tobacco 
acreage for other purposes. Notwithstanding 
this, the immediate result of the European War 
was the sharp breaking in prices, in June 1915, 
being as low as $0.06 per pound, a fact that 
has been discouraging to the industry. Some 
relief is afforded, however, to the native indus- 
try by the increase (1915) of duties on im- 
ported tobaccos, leaf and manufactured, from 
80 cents to $1 per kilo (2.2046 pounds), in con- 
nection with the high internal revenue taxes. 
There is necessarily a demand for foreign 
tobaccos for blending purposes, in addition to 
special demands for the manufactured product. 
Of manufactured and leaf tobacco imported in 
1915, amounting to $148,433, the United States 
furnished a large percentage. 

Costa Rica— The importance of the ba- 
nana and coffee industries in Costa Rica has 
made of tobacco growing a lesser industry serv- 
ing at present for domestic demands. This 
notwithstanding the fact that its production is 
a success, the climate and soil being favorable. 
In 1914 the number of acres under tobacco 
cultivation was 2,734. Partly as a means of 
revenue, and partly to protect the domestic 
tobacco interests, the government has levied a 
very high duty onthe imported product — 
about $0.85 per pound, plus a surtax of 5 per 
cent on imports for consumption at Port Limon. 
The result has been that, due to the high prices 
necessarily demanded for imported tobaccos 
and cigars, local factories have been lately es- 
tablished throughout the republic, a very large 
one being located at San José. This local de- 
mand has encouraged the growing of the native 
leaf, with a result that imports have decreased 
by half, the imports being largely of foreign 
cigars and cigarettes for which there is a special 
demand. The quantity of tobaccos exported is 
negligible. The imports through Port Limon 
in 1914 amounted to $124,000 of which the 
United States supplied $52,000; Germany, $15,- 
000; Great Britain, $18,000, and France, etc., 
$39,000. For 1915, the imports at the same port 
amounted to $37,100, of which the United 
States supplied $31,200; Great Britain, $10,000, — 
and France, etc., $5,900. 

Dominican Republic— Of all the Latin- 
American countries, the Dominican Republic at 
present ranks third in the raising of tobacco, 
the production for 1913 being 28,000,000 pounds, 
and the normal yield annually being 17,250,000 


LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 79 


to 23,000,000 pounds. Due, however, to internal 
troubles, the production decreased somewhat in 
1914 and 1915, the yield for the latter year be- 
ing between 6,900,000 and 8,050,000 pounds, 
which was increased in 1916 to (estimated) be- 
tween 23,000,000 and 25,000,000. pounds. ; 

The exports of tobacco leaf from the coun- 
try in 1913 amounted to 21,539,876 pounds, 
valued .at $1,121,775, of which Germany re- 
ceived 20,099,803; the United States, 285,412: 
France, 355,400, and other countries, -788,260. 
In 1914 the amount exported: was 8,152,208 
pounds, valued at $394,224, of which Germany 
received 7,286,382; the United States, 128,953; 
France, 78,492, and other countries, 653,981. 
In 1915, 13,717,900 pounds, valued at $972,896, of 
which the United States received 7,624,839; 
France, 1,944,872, and other countries, 4,146,188. 
In 1916, 17,438,332 pounds, valued at $1,433,323, 
of which the United States received 6,825,584; 
France, 1,278,746, and other countries (unspeci- 
fied), 9,334,002. 

Ecuador.— Ecuador produces some excel- 

lent qualities of tobacco, it being claimed that 
for delicacy of flavor they are the equal of the 
best Cuban. The acreage is scarcely more than 
enough for domestic requirements, and the 
methods of raising and handling are not such 
as bring out its best qualities. The greatest 
quantity is raised in the Guayas fluvial region 
and in the province of Esmeraldas. In 1914, 
107,616 pounds of leaf tobacco, valued at $19,- 
922, were exported, the amount for 1915 being 
596,445 pounds (to Peru), valued at $89,825, an 
increase that is due to the encouragement of the 
government. | ) 
_ In October 1915, a law was passed, effective 
1 Jan. 1917, for the government control of the 
tobacco industry, raising, manufacturing and 
selling, on the basis of concessions to producers 
and selling agencies.. By its. provisions, the 
production and manufacture are exempt from 
all fiscal taxes; written notice to the competent 
authority is required of all persons desiring to 
raise tobacco, and license is given without 
charge. Subject. to confiscation, tobaccos and 
products may not be transported from one 
place to another, even in the same town, with- 
out a permit. Taxes were provided for all 
tobaccos on hand on 1 Jan. 1917, and in the 
future the privilege of selling tobaccos is to be 
auctioned annually, for the various districts or 
provinces, or for the whole republic, fiscal 
taxes being likewise imposed upon the conces- 
sions, varying from $87.60 to $4,672. . 

Guatemala In quality, Guatemalan to- 
bacco ranks high. Due, however, to antiquated 
methods of handling it, it has not acquired the 
commercial value that its qualities merit. It 
is raised throughout the republic, but the 
favorite leaf is produced in the vicinity of 
Zacapa, at Barberina and vicinity, and also at 
Chiqumulilla on the west coast. The quantity 
raised in 1903 was 1,065,000 pounds. The total 
annual production has recently been estimated 
(1916) at from 250,000. to 300,000 pounds, when, 
judging by the quantity manufactured, it should 
he five times this. Due to the high-duties on 
imported tobacco and its products, the domestic 
leaf is largely used in the local factories, .al- 
though a very large quantity is impotted from 
Honduras, which is incorporated with the native 
leaf in the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes 
for export, Rapid progress has been. made 


‘Cuban leaf. 


during recent years in the manufacturing of 
tobacco, both as to the quantity worked and the 
methods employed. ‘While the small factory 
predominates, there being hundreds of shops 
producing hundreds of thousands of fine and 
ordinary cigarettes, there are also four ma- 
chine-made factories in the country, produc- 
ing an aggregate of 640,000 cigarettes per day. 
To protect the small shop, the government on 
23 Nov. 1916 issued a notice requiring the pay- 
ment of a tax. of.one centavo on each box of - 
machine-made cigarettes. All domestic cigars 
are made by hand, the industry being an im- 
portant one. Guatemala and Honduras tobacco 


are generally used, with a Sumatra wrapper 


bought in the United States. Most of the 
ordinary cigars are made by Indian women and 
children, whose labor is cheap, some of the 
cigars selling as low as $2 per thousand; those 
of better quality sell for from $0.02% to $0.05 
each. The cheapest machine-made cigarettes 
sell for about $1 per thousand. The domestic con-- 
sumption of both cigars and cigarettes is large. 

In 1915 Guatemala imported leaf tobacco to 

the value of $2,575; manufactured, $10,398. Of 
the leaf tobacco, $2,205 worth came from the 
United States, the .remainder from Holland. 
Of the tobacco manufactures, the United States 
supplied $4,265; Cuba, $3,262; Germany, $950; 
Mexico, $760; England, $827; Jamaica, $163, 
and the remainder from Holland, France, Japan 
and China. As showing the consumption of 
cigarettes in the country, the imports of 
cigarette paper for 1915 amounted to $29,666, of 
which Spain supplied $26,311 worth; the United. 
States, $1,637; the remainder coming from Ger- 
many, England ‘and. Denmark. During the same 
year exports amounting to $18,954 were made 
to the United States, Colombia, Honduras and 
British Honduras. Of this, $13,054 was manu- 
factures, and $5,900 leaf tobacco. 
_ Honduras.— Statistics regarding the pro- 
duction of and trade in tobacco in Honduras 
are lacking, but from the reports of the United 
States consular agents in that country and 
Guatemala, it is apparent that tobacco of a 
commercially fine quality grows in the country, 
but that through poor methods of curing it has 
not generally become an article of world ex- 
port, but is sufficient for domestic needs. A 
large quantity is shipped to Guatemala, where it 
is manufactured, some of it being returned and 
some re-exported, and Peru. In 1913-14 there 
were imported tobacco and tobacco manufac- 
tures to the value of $17,146, of which. the 
United States contributed $10,386; 1914-15, 
$20,520, of which the United States contributed 
$13,436. 

Mexico.— The revenues derived from the 
profits of the tobacco monopoly in Mexico 
amounted, in 1783, to $777,651; and in 1801-02, 
to $4,000,000 silver, the monopoly of the tobacco 
industry having been a. prerogative of the 
Crown from the time of the Spanish conquest. 
With. independence, the industry languished 
until 1868, from which time it has gradually in- 
creased. In 1889, Mexican tobacco qbtained the 
gold, silver.and bronze medals at the Paris Ex- 
position, being adjudged superior to the best 
Later, the. French governtnent 
gave official notice - through “la Regie,” the 
special department concerned with the monop- 
oly, that Mexiean tobacco was acceptable for 
its uses, - - 


»_w 


80 LATIN AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY (18) 


In Mexico the use of tobacco is universal, 
and its consumption large, with the result that 
large quantities are raised of which no esti- 
mates are given. Being of universal use, it 1s 
grown everywhere. Experts credit the district 
of San Andres Tuxla, in the state of Vera 
Cruz, with the leaf of the choicest quality. 
The soil here is similar to that of the Vuelta 
Abajo in Cuba. In the Tuxla section, how- 
ever, the same care has not been shown in the 
cultivation and handling of the leaf, for which 
reason it has failed of general commercial 
demand. Despite the fact of cheap and un- 
scientific labor and methods, Mexican tobacco 
for years has been an article of export in the 
markets of the United States and Europe. 
Until the war in Europe and domestic politi- 
cal dissensions, the chief European markets 
were Hamburg and Havre, with a growing de- 
mand in England. At Hamburg, the Valle 
Nacional leaf, selected, grown by government 
convict labor, sold for $0.18 per pound, at 
which figure it was in great demand. 

Recent figures as to the yield and export are 
not obtainable. In 1906, the estimated crop of 
the chief tobacco districts amounted to 26,180,- 
000 pounds, divided among the following dis- 
tricts: San Andres Tuxla, 3,300,000- pounds; 
Acayucan Talixpam, 759,000 pounds: Cordoba, 
7,700,000 pounds; Tlapacoyan, 3,795,000 pounds; 
Tepec, 3,795,000 pounds; Ojitlan, Valle 
Nacional, 3,530,000 pounds; Playa Vicente, 3,- 
530,000 pounds; other districts of Oaxaca and 
Chiapas, 1,265,000 pounds, and districts of San 
Luis Potosi, 506,000 pounds. The foregoing 
was but a small part of the crop for the year, 
as figures are not given for the remainder of 
the republic. Luring the fiscal year ending 
1911, the exports of tobacco (leaf and manu- 
factured) to the United States amounted to 
$14,011; 1912, $31,039; 1913, $43,331; 1914, $58 - 
941; 1915, $77,003, and 1916, $142,383. 

Peru.— The tobacco industry in Peru is a 
government monopoly, the special department 
having charge of same being known as the 
Estanco del Tobaco, founded in 1904. Since 
1909 it has been administered by the Compafiia 
Recaudadora de Impuestos (National Tax Col- 
lecting Company) under contract for a term of 
years. The territory devoted to the cultivation 
of tobacco is designated by law, and the 
importation, manufacture and sale of all forms 
of tobacco are in the hands of this company. 
In addition to this control, the government is 
otherwise encouraging the -tobacco industry. 
In the latter part of 1916, the government is- 
sued an order through the Department of 
Fomento (National Industry) commissioning 
two Peruvian graduate students to spend a 
year in ‘Cuba to study the practical cultivation 
and handling of tobacco, to the end of intro- 
ducing the approved scientific methods of carry- 
ing on industry in Peru. 

The prices for tobaccos of all kinds are 
fixed by the government. The greatest and best 
quality of leaf is grown in the provinces of 
Huancavelica and Tumbes, the former supply- 
ing the government in 1915 with 619,490 pounds, 
and the latter with 421,600 pounds. In addi- 
tion there was imported from Ecuador 596,445 
pounds and 82,895 pounds from Honduras. In 
1914, the quantity of domestic leaf used was 
798,659 pounds, there being imported in addi- 
tion 65,714 pounds from Ecuador and 101,707 


pounds from Honduras. Of cigarettes, the 
domestic manufacture in 1914 amounted to 
404,429,700; cigars, 175,400. In 1915 the re- 
spective numbers were 369,299,052 and 152,100. 
The average cost of the domestic cigarettes was 
$0.74 per thousand. During 1914, there were 
imported 38,825,232 cigarettes; 1915  (esti- 
mated), 8,800,000; cigars, 1914, 245814; 1915, 
31,099, the great bulk of each coming from 
Cuba, most of the remainder from England. 

Venezuela.— The production of tobacco for 
domestic consumption is carried on throughout 
Venezuela, in addition to which an export of 
more than 200,000 pounds is made annually, the 
greater part, until the European War, to Ger- 
many. The tobacco of Capadare, a special dis- 
trict, is noted for its strength and aroma, and 
by some is preferred to Habana _ tobacco. 
Besides Capadare, tobaccos of excellent quality 
are raised in the districts of Yaritagua, Mérida, 
Cumanacoa, Guanape, Maturin, Upata, Aragua, 
Carabobo, Barinas, Rio Negro, Caripe and the 
Federal district. The greater part used in the 
country is of domestic manufacture, Cuban and 
Virginia leaf being imported for blending. The 
imports of leaf and manufactured tobacco in 
1914 amounted to $10,912; 1915, $3,643. 


W. B. GRAHAM, 
Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War 
Trade Board, Washington, D. C. 


18. WOOL INDUSTRY IN LATIN 
AMERICA. The wool industry is subject to 
climatic influences, it being found that, while 
sheep thrive in the tropic and semi-tropic zones, 
nature, by its law of compensation, relieves 
them of the necessity of clothing themselves to 
withstand the cold and their wool loses those 
qualities that the requirements of commerce 
have standardized. Applying this to Latin 
America, we find that the most successful ex- 
ploitation of the wool industry is in the ex- 
treme southern countries of South America, or 
on the high table lands free from tropic in- 
fluence. 

Argentina. Next to Australia, and on a 
par with the United States, Argentina occupies 
a pre-eminent position in the wool industry. 
Unlike the cattle and meat industry, wool grow- 
ing has been of long standing. In 1885 the ex- 
ports of this commodity amounted to $35,950- 
111; 1890, $35,521,681; 1900, $31,029,522; 1905, 
$27,991,561; 1910, $58,847,699. The best year 
during this period was 1899, during which the 
total amounted to $71,283,619. Throughout the 
entire statistics of the country, a fact generally 
true elsewhere, a close relation is noted be- 
tween the production of wool and the price of 
mutton. When the latter is in demand at a 
good price, entire flocks of sheep are slaugh- 
tered, with a resulting diminution of the wool 
clip for the following few years. 

On 1 Jan. 1915, the estimated number of 
sheep in the republic was 80,000,000, and the es- 
timated clip amounted to upward of 300,000,000 
pounds per annum (Commerce Reports, 1 Dec. 
1916). Sheep are pastured throughout the re- 
public, particularly in the central and southern 
part. Requiring cheap lands, they have been 
pushed further south each year, with the re- 
sult that parts of Patagonia and of Tierra del 
Fuego, considered a generation ago as unin- 
habitable for civilized man, have been found to 
be peculiarly adapted to the industry. The 


LATIN AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY (18) 81 


rapid development of this territory to its new 
capabilities, in connection with a similar devel- 
opment in the corresponding latitude of Chile, 
has made a distinct sheep-raising section of the 
southernmost part of the continent, tributary to 
a great extent to Punta Arenas, Chile, which 
until recently was a free port. 

Vice-Consul J. W. White, at Buenos Aires, 
en 17 Oct. 1916 made an extended report on the 
wool industry to Washington, calling attention 
to the conditions permitting Argentina to de- 
mand unheard-of prices for her wool. The ac- 
tion of the, British government in placing an 
embargo on the sale of the previous year’s clip 
of the United Kingdom had operated to the di- 
rect advantage of the republic, enabling her to 
supply the wants of neutral countries in addi- 
tion to filing orders from the Entente Allies 


for such varieties as the British colonies do not 


produce. 

Seventy-five per cent of the wool comes from 
the white-faced, long-wool sheep of the Lin- 
coln and Leicester breeds, the quantity and the 
quality being such that in the markets of the 
world it is known as Argentine crossbreed. Its 
grades, when sorted into coarse and medium 
crossbred, correspond to the domestic commons 
and domestic one-fourth bloods in the United 
States. The fine Argentine crossbred is the 
equivalent of the United States three-eighths 
blood. Of the yearly total, merino fleeces con- 
stitute 20 per cent, the equivalent of the do- 
mestic fine in the United States, and the re- 
maining 5 per cent is from the black-faced and 
domestic sheep. The average clip per animal 
is 5.3 pounds. t 

Prior to the European War, the principal 
buyers of Argentine wool were France and 
Germany. Exports to France in 1911 amounted 
to 51,501 tons; 1912, 51,138 tons; 1913, 31,342 
tons; and 1914, 23,794 tons, a total for the 
four years of 157,775 tons. During the same 
period, Germany bought in 1911, 31,693 tons; 
1912, 47,839 tons; 1913, 41,362 tons; and 1914, 
30,386 tons, total, 151,280 tons. During the same 
years the purchases of the United Kingdom 
amounted to 93,225 tons; Belgium, 55,731 tons; 
United States, 42,521 tons; Italy, 14,849 tons; 
and other countries, 18,989 tons. From these 
figures the total exports of wool for these four 
years totaled 534,370 tons, being divided as 
follows: 1911, 132,056 tons; 1912, 164,964 tons; 
1913, 120,080 tons; and 1914, 117,270 tons. Re- 
cent economic changes have made the United 
States the principal purchaser of Argentine 
wool. Of the total export, 298,939 bales (925.9 
pounds each) for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 
1916, 152,330 bales went to the United States, as 
compared with the 102,429 bales purchased of 
the export of 303,402 bales in 1915, and 34,000 
bales out of 304,268 bales in 1914. The strong 
demand from the United States contributed 
largely to the increase of prices, the average 
sales in 1912 being, per pound, $0.165; 1913, 
$0.175; 1914, $0.175; and 1915, $0.201. During 
the August-September market season of 1916, 
the foreign demand plus speculation forced the 

price from $0.327 to $0.404 per pound, quotation 
- that covered all classes, including lambs’ wool, 
shorts, belly wool and sweepings, the spirit of 
speculation being so strongly instilled into the 
market that to-day no settled price is recog- 
nized. 
VOL. 17 — 6 


Chile In Chile the raising of sheep for 
their wool to be used in the domestic textile 
industry has been carried on since the first 
settlement of the country. It is within the 
present generation that the industry has as- 
sumed export proportions, a result of the 
development of the southern portion of the 
republic, including the extensive territory of 
Magellanes. The number of sheep in the coun- 
try, according to the estimate of the govern- 
ment (Commerce Reports, 16 March 1916), is - 
5,000,000, of which 2,000,000 are in the terri- 
tory tributary to Punta Arenas. 

Formerly the centre of the government penal 
colony, founded in 1840, Punta Arenas, on the 
Strait of Magellan, in time became an im- 
portant coaling station for steamers. Later, 
Scotch shepherds from the Falkland Islands, 
noting the excellence of the pastures in the 
vicinity, brought their flocks and started the 
industry that promises to become one of the 
most important in the country. The result has 
been that the Chilean government has recog- 
nized the possibilities of this part of the re- 
public, and has thrown open the territories of 
Llanquihue, Chiloe and Magellanes to settle- 
ment, and thousands of acres of land have been 
occupied, the greater part devoted to sheep 
farming. There are many settlers from the 
British Isles, and English is everywhere spoken. 
Punta Arenas, population 17,000, was a free 
port until 1912, one cause of its rapid growth 
and importance. The territory, all devoted 
to the same industry, of which it is the chief 
city, includes not only Chilean pastures, but 
those of southern Argentina. The estimated 
clip for 1916 (Commerce Reports, 21 Oct. 1916), 
was 25,000,000 pounds. Argentine wool also 
to the amount of 1,347 metric tons (2,204.6 
pounds) passed through this port in 1914. 

In 1913 and 1914 Chile exported the follow- 
ing amounts (metric tons): To Great Britain, 
9400 and 8115; France, 1,938°and 1,264; Bel- 
gium, 583 and 39; Germany, 742 and 2,185; and 
the United States, 7 and 358. Due to the 
demand caused by the war, exports increased 
greatly to the United States, those for 1915 
(fiscal year ending 30 June) amounting to 
2,369,359 pounds, valued at $599,650, and 1916, 
9,611,489 pounds valued at $2,562,792. 


Chilean wool is divided into two general 
classes — merino, which is fine, soft, curly and 
comparatively short, and English, which is 
long, straight and glossy. Between these two 
grades there are various “crossbreeds,” the 
quantity of these increasing each year. After 
1914, the price of merino wool fell, while the 
crossbred rose appreciably. Export wool is 
unwashed (Commerce Reports, 16 March 1916), 
weighing twice as much as that prepared for 
spinning. The lack of facilities for washing 
had the effect of causing difficulty in the dyeing 
of wools for native industry. Of this latter 
there are two factories in the country, at 
Santiago and at Tome, the annual consumption 
being about 550 metric tons of wool, and their 
output 435,000 yards of fabric, which is used 
in part for army, navy and police uniforms. 
In addition, the manufacture includes cash- 
meres, broadcloths, blankets and shawls. 

Uruguay.— Uruguay, as regards the pro- 
duction of wool, is subject to the general con- 
ditions that affect Argentina. The country 1s 


82 LATIN CHURCH — LATIN 


essentially pastoral, and the greatest interest 
has been taken by the government in the intro- 
duction and propagation of fine stock.- The ex- 
ports of wool in 1913 amounted to 63,571 metric 
tons. Since 1914, the greatest. trade in this 
commodity has been with the United States, 
the exports in 1914 (fiscal year ending 30 June) 
amounting to 7,965,817 pounds, valued at $1,- 
854,065; 1915, 14,612,703 pounds, valued at 
$3,956,216; and 1916, 8,941,506 pounds, valued 
at $3,206,191. 

Brazil.— Brazil, due to the tropical nature 
of the greater part of its surface, is not destined 
to become one of the great wool producing 
countries. However, in the southern part of 
the republic—notably in the staté of Rio 
Grande do Sul—the climate is adapted for 
sheep raising, and a considerable quantity of 
wool is produced. The principal market of 
the country for wool is at the port of Rio 
Grande. Success is also reported in sheep 
raising for wool in the states of Parana and 
Minas Geraes. Exports for the country in 
1911 amounted to 2,147,970 pounds, valued at 


$311,386; 1912, 4,198,630 pounds, valued at 
ee ; 1913, 2,838,804 pounds, valued at 
394,155; 1914, 2,448,193. pounds, valued at 
ee and 1915, 997,639 pounds, valued at 
193,065. Exports to the United States during 


the fiscal year ending 30 June 1915 amounted to 
115,147 pounds, valued at $29,389; and 1916, 
87,864 pounds, valued at $15,590. Native in- 

dustry consumes a large amount, the quantity 
' increasing rapidly. 

Other Countries of Latin America.— Of 
the Latin-American countries, there are none 
that do not produce some wool, many in large 
quantities, and some a product of a special 
quality, this latter being particularly true of 
Peru, Bolivia and Chile, where, in the Andes 
region, the alpaca, vicufia and llama thrive. In 
the supplement to Commerce Reports of 18 
April 1917, the United States Minister at La 
Paz says: “Throughout the arid region that lies 
between the two Cordilleras a species of bunch 
grass grows which is capable of resisting the 


rigors of winter and which provides abundant 
pasture for sheep and other wool-bearing 
animals. Experiments conducted under gov- 
ernment supervision seem to indicate that the 
alpaca is better suited to live in the highlands 
than is the sheep or any other wool-bearing 
animal. The government of Bolivia is making 
a special effort to stimulate the industry, and the 
production of alpaca wool is attaining con- 
siderable importance in the country.” (Samples 
of alpaca and llama wool, raw and woven into 
native fabrics, may be seen at the Bolivian Con- 
sulate-General at New York). 

Four animals closely related to the camel 
of Africa and Asia inhabit the Andean high- 
lands. Of these the vicufia and guanaco are 
wild and hold no important position as a 
source of wealth. The skin of these animals 
1s covered with a coat of soft hair and has 
value as a fur. Efforts to prevent their. ex- 
termination, however, are of little effect in a 
country so sparsely settled and so- difficult to 
police, and the fear is that they may eventually 
disappear’ altogether. . The alpaca and _ the 
llama are domesticated .. The alpaca, al- 
though closely related to the llama, with which 


it interbreeds freely; differs. ., tn the char- 


KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM 


acter of its wool. The wool of the alpaca is 
generally black or white; occasionally, however, 
brown or spotted ones are found. It is cus- 
tomary to shear the alpaca every second year, 
but it has been, found that the wool continues 
to grow for a longer period and that it would 
be profitable to shear them only every third 
year. The present yield averages about 10 to 
15 pounds, every second year ... Among the 
wools alpaca is superior because of its re- 
markable strength, its flexibility, and the fine- 
ness of its texture ... The production is lim- 
ited entirely to the Andean highlands of Peru 
and Bolivia. . 
Peru, in addition to her production of alpaca 
and llama wool, has large domestic sheep 
interests. The exports of alpaca wool in 1913 
amounted to $1,573,670; 1914, $1,538,427; and 
1916, $1,696,213. Of llama wool, the exports in 


‘1913 amounted to $141,493; 1914, $90,477; and 


1915, $144,152. Domestic wool, $797,868; 1914, 
$841,165;°and 1915, $1,066,844. Exports to the 
United States in 1915 (fiscal year ending 30 
June) amounted to 819,347 pounds, valued at 
$192,284; and 1916, 2,426,279 pounds, valued at 
$069,174. 

Colombia, although using a considerable 
quantity of wool in domestic manufacture, also 
produces some for export. The quantity sent to 
the United States in 1915 amounted to 915 
pounds, valued at $218. No shipments were 
made in 1916.. Paraguay also produces wool 
for export, the quantity sold abroad in 1914 
being 93,634 pounds; and 1915, 129,127 pounds. 
Of this latter, 24,651 pounds were shipped to 
the United States, the remainder to Argentina, 
Uruguay, Italy and France. As to Venezuela, 
no figures regarding wool production are avail- 
able. Of the northern group of Latin-American 
states, Mexico is the greatest grower of wool. 
In normal times it is an important industry. 
Even during the recent troubled perod, her ex- 
ports to the United States amounted in 1914 
(fiscal year ending 30 June) to 849,991 pounds, 
valued at $108,004; 1915, 1,154,626 pounds, 
value at $134,863; and 1916, 1,321,213 pounds, 
valued at $170,518. Of the remainder of the 
group, the only states exporting to the United 
States during 1916 (fiscal year ending 30 
June) were Costa Rica, 19,574 pounds, valued 
at $8,935; Guatemala, 572 pounds, valued at 
$257; and Panama, 200 pounds, valued at $50. 

W. B. GRAHAM, 
Trade. Expert, Latin-American. Division, War 

Trade Board, Washington, D. C. 

LATIN CHURCH. See 
CizurcH, ROMAN. 


LATIN CROSS (crux immisa or capita), 
cross with the upright considerably longer than 
the transverse beam which crosses it near the 
top. It is generally regarded as the type used 
in the crucifixion of Christ and therefore be- 
comes a symbol of the Christian faith. 


LATIN EMPIRE. See BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
LATIN HYMNS. See Hymns, LATIN. 


LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM, 
kingdom established and maintained by the 
Crtisaders in Jerusalem in 1099-1187, and after- 
ward re-established around Saint-Jean d’Acre 
and maintained until 1291. The kingdom was 
the common property of Christendom and dur- 
ing its two centuries of existence its character 


CATHOLIC 


LATIN LANGUAGE 83 


was international. The French, however, were 
strongest among the ruling officials, while the 
Italians attatned a considerable economic in- 
fluence. The kingdom reached its greatest di- 
mensions toward the middle of the 12th cen- 
tury when it extended on the Syrian coast from 
Beirut to Raphia, from the Lebanon district on 
the northeast to beyond the Dead Sea on the 
southeast, extending along the Jordan to the 
Arabian Desert and including the port of Aila 
on the Red Sea. The kingdom was organized 
on the feudal system and the sovereignty was 
vested in the body of feudatories who composed 
the high court rather than in the king whose 
authority was chiefly military. The court’s au- 
thority governed the succession to the throne, 
made the laws and constituted the high tribunal 
from whose decisions there was no appeal. 
The “Assizes of Jerusalem” was compiled by 
the court. Later in the 12th century a court 
of burgesses was organized, this having power 
over the burgesses, sentence of either exile or 
death being vested in it, a power withheld 
from the king and at first non-existent in the 
kingdom. The great feudal chiefs, however, 
really maintained inedpendent kingdoms within 
the limits of the greater kingdom, and on 
occasion even waged war without consent of 
the king. However, the royal authority had 
ample financial resources, derived from customs, 
caravan taxes and the monopoly of special 
industries. The right to coin money was vested 
--within the king’s authority, and with the consent 
of the high court he could levy additional taxes 
in case of threatened invasion. On the occasion 
of Saladin’s arming against the kingdom in 1182 
a tax of 2 per cent was levied on all revenues, 
even those of the Church. The vassals owed 
military service but received payment for it. 
Godfrey de Bouillon was elected Lord of 
Jerusalem, 22 July 1099, but did not assume the 
crown. He was succeeded by his_ brother, 
Baldwin of Odessa, who was crowned king of 
Jerusalem, 25 Dec. 1100. Baldwin I (q.v.) 
reigned until 1118 and was the real founder of 
the kingdom, greatly extending its territory 
and effectively organizing its power. He was 
succeeded by his son Baldwin II, 1118-31, who 
was followed by his son-in-law, Fulk, Count de 
Anjou. He also succeeded in increasing the 
importance of the kingdom, reigning in 1131-41, 
and succeeded by his son, Baldwin ITI, 1143-62, 
under whom the kingdom reached its zenith, 
although the principality of Edessa was 
wrested from it in 1144. He was succeeded by 
his brother Amaury I, 1162-74, who aroused 
Saladin by his attempted subjugation of Egypt. 
His son Baldwin IV, 1174-85, ruled through a 
regent, owing to his illness from leprosy, and 
was succeeded by a nephew, Baldwin V, a child 
who was supposed to have been poisoned a 
year later. Dissensions among the barons had 
by this time weakened the royal power and 
Jerusalem fell to Saladin in 1187 under the 
reign of Guy de Lusignan and his wife, Sibylla, 
mother of Baldwin V. The siege of Saint- 
Jean d’Acre was then begun and upon its sur- 
render, 13 July 1191, the kingdom of Jerusalem 
was re-established there. It continued in exist- 
ence until 1291, Jerusalem itself being within 
its jurisdiction in 1229-44. 


LATIN LANGUAGE, The. One of the 
Indo-European family of languages, spoken in 


Latium and especially in Rome, and extended 
with the Roman rule over the ancient world; 
the source from which the Romance languages 
(Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese) are de- 
rived. 

As one of the Indo-European languages 
Latin shows a relationship in vocabulary, in 
inflected forms and in syntactical structure to 
other branches, Greek, Sanskrit, Germanic, 
Slavic, but according to the theory now gener- 
ally accepted this indicates linguistic relation-. 
ship only and does not necessarily imply an 
ethnological connection between the races 
speaking these languages. It was long held 
that the resemblance between the Greek and 
the Latin was so close as to warrant the belief 
that the two languages (and races) were de- 
rived from a common stock, but this theory 
(of a Greco-Italian unity) is now generally 
abandoned. Probably the closest connection of 
Latin is with the Celtic languages. 

Latin was one of a group of dialects spoken 
in central Italy. The other best known and 
most closely related Italic dialects are the 
Faliscan (which is scarcely more than a local 
variety of Latin) and the Osco-Umbrian. The 
latter was an extensive family of dialects 
spoken in the mountain districts of central 
Italy, especially in Samnium, and in early times 
was more widely distributed than the Latin 
and of at least equal advancement. The Oscan 
is represented by a number of inscriptions, of 
which the Tabula Bantina is the longest, and 
the Umbrian by the Iguvinian Tables, of some 
4,000 words in length. 

The Latin language was reduced to writing 
at an early period by the use of an alphabet 
derived from the Greek alphabet of the town 
of Cume. Of this earliest period we have 
scanty records in inscriptions from about 500 
B.c. down (the Fibula of Palestrina, the Duenos 
inscription) and in the rituals of the Salii and 
the Arval Brethren. These were not wholly 
intelligible to the Romans of the classical times 
and are still in part obscure; but enough is 
clear to show that the language was at that 
period a raw dialect of limited vocabulary, in- 
capable as yet of expressing the thoughts or 
emotions of a highly civilized people. 

The change from a rustic dialect to a lit- 
erary language took place in the 3d and 2d 
centuries B.c. It was brought about by two 
causes. In the first place, through the exten- 
sion of Roman power over the whole of Italy, 
Latin became the language of trade and of ofh- 
cial intercourse throughout the peninsula; in 
this process of expansion the language Teflected 
the expanding interests and necessities of the 
people who spoke it, becoming by use richer in 
vocabulary, more varied and at the same time 
more regular in structure, and gaining by its 
contact with the Oscan and Umbrian. ‘This 
process was aided also by the constant practice 
of oratory, which the workings of a free con- 
stitution called forth. In the second place, the 
contact with the Greeks of southern Italy gave 
an immense and lasting stimulus to literary 
production. At first this took the form of the 
drama and the epic, and the necessities of 
verse, particularly of the Greek hexameter, re- 
quired a conventional distinction between long 
syllables and: short, such as the native rhythms, 
which were ‘mainly accentual, had not required, 
The quantitive character thus given to the lan- 


84 LATIN LITERATURE 


guage and the imaginative enrichment which 
came from its employment in poetry affected 
chiefly the language of literature. On the 
other hand, in the spoken Latin, the giving up 
of the Indo-European accentuation and the 
adoption of a new accent-law, by which the 
main accent was restricted to the penult and 
ante-penult, resulted in the frequent shorten- 
ing of the unaccented final syllable, especially 
in iambic words, and in the occasional dropping 
of final consonants. Acting in different di- 
rections, as a conservative force in the literary 
Latin, as a cause of rapid change in the spoken 
language, these influences produced the begin- 
ning of that separation between the language 
of books and the speech of the common people, 
which, though it occurs to some degree in all 
languages, is a most marked peculiarity in the 
development of the Latin language. 

For about a century and a half before the 
beginning of our era and for an equal time 
after that date the Latin of books remained 
almost unchanged in sounds and forms; its his- 
tory during this time deals with its growth and 
change as an instrument of literature. The 
Classical Period (the Ciceronian and Augustan) 
saw the culmination of Latin style, first in 
prose and then in poetry. Cicero was an 
extraordinary master of style and in his hands 
the language lost its archaic stiffness of struc- 
ture and became a flexible and a complex means 
of expression. Better than any other Latin 
writer he used the periodic form of sentence, 
‘not as a mere rhetorical device, but as a suit- 
able expression for a complete thought, with 
all its subordinations and interdependence, in 
a unified and harmonious structure, Czsar 
also represents the simplest narrative prose, 
free from archaisms and absolutely unaffected 
and unadorned. In verse Virgil and Horace 
are types of the artistic use of imaginative 
speech, in which by a careful felicity of selec- 
tion and combination language is made to con- 
vey poetic suggestion, without either the affec- 
tation of the Alexandrian school or the heavi- 
ness of Ennius or Lucretius. 

The change from the Classical Period to 
the “Silver> Latin of the early empire is 
likewise chiefly stylistic and from this point of 
view it must be regarded as a change for the 
worse. To a considerable extent pleasure in 
the mere arts and tricks of expression took 
the place in Ovid and Martial of true poetic 
force and poetry became contaminated by 
rhetoric. In prose, however, the rhetorical and 
individualistic tendencies were less injurious; 
Tacitus, though he abandoned the periodic 
structure of Cicero and introduced into prose 
many words from the vocabulary of poetry, 
nevertheless used a style suited to his tempera- 
ment and subject. 

It is not worth while to follow in detail the 
later history of the literary Latin. It was in 
the main rhetorical and imitative and it lacked 
that vigor of thought which alone can main- 
tain a vigorous linguistic life. To this general 
statement there are two exceptions. The Latin 
af the jurists kept up the tradition of accuracy 
and clearness, employing a technical vocabulary 
without rhetorical artifice, and the Christian 
writers, possessed by the supreme desire to 
convey a serious message to unlettered readers, 
continued the spirit, if not the form, of the 
better Latinity. With these exceptions, how- 


ever, the Latin of literature is, after the 2d or 
3d century, no longer in the fullest sense a 
living language. 

Meanwhile the Latin of daily life, the lan- 
guage spoken by the common people of Rome, 
by slaves and provincials and soldiers, had con- 
tinued to exist under the level of the literary 
language, from which it was separated about 
250 sp.c. The evidence for the spoken Latin 
during the later republic and the early empire 
is somewhat scanty, consisting of occasional 
inscriptions like the wall-writings of Pompeii 
or passages in authors like Petronius, in which 
the colloquial Latin is intentionally imitated. 
But the effect of the accent in the shortening 
of final syllables is to be seen even in Horace 
and Virgil and-this tendency leads in some in- 
scriptions to the loss of final consonants. After 
the 3d century of our era we have increasing 
evidence of change in sounds and forms. The 
vowel e and the diphthongs @, @ were no longer 
clearly distinguished in sound, and were there- 
fore confused in writing; au became o; b and 
v were interchanged; the softening of c, tf and 
g before e and 7 began; initial h was lost or 
was misplaced (this had begun in the time 
of Catullus). Still more marked was the loss 
of the distinction, probably never made with 
great precision in the ordinary speech, between 
long and short vowels, and the consequent re- 
appearance of accentual verse. The disappear- 
ance of final consonants, especially m and s, 
destroyed the distinctive marks of gender and 
even of case, so that cases, being no longer 
distinct in form, were not clearly differentiated 
in usage. In syntax the older paratactic con- 
structions, which are found in Plautus and oc- 
casionally throughout Latin literature, again 
appear and analytic idioms (habere as an 
auxiliary verb) began to displace the inflec- 
tional verb-forms; the use of prepositions 
weakened the force of the cases; conjunctions 
lost their original meaning quod, for example, 
driving out other conjunctions. All these are 
steps toward the passage from Latin to the 
Romance languages. They went on at differ- 
ent rates in different parts of the empire and 
under different conditions, but the beginning 
of many can be traced back to early Latin and 
they are not to be thought of as accidents by 
which the Latin language was destroyed, but 
as entirely normal and natural changes which 
mark the progress of the language from the 
inflected stage to the comparatively uninflected 
condition of the Romance languages. From 
this point of view the Latin of literature is to 
be regarded as a deviation, in some sense 
artificial, from the normal life of the language. 
See ALPHABET. 

Bibliography.— There is a good sketch of 
the history of the Latin language in the ‘His- 
torische Grammatik der latinische Sprache? 
(I, 1) by Stolz, and a longer history and dis- 
cussion by Weise, ‘Charakteristik der latin- 
ische Sprache. — 

Epwarp PARMELEE Morris, 
Professor of Latin, Yale University. 


LATIN LITERATURE. Within the brief 
limits of the following sketch it will not be 
possible to describe fully the characteristics of 
single writers (for these special articles must 
be consulted) ; only a general history of Latin 
literature will be given, with a summary esti- 
mate of its value. 


LATIN LITERATURE 85 


A division into periods will be found con- 
venient, though such divisions in a continuous 
development must not be understood to imply 
abrupt changes. 

1. The Prehistoric Period down to 240 
B.C.— No complete writings from this period 
survive in their original form, but from frag- 
ments and chance allusions it is known to have 
been a period of native ‘beginnings, as yet un- 
touched by foreign influences. In poetry, which 
from its nature takes literary form before 
prose, we possess partly modernized fragments 
of religious ritual in verse, the forerunners of 
a kind of lyric. A few allusions seem to indi- 
cate the existence of the custom of chanting 
lays in honor of national or family heroes, 
which might under favoring conditions have 
flowed together into an epic, and many refer- 
ences and some later fragments show that vil- 
lage festivals, in Italy as in Greece, were cele- 
brated with songs and dances of a mimetic and 
humorous character, out of which a _ subor- 
dinate kind of drama actually arose, even after 
the introduction of Greek comedy. Semi- 
ritualistic charms and farmers’ maxims, of 
which Cato gives us specimens, might easily 
have been collected into a didactic poem on 
agriculture. In prose the legal codifications 
were already well advanced, and the many 
forms of official record furnished the material 
for history and, indeed, dictated its earliest 
annalistic form. Oratory, as might be expected, 
was in constant use in the Senate, in popular 
assemblies, and for purposes of eulogy, and a 
speech of Appius Claudius Czcus, delivered in 
the Senate in 280 B.c., was still extant in the 
time of Cicero. Thus in several directions the 
germs of a native literature had appeared be- 
fore the Greek influence was felt. 

2. The Period of Greek Influence, Begin- 
ning with 240 B.C. and Lasting for about a 
Century.— Through the conquest of the Greek 
cities of southern Italy the Romans first be- 
came fully aware of the treasures of Greek 
literature, by that time practically complete. 
Its introduction into Roman life was due to a 
Greek slave, Livius Andronicus, who translated 
plays of the Greek “New Comedy” (Meander 
and others) for presentation at the Roman 
festivals and put the ‘Odyssey? into Saturnian 
verse to be used as a reading-book in schools. 
He thus gave a new impulse and direction both 
to draniatic and to epic poetry and he was fol- 
lowed in the drama by native Italians, Naevius, 
Plautus and Ennius, and in the epic by Naevius, 
who wrote a history of the First Punic War in 
the native accentual verse-form. Ennius, the 
most influential writer of the period, continued 
the epic still further by writing in hexameters 
a history of the Roman race, which remained 
the national epic until the appearance of the 
“7Eneid.?> Other dramatic writers followed, 
the tragedy being less original and less popular 
than the comedy. Ennius also gave literary 
form to satire, a peculiarly Italian product, 
written by him in various metres and on a 
variety of subjects and put into final form at 
a later period. The prose of this time was 
still mainly of a practical character. Cato the 
Censor wrote out and published many of his 
speeches for use as political pamphlets, com- 
posed a book of maxims drawn from his active 
life for the benefit of his son, some at least 
being in the form of letters, and wrote a 


treatise on farming which, in a partially 
modernized form, is still extant. The writing 
of history had already begun, in the Roman 
annalistic form, though in the Greek language, 
but Cato wrote a history of Italian towns in 
Latin. There was also considerable activity 
in legal writing, though systems of juris- 
prudence came somewhat later. This last was 
purely Roman and in general the Greek in- 
fluence was less felt in prose, and the impulse 
to stylistic finish was less active than in 
poetry. 

The period was thus one of beginnings in 
many lines. The stimulus of the Greek litera- 
ture was almost a tyranny as to the form, espe- 
cially in poetry, but in the writers of more 
original mind the Italian spirit and something 
of the Italian form, like the music and dances 
of comedy, still maintained itself. In the period 
of transition to Cicero’s time (about 150-84 
B.c.) the further growth of oratory, history 
and jurisprudence in prose, and the writing of 
plays on Italian subjects and in native form, 
showed that the Latin spirit was recovering 
from the first dominance of the Greek artistic 
form. In particular, it was during this time 
that the purely national satire received its 
permanent form and direction at the hands 
of Lucilius. 

3. The Ciceronian Age, 83-43 B.C.— In this 
period, which is defined by the beginning and 
the end of Cicero’s literary activity, Latin 
prose reached its culminating point, combining 
at last into a ‘harmonious whole the earnestness 
of the Roman and something of Greek artistic 
skill. The practical -national tendencies were 
still exemplified by Varro, who gave a long 
life to investigation and published works in 
many fields, in law, history, philosophy, gram- 
mar and agriculture, with an almost exclusive 
attention to the matter rather than to the style. 
In ‘history Sallust may be called the first of 
Roman historians, in the true sense of the word 
as distinguished from the annalists and antiqua- 
rians, but his style is intentionally archaic and 
not wholly natural. The period was especially 
rich also in political writings, in the form of 
biographies and memoirs, among which must be 
included the commentaries of Cesar, historical 
in form, but written for a political purpose, and 
models of perfectly simple narrative in the pur- 
est diction. But the chief-figure in the litera- 
ture of the period was Cicero. He was a man 
of wide knowledge both of the earlier Roman 
oratory and of Greek rhetoric; he was equally 
interested in the theory and in the practice of 
public speaking, and his warmth of ‘tempera- 
ment and purity of taste-in composition made 
him an eminent master of style. His writings 
have remained since his time the models and 
standard of Latin jprose. Aside from his 
speeches, of which some 50 are extant, he left 
valuable works on rhetoric, some well-written 
treatises on philosophy and a large and ex- 
tremely interesting collection of letters, gathered 
and published after his death by his secretary. 

In poetry also this period was second only 
to the Augustan Age. Lucretius, continuing 
the tradition of didactic poetry, wrote in hexam- 
eters an exposition of the atomic theory of 
Epicurus. The subject was in itself unsuited 
to poetry, but Lucretius has so infused into it 
his own moral earnestness and so interspersed 
and adorned the doctrines with passages of 


86 LATIN LITERATURE 


lofty beauty that the work is intensely Roman 
and is undoubtedly the greatest didactic poem 
in existence. In lyric poetry Catullus left be- 
hind him at his early death a few score of 
poems, almost all quite short and some of them 
overwrought with imagery and allusion in the 
Alexandrian manner, but of the purest lyric 
strain and in this one respect superior to the 
‘Odes? of Horace. If the fame of Catullus 
rested on the ‘Attis> alone he would be called 
a great poet. 

4. The Augustan Age, 43 B.C. to 14 A.D. 
This period was, in contrast to the preceding, 
mainly an age of poetry. The loss of political 
freedom affected unfavorably both the public 
oratory and the political and historical prose. 
Scarcely an orator of the period has left more 
than an empty name and public speaking sank 
into declamation and rhetorical display. | In his- 
tory there is the one great name of Livy, but 
even he, though a friend of Augustus, found 
in the history of the past a kind of refuge from 
the political hopelessness of his own time. His 
style, in the narrower sense, was an adaptation 
of the periodic sentence structure of Cicero to 
the purpose of narrative, to which it is not en- 
tirely suited, but his descriptions—his “pic- 
tured page» —are wonderfully vivid. From 
him and from Plutarch’s ‘Lives? most of our 
popular conceptions of Roman history and 
character are derived. 

But the conditions which were unfavorable 
to the highest kinds of prose composition fos- 
tered production in the unemotional and imper- 
- sonal fields of technical writing. To this per- 
iod belong the work of Vitruvius on archi- 
tecture, the extremely learned work of Verrius 
Flaccus on lexicography and grammar, now 
unfortunately lost, and some important writers 
on law. It was, however, in poetry of high 
quality that the age was especially productive. 
Virgil, after some imitations of Theocritus and 
a very perfectly finished poem on farming, left 
behind him at his death the ‘A*neid? in almost 
complete form, to become at once the great epic 
of Rome and in later times the most widely 
known of Latin poems. Horace, a Republican 
in his youth, who had fought at Pharsalus, 
continued the tradition of satire after the man- 
ner of Lucilius and wrote the four books of 
the ‘Odes, inferior to the poems of Catullus 
in lyric feeling, but superior in their attitude 
toward life and perhaps in their close stylistic 
texture. He also became at once a classic and 
has ‘been the favorite poet of many men of 
society and of affairs. Tibullus and Propertius 
introduced elegiac poetry and seem in this field 
to ‘have surpassed thzir Greek models. Ovid 
wrote a long poem embodying Greek myths, an 
account of the festivals of the Roman calendar 
and a number of minor poems, all with an 
unrivaled technical skill: but he was a man of 
weak fibre and lacking in genuineness and his 
personal failings have lowered the tone of 
his writings. 

Taken all together, this roll of names, 
though no one of them is quite of the very 
highest rank, entitles the Augustan Age to a 
place among the great periods of literary 
production. 

The Ciceronian and Augustan periods are 
sometimes put together and called the Classical 
Period, or, in contrast with that which follows, 
the Golden Age of Latin Literature. 


5. The Silver Latin, 14-117 A:D.— Two 
characteristics mark the literature of the early 
empire. On the one hand, technical skill in 
the craft of writing was never greater nor 
more generally exercised. Verse-composition 
was common and the versification was accurate 
and finished. But, on the other hand, the in- 
creasing tyrannies of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero 
and Domitian suppressed independence of ut- 
terance and even of thought and the decrease 
in race-vigor weakened the nobler impulses to 
expression. Technical skill was therefore put 
to frivolous or ignoble uses and was directed 
by petty vanities into mere affectation, instead 
of being controlled by a reserved taste and a 
sober purpose. Poetry borrowed the rhetorical 
devices of prose and prose used the vocabulary 
of poetry. a4 

But while this description is fairly appli- 


‘cable to most of the writers of this and. the 


succeeding period, there were not a few writers 
who, though they were inevitably affected by 
the character of their times, were yet raised by 
interest in their subject or by refinement of 
taste almost to the level of the Classical Period. 
This was true in a measure of many of the 
writers on technical subjects, grammar, agricul- 
ture, medicine, law; such, for example, was the 
elder Pliny, who collected a sort of compendium 
of knowledge in his ‘Naturalis Historia.» The 
philosopher and poet Seneca has been at times 
highly esteemed, but it is difficult to acquit him 
of insincerity and his closet-dramas betray his 
tendency to bombast. Quintilian, however, was 
a great teacher of rhetoric in the best sense and 
a writer of learning and taste, who would have 
been distinguished in any age. With him may 
be ranked, though on different grounds, the 
younger Pliny; the collection of this letters was 
made by himself and the letters were doubtless 
written for publication, so that they lack (ex-| 
cept the correspondence with the Emperor Tra- 
jan) the interest of Cicero’s letters, but Pliny 
was a man of excellent taste and of creditable 
aspirations and his character as revealed in his 
correspondence’ is distinctly attractive. The 
greatest prose writer of the period was Tacitus, 
the historian. He had endured and been em- 
bittered by enduring the dreadful oppressions 
of Domitian’s rule and under the liberal reign 
of Nerva and Trajan he used his opportunity to 
write truthful and independent histories of the 
empire. His style is individual and. difficult 
from its condensation, but better suited to his 
subject than the Ciceronian periods would -have 
been, and his treatment of his theme, though 
not free from prejudice, is extremely powerful. 
Herodotus and Thucydides in Greek and Livy 
and Tacitus in Latin are the four great histo- 
rians of the ancient world. 

On the side of poetry, though there were 
many writers of some merit, only a few deserve 
mention here. Martial composed epigrams, 
Lucian wrote an epic of the civil war between 
Cesar and Pompey, and Persius and Juvenal 
were satirists. The latter is, in spite of rhetor- 
ical blemishes and a repellant savageness of 
tone, one of the greatest writers in Latin litera- | 
ture and his satire has been the model for much 
writing of the same kind in English literature. 

6. The Later Empire.— Of writers after 
the end of the first century of our era few are 
of importance from the strictly literary point of 
view and there is a certain justice in closing 


LATIN LITERATURE 87 


the ‘history of Latin literature with Tacitus. 
But in the long list of writers of the next four 
or five centuries there are many whose works 
have, apart from their form, an intrinsic in- 
terest, in some cases a very great interest. 
From them may be selected the following 
names: In history, Suetonius, Ammianus and 
the ‘Scriptores Historie Auguste? ; in literary 
commentary and criticism, Gellius, Donatus 
Servius and Macrobius; in grammar, Marius 
Victorinus and Priscian. The most original and 
perhaps in a true sense literary work of these 
centuries is to be found in the legal writings, 
from Gaius to the ‘Code of Justinian, and in 
the Church Fathers, Lactantius, Ambrosius, 
Jerome, Augustine and many others; in writers 
of both of these classes interest in the subject 
checked the prevalent inclination to regard the 
art of writing as an end in itself rather than 
as a means. 

This chronological review of Roman litera- 
ture may be supplemented by a brief summary 
and estimate of Latin writers by classes accord- 
ing to their form or subject matter. In the 
comparative simplicity of the ancient literatures 
the connection between writers in the same 
class was more direct and therefore more note- 
‘worthy than it is in modern times. 

The Roman drama, having been early 
checked in its possible growth by the introduc- 
tion of Greek models, took almost entirely a 
Greco-Roman form. Of the tragedies nothing 
has been preserved except the book-plays of 
Seneca, and the writing of tragedy for the 
stage had come to an end before the time of 
Cicero. The form of drama which took its 
subjects from Roman legend appears to have 
been only slightly successful and it is evident 
that the serious drama had little hold upon 
Roman life. The comedies, even those of 
Greek form like the extant plays of Plautus 
and Terence, expressed more of the Italian 
spirit and retained their hold upon the stage, 
and the farces, the mimes and the Atellan 
plays were even more popular. The Italian 
interest, then as now, was more in the acting 
and impersonation than in the dramatic form 
or story. ; 

In epic poetry the glory of the Homeric 
poems was so great as to determine, somewhat 
to its disadvantage, the form of the Roman na- 
tional epic. It is not unlikely that Ennius was 
in this respect more truly national than Virgil. 
The poet of the ‘/Eneid? was in truth hampered 
by the Homeric machinery of gods and heroes 
and by the supposed necessity of imitating in 
one part of his poem the wanderings of Odys- 
seus, in another the battles of the Iliad. These 
things were not real to him; they were epic 
conventionalities which he felt obliged to adopt, 
as he adopted at times the phrases and the 
similes of the Homeric style. In all these re- 
spects, in which the ‘Afneid? is most fre- 
quently and quite properly compared with the 
Greek epic, Virgil is plainly the inferior and 
they are sufficient to exclude him from the 
small company of the world’s greatest poets. 
But in the occasional passages where he is in- 
spired by the opportunity of expressing his real 
theme — the greatness of the Roman state — he 
writes with a proud dignity and a conscious 
understanding of the meaning of history, to 
which there is no parallel in the Homeric 
poems. His verse also is suited to the dignity 


of his thought; his hexameters are composed 
as wholes, while the Homeric hexameter ap- 
pears to retain the traces of its composition 
out of two short half-verses. The Virgilian 
verse is less suited to the simplicity of nar- 
rative, but is unequalled in elevation. 

Didactic writing in prose and verse was es- 
pecially natural and attractive to the Roman 
mind and the series of didactic works extends 
from the earliest times down to the end. The 
most notable in verse are the great poem of 
Lucretius ‘De Rerum Natura? and’ the 
“Georgics? of Virgil. Both depend largely — 
Lucretius wholly—on Greek authorities for 
their subject matter, but two more thoroughly 
Roman poems could’ not be named. In’ form 
the work of Lucretius is incomplete; the 
“Georgics? is one of the most perfectly finished 
poems in Latin literature. 

Lyric poetry in Latin has an especial inter- 
est from the fact that the Greek lyrics of the 
best period are preserved only in fragments and 
our conception of this important form of poetry 
in ancient literature must be derived chiefly 
from Catullus and Horace. Apparently the best 
qualities of Alczeus and Sappho are better re- 
produced by the free spontaneity of Catullus 
than by the careful workmanship and mature 
intelligence of Horace. We are fortunate in 
the possession of both. Lucretius, Catullus, 
Virgil and Horace are the four cornerstones: 
of Latin poetry. 

The elegy is closely allied to the lyric, from 
which it differs chiefly in the use of the elegiac 
couplet, hexameter and pentameter. The ex- 
amples that we have in Tibullus, Propertius and 
Ovid do not conform to the rule of ancient 
grammarians that elegy should deal with melan- 
choly themes. But the somewhat despondent 
temperament of Tibullus and the simplicity of 
his treatment are well suited to elegy. Proper- 
tius is more virile, but is over-much given to 
the display of Alexandrian learning. In the 
amatory elegiacs of Ovid his extraordinary 
cleverness has a congenial field and his lack of 
essential manliness is less detrimental than 
elsewhere. 

Epigram and satire were also natural forms 
of expression for the Italian, and many epi- 
grams are extant in inscriptions or are pre- 
served anonymously in the Anthology. Martial 
is the’ only writer whose collected. epigrams 
have come down to us. They are often neat, 
often amusing, but this form of art is of 
course not very high. In satire the Romans 
claimed complete originality and apparently 
with justice. The satirical spirit may ‘express 
itself in comedy or epigram or in semi-lyrical 
iambics like the ‘Epodes? of Horace, but the 
grammarians meant that in Latin the satire 
had been given a distinct conventional form — 
a short poem in hexameters—in which was 
expressed a distinct tone of critical comment 
on persons or on social life. In this sense 
satire can be clearly traced from Lucilius 
through Horace to Persius and Juvenal. Of 
the four Horace is incomparably the most 
humorous and in reality the most penetrating; 
Lucilius is preserved only in fragments, Per- 
sius is obscure, and both the objects of Juve- - 
nal’s satire and the indignation with which he 
attacks them are too real to give pleasure. 

In the prose literature of Rome, oratory and 
history hold the first place. In both the art 


88 LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 


took substantial form before the national tend- 
ency was overwhelmed by the finished Greek 
productions. 
tant literature only by some late Panegyrics 
and the speeches of Cicero, a small amount in 
comparison with the volumes of the Attic ora- 
tors. It is peculiarly unfortunate that we have 
none of the political speeches which played so 
large a part in the history of the republic; 
they would undoubtedly illustrate the prevail- 
ingly practical character of Roman oratory and 
would show how steadily it grew tothe height 
of Cicero’s ‘Second Philippic.? Up to this 
point, while it was increasingly stimulated by 
the best Greek models, it was able to resist the 
influence of Greek rhetoric. After Cicero’s 
time the teaching of rhetoric, which had be- 
come common in Rome, brought about an un- 
due attention to form and a consequent loss 
of power. 

The writing of history also long served a 
practical end. It began as a mere expansion of 
the official annual records, including the names 
of magistrates, the important public events and 
the recognized prodigies. This kind of history 
continued to be written after Naevius and En- 
nius had composed more elaborate histories in 
verse, and, even when Roman history was writ- 
ten in the Greek language, it was but little in- 
fluenced by the great Greek models. It is with 
Sallust and Nepos that the writing of history 
really began and its importance in Latin litera- 
ture is attested by the long line of minor 
historians. 

Roman philosophy can make no claim to 
originality. It is found, in prose, in Cicero and 
Seneca. The former gave free renderings of 
the best Greek works on ethical philosophy with 
special reference to its value in the training of 
the orator; the latter wrote without much sys- 
tem brief essays on ethics. 

Of epistolary literature, either letters act- 
ually sent to the persons addressed or essays in 
epistolary form, a considerable amount is known 
through allusions and the two collections by 
Cicero and Pliny have been mentioned. They 
are a unique feature of Roman literature, since 
it happens, perhaps from the concentration of 
Greek life in single cities, that no such collec- 
tions are extant in Greek. 

Of the technical writings enough has been 
said. They belong to all periods of the litera- 
ture and cover almost all fields of study, agri- 
culture, grammar, literary criticism, architec- 
ture, medicine, rhetoric, military strategy, engi- 
neering, astronomy, law; the first and the last 
subjects in this list being by far the most abun- 
dant and important. 

In comparison with the Greek seratare the 
Latin is inferior in imagination and 1 in form — 
two important characteristics; it is superior in 
the directness of its human appeal and in its 
practical worth to the modern world. It is 
sometimes said to be an imitative literature, but 
it is rather a continuation of Greek literature in 
new surroundings. The influence of Greek lit- 
erature upon Roman is not different in kind 
from the influence which modern literatures 
exert upon each other. 

A comparison with modern literature is less 
easy, because the differences are greater. The 
ancient literatures follow more strictly defined 
lines of tradition, especially in poetry. The 
Roman circle of readers was more limited than 


Oratory is represented in the ex- 


the modern and literature was therefore less 
broadly based and less representative of a wide 
variety of interests. And the comparative ab- 
sence of the romance or novel and the slight 
use of the motive of romantic love makes a 
‘very obvious difference. See articles on the in- 
dividual authors mentioned, for further bio- 


graphical and critical material. See also 
Latin WRITERS; CLASSICAL LITERATURE. | 
Bibliography.— Schanz, M., ‘Geschichte 


der romischen Literatur? (in Miller, ‘Handbuch 
der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft,? 3d ed., 
Munich 1905-14) ; Teuffel, W. S., and Schwabe, 
L., ‘Geschichte der r6mischen Literatur? 
(Eng. trans. by C. C. Warr, London. 1891-92) ; 
Mackail, J. W., ‘History of Latin Literature? 
(New York 1895); Sellar, W. Y., ‘Roman 
Poets of the Republic and Roman Poets of 
the Augustan Age? (Oxford 18%); Tyrrell, 
R. Y., “Lectures on Latin Poetry? .(Boston 
1893) ; Moulton, ‘The Ancient Classical Drama? ° 
(2d ed., Oxford 1898) ; Fowler, ‘Roman Lit- 
erature? (New York 1903) ; Mayor, John E. 
B., ‘Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature? 
(based on the work of Dr. E. Hubner, Lon- 
don and Cambridge 1875); Duff, J. D., ‘A 
Literary History of Rome from the Origins 
to the Close of the Golden Age? (London 
1909); Howe, George, ‘Recent Grito of 
Latin Literature (Baltimore 1913); Peignot, 
Charles, ‘Bibliothéque choisie des classiques 
latins? (Paris 1813) ; Plessis, ‘La poésie latine? 
(Paris 1909). 
EDWARD PARMELEE Morris, 
Professor of Latin, Yale University. 


LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MID- 
DLE AGES. The very greatness of the 
Roman Empire gives the reason for its dis- 
solution, even apart from the barbaric invasions, 
and the vicissitudes attending this dissolution 
were reflected in the cultivated and the popular 
language alike. There was this exception, how- 
ever; the latter preserved its vitality upon the 
tongues of the people, while the former tended 
to become a sort of official lingua franca with 
the monks and notaries, and even with the 
learned was modified by the influence of the 
colloquial dialects and new forms of thought, 
until it lost nearly every vestige of its former 
elegance and grace and became the barbarous 
Latin which, after serving as vehicle for the 
thought of western Europe for seven centuries, 
contributed to the later revival of that tongue 
in its classic purity that was so important a 
feature of the Renaissance. 

The Latin language during the centuries of 
the literary decadence could not of course be 
maintained in this classic purity. On the one 
hand, the prevalence of vulgar idioms and the 
accumulation of foreign elements through the 
granting of citizenship to all the subjects of 
the empire, and, on the other hand, the rapid 
transformation of thought which, to give ex- 
pression to new ideas, constrained the words 
to new meanings often far removed from their 
origin — these were the elements which con- 
tributed to the rapid corruption of the literary 
language. Meanwhile, in the individual prov- 
inces, the mixture of the official language with 
the dialectal elements and the natural differ- 
entiation due to a variety of causes had brought 
about the birth of different forms of the lan- 
guage from the 3d century on; so that the 
Gallic Latin, for example, had its own charac- 


LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 89 


teristics which distinguished it from the Afri- 
can Latin with its bombastic sonority. These 
were the first germs of new languages which 
were to spring from the root of Latinity. 
Nevertheless, although it is probably impossible 
to determine just when Latin ceased to exist 
as a spoken language among the common peo- 
ple, it continued ‘throughout the Middle Ages 
to be the language of the Church, of the law 
courts and of both religious and secular edu- 
cation and in this way became the medium of 
no inconsiderable number of real literary pro- 
ductions. 

It is generally conceded that the Middle 
Ages began with the fall of the Empire of 
the West in 476, for it was then that the civil- 
ization and culture of the ancient Romans suc- 
cumbed to the barbarians. It is from this 
point, then, that we begin the history of the 
Latin literature of the Middle Ages, continuing 
from that date to the fall of Constantinople in 
1453. For purposes of discussion, it will be 
convenient to make roughly a division into pe- 
riods, although this does not necessarily con- 
note abrupt changes. From 476 to the 8th cen- 
tury Latin literature is found in a condition 
of deepest decline, from which it recovers by 
progressive steps through the ecclesiastical re- 
naissance (from the 8th to the 10th centuries) 
and the period of scholasticism (from the 11th 
to the 14th centuries) to the world Renaissance 
(from the 14th century on). Without making 
these arbitrary limits too hard and fast, we 
shall proceed to enumerate briefly the chief 
authors in the various fields of literature. 

1. Pre-Carolingian Period,— With the tri- 
umphant spread of Christianity, the things of 
the world had lost their appeal and the think- 
ing man begins to look within; after the con- 
version of Spain and France, the only worthy 
objects of human endeavor are the restoration 
of God’s kindom on earth and the struggle 
against earthly enticements to sin. There arose 
a natural antagonism to pagan literature and 
consequently to pagan literary forms and ideals, 
many Christian writers professing to despise 
exactness in writing, “since I think it utterly 
unworthy,” as Pope Gregory said, “to constrain 
the words of the divine oracles under the rules 
_of Donatus.” At any rate, the fall of the 
Western Empire and the supremacy of the bar- 
barians ended by giving the last blow to the 
language ef Cicero and Virgil, reducing it very 
quickly to a language of official formulas, 
which the people were certainly not at all 
anxious to learn, content as they were with 
their own vulgar dialect. 

Latin literature then became identical with 
the record of Christian writers and the purely 
Roman element, or one might say the purely 
literary element, was bound to suffer in conse- 
quence. The apologetics and polemics of the 
early patristic literature disappeared with the 
spread of religion and Christian literature 
tended to go in new directions, chiefly toward 
mysticism and away from dogma, which was 
no longer of prime importance because of its 
universal acceptance. This tendency was mani- 
fested, for instance, in the abandonment of the 
‘purely textual criticism of the Holy Scriptures 
for interpretative criticism and also in hagiog- 
raphy, that fertile field of holy romance so im: 
portant throughout the Middle Ages. More- 
over, the influence of the Christian hymns 


caused accentual rhythm and rhyme to be 
firmly established in literary Latin upon the 
same footing as classic metre. 

Although all literary life gradually became 
extinguished with the transfer of the seat of 
the empire to Byzantium and the supremacy of 
the barbarians in all the Western provinces, 
some remnants remained, especially in Africa 
and Gaul, and in Italy too during the reign of 
Theodoric, which was a time of peace. Poetry 
was cultivated by the African school under the 
dominion of the Vandals likewise. Among the 
African poets were Dracontius, Luxorius and 
Corippus, and of the non-African poets men- 
tion should be made of Alcimus. Ecdicius 
Avitus, Magnus Felix Ennodius, Maximianus 
and Venantius Fortunatus, the latter being 
famous as a hymn-writer. 

This period of barbarity also saw a few 
truly great examples of prose-writers. First of 
all, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus 
Boethius (480-524), the celebrated Roman sen- 
ator who was imprisoned by Theodoric and 
condemned to death. While in prison he com- 
posed his most famous work, ‘De consolatione 
philosophiz,» a mixture of prose and verse after 
the manner of Martianus Capella in which 
the author imagines that Philosophy appeared 
to him in prison and consoled him for his 
sufferings. Boethius composed many other 
works on philosophy and mathematics as well 
as on Christian doctrine. 

Next to Boethius in importance is Magnus 
Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 480-575), the 
secretary of Theodoric, outliving him as well 
as the fall of the Goths and the coming of the 
Lombards. The last years of his life were 
passed in the retirement of a cloister founded 
by himself, and it was he who introduced the 


rule of copying manuscripts which has pre- 


served for us the treasures of the ancient 
classics. His activity as a writer embraces two 
periods, that of his political life and that of his 
cloistered life. To the first period belong 
panegyric orations in praise of the Gothic 
kings; ‘Chronica’?; ‘History of the Goths, of 
which we have only the epitome made by the 
Goth Jordanis, and a collection in 12 books of 
everything written in connection with his office. 
To the second period belong ‘Institutiones divi- 
narum et secularium litterarum? and several 
other works. 

The chief historian of the period is Gregory 
of Tours (538-593), author among other works 
of miraculous legends of the saints, but more 
especially of 10 books of ‘Historia Francorum,” 
which won for him the appellation, ‘Herodotus 
of the Franks.» Only improperly does one 
number among the historians the Briton Gildas, 
called the Wise. 

Among the theological writers should be 
mentioned Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), the 
founder of Monte Cassino, who wrote a 
‘Regula? which was extremely important in 
later monastic development. But ahead of all 
stands Pope Gregory I, surnamed the Great 
(c. 540-604), from whom, besides biblical com- 
mentaries, homilies and a book on the duties of 
the sacred ministry, we have many (800) let- 
ters, important for the history of the time, and 
eight or nine hymns. Excluding these and 
Eugippus (511), the author of the incomparable 
biography of, Saint Severinus, the theological 
writers of the period belong to the provinces 


90 LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 


of North Africa (Verecundus and others) and 
Spain (Leander of Seville and Martin of 
Bracara). 

Grammar and erudition also in this period 
found some valiant cultivators. Besides Fa- 
bius Planciades Fulgentius, there was at the 
time of the Emperor Anastasius (491-518), the 
grammarian, Priscian of Caesarea, who wrote 
at Constantinople, but in Latin, 18 books ‘Insti- 
tutionum grammaticarum,? in which. he has 
handed down to us the most complete work on 
the Latin language, especially important for the 
many remnants of ancient literature which are 
there preserved. From a pupil of Priscian, 
Eutyches, we have an ‘Ars de Verbo? in two 
books. Although living in the East, these were 
the last grammarians of any value; in the West 
studies were entirely decadent, as may be seen, 
for example, from the grammatical writings of 
Virgilius Maro, a Gaul of the 6th or 7th cen- 
tury, full of ridiculous questions and whimsical 
speculation. 

In the midst of such great agitations of 
peoples and changes in government as were at- 
tendant upon the incursions of the barbarians, 
it is natural that there was felt the need for 


establishing a standard of law by combining. 


the dispositions of the Roman laws with the new 
barbarian constitutions. In the West attempts 
to satisfy the new needs are found in the 
‘Edictum Theoderici Regis? (500), the ‘Lex 
Romana Visigothorum? or ‘Breviarium Alarici? 
(506) and the ‘Lex Romana Burgundionum? 
_ (516). But the most important was the ‘Corpus 

Iuris? prepared in the East by Justinian (527- 
565), consisting in two principal parts, the law 
of the jurisconsults (“ius vetus”) and the im- 
perial law (“us principale”). The latter was 
codified in the ‘Codex Justinianus? (528 and 
534), the former was divided into 50 books 
called ‘Digesta? or ‘Pandecte? and was pre- 
pared (530-532) by a commission of jurists 
under the leadership of the famous Tribonian. 
Contemporaneously there was prepared a new 
book of fundamental doctrine in the ‘Insti- 
tutiones? (four books), based principally on 
that of Gaius. Later, to this Justinian collec- 
tion were added the subsequent dispositions 
under the title of “Novellz in several private 
collections. This grand collection of juridical 
works is perhaps the greatest inheritance that 
Roman antiquity has bequeathed to modern 
civilization. 

By the 7th century all literature had ceased 
in Italy and in France. Only in the Visigothic 
kingdom in Spain did some remnants of the 
ancient culture remain. There we find the 
bishops Eugenius and Julian of Toledo, but the 
most prominent figure of this time is Isidore 
(c. 570-636), bishop of Seville, the author of 
many historical, grammatical and theological 
writings. The most important is the work en- 
titled ‘Etymologiarum Libri XX, containing 
the exposition of the seven liberal arts, of med- 
icine, of jurisprudence, of religious history and 
finally the treatise (books 9-20) on questions of 
language. For the knowledge assembled there, 
it has considerable importance, notwithstanding 
the lack of critical discrimination. 

The deterioration of classical culture be- 
comes very marked in this century. Quite bar- 
haric is the Latin of the Frank Fredegar and 
his continuators, who wrote an extremely valu- 
able chronicle of the times. An echo of classic 


culture, however, resounds in England with 
Aldhelm (c. 650-709), the writer on prosody, 
with the Venerable Bede (674-735) of North- 
umberland, whose erudition arose above the 
standard of his time, with Tatwine (d. 734), 
archbishop of Canterbury, grammarian and 
poet, and with Boniface (683-755), the author 
of a grammatical manual, who later became the 
“Apostle of the Germans.” Bede was a prolific 
writer in nearly every field of literature. Be- 
sides lives of the saints in metrical form and 
other poems, he wrote grammatical, mathemat- 
ical and theological treatises, sermons, and espe- 
cially the ‘Historia ecclesiastica gentis An- 
glorum> and the ‘Chronicon.» In the works 
of all of the above writers, however, with the 
classical elements are now commingled many 
elements of strictly medieval culture. 

To this century also belong the Irish poet, 
Columbanus . (543-615), the founder of the 
monastery of Bobbio which later became 
famous as the home of learning’ in northern 
Italy, and his fellow-countryman, Adamnan 
(c. 624-704), the author of a biography of 
Saint Columba, “the most complete piece of 
biography that all Europe can boast of through- 
out the Middle Ages.” 

2. Carolingian Period. The Carolingian 
Age marks a comparatively sharp division in 
the literary history of Latin. It brought learn- 
ing into good repute again and furnished ma- 
terial for writers. Besides a theological litera- 
ture of imposing proportions, this period pro- 
duced a vast body of poetry, epistles and his- 
torical writings, all based more or less con- 
sciously on classical models. The leader of 
this revival was Alcuin (c. 735-804), although 
his importance as a teacher surpasses that as a 
writer. After teaching 15 years at York he 

went over to France and presided over the 
court school of Charlemagne. Besides several 
treatises on grammar and rhetoric in dialogue 
form, he also composed scriptural commen- 
taries, works upon astronomy and metrics and 
poems. 

The teacher of Greek at Charlemagne’s court 
school was Paul Warnefrid, better known as 
Paulus Diaconus (c. 725-797), the first import- 
ant historian of the Middle Ages after Gregory 
of Tours. He was also prominent on account 
of the extent of his classical culture and lit- 
erary skill, which were singularly displayed in 
the six books of his ‘Historia Langobardorum,? 
written at Monte Cassino, and in his sum- 
mary of the abridgment of Varrius.Flaccus by 
Pompeius Festus. In the latter half of the 8th 
century the Irish monk, Dicuil, composed a 
summary of geography. 

Linking the 8th to the 9th century the 
tradition of learning which Alcuin had brought 
from York to Tours was transmitted through 
Rabanus Maurus (c. 776-856) to Fulda. Apart 
from extensive commentaries on the Old and 
New Testaments, he wrote several educational 
treatises and a sort of encyclopedia entitled 
‘De universo.» Among the pupils of Rabanus 
was the future abbot of Reichenau, Walafrid 
Strabo (c. 809-849), who studied Christian and 
pagan poets and wrote on sacred as. well as 
secular themes. His ‘Hortulus,? a description | 
of plants in the monastery garden, was widely 
read during the years following, while his 
‘Visio Wettini? is justly regarded as a proto- 
type of Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy.? Four biog- 


LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 91 


raphies of saints, two in prose and two in verse, 
are also attributed to him. 

In the middle of the 9th century flourished 
Sedulius Scotus, the author of a commentary 
on Porphyry and a guide for princes entitled 
‘De rectoribus Christianis,’ and Joannes Scotus 
Eriugena, the author of a commentary on the 
Gospel of Saint John and glosses on Martianus 
Capella and Boethius, besides his philosophical 
work, ‘De divisione nature.» In the latter 
half of this century appeared the monk of 
Saint Gall, Notker Balbulus, who wrote legends 
and anecdotes, ‘Gesta Caroli Magni.’ 

Besides the writers mentioned above, each 
of whom wrote in several departments of lit- 
erature, there were several authors during the 
first part of the Carolingian period who at- 
tained prominence in some one particular field. 
In philology and grammar, mention might be 
made of Servatus Lupus, abbot of Ferriéres, 
and Eric and Remi of Auxerre, authors of 
glosses and. commentaries on the Bible, Pris- 
cian, Boethius, Martianus:Capella and Aristotle. 
In poetry stands forth the name of Theodulf 
(c. 760-821), who occupies the first place among 
the Carolingian poets, and in history, the names 
of Anastasius Bibliothecarius (c. 810-879), the 
compiler of an historical work, ‘Chronographia 
tripartita,? and other historical works, Willi- 
bald, the author of a life of Saint Benedict, 
and Einhard (c. 770-840), a layman, educated 
at Fulda. The latter composed in admirable 
Latin a ‘Life of Charlemagne,’ modeled after 
the ‘Life of Augustus? of Suetonius, and sev- 
eral other works of an historical character. 

In the 10th century the monastery of Gan- 
dersheim was famous as the retreat of the 
nun-poetess, Hroswitha (c. 930-c. 1002). With 
a view to providing the age with a purer litera- 
ture than that of Latin comedy, she composed 
six moral and religious plays, in which she 
imitates Boethius as well as Terence. Two 
biblical poems, six legends and two epics are 
ample evidence of her industry and an excep- 
tional number of recent editions of her plays 
attests -her enduring popularity. In the mid- 
dle of this century also appeared an epic which 
in some ways indicates the high-water mark of 
pure literature in medieval Latin. This is the 
‘Waltharius? of the monk Ekkehard. The fas- 
cinating story of the elopement of Walter of 
Aquitaine with the Burgundian princess Hilde- 
gunde forms the theme of the poem and is 
treated with exceptional good taste and dra- 
matic skill—a Teuton legend in Latin dress. 
Other important personages in this century were 
Gerbert, later Sylvester I], a writer on phil- 
osqphical, mathematical and physical subjects 
who was a great admirer of the classics, and 
Luitprand, a Lombard, important for Italian 
history. 

The 11th century saw the rise of the Goliard 
songs popular with itinerant clerical students. 
These were lyrical in form, but they were often 
far from lyrical in substance and feeling, so 
that the Goliards were finally suppressed. 
These songs seem to have beén the precursors 
of modern college songs of the type of the 
“Gaudeamus igitur.” 

3. Scholastic Period.— Although during the 
two centuries following the reign of Charle- 
magne letters suffered a partial eclipse due to 
the last great invasion from the North, in the 
monasteries the classic authors were still read 


and Asia. 


and studied and copied —#in fact it is to the 
tireless work of the monks that we owe the 
preservation of the classical texts — and in this 
manner the way was paved for the great 
scholastic movement which followed. The rise 
of the tniversities and the elaboration of 
scholastic philosophy after the’ Crusades 
brought about another linguistic creative pe- 
riod. Scholasticism, however, in the broad 
sense of the word, began much earlier than 
the medizval schools. There is no absolute 
break between the patristic and the scholastic 
literature. The Church Fathers who flourished 
before the fall of Rome were followed by the 
writers of compendia of universal knowledge, 
such as Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede, through 
whom the slow demarcation of the field of 
philosophy was brought about and philosophical 
problems gradually assumed their proper place, 
but until the 12th century there was a lack of 
systematization. ' The last great representative 
of scholastic philosophy cast in the non-system- 
atic form is Saint Anselm (c. 1033-1109), a 
native of Lombardy who later became arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. 

Scholasticism, in the more restricted sense, 
begins with the 12th century. On the ground 
that truth cannot contradict truth, it seeks to 
harmonize the teachings of the Christian re- 
ligion with the results of philosophical investi- _ 
gation. This is not the proper place, however, 
for a history of scholasticism, except in so far 
as it produced works of literary merit. It will 
be sufficient for our purpose to mention merely 
its chief exponents. After Roscelin and Wil- 
liam of Champeaux comes Peter Abelard 
(1079-1142), famed as a teacher and of great 
influence in the next century. His most im- 
portant contribution to philosophy and theology 
was his ‘Sic et non,? although he composed 
other works on a variety of subjects. Adelard 
of Bath was one of the first medieval scho- 
lastics to seek knowledge by traveling in Greece 
Other writers of prominence in 
scholasticism of the 12th century were Hugo 
and Richard of Saint Victor, Alain de I’Isle 
and Peter Lombard (c. 1100-c. 1160). The 
latter was the author of four books of ‘Sen- 
tences,? which became the object of innumer- 
able commentaries in the years that followed. 

Strictly literary productions, however, were 
comparatively rare in the 12th century. John 
of Salisbury (c. 1115-80) has left us lives 
of Saints Anselm and Thomas of Canterbury 
and several other historical and philosophical 
works, and Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) 
has left us, among other works, his ‘De con- 
sideratione ad Eugenium,? the chief idea of 
which is that the reformation of the Church 
should begin with the sanctity of its head. In 
the field of poetry the writers are more numer- 
ous. Among these are the prolific hymn-writer, 
Adam of Saint Victor, “the foremost among 
the sacred Latin poets of the Middle Ages” 
(Trench); Bernard of Cluny, author of the 
hymn ‘Jerusalem the Golden, besides a satiric 
poem ‘De contemptu mundi? ; Joseph of Exeter 
with his epic on the Trojan War; Hildebert, 
author of lives of Queen Radegundis, etc., be- 
sides hymns and other poems, and Walter of 
Chatillon, in whose ‘Alexandreid? occurs’ the 
well-known hexameter ‘Incidit in Scyllam qui 
vult vitare Charybdim? (He falls into Scylla’s 
jaws whe would escape Charybdis). 


92 LATIN QUARTER—LATIN UNION 


The greatest representatives of scholastic-_ 


ism come in the 13th century, after the works 
of Aristotle had become thoroughly known. 
The first of these, in the point of time, is 
Alexander of: Hales (d. 1245), a Franciscan. 
Then in rapid succession come the Dominicans, 
Albertus Magnus (c. 1206-80), an indefati- 
gable writer upon a multiplicity of subjects be- 
sides philosophy and theology, and his famous 
pupil, Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1227-74), 
with his ‘Summa theologica? and ‘Summa 
contra gentiles, besides commentaries upon 
Aristotle and Peter Lombard. Other commen- 
taries on the ‘Sentences» were composed by 
Saint Bonaventure (1221-74), who also wrote 
mystical and exegetical works, and Joannes 
Duns Scotus (c. 1270-1308), author of numer- 
ous treatises on disputed questions. Besides 
these, mention should be made of the natural 
philosopher, Roger Bacon (c. 1214-94); the 
controversialist, Raymond Lully (c. 1235- 1315) ; 

the encyclopedist, Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1190- 
c. 1264), and the liturgical writer, Durandus 
(c. 1237-96), called “Speculator” Few scho- 
lastics are to be noticed after the 13th century. 
Outside of William Ockam (c. 1280-c. 1349), 
there are the mystics, John Ruysbroek, Denis 
the Carthusian, and Maitre Eckhart. 

The 13th century also witnessed the produc- 
tion of such famous hymns as ‘Dies Ire, 
‘Pange Lingua? and ‘Stabat Mater,? and it 
was in this century that Jacobus de Voragine 
wrote his ‘Legenda Aurea,» and Matthew of 
-Paris, the last and perhaps the greatest of 
monastic annalists, lived. In the early part of 
this century a striking contrast to _Ekkehard’s 
‘Waltharius> is found in the ‘Troilus? of 
Albertus Standensis, whose theme is classical 
as well as the metre and innumerable centos 
borrowed from Virgil. A valuable contribu- 
tion to the political science of the Middle Ages 
was the ‘De Monarchia” of Dante (1265-1321), 
which is comparable with the ‘De regimine 
Principis? of Saint Thomas Aquinas. 

During the last three or four centuries of 
the Middle Ages canon and Roman law were 
making rapid progress. Gratian (1160) com- 
menced the codification of the former, and his 
work was continued by Innocent III, Gregory 
IX, Raymond of Penafort and Boniface VIII, 
until a “Corpus Iuris Canonici? was ready to 
take its place by the side of the ‘Corpus Iuris 
Civilis.2 Some of the chief commentators on 
canon law in the various stages of its codifica- 
tion were Ivo of Chartres, Henry of Segusic 
(Hostiensis), Joannes Andreae, 
Baisio and Agostino Trionfi. Many of these 
commentaries appeared in the form of a 
‘Summa,’ arranged logically or alphabetically. 
With regard to Roman law some of the chief 
commentators were Irnerius, Azo, Accursius, 
Cino da Pistoja and Bartolus. During the 13th 
century the Institutes of Justinian were used 
as a model by Bracton in his collection of 
English laws and customs. 

This brings to a close the Latin literature of 
the Middle Ages, for Petrarch, Boccaccio and 
Poggio, though living before the fall of Con- 
stantinople, logically belong. with the Renais- 
sance and are generally so considered. A retro- 
spect over the period covered by this article 
leads. to the conclusion that the Middle Ages 
were. not so “Dark” as they have been pic- 
tured; that Latin literature did not die with 


Guido da- 


the fall of the Western Empire, although it 
inevitably felt the adverse influence of barbar- 
ism, but on the contrary created or developed 
several literary forms of no mean value, such 
as hymns, romances and history, the latter rep- 
resenting every variety of style from the dryest 
of annals and mere records through real his- 
tories and biographies to historical romances; 
and that it was due to this preservation of the 
Latin language and literature and its spirit in 
the monasteries side by side with the vernacular 
that contributed in large measure to the re- 
vival of learning in the 15th century. 

Bibliography.— Chevalier, Ulysse, ‘Réper- 
toire des sources historiques du moyen 4ge: 
bio-bibliographie? (Paris 1907); Clark, Victor 
S., ‘Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages? 
(Lancaster, Pa., 1900); Ebert, A., “Allgemeine 
Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters im 
Abendlande? (Leipzig 1889); Groéber, Gustav, 
“Grundriss der romanischen Philologie? (Vol. 
II, part 1, Strassburg 1893); Manitius, Max, 
‘Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des 
Mittelalters?> (Vol. I, Munich 1911); Sandys, 
J..E, ‘A History of Classical Scholarshi’ 
(Cambridge 1908) + Teuffel, W. S., “Geschichte 
der rémischen Literatur» (many ‘editions and 
English translation); de Wulf, M., ‘Histoire 
de la Philosophie médiévale? (Louvain 1900; 
English translation by Coffey, New York 
1909) ; Hurter, Hugo, ‘Nomenclator Literarius? 
(3d ed., Innsbruck 1903-13). 

HeErBerT F. WRriGHT, 

Sometime of the Department of Latin, The 

Catholic University of America. 


LATIN QUARTER (Quartier Latin, 
kart’ya’la’tan’), celebrated student district of 
Paris, im which are located the Collége de 
France, the Sorbonne, the Institut, the Luxem- 
bourg, Panthéon and other schools. The term 
is connected with youthful Bohemianism and 
the extremely radical views always current 
among certain elements of a student body. ‘See 

ARIS 


LATIN UNION, The. The institution of 
the Latin Union marks an important epoch in 
the history of bimetallism, for, while it was the 
gold discoveries of California and Australia 
which were the direct cause of the organization 
of this monetary convention, it was the down- 
ward tendency in the price of silver that re- 
sulted in the practical suspension of that coin- 
age by the parties to the treaty. 

In 1853, when the subsidiary silver of the 
United States had begun to be seriously affected 
by the cheapened price of gold, the Treasury 
Department found it ‘necessary to reduce the 
quantity of silver in its small coins in order 
that they might still remain below the value of 
gold. A few years passed and Switzerland 
also found herself face to face with the same 
financial problem, but she, instead of following 
the example of the United States, solved her 
difficulty by lowering the fineness of standard 
for her small coins to 800 thousandths fine. 

This method of equalizing the coinage nat- 
urally had a tendency to act disadvantageously 
for those countries, like France and Italy, where © 
the standard remained much higher than that 
of Switzerland, for, as the coins of one nation 
circulated commonly in all the countries that 
had adopted the franc system, it was soon re- 
alized that, in accordance with Gresham’s law, 


LATIN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES— LATIN WRITERS 93 


the cheaper Swiss coins would eventually super- 
sede the dearer coins. It was unreasonable to 
suppose that the coins of France or Italy, con- 
taining as they did so much more pure silver, 
could hope to compete with the cheap coins of 
Switzerland, so long as the latter passed cur- 
rent at the same ‘nominal value. 

Such was the fear, and it was not long be- 
fore these predictions began to be fulfilled. The 
Swiss coins, being only 800 thousandths fine, 
soon crossed the French frontier, where they 
were exchanged for French coins of the same 
nominal value. The latter were then exported 
to Switzerland, where, after having been melted 
and recoined, they netted a considerable profit 
for the speculator. By April 1864 the situation 
had become so thoroughly unsatisfactory that 
the French government was compelled to issue 
a decree prohibiting the receipt of the Swiss 
coins at the customs-house and other public 
offices. 

In response to overtures from metas ont a 
conference of delegates representing four of the 
interested states— France, Italy, Switzerland 
and Belgium — met in Paris 20 Nov. 1865 and 
agreed to establish a uniform coinage, the new 
system to be based upon the principles adopted 
by the United States in 1853. Thus, the silver 
coins —the 2 franc, 1 franc, 50 centimes and 
20 centimes pieces—were reduced from a 
standard of 900 thousandths fine to a uniform 
fineness of 835 thousandths; a policy which low- 
ered the small coins of the several countries to 
the position of a subsidiary currency. 

In adopting this policy the members of the 
Latin Union had not discarded the principles of 
bimetallism. Gold coins of the value of 100, 
50, 20, 10 and 5 francs, and a 5-franc_ silver 
piece, were all to be coined at the old standard 
of 900 thousandths fine and free coinage, at a 
ratio of 15% to 1, was granted to any holder 
of gold or silver bullion who desired to obtain 
any of the gold coins or 5-franc silver pieces. 
The subsidiary currency was formally declared 
legal tender in all business transactions between 
individuals of the states that coined them for 
an amount not in excess of 50 francs. 

The treaty under which the Latin Union was 
formed was ratified by each government and 
went into effect 1 Aug. 1866. In 1868 Greece 
also became a party to the convention, which, 
by its own terms, was to exist until 1 Jan. 1880, 
but the downward tendency shown by silver 
during 1873 compelled the delegates to call an- 
other conference. On this occasion the fear 
most generally entertained was that the German 
mints would flood the several countries with 
their demonetized silver. A meeting was held 
at Paris, therefore, 30 Jan. 1874, at which the 
full power of free coinage of silver was with- 
drawn from individuals and the amount of sil- 
ver 5-franc pieces to be coined by the several 
treaty states was greatly reduced. 

The last convention of the Latin Union was 
held 29 Oct. 1897 and the monetary agreement 
accepted at that time is tacitly continued from 
-year to year, although practically in abeyance, 
and it may be denounced at any time by any of 
the contracting states. According to its terms, 
the five contracting states have adopted a gold 
and silver coinage of the same fineness, weight, 
diameter and current value, and the allowance 
for wear and tear in each case is the same. The 
coinage of 5-franc pieces, of gold as well as 


of silver, is temporarily suspended and the issue 
of subsidiary silver is, with certain exceptions 
for special reasons, limited to 7 francs per head 
of the population of each state. The most im- 
portant exception to this section of the con- 
vention is in the case of Greece, where the issue 
is limited to 6 francs per head. 

It is further agreed between the contracting 
countries that each government, in all its pub- 
lic offices, shall accept payment in the silver 
5-franc pieces of each of the other states, - 
anl in the subsidiary silver to an amount not 
in excess of 100 francs. Moreover, each state 
engages to exchange the excess of its issues 
over its receipts of subsidiary silver for gold 
or 5-franc silver pieces, and each binds itself 
that, at the termination of the convention, it 
will resume also its 5-franc silver pieces, pay- 
ing in gold a sum equal to the nominal value 
of the coin resumed. The only exception to 
this section of the treaty is made in the case 
of Italy, in which the government is freed 
from this obligation to take back its fractional 
coins upon the dissolution of the convention, 
it being stipulated instead that it will forbid 
the exportation of such coins while the Union 
continues and will not change its present sys- 
tem of subsidiary coinage for five years follow- 
ing its separation from the Union. 

Other countries which have adopted this 
monetary system without joining the union are 
Finland, Rumania, Serbia, Russia and. Spain, 
while the following American countries have as- 
similated their coinage to that of the union — 
Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru, 
Uruguay and Venezuela. Consult Arnauné, 
“La monnaie, le crédit et le change? (2d ed., 
Paris 1902) ; ‘Palgrave, R. H.-I., ‘Dictionary of 
Political Economy? (New York 1900); and 
Willis, H. P., ‘History of the Latin Monetary 
Union? (Vol. II, New York 1900). 


LATIN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIP- 
TURES. See BIBLE, VERSIONS: OF. 


LATIN WRITERS. The following list 
of writers presents the more famous names 
which the general student of literature is likely 
to meet in his reading. The authors are ar- 
ranged according to the year of their birth so 
far as it can be determined. For further mate- 
rial on each author, see the separate articles on 
each. See also LATIN LITERATURE. 


Lucius Livius ANDRONICUS. 284 — 204-B.c. 

With his translations of cee tragedy and comedy 
Latin literature is said to begin, 240 B.c. He also 
translated Homer’s ‘Odyssey.’ We have a few frag- 
ments. 

GNAEuUS NAEVIUS. c. 269 or 264—c. 199 B.c. 

Reckoned the first native Roman poet. He was the 
first to compose a Latin play. His greatest achievement 
was an epic on the Punic War. Only fragments survive. 

Titus Maccrus PLautus. c. 254.— 184 B.c. 

Roman comic poet. Twenty of his comedies are still 

extant. P 
QUINTUS ENNIUS. 239 — 169 B.c. 

The ‘“‘Father of Roman Literature.’’ Wrote tragedies 
and comedies, and other poetry. His chief work is an 
epic poem, ‘The Annals,’ covering the whole history of 
Rome. 

Marcus Porcrus Cato. 234 —149 s.c. 

Author of the first Roman historical work in Latin 
prose. He published orations and didactic treatises. 
His work on ‘Agriculture’ is the oldest volume of Latin 
prose extant. 

Marcus PAcuvius. c. 220 —c. 132 B.c. 
Roman tragic poet. His writings are now preserved 
only in fragments. 
PuBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER. c. 184 — 159 B.c. 
Extant works, six comedies. 
Garus Lucitius. 180— 103 B.c. 
First Latin satiric poet. We have only fragments, 


94 


Lucius Accrus. 170— _ B.C 
Author of adaptations of Greek tragedies, original 


Latin tragedies, and various prose works. Fragments 
extant. 
Marcus TERENTIUS VARRO. 116— 27 B.C. 
Most learned of ancient Roman scholars. The major 


portion of his prose and poetry is lost, but we have con- 
siderable remains of his works on ‘The Latin Language’ 
and on ‘Agriculture.’ 
Marcus Tu.Liius Cicero. 106 — 43 B.c. 
his numerous writings, we have over 50 orations, 
many rhetorical. and: philosophical treatises and about 
800 letters. 
Gaius JULIUS CAESAR. 100 — 44 B.C, 
His memoirs, ‘The Commentaries,’ 
CorNELIUS NEpPOS. c. 99 —c..24 B.C. 
Author of biographies of many eminent men. 
Titus LUCRETIUS CARUS. 96 (probably)— 55 B.C. 

Famous for his didactic poem ‘On the Nature of Things,’ 
which we still have. 

Gaius VALERIUS CATULLUS. 87 or 84—c. 54 B.C. 

First important and perhaps the greatest Latin lyric 
poet. We have a collection of over a hundred of his 
poems. 

Garus SALLustIUs Crispus. 86 — 34 BC. § 3 : 

Best known by his monographs on Catiline’s conspiracy 
and the Jugurthine war. 

PusBiius VirGiLtius Maro. 70— 19 B.c. 

Most representative Latin poet. His greatest works 
are the ‘Eclogues,’ the ‘Georgics,’ and the ‘Aineid,’ 
but we also have some of his minor poems. 

Quintus Horatius Fiaccus. 65 — 8 B.c. 

Left satires, epodes, odes, and epistles, but is most 

distinguished for the perfection of his odes. 
Titus Livius. °59 B.c.— 17 A.D. I 
Wrote a history of Rome in 142 books, of which we have 


alone remain, 


ALBIUS TIBULLUS. c. 54—c. 19 B.C. 
An elegiac writer, from whose pen we have about two 
dozen poems. 
Lucius ANNAEUS SENECA. c. 54 B.C.—c. 39 A.D, 
Of his rhetorical works we have about six books. 
SEXTUS PROPERTIUS. c. 49—c. 15 B.C. 
Elegiac poet, from whom we have four books of verse. 
Pusiius Ovipius Naso. 43 B.c.— 17 or 18 A.D. 

His important extant poems are the ‘Art of Making 
Love,’ ‘Remedies for Love,’ the ‘Metamorphoses,’ 
‘Epistulae ex Ponto,’ Tristia, Fasti, Heroides. A famous 
tragedy, the ‘Medea,’ has not survived. 

GatIus VELLEIUS PATERCULUS. c. 19 B.c.— 30 + A.D. 

Author of a compendium of Roman history which is 
still extant. 

_VALERIUS MAXIMUS. - 
We have his collection of anecdotes in nine books. 
Lucius ANNAEUS SENECA. c. 4 B.C.— 65 A.D. 

From him have come a satire-on Claudius, moral essays, 

philosophical epistles, physical treatises, and a few tragedies. 
AULUS CORNELIUS CELSUS. c. 2 A.D.—? 
Author of an encyclopedic work, of which we have 
only the eight books on medicine. 
PHAEDRUS. 
Author of an extant collection of fables. 
Pomponius MELA. 

His geographical work in three books is the earliest 

work of the sort that we possess. 
Lucius JuNrUS MoODERATUS COLUMELLA. 

Author of an important work in prose and verse on 

agriculture, in 12 books. 
QuInTus CurtTiIus RUFUs. 

‘History of Alexander the Great,’ in 10 books, all of 

which, except two, have survived. 
Gatus PLINIUS SECUNDUS. 23— 79 A-D. 

Author of the ‘Historia Naturalis,’ 
work in 37 books, still-extant. 

SiLttus ITALICcUS. c. 25—c. 101 A.D. 

Composed an extant epic poem on the Second Punic 
War, in 17 books. 

Autus Persius FLAccus. 34-—62 A.D. 

Writer of six satires, still extant. 

Marcus ANNAEUS LUCANUS. 39 — 65 A.D. 

Of numerous works in prose and verse we have only his 
epic, the ‘Pharsalia.’ 

PETRONIUS ARBITER. ? — 66.A.D. 

Author of a satirical romance in at least 20 Ee ks, of 
which we have considerable fragments. 

Titus CALPURNIUS SICULUS. 

Left us seven eclogues and'a poetical panegyric. 

Gatus VALERIUS FLAcCcUS SETINUS BALBUS. —c. 90 A.D. 

Composer of an extant poem on the Argonautic 
expedition, in eight books. 

Marcus Fasius QUINTILIANUS, 
c. 95 A.D. 

Known chiefly by his enti in 12 books upon the 
training of an orator. 

PuBiius PApiInius STATIUS. c. 40 — 96? A.D. 

There have survived of his works five books of occasional 
poems (the ‘Silvae’), and two epics, a Thebaid and an 
Achilleid, 


an encyclopedic 


Between 35 and 40 — 


LATIN WRITERS 


Marcus VALERIUS MARTIaLIs. c. 40 —c. 102 to 104 A.D. 

The world’s greatest writer of epigram, from whom we 
have 1,575. 

PUBLIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS. c.55—c. 120 A.D. 

One of the chief ancient historians. His surviving 
works are a treatise on oratory, a biography of Argicola, a 
monograph on Germany, his ‘Annales’ and ‘Historiae.’ 

DEcIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS. c. 60 —c. 140 A.D. 

Composed 16 poetical satires, which we have. : 

Garus PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS. 62 —c. 113 A.D. 

Of his published speeches only the panegyric of Trajan 
has reached us, but his nine books of letters in semi-essay 
form, and a tenth containing his correspondence with 
Trajan, have survived. 

GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS. 75?— 160? A.D. 

Latin biographer, best known by -his extant 
of the Caesars.’ 
biographies. 

Lucius (?) ANNAEUS FLORUS. 
H somborct an extant epitome of Roman history in two 
ooks 
Marcus CornELius FrRontTo. c. 100 —c. 175 A.D. 

Besides less important works in incomplete form, we 

have most of his correspondence with Marcus Aurelius. 
Gatrus. c. 110 —c. 180 a.p. 

The famous jurist, large amounts of whose writings 
have ceme down to us. 

Marcus AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 121 — 180 A.D 

Besides his letters in Latin, we have the "well- one al 
‘Meditations,’ written in Greek, in 12 books. 

Lucrus APULEIUS. c. 125—? A.D. 

Composed works on a great variety of subjects, of which 
few have reached us. Most important is the novel 
‘The Golden Ass.’ 

c. 130 — ? ALD. 


‘Lives 
although we have fragments of other 


AvuLus GELLIvs. 

His miscellanies, the ‘Attic Nights,’ in 20 Ales i have 
reached us almost intact. 

Marcus MInucrius FELrIx. 

Author of a dialogue, the ‘Octavius,’ which is our 
earliest extant work in Latin Christian literature. 

GETS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS .TERTULLIANUS. c. 150—c. 
230 A.D. 
The great Christian apologist. 
theological treatises from his pen. 
THASCIUS CAECILIUS CYPRIANUS. c. 200—c. 255 A.D. 
Author of numerous theological works, many extant. 
Marcus AURELIUS OLYMPIUS NEMESIANUS. 
We have a portion of his didactic poem on the chase. 
ARNOBIUS. ? — 326? A.D. 

Author of a Christian apology in seven books, which 
have come down to us. 

LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS. -— after 315 A.D. 

Known as the Christian Cicero. We have his chief 
theological works in prose and verse. Most important is 
his ‘Institutiones Divine.’ 

EuTRoOpPIus. 4th century. 

A historian whose epitome of the-entire history of Rome, 
in 10 books, is still valued. 

HILARIUS (Bishop of Poitiers). — 367 A.D. 

A Christian: controversialist and commentator on the 
Bible; of whose numerous works we still have remains. 

(PopE) Damasus. 305 — 384 A.D. 

One of the first Christian poets. Epitaphs and poetical 

eulogies of departed Christians have come down to us. 
Decimus MaGnus AusOoNIusS. c. 310 —c. 395 A.D. 

A Roman poet from whom we have many works in 
various departments of literature, epigrams, elegiacs, 
epistles, etc. 

AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. c. 330 —c. 400 A.D. 

Composed a continuation of ‘Tactius,’ of which we 

have only 18 books of contemporary history. 
HIERONYMUsS.. 331 — 420 A.D. 

Famous for his translation of the Bible and his com- 
mentaries. A. Latin version of Eusebius’ Chronological 
Tables, many letters and Christian biographies require 
mention: 

AMBROSIUS.: c. 340 — 397 A.D. 

One of the Church Fathers. His writings include 
letters, orations, hymns and didactic works, of which 
we have large amounts. 

Quintus AURELIUS SYMMACHUS.  c. 345 —c. 405 A.D. 

Besides fragments of his orations, we have official 
reports, and 10 books of letters which are of great historical 
value. 

AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS. 348 —c. 410 A.D. 

The greatest poet of his century. We have hymns 
and other Christian poetry: 

CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS. ? —c. 408 A.D. 

Last important non-Christian poet. Extant are his- 
torical and mythological poems and many shorter pieces. 
Most famous is his epic, ‘The Rape of Proserpina.’ 

Meroprius Pontius ANIcIuS PAULINUS. 353 —431 A.D. 

A Christian writer from whom we have letters and 
poems. 

AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS, 354 — 430 A.D. 

Widely known by his: ‘Confessions,’ he has also left us 
letters, sermons, theological treatises, and his famous work, 
in 22 books, on ‘The Kingdom of God,’ 


We have numerous 


’ 


LATINI— LATITUDE 


Macrosius THEoposius. 4th, 15th century A.p. 
commentary on Cicero’s ‘Dream of Scipio’ and 
a book instructive to the student of Roman literature 
and antiquities, which he called ‘Saturnalia,’ have been 
preserved. 
MARTIANUS CAPELLA. 4th, 15th century A.D. 

We have his encyclopedic work, in nine books, on 
the ‘Seven Liberal Arts,’ which was of great importance in 
medizval education. 

LEo (the First, surnamed ‘‘the Great’). c. 395 — 461 aA.p. 

Sermons and letters of his composition are extant. 

Garus SOLLIUS APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS.  c. 430—c. 480 
A.D. 

A collection of his poems and nine books of letters 

are instructive for the life of his time in Gaul. 
Biossius ASMILIUS DRACONTIUS. 5th century A.D. 

We have from him poems that are very creditable 
for this age, on mythological and Christian subjects, as 
well as two epithalamia. 

MaGnus FELIx ENNopDIUS. 473 — 521 A.D. 

A prolific writer in several fields, whom we know 
through his letters, speeches, a panegyric and numerous 
poems. 

ANICIUS MANLIus ToRQUATUS. SEVERINUS BOETHIUS. c. 
480 — 524 A.D. 

Translator of many Greek philosophical’ and math- 
ematical books. His famous ‘Consolations of Philosophy’ 
is often accounted ‘‘the last work of Roman literature.”’ 

FLavius MaGnus AURELIUS CASSIODORUS SENATOR. cc. 480 
—c. 575 A.D. 

Historical, theological and encyclopedic works, a con- 

siderable portion of which has survived. 
PRISCIANUS. 6th century A.D. 

Besides some unimportant works, we have his eight 
books on the Latin language, the most influential gram- 
matical work in that tongue. 

VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS ForTUNATUS. cs 
535 —c. 600 A.D. 

Best known through his epic poem on Saint Martin of 
Tours,. although others have come down to us, together 
with lives of the Saints in prose. 

GREGORIUS OF Tours. 538 — 593 A.D. 

Author of theological books, including lives of: the 
Saints. Most important to us is his ‘History of the 
Franks’ in 10 books. 

(Pore) GREGORIUS (the First). c. 540 — 604 A.D. 

We have theological: works composed by him, and 

over 800 letters of high value to the historian. 
Isiporus (Bishop of Seville). .c. 570 —c. 636. 

A theological, historical and grammatical writer of 
great influence upon the Middle Ages. Chief among the 
works which we have from him is his ‘Origines,’ in 20 
books. 

Watton Brooks McDANIEL, 


Professor of Latin, University of Pennsylvania. 


LATINI, .la-té’né, Brunetto, Italian phi- 
losopher and. scholar: b. Florence, about 1220; 
d. about 1294.. He was a notary by profession 
and in. 1250 participated in the revolution which 
established a Guelph democratic government. 
He was sent as Ambassador to Alfonso X, of 
Spain, in 1260, to obtain aid in the stabilizing 
of the new government, but in his absence the 
Guelphs were overthrown and he took refuge 
in Paris where he remained in 1261-68. He 
returned to Tuscany in 1269 and forthe, next 
20 years occupied various government offices of 
importance. He was an eloquent speaker and 
held an honored place in the. councils, of the 
government. His friendship for the poet Dante 
is dwelt upon in ‘Inferno, canto xv. He 
wrote the earliest Italian didactic. poetry, - his 
poem ‘Tesoretto,? written in rhymed couplets 
of heptasyllabic metre, ‘Favolello,? a rhymed 
letter written to Rustico Filippo, and one can- 
zone, being all-of his authentic verse, although 
other compositions are credited to him. He 
wrote while in France an encyclopedic work, 
‘Trésor,» which was translated from French 
into Italian by Bono Giamboni .under..the title 
‘Tesoro.? Consult Chabaille, “Li Livres don 
Trésor par Brunetto Latini>? (Paris 1863). 

LATINS (Latini), the ancient inhabitants 
of Latium, in Italy... Janus, Saturn, Picus and 
Faunus, who were deified by their subjects, are 
represented to have been the most ancient Latin 


95 


kings. These ancient. Latins formed a league 
of 30 cities, of which the town of Alba Longa 
became the head. Although Rome was a colony 
from Alba she became powerful enough in the 
reign of her third king to seize upon that city 
and raze it to the ground. Under Servius Tul- 
lius, Rome entered the Latin confederacy and 


in the reign of his successor, Tarquinius Super- 


bus, was acknowledged as head of the league. 
On the fall of the Tarquins the Latins regained 
their independence and struggled long against 
the republic to maintain it; it was. finally lost, — 
however, by the decisive victory of the Romans 
near Mount Vesuvius (340 B.c.). 


LATINUS, 1a’tin-tiz, Roman legendary king 
of the Laurentians in Latium and eponymic 
ancestor of the Latin race of anciént Italy. In 
Hesiod he is king of the Tyrsenians, son of 
Ulysses and Circe. In Virgil’s CFneid? (VII- 
XII). he is the son of Faunus and the nymph 
Marcia and reigns over Latium. He welcomes 
/Eneas upon his landing at the mouth of the 
Tiber and AZneas subsequently marries La- 
tinus’ daughter Lavinia and succeeds to the 
throne. There are other legendary accounts of 
Latinus but his importance in mythology lies 
in the effort to make him a connecting link be- 
tween Rome and Troy. 


LATITUDE. The astronomical latitude 
of a place is the altitude of the celestial pole. 
on the declination of the zenith. From the me- 
chanical point of view it may be defined.as the 
angle between the plane of: the earth’s equator 
and the observer’s plumb-line or vertical. 
Neither of these definitions makes an assump- 
tion as to the form of the earth and this astro- 
nomical latitude is seldom identical with the 
geocentric, nor even with the geodetic latitude 
of a place. It is, however, the only kind of lati- 
tude which can be directly determined from 
astronomical observations. There are six 
methods of determining latitude: 

1, By Circumpolars.— This most obvious 


smethod is.to observe, with the meridian circle 


or some analogous instrument, the altitude of a 
circumpolar star at its upper culmination, and 
again, 12 hours later, at its lower. Each of the 
observations must be corrected for refraction 
and the mean of the two corrected altitudes will 
be the latitude: This method has the advantage 
of being an independent one and does not re- 
guire any data (such as the declination of the 
stars used) to be accepted on the authority of 
previous observers. . But to obtain much. ac- 
curacy it requires considerable time and a large 
fixed instrument. -In low latitudes the refrac- 
tion is also very troublesome. 

2. By the Meridian Altitude or Zenith Dis- 
tance of a Body of Known Declination.— If 
we use the meridian circle, we can always se- 
lect stars that pass near the zenith where the 
refraction -will be small; moreover, we can se- 
lect them in such a way that some will be as 
much north of the zenith as others are south 
and thus eliminate the refraction errors. But 
we must take our star declinations’ out of cata- 
logues made by previous observers and so the 
method is not an independent one. At sea the 
latitude is usually - obtained by. observing with 


the sextant the sun’s maximum. altitude, which 


of course occurs.at noon. Since at sea it is sel- 
dom that. one knows beforehand precisely the 
moment of local:noon, the observer takes care 


96 LATITUDINARIAN 


to begin to observe the sun’s altitude some 10 
or 15 minutes earlier, repeating his observa- 
tions every minute or two. At first the alti- 
tude will keep increasing, but immediately after 
noon it will begin to decrease. The observer 
uses, therefore, the maximum altitude obtained, 
which, corrected for refraction, parallax, semi- 
diameter and dip of the horizon will give him 
the true latitude of his ship. On account of the 
sun’s motion in declination and the northward 
or southward motion of the ship itself, the 
sun’s maximum altitude is usually attained not 
precisely on the meridian, but a few seconds 
earlier or later. This requires a slight correc- 
tion to the deduced latitude, explained in books 
on ‘navigation or practical astronomy. 

3. By Circum-meridian Altitudes.— If the 
observer knows his time with reasonable ac- 
curacy, he can obtain his latitude from ob- 
servations made when the body is near the 
meridian, with practically the same precision as 
at the moment of meridian passage. The great 
advantage of this method is that the observer 
is not restricted_to a single observation at each 
meridian-passage of the sun or of the selected 
star, but can utilize the half-hours preceding 
and following that moment. The meridian-cir- 
cle cannot be used, as the instrument must be 
such as to make extra-meridian observations 
possible. Usually the sextant or universal in- 
strument is employed. 

4. The Zenith Telescope Method.— This 
method is generally known as the American, 
because first practically introduced by Captain 
Talcott of the United States engineers, in a 
boundary survey in 1845. Its essential charac- 
teristic of the micrometric measurement of the 
difference between the nearly equal zenith dis- 
tances of two stars which culminate within a 
few minutes of each other, one north and the 
other south of the zenith and not very far 
from it; such pairs of stars can always be 
found. When the method was first introduced, 
a special instrument, known as the, zenith tele- 
scope, was generally employed, but at present 
a simple transit: instrument, with declination 
micrometer and a delicate lever attached to the 
telescope tube, is ordinarily used. The telescope 
is set at the proper altitude for the star which 
first comes to the meridian and the “latitude 
level,” as it is called, is set horizontal; as the 
star passes through the field of view its dis- 
tance north or south of the central wire is 
measured by the micrometer. The instrument 
' is then reversed and so set by turning the tele- 
scope up or down, then the level is again hori- 
zontal. After this reversal and adjustment, the 
telescope tube is then evidently elevated at ex- 
actly the same angle as before, but on the op- 
posite side of the zenith. As the second star 
passes through the field, we measure with the 
micrometer its distance north or south of the 
centre of the field; the comparison of the two 
micrometer measures gives the difference of 
the two zenith distances. The great advantage 
of the method consists in its dispensing with a 
graduated circle, and in avoiding almost 
wholly the errors due to refraction it virtually 
utilizes the circles of the fixed observatories by 
which the star declinations have been measured, 
without requiring them to be brought into the 
field. Years ago it was not always easy to find 
accurate determinations of the declinations of 


the stars employed, but at present the star cata- 
logues have been so extended and improved 
that the difficulty has practically disappeared, 
so that this method of determining the latitude 
is now not only the most convenient and rapid, 
but is quite as precise as any, if the level is 
sufficiently sensitive. 

5. By the Prime Vertical Instrument.— 
Here we observe simply the moment when a 
known -star passes the prime vertical on the 
eastern side, and again upon the western side. 
Half the interval will give the hour-angle of 
the star when on the prime vertical. The dis- 
tance of the star from the pole is the comple- 
ment of the star’s declination. The observa- 
tions are not so convenient and easy as in the 
case of the zenith telescope and the number of 
stars available is less; but the method presents 
the great advantage of requiring nothing but 
an ordinary transit instrument, without any 
special outfit of micrometer and latitude level. 
It also evades the difficulties caused by refrac- 
tion. 

6. By the Gnomon.— The ancients had few 
or no instruments and of course could not use 
the preceding methods of finding latitude. 
They were, however, able to make a very re- 
spectable approximation by means of. the sim- 
plest of all astronomical instruments, the gno- 
mon. This is merely a vertical shaft or column 
of known height erected on a perfectly hori- 
zontal plane; and the observation consists in 
noting the length of the shadow cast at ‘noon 
at certain times of the year. It is easy to com- 
plete the sun’s zenith distances when farthest 
north and south; and, since the sun travels 
equal distances north and south of the celestial 
equator, the mean of the two results will give 
the angular distance between the equator and 
the zenith; ie., the declination of the zenith, 
which is the latitude of the place. This 
method is an independent one, like that by the 
observation of circumpolar stars, requiring no 
data except those which the observer determines 
for himself. Evidently, however, it does not 
admit of much accuracy, since the penumbra at 
the end of the shadow makes it impossible to 
measure its length precisely. The ancients in- 
stead of designating the position of a place by 
means of its latitude, used its climate instead 
—the climate being the slope of the plane of 
the celestial equator, which is the complement - 
of the latitude. Many of the Egyptian obelisks 
were erected primarily for use as gnomons and 
were used for that purpose. 

Since the moon and the principal’ planets 
keep within the Zodiac, the ecliptic is a most 
convenient circle of reference and was used as 
such by the ancients. Consequently great care 
must be taken to avoid confusion of celestial 
latitude and longitude with right ascension and 
declination or with terrestrial trial latitude and 
longitude. The terms right ascension and decli- 
nation are of comparatively recent introduction, 
celestial latitude and longitude being much 
older. See LONGITUDE. 


LATITUDINARIAN, a term applied to a 
school of religious thought which flourished in 
England in the 17th century. It was character- 
ized by a tolerant. spirit toward dissenters and 
an insistence on adhesion to the fundamentals 
of Christianity rather than to any professed ec- 
clesiastical system as the basis of church mem- 


LATIUM — LATROBE | 97 


bership. Its principal leaders were Hales, Chil- 
lingworth and Taylor. The Cambridge Plato- 
nists (q.v.) and later the Broad Church party 
are the heirs of the Latitudinarians. 


LATIUM, 1a’shi-tim, a name given to the 
country inhabited in ancient times by the Latins, 
between the Apennines and the sea. The prin- 
cipal part of this country was the Campagna 
di Roma (q.v.). After the conquest of the 
neighboring tribes, the Volsci, the Hernici and 
the Aurunci by the Romans, the name Latium 
was used to denote all the country between the 
Tiber and the Garigliano (formerly Liris). The 
chief early cities were Ardea, Lavinium, Tus- 
culum, Laurentum and Alba Longa. Rome 
kept pushing toward the coast, absorbing all 
those who opposed her and eventually con- 
auered the communities of Latium which had 
banded together in the Latin League. In 340 
B.c. these cities revolted, but were unable to 
prevail against Rome and so lost their political 
unity. They were finally and completely con- 
quered in the Social War 89 B.c., when the in- 
habitants of Latium became full Roman citi- 
zens. 


LATONA, 14-td’na, was the mother of 
Apollo and Artemis. During her pregnancy she 
was persecuted by Hera, by whose command 
the dragon Python threatened her with death 
and the earth was not permitted to allow her a 
place for her delivery. After long wanderings 
she found rest on the floating island of Delos 
which granted her refuge on the strength of 
Leto’s promise that the island should become 
the seat of the deity to whom Latona would 
give birth there. Latona is represented as a 
mild, benevolent goddess, in a sea-green dress. 
With Artemis she cured the wounded /®neas 
and crowned him with glory. When Artemis 
fled to Olympus from the anger of Hera, La- 
tona carried to her her quiver and arrows, 
which she had left behind. She was worshipped 
chiefly in Lycia, Delos, Athens and other cities 
of Greece. In Crete a festival was celebrated 
in honor of her, called Ecdysia. 


LATOUR D’AUVERGNE-CORRET, 
Théophile Malo de, ta’6-fél ma’lo dé 1a-toor 
d6-varn-yé-kor-ra, French soldier: b. Carhaix, 
Brittany, France, 23 Nov. 1743; d. Oberhausen, 
Bavaria, 27 June 1800. He early decided to be- 
come a soldier and when the French Revolu- 
tion broke out was among the first to rally 
round its standard and distinguished himself in 
the army of the Pyrenees. Higher appoint- 
ments were offered him but he declined, de- 
claring that he was only fit to command a com- 
pany of grenadiers and was _ consequently 
named by Napoleon “First “Grenadier of 
France.» His corps generally made the van- 
guard and was called “the infernal column.” 
In 1799 he fought under Massena in Switzer- 
land and fell while attached to the army of the 
Rhine. His heart was embalmed and carried in 
a silver box by one of the company in which he 
had served; his name was always called, the 
oldest sergeant answering — “Died on the field 
of honor” As an author he made himself 
known by a singular work on the early history 
of Brittany, entitled, “Nouvelles recherches sur 
la langue, l’origine, et les antiquités des Bre- 
tons? (1792). 


vou. 177% 


LATREILLE, la’tra’y, Pierre André, 
French naturalist: b. Brives-la-Gaillarde, Cor- 
reze, 20 Nov. 1762; d. Paris, 6 Feb. 1833. He 
entered the College Lemoine at Paris in 1778 
and was ordained a priest in 1786, afterward re- 
tiring to Brives, where in addition to his duties 
he made a study of entomology and zoology. 
He returned to Paris in 1788 and’ was elected 
to the Society of Natural History; the Revolu- 
tion, however, interrupted his career and he was 
for a time imprisoned at Bordeaux as a sym- 
pathizer of the royal cause. 
corresponding member of the Institute in 1798 
and was given charge of the arrangement of the 
entomological collection at the Museum of Nat- 
ural History, Paris. He became a member of 
the Academy of Sciences in 1814, and in 1821 
a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He was 
appointed professor of zoology of crustaceans, 
arachnids and insects at the Museum in 1830. 
His fame rests chiefly upon his reforms in en- 
tomological classification: Author of ‘Mémoire 
sur les mutilles découvertes en France?; ‘Pré- 
cis des caractéres génériques des insects, dis- 
poses dans un ordre naturel? (1796); ‘Histoire 
naturelle des singes? (2 vols., 1801); ‘Histoire 
naturelle générale et particuliére des crustacés 
et insectes? (14 vols., 1802-05) ; ‘Genera crus- 
taceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem 
naturalem in familias disposita? (4 vols., 1806— 
07); ‘Familles naturelles du régne animal. 
(1825); ‘Cours d’entomologie? (1 vol. com- 
pleted, 1831), etc. 


LATROBE, la-trob’, Benjamin Henry, 
American architett: b. Yorkshire, England, 1 
May 1764; d. New Orleans, 3 Sept. 1820. He 
studied at the University of Leipzig, served in 
the Prussian army as cornet of hussars, 
became an architect in England, achieved dis- 
tinction aS an engineer in London and 
came to Norfolk, Va., in 1796. He built the 
James River-Appomattox Canal and the Rich- 
mond penitentiary; removed to Philadelphia 
and there designed the Bank of the United 
States, the Bank of Pennsylvania, the old Art 
Academy and other structures; and supplied 
the city with Schuylkill water tn 1800. The 
Roman Catholic Cathedral at Baltimore is also 
his work. In 1803 he was appointed surveyor 
of public buildings in Washington and later 
was chosen architect of the capitol. After the 
burning of the capitol by the British in 1814, 
he was appointed to rebuild it, but in 1817 re- 
signed. His ‘Journal: Notes and Sketches of 
an Architect, Naturalist and Traveler» was 
published in 1905. 


LATROBE, John Hazlehurst -Bonval, 
American lawyer: b. Philadelphia, 4 May 1803; 
‘d. Baltimore, 11 Sept. 1891. He was the son of 
Benjamin H. Latrobe (q.v.). He studied at 
the United States Military Academy, was called 
to the bar in 1825, from 1828 until his death 
was counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
way Company. He was the founder of the 
Maryland Institute. He also invented a stove 
commonly known as the “Baltimore heater.” 
Latrobe was long identified with the American 
Colonization Society and succeeded Henry Clay 
in its presidency in 1853. He also became presi- 
dent of the Maryland Historical Society and 
published a ‘Biography of Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton”? (1824); a ‘History of Mason and 
Dixon’s Line? (1854); ‘Personal Recollections 


He was elected - 


98 


of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad? (1858) and 


other works. 


LATROBE, Pa., town and borough in 
Westmoreland County, on the Loyalhanna 
Creek and on the main line of the Pennsylvania 
Railroad and the terminus of the Ligonier Val- 
ley Railroad, is situated 40 miles east of Pitts- 
burgh and 40 miles west of Johnstown at the 
foot of the Chestnut Ridge and the opening of 
the rich Ligonier Valley. It is the centre of a 
large agricultural district; valuable deposits of 
coal and iron ore are worked and coke manu- 
facturing is carried on to a considerable extent. 
Latrobe has a large number of factories, includ- 
ing large steel mills, woolen mills, paper mills, 
flour mills, mattress factory, sand works, brick 
works. Its public institutions include eight ele- 
mentary schools and high school, 12 churches, 
a girls’ academy and men’s college, both within 
three miles, also hospital and city building. 
Pop. (1920) 9,484. 

LATROBITE, a mineral named after 
C. I. Latrobe. It is found massive and crystal- 
lized tn forms belonging to the triclinic system; 
but the crystals are not well defined; color, 
pale pink; scratches glass; specific gravity, 
2.8; opaque; lustre vitreous. It is composed 
of silica, alumina and lime, being a rare variety 
of anorthite (q.v.) or lime feldspar, See 
FELDSPARS. 


LATRODECTUS, a genus of spiders of 
the loose-web building family Theridide, which 
contains certain large American species pop- 
ularly considered poisonous, especially one (L. 
mactans) known in the tropics as the katipo. 
This spider, according to Emerton, is sometimes 
half an inch long, with a round abdomen and 
the whole body black except a bright red spot 
on the under side and one or more red spots 
over the spinnerets and along the middle of the 
back; the small and few males have in addition 
red vertical stripes on each side. This spider 
makes a large funnel-shaped nest among loose 
stones, which may spread out two or three 
feet. It is found all over the country from 
Canada to Argentina and Chile, and is every- 
where feared, but there is no good reason for 
considering it any more poisonous than other 
spiders. 


LATTEN, a compound or mixed metal re- 
sembling brass used in the Middle Ages for 
metal work. Mines of latten are mentioned as 
existing in the time of Henry VIII, and the 
compound is often alluded to in ancient public 
records, without students of antiquity being 
able to determine what composition is meant. 
Three varieties were distinguished, the black, 
the shaven and the roll. That used by English 


‘workmen used to be imported from Germany 


and the Netherlands, the 
known as Cologne plate. Latteners formed 
one of the recognized crafts of London. In 
some localities the term is still applied to 
plate-tin. 


finest kind being 


LATTER DAY SAINTS, Church of Jesus 


Christ of. See Mormons. 
LATTER DAY SAINTS, Reorganized 
Church of Jesus Christ of. See REORGANIZED 
CuurcH oF Latter Day SAINTS oF JESUS 
CuristT. 
LATTICED DRAINAGE. 
LISED DRAINAGE, 


See TREL- 


LATROBE — LAUBE 


LATTICELEAF, |at’is-léf, or LATTICE- 
PLANT (also called laceleaf and water-yam), 
a remarkable aquatic plant (Aponogeton fenes- 
tralis) of Madagascar, noteworthy for the 
structure of its leaves. The blade resembles 
latticework or open needlework, the longitudinal 
ribs being crossed by tendrils, and the interstices 
between them being open. The root, which is 
fleshy, and resembles that of the yam, is farina- 
ceous and edible. 


LATTIMORE, Samuel Allan, American 
educator and chemist: b. Union County, Ind., 
31 May 1828; d. 17 Feb. 1913. He was gradu- 
ated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) Uni- 
versity in 1850, acted as classical tutor there 
in 1850-52, and after taking his M.A. in 1853 
he was appointed to the chair of Greek. He 
was professor of chemistry in Genesee College 
in 1860-67, and in 1867-1908 professor of 
chemistry at the University of Rochester. He 
retired in 1908. He was chemist to the New 
York State Board of Health in 1881-1908, and 
to the New York State Department of Agri- 
culture in 1886-1908; also serving as chemist 
to the Rochester beard of water commis- 
sioners. He was an earnest worker for the 
exposure of adulteration in food products and 
did much to popularize, and stimulate interest 
in, his branch of science. He was active in 
the establishment of the Western New York 
Institution for Deaf-Mutes; was a Fellow, and 
in 1880 vice-president, of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, and 
was the recipient of several honorary degrees 
from American universities. 


LATTMANN, lat’man, Julius, German 
educator: b. Goslar, 4 March 1818; d. G6ttin- 
gen, 20 Aug. 1898. He was educated at the 
University of Gottingen, taught in the gym- 
nasium at G6Ottingen in 1847-60, and in 1870- 
90 he was director of the gymnasium at Claus- 
thal. He was deeply interested in theories of 
linguistic teaching and reforms therein, and 
wrote a large number of textbooks. 

LATVIA, a republic situated along the 
southern part of the Baltic littoral. It is 
bounded north by the Gulf of Riga, Esthonia 
and Russia, east by Russia, south by Lithuania 
and west by the Baltic Sea. Its area is about 
24,440 square miles with a population (15 June 
1920) of 1,503,193. The chief city is Riga (Pop. 
569,100). The republic is inhabited chiefly by 
Letts, the majority of whom are Protestants. 
There is a university at Riga. An independent 
republic was proclaimed 18 Nov. 1918, Latvia 
being previously included in the Russian prov- 
inces of Courland, part of Livonia, and part of 
Vitebsk. Agriculture is the chief industry of 
the inhabitants. Flax and timber are the chief 
exports. Riga and Libau are its principal ports. 
See Letts; LettisH LANGUAGE and LITERATURE. 


LAUBAN, city of Silesia, on the Oueis, 38 
miles southwest of Liegnitz. Pop. 15,467. 


LAUBE, lou’bé, Heinrich, German novel- 
ist and dramatist: b. Sprottau, Silesia, 18 Sept. 
1806; d. Vienna, 1 Aug. 1884. He studied 


theology at Halle and Breslau, and settled in’ 
He engaged in literary work © 


Leipzig in 1832. 
and an active participation in the movement 
known as “Das junge Deutschland.” 
political essays and a series of novels which 
scored the existing government got him into 


His— 


| 


LAUD — LAUDER oy 


difficulties, and he was subjected to police sur- 
veillance, while his writings were confiscated. 
He was expelled from Saxony in 1834 and 
served a nine months’ prison sentence in Ber- 
lin. Shortly after his marriage he was again 
imprisoned for a year because of his political 
sympathies, and in 1839 he returned to Leip- 
zig and entered upon his career as a dramatist 
and theatre director. He served in the Frank- 
fort National Assembly in 1848-49, resigning 
in order to accept an appointment as artistic 
director in the Hofburg Theatre in Vienna. 
He was director of the Leipzig Stadtheatre in 
1869-70, and in 1872 returned to Vienna as 
head of the new Stadtheatre there, a position 
he held until his retirement in 1880. He was 
a master of stage-craft and his work in this 
field won him higher rank than either his 
dramas or novels. His dramas are notable 
particularly for theic adaptability for stage 
reproduction. He wrote several novels and his 
memoirs after his retirement from public life. 
Author of the political essays ‘Das neue Jahr- 
hundert? (1833); ‘Politische Briefe? (1833); 
a three-volume novel, ‘Das junge Europa’ 
(1833-37) ; the dramas ‘Monaldeschi? (1845) ; 
“Gottsched und Gellert? (1847); ‘Die Karls- 
schtiler? (1847); “Graf Essex? (1856) ; ‘Mont- 
rose? (1859); the novels ‘Der deutsche Krieg? 
(9 vols., 1865-66); ‘Die Bohminger? (1880) ; 
“Louison® (1881); ‘Der Schalten-Wilhelm? 
(1883); a record of his theatrical work in 
‘Das Burgtheater? (1868) ; ‘Das norddeutsche 
Theatre? (1872); ‘Das weiner Stadtheater? 
(1875) ; and ‘Erinnerungen, 1841, 1881? (1882). 
His non-dramatic works were ‘published (16 
vols., 1875-82); his dramatic works (13 vols., 
1845-75; pop. ed., 10 vols., 1880-92). Consult 
Proelss, J., ‘Das junge Deutschland? (1892) ; 
Bulthaupt, H., ‘Dramaturgie des Schauspiels? 
(Vol. III, 6th ed., 1901). 

LAUD, lad, Willers: English prelate: b. 
Reading, Berkshire, 7 Oct. .1573; d. London, 10 
Jan. 1645. He was educated at Saint John’s 
College, Oxford; took priest’s orders in 1601; 
becamé vicar of Stanford, Northamptonshire, 
1607, and rector of West Tilbury, Essex, 1609; 
was made archdeacon of Huntingdon in 1615 
and dean of Gloucester 1616, and as king’s 
chaplain in 1617 accompanied James I to Scot- 
land, where he attempted to enforce Episcopacy 
with no success. In January 1621 he became 
a canon of Westminster and in the following 
June, bishop of Saint David’s. After the acces- 
sion of Charles I, Laud was translated in 1626 
to the see of Bath and Wells, and in 1628 to 
that of London. In 1629 he was elected chan- 
cellor of the University of Oxford, which he 
enriched with a valuable collection of manu- 
scripts, establishing also a professorship of 
Arabic. In 1633 he was promoted to the see 
of Canterbury. In 1634 he instituted rigorous 
proceedings against all who would not conform 
to the Church of England, and sought to ex- 
tinguish all forms of dissent by means of fines, 
imprisonment and exile. When the Long Par- 
liament met (1640) the archbishop was im- 
peached for high treason at the bar of the 
House of Lords by Denzil Holles and com- 
mitted to the Tower. After three years he was 
brought to trial, but the Lords deferred giving 
judgment. The House of Commons, however, 
passed a bill of attainder (January 1644), de- 
claring him guilty of high treason, and con- 


demned him to death. He met his end on the 
scaffold at Tower Hill with great firmness. He 
was opposed to Rome on the one hand and to 
Puritanism on the other, laid stress on sacra- 
mental grace and apostolic succession and or- 
der in public worship, favored a national ob- 
servance of Sunday, had a high repute for 
learning, but was tactless in Ins handling of 
his opponents. Consult -Gardiner, S. R., ‘The 
Personal Government of Charles I? (1871) 
and ‘The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I 
(1881); and ‘Lives? by Benson (1887); Hut- 
ton (1885); Mackintosh (1907); Simpkinson 
(1894), and Waterman (1912). 


LAUDANUM, la’da-nim. See Opium. 


LAUDER, Harry (real name MacLen- 
NAN), Scottish singer: b. Portobello, 4 Aug. 
1870. He was employed in a flax-spinning 
mill when a boy and later worked in the coal 
mines. His natural talent for music and gift 
for entertaining soon won him considerable 
reputation as an amateur entertainer and he 
chose the stage as a profession. His first tours 
were of Scotland and Ireland, but he appeared 
in London in the early nineties and speedily be- 
came a great' favorite. His ‘first tour-of the 
United States was made in 1907 and was 
phenomenally successful. He toured the coun- 
try repeatedly afterward, always enthusiastic- 
ally welcome. He toured Australia and New 
Zealand in 1914 and returning to England 
threw himself whole-heartedly into the recruit- 
ing service. He organized and personally paid 
the expenses of a band of Scottish pipers 
which became famous and himself toured Eng- 
land in the work of recruiting. Later, after 
many difficulties, he secured government per- 
mission to sing on the actual firing line and 
in the front line trenches in France. While 
generally regarded as a comedian, his songs 
and characterizations range from those of 
rollicking humor to the tenderest tributes to 
home, love and country. After the death of 
his only child, Capt. John Lauder, at the front 
in France 28 Dec. 1916, Lauder for a time re- 
fused to return to the stage, but the call was 
so insistent that he obeyed it. After his first 
visit to the front he organized the “Harry 
Lauder Million Pound Fund for Maimed 
Men, Scottish Soldiers and Sailors.» Lord 
Rosebery is honorary president of the fund 
and Lord Balfour is its secretary. The pur- 
pose of the fund is to present the maimed 
soldiers and sailors of Scotland with a_suf- 
ficient amount to establish them in business 
or in a suitable calling, not as a charity, but 
as an- acknowledgment of their country’s 
debt. Both words and music of Lauder’s songs 
are his own composition and include many that 
are widely popular. Among them are ‘Roamin’ 
in the Gloamin’?; ‘Wee Hoose WOES the 
Heather?; ‘She’s “the Lass for Me: ‘The 
Laddies Who Fought and Won,” etc. ’ He is 
author of a Scottish comedy and (Harry Lauder 
at Home and on Tour? (1906); ‘Harry 
Lauder’s Logic? (1917); ‘A Minstrel in 
France? (1918). 


LAUDER, Sir Thomas Dick, 7TH BARONET 
of Fountainhall, Haddingtonshire, Scottish 
author: b. Edinburgh, 1784; d. 29 May 1848. 
He served in the 79th Regiment . (Cameron. 
Highlanders) and succeeded to the baronetcy 
in 1820, He began his literary career in 1815 


100 


with contributions to the Annals of Philosophy, 
published at Glasgow, and in 1817 his story 


entitled ‘Simon Roy Gardener at Dumphail? | 


was published in Blackwood’s Magazine with 
the editorial announcement that it was “writ- 
ten, we have no doubt, by the author of 
Waverley” He continued writing for Black- 
wood’s and also for Tat’s Magazine. He was 
active in politics; enthusiastically supported 
the Reform Bill; and in 1839 was appointed 
to the Board of Scottish Fisheries as secretary, 
also serving in that capacity for the Board of 
White Herring Fishery after the consolidation 
of the two. In his official capacity he devoted 
much attention to the foundation of technical 
and art schools. His most important work, 
from the modern standpoint, is his vivid and 
sympathetic ‘Account of the Great Floods of 
August 1829 in the Province of Moray and 
Adjoining Districts») (1830). Author of 
‘Lochindhw? (1825); “The Wolf of Badenoch? 
(1827); ‘Highland Rambles and Legends to 
Shorten the Way? (3 vols., 1837); ‘Legends 
and Tales of the Highlands? (3 vols., 1841), etc. 


LAUDER, William, Scottish literary for- 
ger +). Db: latter,.part/-of 17thi,century ; d. Bar- 
badoes, 1771. He was educated at Edinburgh 
University, where he afterward engaged in 
tutoring. He was an excellent classical scholar 
and in 1739 published ‘Poetarum Scotorum 
Musae, Sacrae2i3- -volsas> @ icollectiontxor 
poems by various authors, chiefly paraphrased 
from the Bible, and accompanied by an over- 
- Jaudatory preface concerning one of the 
authors, Arthur Johnston. He was unsuccess- 
ful.in his efforts to secure an appointment at 
Edinburgh and in 1742 settled in London. In 
1747 the first of a series of articles endeavor- 
ing to prove Milton a plagiarist appeared in 
Blackwood’s Magazine, so cleverly written that 
men like Dr. Samuel Johnson were for a time 
inclined to support Lauder in his allegations. 
He attempted to prove that ‘Paradise Lost? 
was largely composed of plagiarisms from dif- 
ferent authors, whom he increased to about a 
hundred, presenting inaccurate quotations and 
going so far as to make use of a Latin trans- 
lation of ‘Paradise Lost.» His venture suc- 
ceeded for a time, but was thoroughly exposed 
by scholars conversant with the sources from 
which Lauder supposedly drew his informa- 
tion; and he was finally induced to make a con- 
fession, Dr, Johnson taking a leading part in 
the proceedings. The forgeries are included in 
‘Essays on Milton’s Use and Imitations of the 
Moderns in his “Paradise Lost”? (1750), and 
‘The Grand Imposter: or Charles I Vindicated 
from the Charge of Plagiarism Brought 
against Him by Milton, and Milton Himself 
Convicted of Forgery? (1754). Practically 
forced into exile he went to Barbadoes, where 
he died. 


LAUDERDALE, Tae Maitland, 8TH 
EARL oF, Scottish statesman: b. Ratho, Mid- 
lothian, 26 Jan. 1759; d. Thirlestane Castle, 
Berwickshire, 13 Sept. 1839. He studied at 
the University of Edinburgh, Trinity College, 
Oxford and Glasgow University, read law at 
Lincoln’s Inn and in 1780 became a member of 
the faculty of advocates. He was elected to 
the House of Commons in 1780 and in 1781 he 
was an advocate of Fox’s demand for a com- 
mittee on the state of the American War, 


LAUDER — LAUDERDALE > 


maintaining that the authors of the war were 
“no less inimical to the liberties of Great 
Britain than America.” He supported Fox’s 
East India Bill in 1783, and in 1787 was one 
of the managers of Hasting’s impeachment. In 
1789 he succeeded to the peerage and was 
elected a Scottish representative peer. He was 
in Paris at the time of the attack upon the 
Tuileries; and later strongly opposed the 
French War, but without appreciable support 
from his associates. His continued opposition 
to the ministry prevented his re-election in 
1796 and in 1802, but with the return of the 
Whigs to power he was in 1806 created a peer 
of Great Britain and Ireland with the title 
Baron Lauderdale of Thirlestane, Berwick. He 
declined the appointment as governor-general 
of India, but accepted the office of Lord High 
Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland and was 
Sworn a member of the Privy Council, 21 
July 1806. Upon Lord Grenville’s downfall in 
1807 he resigned and became an active mem- 
ber of the opposition in the House of Lords. 
He was leader of the Whig party in Scotland, 
and received the Order of the Thistle in 1821. 
He afterward became affiliated with the Tory 
party and exerted a considerable influence with 
its leaders. With the Duke of Bedford he at- 
tacked the pensioning of Burke, calling forth 
Burke’s famous ‘Letter to a Noble Lord 
(1796). There are 86 of his protests in ‘Jour- 
nals of the House of Lords,’ for which consult 
Rogers, ‘Protests of the House of Lords? 
(Vols. II and III). He wrote a large number 
of political pamphlets, and his ‘Inquiry into 
the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth? 
(1804; enlarged ed., 1819) was translated into 
Italian and French. Of his political writings 
the best known is ‘Letters to the Peers of 
Scotland? (1794). 


LAUDERDALE, John Maitland, Duxe 
oF, Scottish politician: b. Lethington, 24 May 
1616; d. 20 or 24 Aug. 1682. He was the 
eldest surviving son of John, Ist Earl of 
Lauderdale, and made his entrance into public 
life as a staunch supporter of the Presbyterian 
cause. He embraced the Covenant and in .1643 
was sent to England as one of the commis- 
sioners for the Solemn League and Covenant, 
later carrying it before the two houses at 
Westminster. In 1644 he was instrumental in 
securing the surrender of Charles I, but he 
afterward espoused the royal cause, and suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a supreme influence over 
Charles II. _He accompanied Charles II from 
Holland to Scotland but was taken prisoner 
at Worcester in 1651 and kept in prison until 
1660 when he returned to Charles at Breda and 
despite opposition was appointed Secretary of 
State. He triumphed over all his opponents in 
Scotland, became practical administrator of 
that kingdom and soon turned against the 
Covenanters, whom he persecuted mercilessly. 
Able and unscrupulous, his position as the 
favorite of Charles enabled him to employ 
methods which were reminiscent of the scan- 
dals and abuses of the Stuart administration 
before the civil war. He was created Duke of 
Lauderdale and earl of March in 1672; and in 
1674, earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in 
the peerage of England, and was made a Privy 
Councillor of England. His hold upon the 
king withstood repeated demands of the House 


LAUDIAN MANUSCRIPT —LAUFF 


of Commons for his removal, and he remained 
in favor with the monarch until he voted for 
the execution of Lord Stafford, 29 Nov. 1680. 
He was then stripped of all his pensions and 
public offices except that of the life appoint- 
ment of extraordinary lord of session. His 
health had already failed and he died in retire- 
ment. He left no male issue and his English 
titles became extinct. 


LAUDIAN MANUSCRIPT (Copex Lav- 
DIANUS), manuscript of the Acts of the Apostles 
presented to the University of Oxford in 1636 
by Archbishop Laud and now No. 35 in the 
Bodleian Library. It is a manuscript of great 
value and has 226 leaves of from 23 to 26 
lines, nine by seven and a half inches in size. 
’ The quality of the vellum is poor and the ink 
is faded. It is written in parallel columns and 
uncial letters. The Latin words are invariably 
opposite those of the Greek text and are a 
closely literal version, not a transcript of 
either Jerome or the Vulgate. The leaves 
covering xxvi, 29-— xxvii, 26, are missing. Its 
origin is fixed at about the 6th century and it 
was probably written in western Europe. 
Readings from it were taken by Fell (1675), 
and Mill (1707). The Hearne edition (1715) 
is very rare. Later editions are by Hansell 
(1864), and Tischendorf (1870). Consult 
Davidson, ‘Biblical Criticism? (Vol. II, p. 
293) ; Gregory, ‘Canon and Text of the New 
‘Testament? (1907). 


LAUDON, lou’dén, or LOUDON, Gid- 
eon Ernst, Baron von, Austrian general: b. 
Tootzen, Livonia, 2 Feb. 1717; d. 14 July 1790. 
He was of Scottish descent and served in the 
Russian army in 1732-39. He settled in Austria 
in 1742, became a colonel at the outbreak of 
the Seven Years War and in the following 
year was promoted major-general. He fought 
at Rossbach and Hochkirch, and with the aid 
of the Russian General Soltikoff defeated the 
forces of Frederick the Great at Kunersdorf in 
1759. He won further victories at Glatz and 
Landshut, was ennobled in 1758 and became 
field-marshal in 1778 after service in Bohemia. 
He fought in the Turkish War of 1788-89, 
capturing Belgrade, and in 1790 he became 
generalissimo. Consult Janko, ‘Das Leben 
des Feldmarshalls yon Laudon? (1869). 


LAUDONNIERE, René de, ré-na dé 16- 
d6-né-ar, French navigator. Nothing is known 
of the date of his birth or death. His first 
appearance is in 1562, when he shared in 
Ribault’s attempt to establish a Huguenot 
colony at Port Royal in South Carolina. He 
built a fort and founded a colony in 1564 at a 
point 12 miles up the Saint John’s River, 
Florida. But his colonists were more men of 
adventure than of industry and were much 
molested by the Indians. They eventually 
compelled him to sanction an expedition against 
the Spaniards in Cuba. But the colony fell 
subsequently into such straits that 3 Aug. 1565, 
when Capt. John Hawkins reached Fort Caro- 
lina, as they had named their settlement, he 
found them without supplies or ships. On 29 
August, Ribault arrived with seven ships and 
300 men, and superseded Laudonniére, who was 
ordered home to defend himself against charges 
of treason and tyranny. In Ribault’s absence 
the Spaniards attacked Fort Carolina and 
massacred the colonists. Laudonniére escaped, 


101 


took refuge in England and did not return to 
France till 1566. 


LAUENBURG, lou’én-poork, Prussia, town 
in the province of Pomerania, 38 miles north- 
west of Danzig and 68 miles northeast of 
Ko6slin on the right bank of the Leba River. 
It has textile and leather manufactories, and 
also produces matches, stoves, machinery and 
cement bricks. There is a considerable trade 
in lumber, wines and dive stock. Pop. 13,916. 


LAUENBURG, Prussia, administrative cir- 
cle in the province of Schleswig-Holstein, 
bordering Hamburg, Liibec, Mechlinburg- 
Schwerin and Hanover, and bounded on the 
south by the Elbe River. It has an area of 
455 square miles, is well wooded, with a fertile 
soil, and is principally occupied with agricul- 
ture and stock-raising. Its chief towns are 
Lauenburg and Ratzeburg. Its ancient in- 
habitants were Polabs and later it formed a 
part of the duchy of Saxony. It was ruled in 
succession by the dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg, 
house of Hanover and the kings of Denmark. 


-It became Prussian in 1866, and in 1890 Bis- 


marck received the title of the Duke of Lauen- 
burg, his largest estate, Friedrichsruh, being 
located there. Pop. 54,571. 


LAUENBURG, Prussia, town in the cir- 
cle of Lauenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, 26 miles 
southeast of Hamburg on the Elbe River and 
Trave Canal. It has a castle built in 1181 by 
Duke Bernhard of Saxony. The modern town 
has shipbuilding and manufacturing industries. 
Pop. 5,178. 


LAUFER, lou’fér, Berthold, American an- 
thropologist and Orientalist: b. Cologne, Ger- 
many, 1! Oct. 1874. He was educated at the 
universities of Berlin and Leipzig, and the 
Seminary for Oriental Languages, Berlin. He 
came to United States in 1898, and in 1898~ 
99 he was a member of the Jesup North 
Pacific expedition .to Saghalin Island and the 
Amur region of eastern Siberia for an 
ethnological survey. He accompanied the 
Jacob H. Schiff expedition to China in 1901- 
04, and the Mrs. T. B. Blackstone expedition 
to Tibet and China in 1908-10. He was as- 
sistant in ethnology at the American Museum 
of Natural History, New York, in 1904-06; 
lecturer on anthropology and East Asiatic 
languages at Columbia University, in 1905 and 
1906-07; became assistant curator of Asiatic 
ethnology at the Field Museum of Natural 
History, Chicago, in 1911, and curator in 1915. 
He is a member of the leading scientific socie- 
ties of America, Europe and Asia. Author of 
more than 100 scientific papers; and ‘Descrip- 
tive Account of the Collections of Chinese, 
Tibetan, Mongol and Japanese Books in the 
Newberry Library? (1913). 


LAUFF, Joseph von, German poet, -novel- 
ist and dramatist: b. Cologne, 16 Nov. 1855. 
He was educated at Miinster, Westphalia, en- 
tered the army as lieutenant ‘of artillery in 1877 
and reached the rank of major in 1898, at the 
same time being summoned to Wiesbaden by 
William II and ordered to devote his dra- 
matic gifts to the Royal Theatre. His earliest 
literary work took the form of epic poems, of 
which the first was published in 1886. He later 
wrote several novels which enjoyed a consider- 
able success, but he found his greatest rewards 


102 


in the writing of dramas. He was ennobled in 


1913. Author of the epic poems ‘Jan Van 
Calker, ein Malerlied vom Niederrheim? , 
(1887; 35 ed, 1892) 5) .uDers dteliensteinen, 


ein Sang aus dem Bauernkriege? (1889; 3d ed., 
1896); ‘Die Overstolzin? (1891; Sth: ed, 
1900) ; “Herodias? (1897; 2d ed., 1898) : ‘Geis- 
lerin? (1900; 4th ed. 1902); the novels ‘Die 
Hexe? (1892; 6th ed, 1900); ‘Regina coeli? 
(1894; 7th ed., 1904); ‘Die Hauptmannsfrauw? 
(1895; 8th ed, 1913); ‘Marie Verwahnen? 
(1903) ; the dramas ‘Ignez de Castro? (1894) ; 
a Hohenzollern tetralogy, ‘Der Burggraf? 
(1897); ‘Der Eisenzahn? (1900); ‘Der Grosse 
Kurfurst? (1900); ‘Friedrich der Grosse, 
Vorwarts? (1900); ‘Ruschhaus? «© (1900); 
“Heerhom? (1902), etc. 


LAUGEE, 16’ zha, Désiré Francois, French 
painter: b. Maromme, 29 Jans 1823; :-d.| Paris, 
24 Jan. 1896. He studied under Picot and at 
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and first exhibited in 
the Salon in 1845. His work covers portraits, 
historical, genre and religious paintings. Among 
his paintings are ‘Van Dyck a Savelthem et la 
Mort de Zurbaran? (1850); ‘Leseur chez les 
chartruex? (1855); ‘Sainte Elisabeth de France 
lavant les pieds des pauvres> (1865); mural 
paintings in the church of Saint Clotilde, Paris 
(1870) ; a decorative painting, ‘Le Triomphe 
de Flore? in the Hotel Continental (1879) ; 
‘Victor Hugo sur son lit de mort? (1880); 
“Les Approches de l’automne? (1892); ‘Le Fil 
de la Vierge? (1893), etc. Examples of his 
work may be found in the museums of Amiens, 
Lille and Luxembourg. 


LAUGEE, Georges, French painter: b. 
Montvilliers, 19 Dec. 1853. He studied under 
his father, Désiré Francois Laugée (q.v.), and 
under Pils and Lehman, and made his first 
exhibition in the Salon in 1877. His work is 
chiefly of the genre type. His paintings include 
“Le Repas des Moissoneurs? (1877); ‘Arra- 
cheuses de betteraves en ‘Picardie? (1879); 
“En Octobre? (1881); ‘Soliel Couchant? 
(1886); ‘Au printemps de lavie? (1891); 
pays normand et les Lapins? (1894), etc. 


LAUGHING GAS, a name given to ni- 
trous oxide after its remarkable physiological 
effects were discovered by Sir Humphry Davy 
in his ‘Researches, published in 1800. The 
effects are generally of a pleasurable kind and 
the person under the influence of the gas is 
more or less excited, dancing, singing, laughing 
or indulging in other violent motions. This by 
prolonged inhalation ceases and stupor and 
anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, supervene. 
Hence the use of this gas in dental and surgical 
operations. See AN#STHETICS; NiTrRoUS OXIDE. 


LAUGHING GULL, black-hooded gull of 
the North American coasts (larus atricilla), 
which: migrates to the Amazon in winter. It is 
between 15 and 17 inches in length, has a mantle 
of slate-gray with white beneath, and in breed- 
ing season the hood, or capistrum, is nearly 
black. 
culiar cry which resembles boisterous laughter. 
It nests on sandy inlets from Florida to Maine, 
building a carefully-constructed nest of sea- 
weed and grasses on the ground. The Euro- 
pean species (larus ridibundus) is similar in 
character except that it is smaller in size. 
Both species are very numerous. 


fAu,. 


Its popular name comes from its pe- | 


LAUGEE — LAUGHTER 


LAUGHING PHILOSOPHER, a char- 
acterization of Democritus of Miletus (q.v.). 
He laughed at the follies of man and is dis- 
tinguished by this epithet from the “weeping 
philosopher,” Heraclitus, who mourned for 
human depravity and infatuation. 


LAUGHLIN, laf'lin, James Laurence, 
American political economist and educator: b, 
Deerfield, Ohio, 2 April 1850. He was gradu- 
ated from Harvard in 1873. In 1878 was ap- 
pointed instructor of political economy there 
and was assistant professor 1883-87. From 
1887 to 1890 he was president of the Manu- 
facturers’ Mutual Insurance Company of Phila- 
delphia; in 1890-92 professor of political econ- 
omy at Cornell; and in 1892 became head 
professor of the same department in Chicago ° 
University. In later years he has given special 
attention to the study of financial questions; 
in 1894-95 he prepared a scheme of monetary 
reform for the San Domingo government which 
was later adopted; and he has been a member 
of the monetary commission created by the 
Indianapolis Monetary Conference in 1897. He 
is a member of the International Institute of 
Statistics and of the Political Economy Club, 
of which he was one of the founders. He has 
written ‘Anglo-Saxon Legal Procedure in 
Anglo-Saxon Laws? (1876); ‘Study of Polit- 
ical Economy? (1885) ; ‘History of Bimetellism? 
(1886), a comprehensive treatment of the sub- 
ject; ‘Elements of Political Economy? (1887) ; 
“Gold Prices since 1873? (1887); ‘Facts about 
Money? .(1895); ‘Report of Monetary Com- 
mission? (1898); ‘Principles of Money? 
(1902); ‘Reciprocity? (1903); ‘Industrial 
America? (1906); ‘Aus dem Amerikanischen 
Wirtschaftsleben>? (1907); ‘Latter-Day Prob- 
lems? (1909); and has prepared an abridged 
edition of Mill’s ‘Principles of Political Econ- 
omy? (1884) with a short biography and a 
sketch of the history of political economy, He 
was editor of the Journal of Political Economy, 
and was one of the founders of the Quarterly 
Journal of Economics, to which he has con- 
tributed frequently. 


LAUGHTER, in physiological-psychology, 
an expression of emotion, consisting chiefly in 
certain convulsive and partly involuntary activ- 
ities of the muscles of respiration by means of 
which after an inspiration the explosion of air 
from the lungs in a series of interruptions pro- 
duces a succession of short abrupt movements 
of the muscles of the face and often of other 
parts of the body, along with an emission of 
chuckling sounds from the throaty It is usually 
accompanied by a peculiar expfession of the 
eyes, indicating merriment, keen amusement, 
satisfaction or derision ; and even sometimes by 
tears. A gentle and inaudible form of laughter 
is called a smile. It is expressed merely in the 
movement of the lips and eyes. Dr. Boris Sidis 
discovered in the course of his investigations 
of the causes of laughter the primary law that 
“all unrestrained activities of normal functions 
give rise to the emotion of joy with its expres- 
sions of smiles and laughter”; and with this as 
the initial point of his discussion, he begins 
with a consideration of the “play-instinct” in 
all young animals. Upon this hypothesis Dr. 
Sidis builds up a_ tolerably convincing theory 
that very nearly all human activity is based upon 
the “play-instinct.”. Widely differing human ac- 


LAUGHTER 


tivities church ceremonies, theatricals, out- 
door games — contends Dr. Sidis, are at bottom 
things which subserve the same function. All 
satisfy the play-instinct. “Laughter, smiling, 
grinning, are all external manifestations of the 
play instinct” (Dr. Sidis). In all he perceives 
expressions either of satisfaction, derision, con- 
tentment or inner emotion of joy —and they 
all accompany the play-instinct. Thus church 
services and a football game become inwardly 
connected. From the coarse roar of an amused 
mob enjoying to the full the laughter induced 
by suffering(!), we reach, after gradation upon 
gradation, the inner glow of the human soul, 
a glow which comes to all reverent worshippers 
of the divine; and the ultimate, supreme 
manifestation of joy expressed outwardly only 
by a rapt expression of the countenance or by 
the gleam in the eye, it is yet none the less of 
the very essence of laughter. Laughing is the 
privilege of man. It is the outburst of. senti- 
ment. Yet it is limited to the domain of 
rational mentality. 

Homer tells us that the followers of Ulysses 
died with laughter at the sight of Irus writhing 
in anguish on the ground after Ulysses had 
broken his skull. Sir Thomas Urquhart is said 
to have died in a paroxysm of laughter, on 
hearing of the restoration of Charles II; a 
statement which is rendered sufficiently prob- 
able by the record of similar cases and by the 
eccentric character of the individuals said so 
to have died. Areteus, an ancient physician, 
specifies unextinguishable laughter as one of 
the causes of death. And other ancient writers 
have mentioned the names of different persons 
who died of excessive joy. According to the 
common account, even Sophocles was among 
this number. ; 

John Kendrick Bangs has pointed out that 
the conclusion that laughter is necessarily sar- 
donic would be a half-truth only. Yet he 
admits that he who endeavored to trace the 
causes of laughter, induced by a Broadway 
librettist, would find himself inevitably en- 
meshed in a miasmatic ooze emanating from 
the emotional morasses of an unspiritual bed- 
lam. The only common element in both the 


mirth described by Homer: and in the case just 


mentioned seems to him a sort of unwitting 
cruelty. “The highest point reached by laugh- 
ter” says Dr. Sidis on the other hand, “is inti- 
mately related to the highest intellectual, es- 
thetic and moral development of man.» These 
words recall the statement of Addison, that it 
annoyed him to see the talents of humor and 
ridicule in the hands of an ill-natured man. 
The better of our professional humorists re- 
member this. They know that ridicule and 
social decadence are capable of mutual under- 
standing, and therefore keep them apart. Pro- 
fessional humor never forgets that to laugh 
with and not at people is the mission of him 
who would work great ends through the 
laughter of sympathy. They never stoop will- 
ingly to the caustic ridicule which leaves be- 
hind it the sting of resentment and the scar 
of injury and injustice. (J. K. Bangs). 
They teach us to laugh aright. They dis- 
cover for us relationships where they are least 
expected, and the reaction is laughter. Or 
they show us how relationships appearing to 
exist are preposterous, which being done sud- 
denly we laugh. The expression of laughter is 


1038 


not always indicative of a physical apprecia- 
tion of enjoyment, for it is well known that 
idiots are prone to laughter which is often with- 
out any such significance. Many idiots con- 
stantly show a laughing countenance, the smile 
being more or less stereotyped; or they may 
grin, giggle or chuckle at the slightest stimulus, 
whether of food, color, music or personal con- 
tact. It is probable that in such cases laughter 
is purely an expression of physical content- 
ment, rarely associated with higher or more 
complex ideas. 

In children, laughter is more sensible, but 
the expressions of joy usually contain an ele- 
ment of uncontrolled exuberance. Thus they 
clap their hands, stamp their feet and jump 
around in pure excess of vital spirits. In 
adults the subject of laughter is extremely com- 
plex. As a rule, during laughter, the mouth 
is more or less open, the corners being drawn 
backward and usually somewhat wpward. The 


-upper lip is commonly raised. The drawing- 


back movement is seen best in the broad smile 
or in moderate laughter; in out-and-out mirth 
the teeth are usually exposed by the raising of 
the upper lip. The cheeks are ordinarily drawn 
upward at the same time and wrinkles are 
formed under the eyes. This movement in old 
persons makes a very characteristic feature, and 
the wrinkles so frequently found in their faces 
largely assist to interpret the sense of content- 
ment indicated. Associated with laughter, there 
is often a change in the character of the eye. 
The bright and sparkling eye described by 
Darwin and others who have devoted much 
time to this subject is the eye of laughter. 
Often tears suffuse the eyes and destroy this 
appearance of brightness, but this is usually 
due to excessive laughter. 

Numerous signs are produced during these 
expressions of joy. During laughter, the move- 
ments of the chest and larynx are almost ex- 
actly opposite to those that accompany the 
screams and cries of distress. In these latter 
the expirations are prolonged and continuous, 
and the inspirations short and interrupted; 
whereas in joy the expirations are usually short 
and the inspirations long. 

“In all races of men,” says Darwin, “the ex- 
pression of good spirits seems to be the same, 
and it is easily recognized”; and he adds that 
“from the natives of New Zealand to the highly 
civilized Caucasian, much the same forms of 
emotional expression are to be observed.” 
Laughter is often an indication of general char- 


“acter; it is seldom two persons laugh exactly 


alike; and the study of laughter becomes a 
study of muscular movements. The “spontane- 
ous, hearty laughter of sincere feeling is very 
different from the affected and constrained 
laughter of insanity.» Moreover, there are 
laughs which betoken peculiar constitutions of 
mind and character; laughs that are mechanical, 
nervous spasms, expressing nothing and ex- 
pressed when there is nothing to laugh at, or 
perhaps something not to laugh at; laughs 
which, when they have not been acquired and 
are unconsciously formed, are signs of neu- 
rotic instability, but sure signs of guile when 
they are affected and consciously used — un- 
trustworthy, anyhow, as laughter. Maudsley 
describes what he terms a “quasi-pathological 
laugh,» which is the abortive and incoherent 
laugh of the person of insane temperament, 


104 


which is laughter pulled up abruptly, followed 
by a sudden facial seriousness or a change 
which affects only a part of the features, while 
the rest are unmoved. Consult Bergson, Henri, 
‘Laughter? (New York 1912); Darwin, ‘Ex- 
pression of the Emotions in Man and Ani- 
mals? (latest ed, New York 1910); Hughes, 
‘Die Mimik des Menschen? (1900) ; and Sidis, 
B., the ‘Psychology of Laughter? (New York 


1913) : Sully, James, ‘An Essay on Laughter? 
(ib. 1902). 
LAUGHTON, 1a’t6n, Sir John Knox, 


British naval officer and historian: b. Liverpool, 
23 April 1830; d. 14 Sept. 1915. He served in 
the Baltic during the Russian War, 1854, and 
in China from 1856-59. He was mathematical 
and naval instructor in the Royal Naval Col- 
lege, Portsmouth, 1866-73 (afterward holding 
the same post at Greenwich) ; and was lecturer 
on naval history, 1876-89. In 1885 he was ap- 
pointed professor of modern history in King’s 
College, London. He was the author of ‘Phys- 
ical Geography in its Relation to Prevailing 
Winds and Currents? (1870); ‘Treatise on 
Nautical Surveying? (1872): “Studies in 
Naval History? (1887); ‘Nelson and his Com- 
panions in Arms? (1896), etc. He was the 
founder of the Navy Records Society, for 
which he edited some important publications, 
and he contributed largely to the ‘Dictionary 
of National Biography.’ 

LAUGIER, 16’zhya, Paul Auguste Ernest, 
French astronomer: b. Paris, 1812; d. 1872. 
He studied at the Polytechnique and at the 
Paris Observatory under Arago. In 1843 he 
was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and 
was afterward attached to the Bureau of Longi- 
tudes. He was favorably known for his work 
on the subjects of solar equator and sun-spots. 


LAUMONTITE, 1a’mon-tit, one of the 
zeolite family of minerals. It usually occurs 
in.masses made up of white, vitreous to pearly, 
monoclinic prisms. It is a hydrous silicate of 
aluminum and calcium, HiCaAl.SisOu + 2H:20. 
Upon exposure the normally colorless and 
transparent crystals quickly lose part of their 
water of crystallization and become white, 
opaque, brittle and much below the normal 
hardness of 3.5 to 4. Laumontite is rarer than 
most of the zeolites with which it is associated 
in many localities. Especially fine specimens 
are found at Nagyag, Transylvania, in Nova 
Scotia, New Jersey, Lake Superior, etc. 


LAUNCESTON, lans’ton, England, a_bor- 
ough and market town in ‘the county of Corn- 
wall, 24 miles north by west of Plymouth, and 
on the river Kensey near its confluence with 
the Attery and Tamar. It is situated on the 
side of a hill, is generally well built, and has 
a fine church, built of granite in the 16th cen- 
tury in a debased perpendicular style and oc- 
cupying the site of an older building of which 
a detached tower remains of date 1380; a 
guildhall in castellated style; a town-hall 
(1887), and a grammar school founded in the 
reign of Edward VI. There are the ruins of 
the old castle, the seat of the earls of Corn- 
wall, in which George Fox the Quaker was 
imprisoned in 1656 for distributing tracts, and 
of a fine priory. A fine Norman doorway is 
to be seen in the White Hart Hotel. Agricul- 
ture, tanning and iron-founding are the chief 
emplovments. This town was until 1838 the 


, moment. 


LAUGHTON — LAUNDER 


capital of Cornwall; but Bodmin is now the 
assize town. It gives name to one of the six 
Sl Ma ee divisions of the county. Pop. 
4,11 


LAUNCESTON, Tasmania, the second 
city in the island, in the county of Cornwall, 
133 miles, by rail, north of Hobart, at the con- 
fluence of the North and South Esk rivers, 
the united stream taking after this the name 
of the Tamar, which is navigable up to the 
town from the sea, a distance of 40 miles. 
With the floating dock access is readily ob- 
tained by vessels of large tonnage. The streets 
are regularly laid out and lighted by one 
The principal buildings are the town-hall; 
Albert Hall; the mechanics’ — institute, Lisi 
library; technical schools and school of mines ; 
and art gallery. Wheat, oats, peas and pota- 
toes are the chief crops grown in the neighbor- 
hood, but fruit culture is steadily extending, 
and gold, oil, hardwood and bark are also ex- 
ported. Launceston is the seat of a United 
States consular agent. Pop., with suburbs, 
23,726. 


LAUNCH, in shipbuilding, a term com- 
prehending the apparatus for removing a ves- 
sel from the land to the water. The keel of a 
ship is laid upon a series of blocks, placed six 
or seven feet apart, the tops of which lie in a 
line which slopes downward to the water at an 
angle of about five-eighths of an inch to the 
foot. Timber shores on either side support the 
vessel in an upright position upon the keel 
blocks. When ready for launching “ways” 
of planking are laid parallel to the keel under 
the bilges of the ship and extending into the 
water a considerable distance. A cradle is now 
built under the ship, with its bottom resting on 
the ways. Just betore launching the keel blocks 
are lowered away or otherwise removed, trans- 
ferring the weight of the ship to the cradle and 
ways. .Dogshores are put in place to prevent 
the ship from sliding down until the right 
When the time arrives the dogshores 
are removed and the vessel begins to slide, at 
first slowly, downward, the cradle slipping along 
the ways and breaking into pieces as soon as 
the water takes the weight of the vessel from 
it. Some vessels are built in dry dock and are 
floated out when ready. Hydraulic machinery 


of a special type 1s used to insure the cradle 


starting on the ways. 


LAUNCH, the largest boat belonging to 
a ship of war. It is only used for service 
which cannot be performed by the smaller 
boats. There are steam, .motor and _ sailing 
launches. In large men-of-war launches 40 
to 60 feet long are carried. They are used as 
picket boats to guard against surprise by 
torpedo or other craft, and some are capable of 
steaming 18 or 19 knots. Two types of sailing 
launch are supplied to vessels of the United 
States navy—one propelled ‘by oars or sails 
and the other by gasoline or heavy-oil engines. 
The latter is from 32 to 45 feet long, has a 
speed of five to eight knots and is much used 
in carrying men and stores to and from ships. 
The corresponding boat of merchant vessels 


is called the long boat. 


LAUNDER, in mining, a_ water-gutter, 
conduit, pipe or trough, usually of wood, for 
conveying water to a stamp-mill or other 
hydraulic apparatus for comminuting or sort- 


LAUNDRY MACHINERY 


ing ore. Also a trough or box to receive the 
slimes from the stamps. 


LAUNDRY MACHINERY. Laundry 
machinery as it is understood from the com- 
mercial standpoint, includes a class of mechani- 
cal devices developed during a comparatively 
recent period, to supplant the primitive proc- 
esses of laundering that have existed during 
all time. While the use of laundry machinery 
in crude forms dates back for a. considerable 
period, the past three or four decades mark the 
era of the development and manufacture of 
power machinery for Jaundering purposes, in 
a sufficient degree to warrant recognition as an 
independent branch of industry. This is due 
to the fact that the steam laundry is a modern 
institution; and the development and extent of 
manufacture of laundry machinery has gone 
hand in hand with the growth of the laundry 
interest. The steam laundry of to-day _per- 
forms on a large scale, and ‘by improved 
mechanical devices, the processes of cleansing, 
that for centuries had been confined to hand 
work in connection with the running stream, or 
the wash tub of later years. The growth of 
the laundry as an organized business has been 
so rapid during the past quarter of a century 
that its changing needs have made, and _ still 
keep, the invention and production of laundry 
machinery in a state of constant development 
of new ideas and forms. So that while the 
laundry machinery business has passed the em- 
bryotic stage, it may fairly be said in the open- 
ing years of the 20th century to be in an era 
of great advance, holding and to hold a much 
more important position as an independent and 
recognized branch of: mechanical industry. 
The city of Troy, N. Y. (the birthplace of the 
collar, cuff and shirt industry, as set forth in an 
article under that head) was practically the 
home, and for many years was the centre, of 
the steam laundry interests of the country; an 
interest which has now extended to every city 
or place of any importance in the land. So 
general is the recognition of this fact, that the 
name “Troy Laundry” is still retained by hun- 
dreds of jJaundries in various. parts of the 
United States, and is even seen abroad. It was 
natural, therefore, that the earliest organized 
movement to produce the machines demanded 
for laundering purposes should have been 
made in Troy. That city has always been and 
still remains a strong factor in the: laundry 
machinery industry, which, however, with its 
diversified and growing interests is now 
located and strongly intrenched in various sec- 
tions. All the manufactories of laundry ma- 
chinery are, however, located east of the 
Mississippi River. 

The introduction, use and development of 
laundry machinery has been much more rapid 
and general in the United States than in 
Europe. American. manufacturers. are com- 
peting actively for the trade of all foreign 
markets. The greatest limitation to the de- 
velopment of the trade abroad is the conserv- 
atism. of foreign nations in adopting the more 
advanced methods of laundering calling for 
the modern types of American machinery. 
While there are very many forms of laundry 
machinery in use, the most prominent examples 
of the art are included in those that perform 
the three most important functions of launder- 
ing, namely, washing, drying and ironing. 


105 


Washing Machines.— The first process, 
washing, is performed by two types of rotary 
machines, the dash wheel and the reverse wheel. 
The dash wheel consists of a large cylinder 
divided into pockets by baffles and revolving in 
one direction inside of an outer case. This 
machine is used principally in new work 
laundries. The more generally used washer is 
the reverse wheel. In this the goods are placed 
in an inside cylinder having perforations to 
admit the free passage of water, steam and 
soap among the goods. This cylinder runs in 
an outside shell or case, the water and steam 
being let in by pipes, and by automatic re- 
versing devices the inside cylinder revolves 
several times in one direction, then an equal 
number in the opposite one. This action 
loosens up the goods and subjects them freely 
to the action of water and soap, and so re- 
moves the dirt from the garments. The inside 
cylinders are made of wood and brass and the 
outside cases of wood, galvanized iron or brass. 
Another form of the interior cylinder has its 
sides of copper rods with sufficient space be- 
tween to allow the free entrance of the hot 
soapy liquid in the outer case. An improved 
and very efficient type of this machine has 
the inner cylinder pivoted off the centre, with 
the result that the cleansing liquid is scooped 
up by the revolving eccentric and _ surges 
through the “wash” as it falls back to the bot- 
tom of the case. These washing machines are 
made in several sizes, graded to the economical 
performance of the work they are expected to 
do. They may be had either for the ordinary 
laundry work at low pressure, or with steam- 
tight covers and connections to support the 
high steam pressures used particularly for 
sterilizing or disinfecting. A different type 
of washer is used in washing flannels and other 
woolens, for which the temperatures must be 
much lower, the revolving motion slower, and 
the baffles and paddles arranged to produce a 
kneading effect. The operations of rinsing and 
blueing are carried out in the same machines 
in which the washing is done. 

Drying Machinery.— The next process is 
that of drying. The goods are first taken from 
the washer and placed in what is known as a 
centrifugal extractor. This machine consists 


ARPS ATESTIMPROVED "Cg 

YAMS LAUN ER 

Ont MACHINERY co, 
£ 20 


TR 


of a perforated copper basket, revolving rapidly 
inside an iron or steel curl or case, and making 
from 800 to 1,400 revolutions per minute. The 
water is thrown out through the perforations in 
the basket by centrifugal force, and in about 
20 minutes the goods are partially dried 
and ready to be taken out. The drying process 
is completed by the use of a dry-room. The 


106. 


improved types include the cabinet room, made 
up of a series of racks or trucks arranged with 
bars or hooks to hold the collars, cuffs, shirts 
or other garments, and running on tracks into 
a cabinet made of wood or metal. The heat 
is supplied by a series of steam coils arranged 
horizontally or longitudinally in the room, and 
often heated by the waste wash water. Fans 
are used to circulate the heat among the goods 
and accelerate the drying process. The most 
recent development is the automatic dry-room. 
In this the goods are hung on hooks attached 
to an endless chain or wire cable, which enters 
into and passes through the room in a series of 
loops, and out at the other end of the room. 
The goods are dried in one journev and are re- 
moved from the hooks by an automatic device 
so that they fall into baskets on the outside of 
the room, 

Ironing Machinery.— The third general 
division of laundry work is the ironing, for 
which many forms and styles of machines are 
used. For collars and cuffs, it is done on 
machines consisting of a combination of re- 
volving covered drums coming in contact with 
revolving heated rolls, the goods being ironed 
as they pass through. The covered drum is 
wound with layers of felt, cotton flannel and 


muslin, forming a padding much the nature of 
that which covered the old-fashioned family 
ironing board. The heated rolls are highly 
polished and are heated by gas or steam. 
Formerly all these machines required the goods 
to be passed through several times for a per- 
fect finish. The more modern types of ironers 
are known as “one pass machines.” These 
have a series of heated rolls and drums so 
that the collar is put in at the front of the 
machine and comes out at the back perfectly 
ironed. Some of these ironing machines of 
modern production have a. capacity of from 
250 to 300 dozen collars or cuffs per hour. 
The length of the ironing surface of the heated 
rolls of collar and cuff ironing machines of 
different sizes varies from 12 to 48 inches. 
For the ironing of flat pieces such as sheets, 
table linen and towels, a machine known as the 
mangle is used, by which the goods are dried 
on revolving cylinders heated by steam. In 
the recent types of mangles great capacity is 
attained; in some the Jength of ironing sur- 
face reaches 10 feet and requires several 
operators to feed the machine. For shirts, a 
separate class of ironers is required. These 
are the bosom, body, sleeve and band ironers. 
The general principle and operation are, how- 


LAUNE — LAUNITZ 


ever, the same as in the collar and cuff ironers, 
previously described. The most recent de- 
velopment of shirt ironing machinery is a series 
of machines steam heated, and on which the 
finish is produced by pressing instead of iron- 
ing. Flannels are pressed on a hollow table 
having a perforated surface through which 
steam comes up in sufficient amount to dampen 
the goods. Special padded forms of various 
shapes are employed in the pressing of ladies 
shirtwaists and fancy skirts. 

Other important machines not described 
above and which are used in laundering are 
starchers, shapers and dampeners. There are 
many other forms of laundry machinery made 
to cover parts of processes, and new forms and 
types are constantly being invented and put on 
the market. The special census of manufac- 
tures taken in the United States in the year 1914 
reported a total of 6,097 power laundries of 
factory grade, operating machines aggregating 
174,881 horse power. These establishments em- 
ployed 130,641 wage-earners who received an- 
nually a total of $59,483,000 in wages. The 
capital invested amounted to $98,055,000, and 
the amount received for the work done was 
$142,503,000. Consult Rothery, G. C., and 
Edmonds, H. O., ‘The Modern Laundry’ 
(London 1909). 

Joun T. Brrcer, 
Vice-President and Treasurer, Adams Laundry 
Machinery Company. 


LAUNE, loén, or LAULNE, Etienne de, 
or DELAUNE, French engraver: b. Paris 
or Orléans, 1518; d. Strassburg, 1595. He was 
by trade a goldsmith and medallist, but is said 
to have had lessons from Benvenuto Cellini, 
and from 1561 appears to have devoted himself 
to engraving. Political affairs caused him 
to leave France, and the later part of his life 
was spent at Augsburg and Strassburg. His 
finest work is shown in his small prints, some 
of which may be seen at the Louvre. They 
are for the most part designs for coins, and 
for goldsmith’s and armorer’s work. His 
larger prints are not important. 


LAUNFAL, Sir, knight of the Round 
Table and steward to King Arthur. He is 
celebrated in James Russell Lowell’s ‘Vision of 
Sir Launfal? and his story more fully told by 
Thomas Chestre in ‘Sir Launfal Tryamour, 
the sweetheart of Sir Launfal, supplied him 
with a never-failing purse and promised to ap- 
pear to him when he was alone. His loyalty 
to her incensed Queen Guinevere, daughter of 
the king of Ireland, whom Sir Launfal declared 
to be unworthy to kiss Tryamour’s feet. Im- 
prisoned by King Arthur and threatened with 
death unless he could prove his assertion, Sir 
Launfal: is rescued and freed by the appear- 
ance of Tryamour. The two then journeyed 
to the isle of Oleron and were seen no more. 


LAUNITZ, lou’nits, Robert Eberhard, 
Russian-American sculptor: b. Riga; Russia, 
1806; d. New York, 1870. He studied under 
Thorwaldsen in Rome; emigrated to America 
in 1828, and in 1833 became a member of the 
National Academy. Among his works are the 
Pulaski monument at Savannah, Ga., and the 
battle monument at Frankfort, Ky. 


LAUNITZ, Vladimir von ver, Russian 
soldier and government official: d. Saint Peters- 
burg, 3 Jan. 1907. He served in the Turkish 


LAUPEN — LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM 


War of 1887-88, was governor of Tamboy for 
three years, and in 1906 was appointed prefect 
of police at Saint Petersburg. He was partic- 
ularly severe in his suppression of revolutionary 
_tendencies, and after the assassination of Gen. 
Count Alexis Ignatieff, 22 Dec. 1906, and 
the attempt to kill Vice-Admiral Dubassoff he 
redoubled his efforts. His published report 
showed the arrest in Saint Petersburg of 588 
persons, accused of revolutionary agitation, in 
the three days 25-27 Dec. 1906. He was. shot 
and killed at the Institute of Experimental 
Medicine, Saint Petersburg, 3 Jan. 1907, the 
assassin himself being immediately afterward 
shot by an officer who was present. 


LAUPEN, low-pén, town in canton of 
Bern, Switzerland, situated at the junction of 
the Sense and Saane, 10 miles west-southwest 
of Bern. It was the scene of a victory of Bern 
over Fribourg and allies in 1339. Pop. about 
1,000. 
LAURA, the French lady celebrated by 
Petrarch as the object of his lifelong passion: 
b. Eaumont, Provence, 1308; d. Avignon, 6 
April 1348. Petrarch (q.v.) has told us that he 
saw her for the first time in the church of Santa 
Chiara at Avignon, on Good Friday, 6 April 
1327; that she was the mother of several chil- 
dren and died on Good Friday at the hour in 
which he had first seen her, and was the same 
evening laid to rest in the Franciscan church. 
It would appear that Laura was the daughter 
of Audibert de Noyes and was married 10 
Hugo de Sade and bore him 11 children. There 
is no ground for supposing that Laura was a 
mere creature of the poet’s fancy. Consult 
Minich, ‘Sulla Persona della Celebre Laura,’ 
in ‘Atti dell Instituto Veneto? (Vol. IV, series 
5, 1877-78) ; D’Ovidio, ‘Madonna Laura? (in 
the ‘Nuova Antologia,> 15 July and 1 Aug. 
1888). 


LAURA, a small monastic community, such 
as was common in Egypt, Palestine and Syria. 
It formed a mean between the solitude of the 
hermitage and the community life of the 
medizval monastery. There was a superior, but 
no very definite rules. The cells were sepa- 
rately clustered like an encampment round the 
chapel. The brethren only met together twice 
a week and subsisted on bread and water. 
Three monks occupied one cell, under Pacho- 
mius. A famous laura was founded by Chari- 
ton, a hermit, at Pharan near Jerusalem, one 
by Saint Euthymius several leagues from 
Jerusalem, and others in the 5th century by 


Sabas, a celebrated ‘hermit. The» Empress 
Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II, also insti- 
tuted a laura. Consult Genier, R., ‘Vie de 
Saint Euthyme le Grand, 377-473> and ‘Le 


moines et l’église en Palestine au Ve siécle? 
(Paris 1909). 


LAURACEZ. See LAurEL. 


LAURANA, lou-ra’na, Luciano da, Ital- 
ian architect: b. Dalmatia, 15th century. He 
is supposed to have been a pupil of Brunel- 
leschi, and among his own pupils was Bramante 
(q.v.). He designed the ducal palaces at 
Urbino and Gubbio for Federigo of Urbino, 
between the years 1468-82. His work is char- 
acterized by strength and simplicity of line and 
splendid proportions, and he is considered with- 
out a rival in his period. 


107 


LAUREL, la’rél, Miss., city and county- 
seat of Jones County, on the Gulf and Ship 
Island, the Mobile, Jackson and Kansas 
City and the Queen and Crescent railroads. 


110 miles northwest of Mobile. In 1890 
this was a village of 100 people, while in 
1910 it had 8,465 population. The town 


owes its beginning to the sawmills of East- 
man, Gardiner & Company, and of the Kings- 
ton Lumber Company. These sawmills have 
timber sufficient to last them at least 25 years. 
Laurel has the following important industries 
in addition to its sawmills: .Laurel Cotton 
Mill, having 10,000 spindles and 640 looms, and 
employing 400 hands; Laurel Oil & Fertilizer 
Company, using 40 tons of cotton seed daily; ° 
Lindsey Wagon Company; Brick & Tile Com- 
pany, having a capacity of 30,000 bricks per 
day, and Mississippi Knitting Mills, with a 
capacity of 125 pairs of hose per day. It also 
has many smaller factories, as a machine shop, 
railroad repair shops, foundry, cotton compress, 
ice factory and electric-light and power plant. 
The town has two national banks. It contains 
a fine city hall building and the State Agri- 
cultural Farm. The waterworks are operated 
and owned by the municipality. Laurel has 
adopted the commission form of government. 
Pop. (1920) 13,037. 

LAUREL, a tree or shrub of the family 
Lauracee, having alternate, simple, often ever-- 
green, exstipulate leaves; panicles or umbels 
of perfect flowers and one-seeded drupes or 
berries. The species, of which there are more 
than 1,000, mostly tropical, are divided into 
about 40 genera and are most largely repre- 
sented in Brazil and southwestern Asia. Among 
the best-known North American members are 
the red bay (Persea borbonia), sassafras (Sas- 
safras sassafras), pond spice (Litsea genicula- 
ta), and wild allspice (Benzoin benzoin), 
all of which are found east of the Mis- 
sissippi. The tropical species are, however, 
more important. Among them are avocado or 
alligator pear (Persea. gratissima), cinnamon, 
camphor-tree and cassia (Cinnamomum), and 
greenheart (Nectandra rodi@). The name is 
usually restricted, however, to the two trees 
of the tvpe genus Laurus, which are natives 
of the Mediterranean region, and are char- 
acterized by dark, evergreen leaves, small, 
dicecious or perfect inconspicuous flowers 
in little axillary umbels and_ small,  suc- 
culent,* purple, cherry-like berries. They 
sometimes attain heights exceeding 50 
feet, but are usually scarcely more than a 
third of this height. The more popular species 
is the poet’s or wreath laurel (L. nobilis), 
called in America sweet-bay. See Bay. 

Among the numerous other shrubs known 
as laurels are the mountain-laurel (q.v.) and 
other species of Kalmia, the ,Portugal laurel 
(Prunus lusitanica), the cherry-laurel (Prunus 
laurocerasus and carolimana), and _ the 
ground-laurel (Epige@a repens), better known 
as “trailing arbutus.” 

LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 
The laurel was dedicated by the ancients to 
Apollo. The very earliest belief of the mys- 
terious virtues of the laurel was that it had 
purifying qualities. Ancient writers say that 
Apollo purified himself with laurel after slaying 
Python, the snake monster who was making 


108 


Parnassus (near Delphi), home of the oracle, 
inaccessible. And every eighth year Delphi 
commemorated this purification of the god by 
a festival; hence laurel is said to have been 
used by the ancients for purification from evil 
consequences that might follow through the 
slaying of a living animal. The laurel tree 
was supposed to be inhabited by spirits — this 
belief and that of purifying influences may have 
arisen from the fable that Diana (Artemis), the 
virgin goddess, guarded the purity of her 
nymphs with great jealousy, and when Daphne 
offended she was turned into a laurel tree. 
Hence the ancient terming of the laurel plant 
Daphné. In depictions Apollo frequently fig- 
‘ures in purification ceremonies and the laurel 
accompanies the rite. An ancient writer says 
that during a pestilence at Miletus, Branchis, 
the founder of the oracle there, sprinkled the 
people with laurel leaves and purified them. 
Of a certain priestess (Gaia) we read that in 
delivering Apollo’s oracles she “regularly 
chewed laurel and fumigated herself with it” 
before giving her responses. Now, Asclepius, 
or A@sculapius, was a son of Apollo and the 
laurel was made also sacred to him as well as 
his paternal god (this besides the better-known 
serpent emblem on his staff, also borrowed 
from Apollo). And, as ZEsculapius was master 
of the mysteries of the therapeutic values of 
the vegetable kingdom (taught him by physician 
Chiron), the connection between the laurel’s 
medicinal values and the persons of Apollo and 
ZEsculapius in the minds of the ancient classic 
'-pagans becomes clear. But both Apollo and his 
son were close patron gods of the oracles, hence 
their symbolic presentment, the laurel, became 
the attribute of divination’: and poetry. The 
poet Hesiod relates how the Muses (Apollo, 
as Musagetés, was their leader) put into his 
hands a branch of laurel and immediately he 
became a poet. We are told that the guests 
at feasts who did not know how to play the 
lyre, recite rhapsodies or poems and could not 
sing acquired the necessary talent when holding 
a branch of myrtle or laurel in the hand. The 
laurel which the diviners carried in the hand 
they termed ithynterium and those who chewed 
its leaves for purposes of divination were 
known as daphnefagi. It was but a short step 
from the carrying of laurel for purpose of in- 
spiration to the crowning of the inspired with 
laurel, and the laurel wreath evolved into a 
symbol of fame in poetry and the arts ‘of the 
Muses. Thus we soon see Clio, Muse of His- 
tory, wearing a wreath .of laurel ; Calliope, 
Muse of Heroic Poems, -gets laurel woven into 
her wreath; Melpomene, Muse of Tragedy, al- 
though often crowned with cypress, also is seen 
frequently with a laurel wreath; Thalia, Muse 
of Comedy, has a laurel wreath as attribute; 
Polymnia wears.a laurel wreath; Terpsichore 
and Erato are generally so crowned. But their 
relationship to Apollo permits each of the group 
a right to the laurel emblem. By some means 
the before-mentioned connection of spirits with 
the laurel tree appears to have brought it into 
contact with the underworld, for we find (in 
magic) Medea, as a witch, had twigs of laurel 
in classic art. Leaving the realm of the Muses, 
the laurel wreath as emblem of fame of the 
art gifted reached later to the brow of the 
successful competitor in Greciar: athletics; and 


German satirist: 


LAUREL HILL — LAURENCE 


thence it was but a short step to the brow of 
the conqueror in battle and the Roman em- 
peror. And the pupils of A‘sculapius, who had 
been prescribing laurel medicinally as cure for 
“fever, convulsions, the afflictions of lethargy, . 
headache and coughs,” naturally assumed the 
emblem. Young doctors were decorated with 
laurel branches (having berries on them)— 
whence is said to be derived the term “bac- 
calaureatus.». The person crowned with laurel 
was called “laureatus.» The origin of the Eng- 
lish poet-laureate title is obscure. There was 
a king’s poet (Versificator Regis) in the reign 
of Henry III (13th century), but Chaucer, on 
his return from abroad, assumed the title of 
poet-laureate, and obtained an annual allowance 
of wine from 1389. Edmund Spenser (died 
1599) is generally considered as the first of 
the officially appointed line of poet-laureates, 
which have been continued down to our present 
day. As a decorative art motif the laurel was 
used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. In 
copying the classic arts the French styles 
Louis XIV and Empire, of course, used the 
laurel liberally as one of their favorite decora- 
tive elements. In wreaths, borders and other 
uses, the laurel is retained in art of recent 
times. 
CLEMENT W. CouMBE.. 


LAUREL HILL, Pa., long range of the 
Alleghany Mountains, forming a boundary be- 
tween Somerset County on the east and Fayette 
and Westmoreland counties on the west, and 
extending from Cambria and Indiana counties 
into West Virginia, where it is named Chest- 
nut Ridge. Its altitude is above 2,000 feet. 
The ridge has rich deposits of coal. 


LAUREL-MAGNOLIA, the 
See Bay. 


LAUREL WATER, or CHERRY-LAU- 
REL WATER, liquid distilled from the leaves 
of the cherry-laurel and water. It standardizes 
to 1 per cent of hydrocyanic acid and consti- 
tutes a powerful poison. It is used as a flavor- 
ing for medicines, and as a sedative and nar- 
cotic. It has been used ignorantly as a flavor- 
ing in cooking with fatal results. 


LAUREMBERG, lou’rém’bérk, Johann, 
b. Rostock, 26 Feb. 1590; d. 
Sor6e, Denmark, 28 Feb. 1658. He studied 
medicine at Paris and Rheims, traveled exten- 
sively in England and on the Continent, and 
in 1618 was appointed professor of poetry at 
Rostock. He became professor of mathematics 
at the Ritterakademie at Sorde in 1623 and re- 
mained there until his death. His use of the 
Low German dialect mirrored wittily the pecu- 
liarities of the people and scenes he portrayed. 
He wrote a Latin play ‘Pompeius Magnus? 
(1610), and a Greek epithalium. His most 
notable work, however, is his ‘Veer olde 
berOmde Schertzgechichte.? .Consult Classen, 
J., ‘Ueber das Leben und die Schriften des 
Dichters J. Lauremberg? (1841). 


LAURENCE, Richard, Anglican arch- 
bishop, younger brother of French Laurence: 
b. Bath, 1760; d. Dublin, 28 Dec. 1838. 
He was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
Oxford, and was ordained in the Church of 
England. He held the vicarage at Coleshill in 
1787 and later was vicar of Great Cheverall and 


sweet-bay. 


LAURENCE -—— LAURENS 


rector of Rollstone, Wiltshire. He became 
deputy regius professor of civil law under his 
brother at Oxford in 1796; and in 1804 deliv- 
ered the Brampton lectures, “An attempt to 
illustrate those articles of the Church of Eng- 
land which the Calvinists improperly consider 
Calvinistical,» later published (1805; 3d ed., 
1838). He was appointed rector of Mersham, 
Kent, in 1805, and of Stone, near Dartford, in 
1811. A well-versed student of theology, canon 
law and Oriental languages, he was in 1814 ap- 
pointed regius professor of Hebrew and a 
canon of Christ Church, Oxford. In 1822 he 
became archbishop of ‘Cashel, Ireland. He was 
instrumental in having the study of Oriental 
languages given a more important place in 
English universities, was a zealous defender of 
the Church of England against the Calvinists 
and Unitarians, and succeeded in recovering 
from‘ the Ethiopic manuscripts several sup- 
posedly lost apocryphal works, among them 
‘The Ascension of the Prophet Isaiah? (1819), 
and ‘The Book of Enoch the Prophet? (1821). 
Author of numerous sermons and essays, and 
‘Dissertations on the Logos of Saint John’? 
(1808) ; ‘On the Existence of the Soul After 
Death? (1834); ‘Poetical Remains? (1872; 25 
copies, privately printed), etc. 


LAURENCE, 1a’réns, Saint, Roman Chris- 
tian martyr: d. Rome, 10 Aug. 258. He was of 
Spanish race, and when in the Valerian perse- 
cution Pope Sixtus II was carried to martyr- 
dom, Laurence as deacon and treasurer of the 
Church refused to give up the keys of the 
treasury, and according to tradition was put to 
death by being laid over a fire on bars of iron, 
The Escurial was built by Philip II in fulfil- 
ment of a vow made on Saint Laurence’s day, 
10 August, to the honor of that saint, the 
ground plan being after the pattern of a grid- 
iron. 

LAURENCE, Samuel, English painter: b. 
Guilford, Surrey, 1812: d. London, 28 Feb. 1884. 
He was one of the most successful portrait 
painters of his day, and had as sitters many of 
his most eminent contemporaries, including 
Whewell, Browning, Carlyle, Dickens, Froude, 
F. D. Maurice, Thackeray and Tennyson. While 
on a visit to ‘Longfellow in 1854 he painted a 
portrait of John Russell Lowell which has been 
engraved. 


LAURENS, 1a’réns, Henry, American pa- 
triot and statesman: b. Charleston, S. C., 1724; 
d. there, 8 Dec. 1792. He was a mercantile 
clerk in London and Charleston and in the 
latter place established a successful business. 
An opponent of royal aggression, he was in- 
volved in numerous disputes with the Crown 
judges regarding their decisions in marine law 
and the admiralty courts. Having withdrawn 
from active business, in 1771 he went to Eng- 
land and was there one of the 38 Americans 
who in 1774 signed a petition to advise Parlia- 
ment against passing the Boston port-bill. In 
1775 he became a member of the first South 
Carolina provincial congress, in 1776 vice-presi- 
dent of the Council of Safety in that colony 
and from 1 Nov. 1777 to 10 Dec. 1778 was presi- 
dent of the Continental Congress in succession 
to Hancock. He sailed in 1779 as Minister to 
Holland for the negotiation of a treaty with 
that country, but his packet, the Mercury, was 


109 


captured by the British, he was examined by 
the Privy Council and from 6 Oct. 1780 was 
imprisoned for about 15 months in the Tower 
on suspicion of high treason. Having been 
exchanged for Cornwallis, he was sent to Paris, 
where, with Adams, Franklin and Jay, he 
signed the preliminary treaty of’ peace with 
Great Britain 30 Nov. 1782. The collections 
of the South Carolina Historical Society con- 
tain many of his papers. Consult “Henry 
Laurens: Narrative of his Capture and Con- - 
finement in the Tower of London,” in ‘Collec- 
tions? of the South Carolina Historical Society 
(Vol. I, Charleston 1857) ; Moore, Frank, ‘Cor- 
respondence of Henry Laurens of South Caro- 
lina,» in ‘Materials for History? (New York 
1861) ; Dawson, H. B. (ed.), ‘Laurens Petition 
and Letters? (Morrisania, N. Y., 1866-67). 


LAURENS, Jean Paul, zhon pol 16-r6n, 
French artist: b. Fourquevaux, Haute-Garonne, 
1838; d. Paris, 24 March 1921. He studied in the 
Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Toulouse, and became 
a pupil of Cogniet and Bida in Paris. His work 
is distinguished for boldness and vigor, and the 
tragic elements of his subjects are heightened 
by the dramatic realism of the artist. In point 
of moderation, in treatment and of taste in 
coloring, his compositions have received some 
adverse criticism, but his powerful effects are 
not called in question. In_1886 he became a 
professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, in 1891 
he was elected a member of the Institut and 
president of the Société des Artistes Fran¢ais 
and in 1900 commander of the Legion of Honor. 
Among his pieces are ‘Death of Tiberius? 
(1864) ; “A Voice in the Desert? (1868); ‘Exe- 
cution of the Duc d’Enghien? (1872); ‘The 
Pool of Bethesda? (1873); ‘The Interdict? 
(1875); ‘The Austrian General Staff Around 
the Deathbed of General Marceau? (1877); 
‘Napoleon and Pius VII at Fontainebleau? 
(1894), and the ‘Proclamation of the Republic 
in 1848? (1902). He is also distinguished for 
his decorative work; notable frescoes from his 
brush adorn the Panthéon and the Paris Hotel 


de Ville. Consult Van Dyke, C. J., ‘Modern 
French Painters. 
LAURENS, John, American soldier: b. 


Seuth Carolina, 1753; d. there, 27 Aug. 1782. 
He was the son of Henry Laurens (q.v.). He 
was educated in England, and in 1777 became 
an aide to Washington, whose secretary he also 
frequently was. From the battle of Brandy- 
wine (11 Sept. 1777) he participated, it is said, 
in all actions in which Washington commanded, 
He was severely wounded at Germantown, 
commanded the light infantry when the united 
American and French troops under Lincoln 
and D’Estaing attempted the capture of Savan- 
nah, and aided in the defense of Charleston 
when besieged by Clinton. In the spring of 
1781 he was sent to France to obtain money 
and supplies. Contrary to diplomatic precedent, 
he requested and obtained an audience with the 
king, and secured the necessary assistance. He 
captured one of two redoubts at Yorktown and 
received Cornwallis’ sword. He was killed in 
a skirmish on the Combahee River, S. C. What 
Washington called his “intrepidity ‘bordering on 
rashness” won for him the sobriquet of “the 
Bayard of the Revolution.” His correspond- 
ence, with a memoir by William Gilmore 
Simms, was privately printed in 1867. 


110 


LAURENS, formerly LAURENSVILLE, 
C., village and county-seat of Laurens 


County, 38 miles southwest of Spartansburg | 


and 75 miles northwest of Columbia, on the 
Charleston and Western Carolina and the 
Columbia, Newberry and Laurens railroads. It 
is situated in an agricultural district, has cotton 
mills and a glass factory. Pop. (1920) 4,629. 


LAURENT, Auguste, 06-gust  10-ron, 
French chemist: b. La Folie, Haute-Saone, 14 
Nov. 1807; d. Paris, 15 April 1853. In 1838 he 
became professor to the Academy of Sciences 
of Bordeaux, which post he held for eight 
years. In 1848 he was made assayer to the 
mint and chemical adviser of the Minister 9f 
War. His researches were very numerous, em- 
bracing all departments of the science, organic 
and inorganic, and opening up new fields and 
new views. He was one of the champions of 
the unitary system against the dualistic held by 
most of the chemists of the time. He was op- 
posed also to the electro-chemical theory, which 
his investigations into the derivatives of 
naphthaline did so much to shake, and main- 
tained the doctrine of types — forms of consti- 
tution of bodies which admitted of parts being 
substituted by other elemental or compound 
substances without the type of the original 
body being altered. His views on general 
chemical theory appeared in a posthumous work 
entitled “Méthode de chimie,’ translated into 
English by Odling, and published by the Caven- 
- dish Society, 1855. 


LAURENTIAN (1a-rén’shi-an) MOUN- 
TAINS, the crescent-shaped  plateau-like 
height of land in British North America, ex- 
tending for over 3,000 miles from Labrador to 
the Arctic Ocean, surrounding Hudson Bay, 
forming the watershed between Hudson Bay, 
the Saint Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and 
dividing the same bay from the sources of the 
Mackenzie River. The average elevation of 
this range is about 1,500 feet, while some of 
the peaks attain a height of 3,000 feet. The 
system is remarkable for its number of lakes 
and sheets of water. The rock formation be- 
longs to the sedimentary deposits known as the 
Laurentian system. 


LAURENTIAN SYSTEM. The term 
Laurentian has been applied by certain Cana- 
dian geologists to a great series of rocks, partly 
of sedimentary and partly of igneous origin, 
that is typically developed.on the Laurentian 
Hills north of the Saint Lawrence River. Sim- 
ilar rocks occur elsewhere along the Height of 
Land, from Labrador to the western end of 
Lake Superior. The rocks are of very ancient 
date, but the exact significance of the term 
Laurentian as a time division or as a lithologic 
name is in dispute. The typical Laurentian in- 
cludes a series of gneisses, mica, schists, 
quartzites and crystalline limestones with in- 
trusive granites and green stones of the 
Archean group, including also the Huronian. 
The total thickness may be 30,000 feet. By the 
United States Geological Survey, Laurentian is 
made an epoch of the Archean period. Dur- 
ing this epoch the Laurentian series of granite 
batholiths (q.v.) were intruded into the 
Keewatin (q.v.) series of greenstone schists 
(q.v.). The proper application of the term is 
in much dispute. 


LAURENS — LAURIA 


LAURIA, lou’ré-a (LURIA or LORIA) 
Ruggiero di, Spanish-Italian admiral: b. Castle 
of Lauria, Lauria, Basilicata, 13th century; d. 
Valencia, 2 Jan. 1305. Of his early life little is 
known. His father was an adherent of King 
Manfred of Sicily, and his mother, Bella of 
Lauria, accompanied Constanza, the daughter 
of Manfred, to Spain where she was married 
to Peter, son of James, conqueror of Aragon. 
Lauria was reared in the court of Aragon, and 
received estates in Valencia after the subjection 
of that kingdom, but little is known of his life 
until 1282, when he accompanied Peter III on 
his expedition to Sicily. The Sicilian revolt, 
known as the “Sicilian Vespers,” had broken 
out against the ruler established by Charles of 
Anjou after the death of Manfred. Peter III 
claimed the kingdom by right of his wife as 
daughter and heiress of Manfred, and with the 
support of the Sicilian nobles. The expedition 
against the Anjou forces was successful and in 
1283 Peter III was crowned king by the 
Sicilians. Lauria. was. thereupon made com- 
mander of the fleet, but while this first docu- 
ment concerning him refers to him in the high- 
est terms_it gives no clue to the nature of his 
services. As commander of the Aragon fleets, 
Lauria in the succeeding 20 years proved him- 
self one of the greatest naval commanders in 
history, his career recording continuous vic- 
tories. He fought in both the south Italian 
waters and off the coast of Catalonia, his first 
recorded victory being that over the naval force 
of Charles of Anjou off Malta in 1283. His 
fleets were maintained in a high~ degree of 
efficiency, and his methods included the use of 
the ram and of powerful crossbows instead of 
depending, as did the French, upon boarding 
and hand-to-hand fighting. He won a decisive - 
victory over the Angevin fleet in the Bay of 
Naples, 1284, capturing Charles of Salerno, heir’ 
to the kingdom, who continued for years a 
prisoner in Sicily and Spain. His most brilliant 
exploit was the ‘defeat of the French fleet off 
Catalonia in 1285, which ‘still ranks as a_su- 
preme achievement in nayal history. The 
French king, Phillipe le Hardi. invaded Cata- 
lonia with the purpose of aiding his cousin, 
Charles of Anjou, in his effort to regain Sicily. 
The invading’ army was supported by the French 
fleet off the coast, from which it drew reserves 
and supplies. Peter II] summoned Lauria from 
the Sicilian coast, the commander reaching 
Barcelona 24 August. The nature of the French 
campaign necessitated the French fleet’s being 
extended along the entire coast of the invaded 
territory, and while Lauria’s fleet was greatly 
inferior in numbers his naval strategy was fully 
equal to the emergency. On 9 September at 
night he struck at the French centre near the 
Hormigas in full force and gained a com- 
plete Victory. He then sailed for Rosas, in- 
duced the enemy fleet to come out by raising 
the French colors and visited upon it a defeat 
as crushing as the first blow upon the centre. 
The capture of the town followed, together 
with the stores massed there for the invading 
army. The retreat of King Phillipe soon fol- 
lowed, nearly his entire army being lost through 
hunger and the attacks of the mountaineers. 
The French naval power was so broken that it 
did not recover for many years, and Lauria re- 
turned to Sicily to resume command of King 
Peter’s forces against those of Anjou. 


LAURIA — LAURIER 


The death of King Peter in 1286 materially 
changed the situation. He was succeeded on 
the throne of Aragon by his son James and in 
Sicily by Alphonso. Upon Alphonso’s death 
James inherited the throne of Sicily and placed 
his younger brother Frederick there as vice- 
roy. James made peace with the Angevin line, 
but the Sicilians offered the crown to Fred- 
erick who successfully withstood both his elder 
brother and the forces of Anjou. Lauria re- 
mained for a time with Frederick, but his dom- 
inating allegiance appears to have been to the 
house of Aragon and he returned to the sup- 
port of James. Frederick thereupon confiscated 
Lauria’s estates in Sicily and put his nephew 
to death, a retaliation which was afterward 
repaid in full in two crushing defeats of the 
Sicilians at sea. However, although badly 
beaten at sea, Frederick’s land operations were 
more successful and the Peace of Calatabellota 
ended the war in 1302. Lauria retired to his 
vast estates in Valencia in 1303, where he died 
two years later. Lauria undoubtedly was merci- 
less as a conqueror, a characteristic.of his age, 
but his brilliancy as a commander was not 
rivaled for many generations. Consult Amari, 
M., ‘Guerra del Vespro? (2 vols., 8th ed., 1876) ; 
Ramon de Muntaner, ‘Chronicle, edited by 
Karl Lanz (1844); Charles de la Ronciére, 
“Histoire de la marine francaise? (Vol. I, pp. 
189-217, 1899). 


LAURIA, Italy, city of Basilicata in the 
province of Potenza, near the borders of Cala- 
bria, seven miles south of the nearest railway 
station at Lagonegro, and 121 miles south of 
Naples. It is built upon the side of a steeply 
sloping hill, 1,821 feet above sea-level, and 
is in two parts, a walled portion above and the 
remainder on a plain below. It has a castle 
which was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Lauria 
(q.v.) in the 13th century. The French, under 
Masséna, destroyed the town in 1806. It is 
situated in section producing fruit, wine, pota- 
toes and’ grain, and it manufactures rope, 
woolen goods and leather. Pop. 9,769. 


LAURIC ACID, or DODECOIC ACID, 
a fatty acid occurring (as glyceryl ether) in 
the berries of the bay-tree (Laurus nobilis), in 
pichurim beans, in cocoanut oil and elsewhere. 
It may be prepared from the oils in which it 
occurs by saponification, followed by the frac- 
tional precipitation of the acids by means of 
barium acetate. Lauric acid has the formula 
CH»O., and is insoluble*in cold, and slightly 
soluble in hot, water, but very soluble in both 
alcohol and ether. From its solution in alco- 
hol it crystallizes in the form of silky needles, 
melting at 110° F. With the metals it forms 
a series of salts. called laurates, which, with 
the exception of barium laurate and the lau- 
rates. of the alkali metals, are mostly insoluble 
in water. The laurates of the alkali metals 
and of barium are soluble in water, and much 
more soluble in salt water than the alkali 
metal salts of the other fatty acids. Hence 
“marine soap” is made from cocoanut oil. The 
glyceryl ether (also known as ttrilaurin, or 
laurostearin), has the formula CsHs(C12H23O2)s, 
melts at 113° F. and may be obtained from 
bay-berries by extraction with alcohol. 

LAURIE, Arthur Pillans, Scottish chem- 
ist and educator: b. 6 Nov. 1861. He was a 
son of Simon Somerville Laurie (q.v.) and 


111 


was educated at the universities of Edinburgh 
and Cambridge. He was a Fellow of King’s 
College at Cambridge and in 1891 became 
Cantor lecturer. He was*a member of the 
Home Office Committee on Pottery Manufac- 
ture in 1893, and lecturer in physics and chem- 
istry at Saint Mary’s Hospital Medical School 
in 1895, serving also as Gilchrist lecturer. He 
was examiner in chemistry to the Royal Col- 
lege of Physicians in 1898, and likewise exam- 
iner in oils and colors to the City and Guild’s - 
Institute. He was professor of chemistry to 
the Royal Academy of Arts in 1912, and is 
principal of the Heriot-Watt College, Edin- 
burgh. In 1915 he was appointed to the Muni- 
tions Inventions Department of the Ministry of 
Munitions as a member of the panel of scien- 
tific experts. He edited ‘The Teachers’ Ency- 
clopedia’ (7 vols 1UTl-12).. and seeauthor OL 
‘Scientific Investigations in Phvysico-Chemis- 
try”. “The “Pood of” Plants?’*€1893) *“Proe- 
esses, Pigments and Vehicles —a Manual for 
Art Students? (1895); ‘Greek and Roman 
Methods of Painting? (1910); “The Pigments 
and Mediums of the Old Masters? (1914), ete. 


LAURIE, John Wimburn, British Cana- 
dian soldier and legislator: b. London, 1 Oct. 
1835; .d..20.May 1912... He was. educated. at 
Sandhurst and at the Staff College, and entered 
the 2d Queen’s Royals as ensign in 1853. He 
volunteered for service in Crimea in 1854-56, 
where he saw service at Sebastopol and in 
both attacks on Redan. He was a staff-officer 
in the Indian Mutiny 1858-59, and was inspect- 
ing field-officer of militia in Canada in 1861- 
81. He joined the expedition to the Transvaal 
in 1881, and took an active part in the sup- 
pression of the half-breed rebellion in north- 
western Canada in 1885. He was Red Cross 
commissioner in the Serbian-Bulgarian War 
in 1885, and was promoted lieutenant-general 
in 1887. In 1874-80 he was president of the 
Board of Agriculture in Nova Scotia,-and in 
1887-91 he served in the Canadian House of 
Commons as member from Shelburne. He was 
mayor of Paddington in 1907-08, and served 
in the English Parliament as member from 
Pembroke Boroughs in 1895-96. He received 
numerous medals in his military service and 
was likewise decorated in several foreign coun- 
tries. He was a lecturer on agriculture, Scotch 
regiments in the army and on Imperial Fed- 
efation. 

LAURIE, low’ri, Simon Somerville, Scot- 
tish educator: b. Edinburgh, 13, Noy. 1829; 
d. there, 2 March 1909. He was educated at 
the University of Edinburgh; for five years 
was a teacher on the Continent; and. returning 
to Scotland held important positions in connec- 
tion with education. In 1876 he was appointed 
to the professorship of education in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. He published many 
works, among which are ‘Philosophy of Ethics? 
(1866); ‘Language and Linguistic Method in 
the School? (1892); and ‘Historical Survey of 
Pre-Christian Education» (1895); ‘Synthetica> 
(1906). ; 

LAURIER, lo’ri-a, Str Wilfrid, Canadian 
statesman: b. Saint Lin, Quebec, 20. Nov. 1841; 
d. Ottawa, 17 Feb. 1919, the only son of Carolus 
Laurier, whose ancestors came from France in 
the latter half of the 17th century, and of 
Marcille Martineau. He received his early 


112 


education at L’Assomption College, and studied 
law at McGill University (Montreal) ; in 1865 
and 1866 was a vice-president of the Institut 
Canadien (Montreal), which formed the nu- 
cleus of a movement toward intellectual liberal- 
ism on the part of the younger French and 
was strongly opposed by the clergy; and in 
1866 opened a law office at Arthabaskaville. 
In 1868 he married Miss Zoé Lafontaine of 
Montreal. In 1871 he was elected to the Que- 
bec legislature, and in 1874 he was chosen as 
Liberal member of the Dominion House of 
Commons for Drummond and Arthabaska. He 
was soon recognized as one of the most elo- 
quent speakers in the Canadian Parliament. 
At the outset he was regarded as the leader of 
the Liberals in Quebec province; a speech of 
his in defense of Catholic liberalism, delivered 
in Quebec June 1877, was received with en- 
thusiasm throughout the country; a few months 
later he was selected for the portfolio of inland 
revenue in the Mackenzie administration. On 
7 June 1887 he succeeded Blake as chief of 
the Liberal opposition, though he himself ad- 
vised the choice of an English-speaking Prot- 
estant; and in 1896, on the return of the Lib- 
erals to power, he became Prime Minister of 
Canada. That position he filled with remark- 
able distinction until the return of the Con- 
servatives in 1911. Measures associated with 
his premiership were the framing of a British 
preferential tariff and a consequent tariff war 
- with Germany; a compromise settlement of the 
Manitoba schools question; the organization of 
two new provinces, Saskatchewan and Alberta; 
extensive railway developments; and the fram- 
ing of the Taft-Fielding reciprocity agreement, 
on which his party was defeated at the polls. 

Of all the representatives of the colonies in 
England on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s 
Diamond Jubilee, he was the most remarked 
for the refinement of his manners and the 
elegance of his diction, and was recognized in 
Paris as in London as one of the most eloquent 
speakers of his time either in French or Eng- 
lish. While a great admirer of England’s polit- 
ical institutions, and a Liberal of the English 
rather than of the Continental school. he was an 
ardent Canadian and a thorough believer in 
Canada’s destiny. He opposed the imperialistic 
policy of Chamberlain and contributed more 
than any other man to prevent him from draw- 
ing the colonies into the “vortex of warlike 
imperialism,” to use his expression. He had 
to pass through all kinds of political and 
religious difficulties, and gave evidence of 
qualities and talents which would have made 
him distinguished as a speaker and a states- 
man in any country of the world. Not 
the least of his services to Canada has been 
the splendid contribution he made, through- 
out a long life, to the furtherance of good 
relations and mutual helpfulness between the 
two great races of which the population is 
mainly composed. 

As leader of the opposition he approved of 


Canada’s participation in the European War,- 


and he addressed a number of meetings 
in the province of Quebec with the object of 
stimulating recruiting among French-Canadians 
for service in the forces being sent overseas. 
Consult his ‘Speeches,’ edited by Barthe 
(1890); Willison, ‘Sir Wilfrid Laurier and 


LAURION — 


LAURIUM 


the Liberal Party” (1903); 
and His Time’; and Skelton, 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier? (1916). 


LAURION, or LAURIUM, 
GASTERIA, Greece, mountain range and 
mining town in southern Attica. The silver 
mines through which the town and district be- 
came famous apparently were known from very 
early times; but their historic importance dates 
from the time of the Athenians, for whom 
they produced a large revenue and whom they 
materially aided in maintaining commercial as- 
cendency. Themistocles seized the opportunity 
after the battle of Marathon to secure the 
devotion of the mining revenues for the build- 
ing of a navy and the adoption of his plan 
resulted in the Athenian naval power and the 
victory at the battle of Salamis. The mines 
were let out to individuals, the state receiving 
a fixed rental in addition to a percentage of 
the profits, and they were worked by slaves. 
Toward the end of the 5th century the im- 
portance of the mines declined and while they 
were worked up to the opening of the Christian 
era the output steadily diminished until it came 
chiefly from the working over of tailings. The 
ancient workings are still in_a good state of 
preservation. French and Greek companies 
took over the rights to the mines in the mid- 
dle of the 19th century and they are now 
worked for lead, manganese and cadmium. 
The mining district is connected by rail with 
the port of the same name. Pop. about 10,000. 


LAURISTON, 10’ré’ston, Jacques Alex- 
andre Bernard Law, Marouis pe, French 
general and diplomat: b. Pondicherry, India, 
1 Feb. 1768; d. Paris, 12 June 1828. He re- 
ceived a military education at Paris and 
Brienne, and as a cadet was on friendly terms 
with Napoleon. He was commissioned in 1786, 
served in the earlier Revolutionary campaigns 
in the Netherlands and on the Rhine, and in 
1795 was promoted brigadier-general of artil- 
lery. In 1800.he was appointed aide-de-camp 
to Napoleon. He was director of Le Feére 
Artillery School, special envoy to Denmark, 
and in 1802 was sent to England to present 
the ratification of the Peace of Amiens. He 
became general of division in 1805, fought in 
the war against Austria, and in 1806 occupied 
Venice and Ragusa. He was appointed gover- 
nor-general of Venice in 1807, was present at 
the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, and later par- 
ticipated in the Spanish and Italian campaigns, 
He commanded the artillery at the battle of 
Wagram in 1809 and by his furious onslaught 
at the Austrian centre won a decisive vic- 
tory. He served as Ambassador to, Russia in 
1811, and in 1812 he rendered important sery- 
ice in covering the retreat from Moscow. He 
was in command of different army corps at 
Liitzen, Bautzen and in the autumn campaign, 
and was taken prisoner in the retreat from 
Leipzig in 1813. He was released upon the 
fall of the empire and joined Louis X VIII. He 
was given a seat in the House of Peers, a 
command in the royal guard, was created a- 
marquis in 1817 and marshal of France in 
1823. In the invasion of Spain in 1823 he com- 
manded the siege and capture of Pamplona. 


LAURIUM, la’ri-ttm, Mich., village in 
Houghton County, on the Copper Range and 
Mineral Range railroads. It adjoins Calumet, 


Daniel, ‘Laurier 
‘The Day’ of 


also ER- 


LAURVIK — LAUTERBRUNNEN 


and is seven miles from Lake Superior and 12 
miles north by east from Houghton. It is situ- 
ated in the Keweenaw Peninsula, in the northern 
part of the State, in one of the richest copper 
regions of the United States. There is con- 
siderable local trade. Conper mining is the 
chief occupation. Pop. (1920) 6,696. 


LAURVIK, lour’vék, or LARVIK, or 
LAURVIG, Norway, seaport and watering re- 
sort, on the Larvikfjord, at the mouth of the 
Laagen River, four miles south of Fredriks- 
vaern and. 98 miles southwest of Christiania, 
on the Skein Railway. The port has a depth 
of from 18 to 24 feet. The city has a con- 
siderable industrial activity and exports tim- 
ber, ice, woodpulp and granite. There are 
sulphur and mineral springs, and the mud 
baths are famous. Pop. 10,105. 


LAUSANNE, 10’zan, Switzerland, capital 
of the canton of Vaud; situated on the Jorat 


Mountain Range, on the river Flon, one mile 


noith of Lake Geneva at a junction of rail- 
ways from Geneva, Brieg and the Simplon, 
Freiberg and Bern, and from Vallorbe for 
Paris. There is a funicular railway between 
the town proper and Ouchy, its port on Lake 
Geneva. The older portion of the town was 
built upon five hillocks, to which was due 
much of its picturesque beauty. The improve- 
ment project of filling the valleys and hollows 
between the hills was begun in 1836 and com- 
pleted in the early part of the 20th century 
with considerable impairment of the natural 
beauty of the city, although some fine squares 
have been built on the filled-in portions. The 
Flon Valley is spanned by the Grand Pont, a 
two-story viaduct built in 1839-44, and the 
bridge of Chanderon was constructed in 1905. 
The railroads have given the modern Lau- 
sanne a considerable commercial importance as 
it is now on the international route from Paris 
to Milan, and the town is growing, extending 
its limits chiefly on the south and west. 

The cathedral of Notre Dame was conse- 
crated by Pope Gregory X in 1275 and is con- 
sidered the finest structure of its sort in Swit- 
zerland. It was sacked after the Bernese con- 
quest, when the cathedral became Protestant. 
It is Gothic in type and was restored under 
the direction of Viollet-le-Duc in 1875-1906. 
Sharing with the cathedral the highest ground 
in Lausanne is the castle, dating from early in 
the 15th century, built by the bishops, but now 
used as an administration building by the canton 
of Vaud. Near these on the Place de la Ri- 
ponne is the Palais de Rumine, opened in 1906, 
wherein are lodged the libraries of the canton 
and the university, the collection of the Musée 
Arlaud and the canton’s collections of nat- 
ural history, archeology and industrial art. 
The university was founded as an academy in 
1537 and was raised to its present rank in 1890. 
Lausanne has besides a Protestant theological 
school in connection with the cathedral, a ‘num- 
ber of boarding schools and many scientific and 
literary societies. It is a recognized literary 
centre, is much frequented by foreigners and 
has a large resident foreign population. It 
was the birthplace of Benjamin Constant and 
the historian Gibbons lived there many years. 
The population is in the main French-speaking 
and Protestant. 

vou. 17—8 


118 


The ancient town was on the shore of the 
lake southwest of the present site and was de~- 
stroyed by the Alamanni in the 4th century. 
The inhabitants re-established their homes iti 
the hills and in 590 the new town was chosen 
by Bishop Marius as his see city. There was 
a Burgundian settlement across the Flon and 


another settlement around the church of Saint 


Laurent, both of which eventually became part 
of Lausanne. The bishops became princes of 
the empire in 1125, but from 1368 their powers 
over the municipality were gradually decreased. 
After the Bernese occupation, 1536-1798, Lau- 
sanne became capital of the canton Léman and 
upon the creation of the canton of Vaud in 
1803 it was made its capital. Pop. 63,923. 


LAUSSEDAT, Aimé, 4’ma lds’da, French 
geodesist and-astronomer: b. Moulins, 19 Feb. 
1819; d. Paris, 18 March 1907. He was edu- 
cated at the Ecole Polytechnique, where, after 
some years in the engineers, engaged princi- 
pally in the fortifications of Paris and the 
Spanish frontier, he returned in 1856 to take 
the chair of eeodesy and astronomy. In 1871 
he became professor of applied geometry at the 
Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers and in 1881 
he was appointed director there. The unifica- 
tion of French time to that of Paris became a 
law through his efforts 14 March 1891. He. 
invented and improved many instruments in 
use in geodetic photography and astronomical 
observations and was keenly interested in the 
development of aerial transportation, serving as 
president of a commission appointed in its in- 
terests. Author of ‘Lecons sur l’art de lever 
les plans? (1860); ‘Recherches sur les instru- 
ments, les methodes’ et le dessin topograph- 
iques? (2 vols., 1898-1903), etc. 


LAUT, Agnes C., Canadian author: b. 
Stanley, Ontario, 11 Feb. 1871. In childhood 
she was taken to Winnipeg. She attended 
Manitoba University, afterward spending her 
summers in the Rocky and Selkirk mountains. 
In 1895-97 she was an editorial writer for the 


Manitoba Free Press, Winnipeg. She has 
written ‘Lords of the North (1900); ‘Her- 
alds of Empire? (1902); ‘Pathfinders of the 
West? (1904); ‘Vikings of the Pacific? 
(1906); ‘The Conquest of the Great North- 
West? (1908); ‘Freebooters of the Wilder- 
ness? (1910); ‘Pioneers of the Pacific Coast? 
(1915). 

LAUTERBRUNNEN, lou’tér-brin’én, 


Switzerland, village in the canton of Bern, in 
a valley of the same ‘name traversed by the 
White Liitschine River, seven miles southeast 
of Interlaken and 33 miles southeast of Bern 
on the Bernese Oberland Railroad. The val- 
ley has some of the most magnificent scenery 
in Switzerland and the town is built at the 
foot of the Jungfrau, while the Schwarz 
Mouch and Breithorne combine so to shadow 
it that the strn does not touch it before seven 
in the summer nor until noon in the winter. 
The view of the Jungfrau is superb and the 
valley, which takes its name from its numerous 
springs, has some splendid cascades, among 
which is the Staubbach, 980 feet in height. 
Others are the Triimmelbach and Schmadri- 
bach. The altitude of the town is 2,580-2,645 
teet. Tourists come here in great numbers. 
Pop. 3,318. 


114 


LAUTREC, 1d’trék’, Odet de Foix, V1- 
COMTE DE, Erench general : b. 1485; d. Naples, 
15 Aug. 1528. He was brother to Francoise de 
Chateaubriant, mistress of Francis I, through 
whose influence he gained high offices. He 
served in the campaign of Marignano in 1515 
and in 1516 became governor of Milan where 
he enacted measures of the utmost severity. 
He was successful in defending the duchy in 
1521, but he met disastrous defeat at the bat- 
tle of the Biocca in 1522, He was created mar- 
shal of France in 1527, and in command of 
the army of Italy he succeeded in again occu- 
pying Milan; he then undertook the siege of 
Naples, but died of the plague without accom- 
plishing his mission. Authorities differ_con- 
cerning him and his rank as a general. He is 
by some considered brilliant and able although 
unfortunate, while others maintain that such 
assertions are without grounds. 

LAUZON, Jean de, zhé6n dé _ 16-z6n, 
French colonial administrator: b. 1582; d. 1666. 
He was a member of the Hundred Associates, 
who organized to promote the settlement of 
New France. He seems to have directed most 
of his energies toward acquiring landed prop- 
erty in Canada for himself and his family and 
gained for his son the sole right of fishing on 
60 leagues of the Saint Lawrence, with a title 
to the adjacent lands. His own title to the 
island of Montreal he sold to the Jesuits in 
1640. He was for five years governor of New 
France (1651-56), but his policy was feeble and 
short-sighted. He returned to France before 
his second term was over. 


LAUZON, or SAINT JOSEPH, Canada, 
village in Lévis County; in the province of 
Quebec, on the south bank of the Saint Law- 
rence River, five miles east of the city of Que- 
bec, on the Intercolonial and the Quebec Cen- 
tral railroads. It has a ferry to Quebec and 
is connected with Lévis, two miles distant, by 
an electric railway. Its industries include ship- 


building and it sells aérated waters. Pop. 
3,978. 


LAVA AND LAVA FLOWS. The fluid 
rock poured out by a volcanic vent is known as 
lava. If this is very viscous it may accumulate 
near the vent and form a cone. If it is very 
fluid it may flow out into a thin sheet spread- 
ing far over the surrounding country. The rate 
of flow is rarely over a mile an hour. As the 
lava advances it destroys all life in its path, 
burning and scorching the vegetation, As the 
mass begins to cool its surface may solidify and 
break open many times, becoming exceedingly 
rugged, or scoriaceous as it is called. Very 
rough cindery surfaces are called Aa (q.v.) 
and smooth surfaces Pahoehoe, from the Ha- 
waiian, Lava surfaces are often highly vesicu- 
lar or amygdaloidal (q.v.). In some regions 
lava flows have accumulated one above another 
to great depths, as in the Columbia Plateau, 
where as many as 40 distinctive flows can 
be seen along the side of a canyon wall, sepa- 
rated by thin layers of soil. See VOLCANOEs, 
and section on Volcanism in article on GEOLOGY. 


LAVAGE. The washing of any cavity of 
the body, by means of a flow of water by 
gravity through a rubber tube, and the with- 
drawing of the water and whatever comes with 
it through the same tube. Thus the bowels and 
the bladder may be irrigated, as it is then called. 


LAUTREC — LAVAL-MONTMORENCY 


Specifically lavage is a term generally used of 
the removal of the contents of the stomach for 
various purposes. A rubber tube about five 
feet long is used. The patient, in a sitting 
position, with head thrown back, inserts the 
tube into his mouth, and it is then forced gently 
downward for about 22 inches, with the help 
of swallowing movements. To the other end 
of the tube a vessel, such as a funnel is attached 
and into this is placed a pint to a quart of 
warm sterilized water or weak alkiline solution. 
The funnel is then raised to a height above the 
patient’s head sufficient to allow the water to 
flow gently into the stomach. When it. has 
disappeared from the funnel, the funnel is 
lowered and the water, with the contents of the 
stomach, flows out into it. This process is 
used either in the analysis of test meals, to 
discover conditions of acidity, secretion of 
mucus, the rate of digestion, etc. or for the 
purpose of treating such disorders as catarrh 
of the stomach. The patient can easily learn to 
carry out the whole process himself. With a 
still greater amount of skill a special form of 
tube can be passed through the stomach, the 
pylorus and into the duodenum, and thus that 
part also can be lavaged. For the lavage of 
children’s stomachs a smaller tube and quantity 
of water is used. 
SmitH ELy JELLIrrFE. 


LAVAL, la’val’, France, capital city of the 
department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne River, 
46 miles east of Rennes and 188 miles by rail 
southwest of Paris. The town is built upon 
both sides of the river, the ancient portion 
occupying the hills to one side while the mod- 
ern town stretches over the plains on the op- 
posite banks. The river is 124 feet wide at 
this point and is spanned by a railway viaduct; 
the stone bridge, Pont Neuf, and the Pont 
Vieux with its three pointed arches, which dates 
from the 16th century. The town is considered 
one of the most beautiful in France. In the 
ancient portion with its narrow, twisting streets 
are the cathedral, built in the 16th century; the 
castle of the counts with a donjon built in the 
12th century; the 14th-15th century church of 
Notre Dame; the 12th century church of Notre 
Dame d’Avéntirés and the 15th century church 
of Saint Vénérand. It has many houses of the 
15th and 16th centuries. There are also an art 
museum, a museum of natural history and 
archeology, a library and a linen hall. The 
modern town has fine promenades and modern 
educational institutions. The town existed in 
the 9th century. It was taken by Talbot in 
1428, and suffered considerably in the Vendean 
war, the Vendeans under Rochejacquelin here 
defeating the Republicans 24-25 Oct. 1793. Its 
chief and oldest industry is the manufacture of 
cotton and linen cloth, introduced from Flan- 
ders in the 14th century. There are other manu- 
facturing interests, including foundries, flour- 
mills, shoe factories, tanning and ‘dyeing. 
There is a trade in marble and in grain. The 
bishopric was created in 1855. Pop. 25,540. 


LAVAL-MONTMORENCY, Frangois 
Xavier de, fran-swa ksav-€-a dé 1a-val-mon- 
mo6-ron-sé, French Roman Catholic prelate: b. 
Laval, France, 30 April 1623; d. Quebec, 6 May 
1708. He became a priest in 1645 and in 1651 
was appointed missionary bishop of Cochin- 
China, a post which he declined to become arch- 


9g 


LAVAL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL 


deacon of Evreux. In 1659 he came to Canada ; 


as apostolic vicar, with the dignity of bishop of 
Petra in partibus. There he established (1663) 
the Quebec Seminary. In 1674-83 he was titular 
bishop of Quebec. He was an active and in- 
fluential figure in governmental affairs. He op- 
posed the sale of intoxicating liquors to In- 
dians. He is regarded with great veneration 
by the French Canadians. Laval University is 
named in his honor. 


LAVAL UNIVERSITY (now Unversity © 


oF MonrtTREAL), until 1919 a branch of the uni- 
versity founded at Quebec, in 1852 and named 


for Mgr. Francois de Montmorency-Laval 
first bishop of Quebec. The directors of 
this institution obtained then from Her 


Majesty Queen Victoria a charter which in 
confirming the rights and privileges they had 
enjoyed up to that time also conferred upon 
them university rights and privileges, for the 
instruction of youth in secondary and profes- 
sional studies. 

In 1876, following a request from Mer. 
Bourget, bishop of Montreal, to secure a Cath- 
olic university in his episcopal city, the Sacred 
Congregation of the Propaganda enjoined Laval 
University to establish a section at Montreal, 
to give therein the same instruction as at Que- 
bec. This curriculum was inaugurated in 1878, in 
the faculties of theology and law, in 1879 in the 
faculty of medicine and in 1887 in the faculty of 
arts. By virtue of an apostolic constitution of 
1919, the section became independent of the 
establishment at Quebec and assumed the title of 
University of Montreal. It now possesses its own 
government and a complete local administration. 
It comprises four faculties, those of theology, 
law, medicine and of arts (sciences and letters), 
seven aggregated schools, the Polytechnic, the 
School of Comparative Medicine and Veter- 
inary Science of Montreal, that of Dental Sur- 
gery, that of Pharmacy, Notre Dame Ladies’ 
College, the Agricultural College at Oka and 
the School of Higher Commercial Studies. The 
French language is used in all sections ex- 
cept that of theology, where Latin prevails. 
The professors of the faculty of  theol- 
ogy are appointed by the Grand Seminary 
of Montreal, directed by the priests of Saint 
Sulpice. The ordinary course is three years 
and three months. Some pupils prolong their 
stay six months to prepare themselves for doc- 
torship. A greater number, after completing 
their course at Montreal, go to take their de- 
grees in Rome, where the Seminary of Saint 
Sulpice of Montreal has opened a college for 
Canadian students. 

The faculties of law and medicines are in- 
_ stalled in an edifice on Saint Denis street, 
where they have large classrooms, sectional 
libraries, playrooms, a gymnasium, etc. The 

faculty of medicine has a lecture- room, a dis- 
secting-room and four laboratories, for chem- 
istry, histology, bacteriology and medical elec- 
tricity. The present faculty of medicine con- 
tinues the School of Medicine and Surgery of 
Montreal, founded in 1845 and affiliated to the 
Victoria University of Coburg (Ontario), from 
which it received its degrees until the year 
1890. At this period the school had its charter 
modified by the Quebec government and allied 
itself to the Montreal section of the faculty of 
medicine of Laval University, with which ‘to- 


115 


day it forms one body. It receives its degrees 
from Laval University, but has maintained its 
charter and autonomy. 

As the scientific and literary course which 
is usually followed by this faculty in the Eng- 
lish universities is given, dn this province, to 
Catholic youths by the colleges and seminary 
schools affiliated to Laval University, where the 
pupils obtain the degrees of bachelor of letters, 
of sciences or arts, a complete instruction of 


‘this kind is not imposed on the university. - 


Seven courses, relevant to this faculty, are 
actually given ‘there, that of Fren¢h literature, 
founded in 1898, by the late Abbé Colin, supe- 
rior of the Seminary of Saint. Sulpice of 
Montreal. Up to that time this course had 
been given by a Fellow of the Paris University. 
The second course has for its object ecclesi- 
astical public law, and comprises 20 lessons. 
The five other courses are those of history of 
fine arts, economics, Gregorian plain-chant, 
pedagogy and French- Canadian history. The 
other professors, ecclesiastic or lay, of the 
faculty of arts give a regular course in the 
colleges affiliated to the university, or are occa- 
sionally called to give public conferences at 
the university. To this faculty have been an- 
nexed a college for the higher education of 
young girls, which is under the immediate su- 
pervision of the congregation of Notre Dame, 
and a college of modern literary teaching for 
members of religious communities and laymen 


also. This year the faculty gave a summer 
school for masters of secondary and primary 
instruction. 

The Polytechnic School of Montreal, 


founded ih 1874 and aggregated to Laval Uni- 
versity in 1887, is largely supported by the gov- 
ernment of the province of Quebec. It corre- 
sponds, by the nature of its curriculum, to the 
faculty of applied science in other universities. 
It prepares for the different branches of civil 
and industrial engineering, such as public 
works, railways, engines, mines, bridges and 
steel construction, etc. A branch of decorative 
and industrial arts has been connected with it 
recently. Previously the school also was pro- 
vided with a prosperous School of Architecture. 

The School. of Comparative Medicine and 
Veterinary Science of Montreal exists since 
1886. Aggregated to the university, it is under 
the control and submissive to the inspection of 
the Minister of Agriculture of the government 
of Quebec, from which it receives a grant. Its 
system requires a four years’ course and the 
final degree is that of doctor of veterinary 
medicine. The school, which occupies very fine 
premises at 387 De Montigny Street East, has 
a very interesting pathological museum at the 
university. The number of pupils, nearly all 
from this province, is not great, but it tends 
to increase as the farmers are beginning 
to recognize the value of the services which can 
be rendered them by veterinary doctors, who 
are well up in their profession. The School 
of Dental Surgery of Montreal, located at 380 
Saint Hubert Street, spaciously and richly, 1s 
the continuation of the French section of the 
Coltege of Dentistry of the Province of Que- 
bec founded in 1894. It was affiliated to Laval 
University in February 1904, and obtained legal 
existence by an act of the legislature of Quebec, 
in the month of May of the same year. This 
school, intended for the French Canadian rou 


116 


of this country and the need for which arose 


from the rapid progress dental surgery has 
made within the past few years, is now 
launched, left to its own resources and depend- 
ing solely on the devotedness of its professoxs. 
The course covers a period of four years and 
the final degree is that of doctor of dental 
surgery. The infirmary is open every day from 
1 October to 1 April, from 9 A.M. until noon, 
and the poor receive, under the direction of 
competent professors, gratuitous attention or at 
a slight outlay to cover the cost of material. 
The School of Pharmacy, affiliated in May 
1906, with 124 students actually; the Agricul- 
tural College at Oka, affiliated in March 1908, 
and which numbers nearly 200 pupils, mostly 
graduates of the secondary colleges; finally, 
the School for Higher Commercial Education, 
founded by the government itself and affiliated 
in April 1915, form three of the most interest- 
ing departments of this prosperous institution. 
The latter constitutes one of the most im- 
pressive buildings of the city, facing the old 
and famous Viger square and the actual Viger 
station. In the very present, an understanding 
is working to the effect of soon connecting 
with the university a school of music, both 
vocal and instrumental. 

An ecclesiastical vice-rector, chosen by the 
bishops of the province of Montreal, is ap- 
pointed by the University Council. He repre- 
sents, for discipline and general administra- 
tion, the university, the corporation of ad- 
ministrators and the bureau of governors; an 
executive committee of five members, dele- 
gated by the bureau, assists him in the manage- 
ment of current affairs and in the execution 
of the decisions of the corporation and bureau. 


The archbishop of Montreal, by rank of” 


vice-chancellor, controls the nomination and 
dismissal of the professors, and exercises a strict 
surveillance over doctrine and discipline. He 
is by right the president of the corporation of 
administrators, which owns the university and 
manages its finances. The suffragan bishops 
of the ecclesiastical province of Montreal, the 
delegates of all the affiliated colleges and sem- 
inaries of the same province, the delegates of 
faculties and former graduates also’sit in this 
corporation, which generally operates through 
a bureau of governors, composed of eminent 
personages in finance and the liberal pro- 
fessions. 
Emite CHARTIER, 
Registrar of the University. 


LAVAL UNIVERSITY, Quebec, Canada. 
The first establishment of higher education in 
Lower Canada was founded in 1852. The di- 
rectors of the Seminary of Quebec, the pioneer 
institute in the educational field, secured from 
her majesty, Queen Victoria, a charter, which 
conferred on the seminary the privileges of a 
university. A petition signed by the arch- 
bishop and bishops of the ecclesiastical province 
of Upper and Lower Canada was presented at 
Rome, requesting that the Seminary of Quebec 
be accorded the customary rights of a Catholic 
university, and in particular that of conferring 
diplomas in theology and canon law. Pius 
IX did not at once grant what was asked. At 
that time Great Britain refused to recognize 
the ecclesiastical titles given by the Holy See; 
she also denied legal existence to the Catholic 


ny 


¥ 


LAVAL UNIVERSITY, QUEBEC 


University of Dublin, and it was feared in 
Rome that the foundation of a Catholic uni- 
versity in Quebec would prove an impossibility. 
For this reason Rome wished to be assured of 
the grant of a royal charter before it extended 
canonical privileges. As soon as the official 
document was received from London, which 
was toward the end of December 1852, an au- 
thentic copy was forwarded to Rome and on 
6 March 1853 the Holy Father sent a brief 
which granted to the archbishop of Quebec the 
right to confer theological degrees upon those 
who completed their ecclesiastical studies at 
the Quebec University. . 

In the Royal Charter, the Roman Catholic 
archbishop of Quebec, by virtue of his office, is 
named the visitor of the university, which 
shows the broad-mindedness of the English 
government which permitted the French- 
Canadian Catholics to organize their university 
teaching without any control save that of an 
archbishop of their own nationality and faith. 
The state renounced all interference in ques- 
tions of program or inspection. The visitor 
received the most extensive powers, he was 
given the right to veto on all regulations and 
nominations, and on presentation of the coun- 
cil, he could appoint the professors of the 
faculty of theology. As to the office. of 
rector, the highest in the university, it de- 
volves, by right, by the terms of the charter 
upon the superior of the Seminary of Quebec. 
This office is, therefore, essentially temporary, 
since the superior of the seminary, elected for 
three years and re-eligible after the first trien- 
nial, cannot occupy the post entrusted to him 
longer than six consecutive years, unless a 
special authorization be accorded by ecclesias- 
tical authority. 

The charter also provides for the establish- 

ment of a council which conjointly with the 
rector administers the affairs of the university. 
This council is composed of all the directors of 
the seminary and of the three oldest titulary 
professors of each faculty. It has the power 
to make the statutes and regulations which it 
may judge suitable, with one condition, that 
these statutes and regulations contain nothing 
contrary to the laws of the United Kingdon 
or of Canada. 
. This council held its first session on 21 Feb. 
1853, when it resolved that Laval University 
should. include four faculties: those of the- 
ology, law, medicine and arts. Each faculty 
is provided with a special council which dis- 
cusses and submits to the university council 
all questions which may directly interest one or 
the other of these faculties. 

The faculty of theology was not immedi- 
ately created at Quebec. The number of aspi-. 
rants to the priesthood was limited and the 
needs of the parochial ministry so urgent and 
so multitudinous that the seminarians could not 
be allowed the time to devote themselves freely 
to the study of the higher ecclesiastical sciences. 
It was only in the year 1866 that the basis of a 
faculty of theology was laid. The faculty of 
medicine, on the contrary, was organized and 
put in motion in the year 1853. A School of 
Medicine already existed in Quebec. The di- 
rectors of the university found therein a certain 
number of professors who were prepared to 
give medical instruction. The School of Medi- 
cine was willing to efface itself and make way 


LAVATER 


for the budding faculty of Laval, and six of 
its professors resigned and accepted professor- 
ships at the university. The course in medi- 
cine was fixed at four years. As there were 
two large hospitals in Quebec, those of the 


Hotel-Dieu and the Navy, the students of the 


faculty were enabled to follow numerous and 
various clinics. 

It was not such an easy task to organize a 
faculty of law, and in the year 1854 the first 
steps toward this end were taken. However, 
of all the branches of the university, teaching 
of law was the one for which the greatest need 
existed, as there was no school of law in Que- 
bec. There were many distinguished lawyers 
who could have filled professorships but they 
lacked the enthusiasm to devote themselves to 
teaching and were not willing to sacrifice, 
however little, without sufficient compensation, 
a numerous clientele. There was great diffi- 
culty in realizing the plan first conceived. 
After various proceedings, two professors were 
found, one being a judge of the Superior Court, 
who was named dean. In 1855 the university 
council was able to add four other representa- 
tives to the faculty of law. Unfortunately the 
greatest number of these professors were pre- 
vented, by reason of their external occupations, 
from preparing and giving their courses so 
much so that during several years the teaching 


of the faculty of laws was limited to the - 


courses of civil and Roman law. In _ 1857, 
it was necéssary to call a professor from France 
to give lectures on Roman law. 

The faculty of arts was at first the least 
favored of all the faculties. The students who 
had received at the colleges and seminaries 
the basis of a literary or scientific education 
were not inclined to further pursue these 
studies. Being obliged to earn a livelihood by 
entering one or the other of the liberal pro- 
fessions they commenced their studies in the- 
ology, law or medicine immediately upon ter- 
minating their classical course. They had 
neither time nor money to devote to the study 
of the higher branches of letters and sciences. 
For this reason Laval University did not deem 
it opportune to establish, in the first years of 
its existence, professorships of advanced in- 
struction in the faculty of arts. In 1855 a 
faculty of arts was outlined. 

Laval University had by virtue of its charter 
the power to confer diplomas of bachelor, licen- 
tiate or master, and of doctor in the faculties 
of law, medicine and arts. It could not con- 
fer degrees in theology. The papal brief ac- 
corded by Pius IX granted this privilege to 
the archbishop of Quebec. The university did 
not receive all the rights of a canonical uni- 
versity until the year 1876. 

In 1870 the faculty of medicine of Laval 
had the favor and honor of being affiliated to 
the Royal College of Surgeons of London. 
This granted the university and the students 
of the faculty of medicine the following privi- 
leges: (1) The enrolment examination of 
Laval University is recognized as equivalent 
to the preliminary examination of the Royal 
College of Surgeons of London; (2) the cer- 
tificates of assiduity gained by’ enrolled stu- 
dents of the medical course are recognized by 
the Royal College; (3) doctors in medicine of 
Laval University are admitted to the examina- 


117 


tion for diploma as member of the Royal Col- 
lege of Surgeons of London. 

In 1865 the rector asked and obtained from 
Rome an indult which gave the archbishop of 
Quebec the power to confer degrees in theology 
upon all students of the grand seminaries of 
the Canadian province. In 1866 Laval Univer- 
sity organized its faculty of theology. 

The library of the Quebec Seminary in- 
cluded at the time of the foundation of the 
university over 15,000 volumes; 1,000 volumes 
for the faculty of law, and 2,000 volumes for 
the faculty of medicine, were then added. In 
1876 this library contained about 55,000 vol- 
umes. At the present time it contains over 
140,000. The seminary cabinet of physics is 
one of the most complete in America. 

In 1897-98 a bacteriological laboratory was 
installed and in the following year a labora- 
tory in experimental chemistry for analytical 
work was placed at the disposal of the stu- 
dents. The university has a number of splen- 
did museums as. follows: (1) Invertebrate 
Museum, comprising of several distinct collec- 
tions. The entomological collection numbers 
over 14,000 specimens of insects from all parts 
of the world. The conchological collection 
contains nearly 1,000 species of Canadian and 
foreign mollusks. (2) Museum of Ethnology, 
in three divisions: (a) the Indian collection; 
(b) the Chinese and Japanese collection; (c) 
the general collection. (3) Religious Museum, 
containing religious souvenirs, etc., and particu- 
larly the lead tomb with remains of the wooden 
coffin in which reposed for nearly two cen- 
turies the remains of Francis de Laval, first 
Catholic bishop of Canada and founder of 
Quebec Seminary. (4) Museum of Paintings, 
containing many old and valuable paintings by 
the old masters. (5) Mineralogical and Geo- 
logical Museum, containing over 5,000 speci- 
mens. (6) Botanical Museum. (7) Zoological 
Museum. (8) Numismatic Museum containing 
over 3,000 coins and medals. 

The faculty of theology numbers 650 
and there are 380 students in the other 
faculties. The faculty of theology has 35 pro- 
fessors and 25 auxiliary professors, and the 
other faculties have 21 professors and 18 auxil- 
iary professors. 


LAVATER, la’va-tér, Johann Kaspar, 
Swiss physiognomist: b. Zurich, 15 Nov. 1741; 
d. 2 Jan. 1801. As a youth he was not distin- 
guished for studious methods, but early mani- 
fested a fervent piety and remarkable powers 
of persuasion in public discourse. He de- 
veloped a distinct poetic gift, and was first 
known through his verses in 1767. Two years 
later he took orders, became pastor of a Ztirich 
church in 1764, and served in that calling with 
different churches in his native city until his 
death. He also enjoyed a contemporary popu- 
larity through his mystical writings, now almost 
forgotten. He is best remembered as the origi- 
nator of a system of physiognomy, which, al- 
though of little practical account to-day, is often 
referred to by students and writers. The book 
in which he set forth his system is entitled 
“Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beforderung 
der Menschenkenntniss und Menschenliebe? 
(‘Physiognomical Fragments for the Promotion 
of a Knowledge of Man and of Love of Man, 
1775-78). It was ornately published, with a 


118 


profusion of striking illustrations, including 
portraits of distinguished. persons, features to 
which its fame is considered to have been 
largely due. 
a penetration and insight into human nature 
and its varying traits which entitle him to some 
consideration as scientist and philosopher, and 
there is a residue of his teachings which the 
inquiring world still appreciates. He enjoyed 
an intimate acquaintance with Goethe, who con- 
tributed to the ‘Fragments? a chapter on the 
skulls of animals, and strikingly portrayed 
Lavater in ‘Wahrheit und Dichtung.? Goethe 
afterward became estranged from him, accusing 
him, not without some grounds, of hypocrisv 
and superstition, but probably in fact repelled 
by Lavater’s intellectual bigotry. Still Lavater 
was a man of large and open heart, personally 
and socially as hospitable as he was mentally 
intolerant, and with characteristics of true 
saintliness. During the French occupz‘ion of 
Switzerland he gave proof of his patriotism, 
and his death resulted from a wound inflicted 
by a French soldier at the capture of Zurich in 
1799. There are several English translations 
of the ‘Fragments.? Consult Lives by Gessner 
(1802), Heisch (English 1842), Muncker 
(1883), and monographs by Steck (1884) and 
Von der Hellen (1888). See PHysiocNomy. | 

LAVEDAN, Henri, 6n-rée  la-vé-dan, 
French journalist, critic, 
wright: b. Orleans, 1859. He began life as a 
journalist and novelist, but his best work has 
been as a dramatist. He was elected to the 
Academy in 1898. He contributed under the 
pseudonym of “Manchecourt” a series of bril- 
liant articles to Vie Paristenne, Gil Blas, etc., 
and in fiction has published ‘Mam/’zelle Virtue? 
(1885); “Queen Janvier? | (1886); “Lydie> 
(1887); ‘Inconsolable? (1888); ‘High Life? 
(1891); “A New Game? (1892); ‘Teur beau 
physique? (1894); ‘Leurs soeurs? (1895); 
‘Crest servi? (1904); ‘Baignoire 9» (1905). 
Among his plays the most notable are ‘A Fam- 
ily? (1890), awarded a prize of 4,000 francs by 
the French Academy, and ‘Prince d’Aurec? 
(acted in 1892); ‘Le vieux marcheur? (1895) ; 
‘Les deux noblesses? (1897); ‘Le marquis de 
Priola» (1902); ‘Viveurs? ‘and ‘Varennes,’ 
with G. Lenotre (1904) ; ‘Le duel? (1905), pro- 
duced in New York in 1906; ‘Le bon temps? 
(1906); ‘Sire? (1910), produced i in New York 
in 1911; “Servir? (1913 ). 


LAVELEYE, Emile Louis Victor de, 
a-mél loo-é vék-tér dé lav-la, Belgian political 
economist: b. Bruges, 5 April 1822; d. Doyon, 
near Liege, 3. Jan. 1892. He was educated at 
the College Stanislas, Paris, and at the Uni- 
versity of Ghent, where he studied law, and in 
1864 became professor of political economy 
in the University of Li¢ge. Among his numer- 
ous writings are ‘History of the Provencal 
Language and Literature? (1846) ; ‘The Ques- 
tion of Gold? (1860) ; ‘Property and its Primi- 
tive Form? (1874), his best-known work; ‘The 
Religious Conflict in Europe? (1875); ‘Con- 
temporary Socialism) : ‘Elements of 
Political Economy” “Money and In- 
ternational Bimetallism> (1891); ‘Govern- 
ment in Democracies? (1891). 

LAVELLE, la-vél, Michael J., American 
Roman Catholic prelate: b. New York city, 
3 May 1856. He was graduated at Manhattan 


LAVEDAN — 


Yet Lavater’s observations display | 


novelist and play- | 


LAVENGRO 


College in 1873 and at Saint Joseph’s Seminary, 
Troy, in 1874. He was ordained in the priest- 
hood 7 June 1879, and was appointed assistant 
rector at Saint Patrick’s Cathedral in that 
year. Since 1886 he has been rector there. He 
was appointed vicar-general of New York in 
Ane and domestic prelate to Pope Pius X in 
1 


LAVENDER, a genus (Lye of 
perennial herbs, stib- shrubs and shrubs of the 
order Labiate, consisting of about 20 species, 
native to the Mediterranean region and south- 
western Asia. The best known are true laven- 
der (L. vera) and spike lavender (L. spica), 
which like other members of the genus have 
narrow leaves crowded near the ground, and 
blue or violet two-lipped flowers in whorls 
which form more or less interrupted spikes. 
All the lavenders contain similar volatile oils 
(oil of lavender, oil of spike, etc.), for which 
the plants are cultivated and which are ob- 
tained from the flowers by distillation with 
water. The principal use of these oils is in 
perfumery, but they have been used in medi- 
cine as stimulants, tonics and stomachics. The 
dried flowers are placed with clothing laid away 
in bureaus and chests, partly because their 
aroma repels moths, but chiefly for the sake of 
the pleasant odor imparted to the garments. 
The perfume called lavender water is a solu- 
tion of oil of lavender in spirit, along with 
attar of roses, bergamot, musk, cloves, rose- 
mary and other ingredients, which after stand- 
ing for some time is strained and mixed with 
a certain proportion of distilled water. Laven- 
der plants do not thrive as well in America as 
in English gardens, but succeed best in light, 
dry, friable soil, well exposed to the sun. They 
are best propagated by means of cuttings of 
one year’s growth; seeds are unreliable, since 
they are slow to germinate and usually produce 
plants of inferior quality. Arabian lavender 
(L. stoechas) yields an oil used in varnish. In 
California and a few other places in the United 
States lavender is grown but not on a com- 
mercial scale. ° 


LAVENGRO. George Borrow’s ‘Laven- 
gro,’ published in 1851, and its sequel, ‘The 
Romany Rye? (1857), constitute virtually a 
single work dealing with the author’s experi- 
ences as a wanderer in England and particularly 
with his adventures among the gypsies. Within 
the scope of the picturesque and whimsical 
narrative is contained a strange medley of 
novel incidents and curious lore — conversa- 
tions with apple-women and post-boys and 
wayfaring priests, much talk of prize-fights 
and prize-fighters, and many remarkable de- 
tails of gypsy life and manners. The inimi- 
table personalities of the gypsies, Mr. and Mrs. 
Petulengro, with whom the author is on terms 
of intimacy, recur at intervals, and their in- 
teresting domestic arrangements, their naive 
ideas of morality and their strange dialect 
afford an abundance of humor. The name 
Lavengro, word-master, is applied by them to 
the author because of his knowledge of lan- 
guages and his interest in the curiosities of — 
philology. 

Beginning in ‘Lavengro? and running half 
through “The Romany Rye? is the delightful 
episode of the author’s encounter with Isopel 
Berners. mae ti an Amazon in strength, ca- 


LAVERAN — LAVEZARIS 


pable of defending herself against all comers, 
but dignified, beautifully simple and as pure 
in spirit as the stars under which she sleeps 
alone, is a uniquely interesting heroine, and the 
brief romance between her and the author is 
handled with a delicacy and charm which ally 
Borrow with the great masters of English 
fiction. ‘Lavengro? and ‘The Romany Rye? are 
not as widely read as they deserve to be. Of 
all books which embody the romance of the 
open road they are the most delightful. Con- 
sult editions of ‘Lavengro,? with introductions, 
‘by W. I. Knapp (1900) and by F. Hindes 
Groome (1901); Seccombe, Thomas, ‘Isopel 
Berners,” selected from ‘Lavengro”? and ‘The 
Romany Rye?; Walker, Hugh, ‘The Literature 
of the Victorian Era” (1042 ff.). 
JAmes H. HANrForp. 


LAVERAN, la’ve-ran, Charles Lotis, 
French military physician: b. Dunkirk, 30 May 
1812; d. Paris, 7 Aug. 1879. He was, educated 
at Lille, was appointed assistant at the hospital 
at Algiers in 1840, and in 1841-50 he was pro- 
fessor at the hospital at Metz. He returned 
to Algiers in 1850 as professor of epidemiology, 
director and resident physician of the Ecole Val 
de Grace. He served in the Franco-Prussian 
War as sanitary inspector for the Army of the 
North, and was for .a time in charge of the 
military school at Montpellier, but in 1872 ac- 
cepted a call to return to Algiers as chief di- 
rector of the Ecole Val de Grace. He was 
author of many valuable scientific papers, con- 
tributed to the ‘Dictionnaire encyclopédique 
des sciences médicales» and wrote ‘Traité des 
maladies et des épidémies des armées? (8 vols., 


1875). 


LAVERAN, Charles Louis Alphonse, 
sharl loo-é a!-f6ns 1a-vé-ran, French physician: 
b. Paris, 1845. He was graduated at the School 
of Military Medicine of Strassburg in 1867. In 
1873 he was made a member of the faculty of 
Val de Grace and after traveling in Algeria 
to investigate the subject of malarial fever was 
appointed professor of military hygiene and 
clinical medicine in that institution in 1883. In 
1894 he was appointed director of the 11th 
corps in the Army Medical Service -and subse- 
quently physician-in-chief of the Lille Hos- 
pital and member of the French Academy of 
Medicine. He was an authority on malaria, dis- 
covering the plasmodium. His works include 
‘Traité des Fiévres palustres? (1884); ‘Elé- 
ments de pathologie medicale? (with Tiéssier, 
1894); and ‘Traité de Hygiene militaire? 
(1896). In 1907 the Nobel prize in medicine 
was awarded him. Died at Paris, 18 May 1922. 


LAVERDIERE, la-var-dé-ar’, Claude 
Honoré, Canadian author and teacher: b. 
province of Quebec, 1826; d. 1873. He was 
educated for the priesthood, which he entered 
1851, and was appointed professor in Quebec 
Seminary and assistant librarian in Laval Uni- 
versity. His claim to recognition rests on the 
efforts he made to unearth and publish to the 
world the heroic achievements of early French- 
Canadian settlers and*® explorers. His works 
are of extreme value and interest and include 
the completion of Ferland’s ‘History of Can- 
ada, the editing of the ‘Jesuit Relations? and 
of the “Voyages? of Champlain, with notes 
and a life of the explorer. 


119 


LAVERY, lav’ér-i, John, British painter: 
b. Belfast, 1857. He studied art in Glasgow, 
London and Paris. His first exhibition of note 
was his ‘Game of Tennis? at the Academy in 
1886 and in 1888 he received a commission for 
a painting, ‘The State Visit of Queen Vic- 
toria to the Glasgow Exhibition of 1888? 
which hangs in the Glasgow Art Gallery. He 
was elected associate of the Royal Scottish 
Academy in 1892, of the Royal Academy in 
1896, and is also a member of the Royal Hi- 
bernian Academy. He is famous chiefly for his 
portraits and figure-work, although he has ac- 
complished excellent work in landscape and his- 
torical paintings. His work is characterized by 
a free and vigorous line, brilliant execution 
and exceptional mastery of color harmony. He 
is especially famous for his portraits of women 
and a portrait of himself hangs in the Uffizi 
Gallery, Florence. An exhibition of his work 
was held in New York in 1915. His work is 
especially well represented in public galleries, 
among them the Pinakothek, Munich, the na- 
tional galleries of Rome, Berlin, Dublin, Brus- 
sels and Toronto, Canada, the Philadelphia 
Gallery, Luxembourg Gallery, the modern gal- 
leries at Leipzig, Mannheim and Venice, the 
New South Wales Gallery, the corporation 
galleries of Glasgow, Manchester and Brad- 
ford and at the galleries in Santiago de Chile 
and Buenos Aires. 


LAVES, 1a’vés, Kurt, American astrono- 
mer: b. Lyck, Germany, 24 Aug. 1866. He 
studied at the wniversities of K6onigsberg and 
Berlin and in 1892-93 he was assistant at the 
Royal Observatory in Berlin. He has been a 
member of the faculty of the University of 
Chicago since 1893, and since 1908 has been 
associate professor of astronomy there. He 
is a member of various American and foreign 
scientific societies and has devoted much time 
to research. 


LAVEZARIS, 1a’va-tha’rés, or LABA- 
ZARES, Guido, de, Spanish adventurer: b. 
Bilboa, 1510; d. Manila, 1580. He sailed on 
the expedition to Spice Islands under Ruy 
Lopez de Villabos in 1542 and was prevented 
from leaving there until 1549 when he went 
to the city of Mexico. In 1558 he was com- 
missioned by the viceroy, Luis de Velasco, 
to explore the coasts of Florida preparatory to 
the dispatching of an expedition for the ex- 
ploration and conquest of the interior of that 
country. ~ His principal objective was the 
searching out of a suitable landing place, and 
he discovered a bay which he named Filipina, 
which undoubtedly is Mobile Bay. He accom- 
panied the exploring expedition to Florida 
under Luna de Arellano in 1559. Upon _ his 
return to the city of Mexico he joined the 
expedition for the conquest of the Philippines, 
serving as treasurer, and sailed in 1564. He 
later sticceeded to the command of the islands; 
added to Spanish control the provinces of 
Pangasinan and Ilocos; and routed the Chinese 
pirates, compelling them to surrender Manila, 
which he afterward fortified. Upon the 
arrival of a regularly appointed governor- 
general in 1575 his administration was officially 
approved, and he was granted the honorary 
title of lieutenant-governor, with salary, which 
he enjoyed until his death. His narratives of 
his experiences in Florida and in the Philippines 


120 


were published by the Spanish government 
(Madrid 1578). 


LAVIGERIE, 14-vézh-ré, Charles Mar- 
tial Allemand, French missionary: b. Bayonne, 
31 Oct. 1825; d. Algiers, 26 Nov. 1892. After 
passing through the Seminary of Saint Sulpice 
at Paris he was appointed professor of eccle- 
siastical history to the Sorbonne in 1853. In 
1863 he was made bishop of Nancy, and four 
years later archbishop of Algiers. His life 
work began by the establishment of his Central- 
African mission. On betng made ecclesi- 
astical administrator at Tunis he began fight- 
ing the slave-hunting and slave-barter which 
desolated the Dark Continent. For this purpose 
he agitated in the chief capitals of Europe, 
and secured pledges from England and Ger- 
many to enforce rigidly the anti-slavery article 
of the Kongo Conference. In 1890 he urged 
in France the Church’s acceptance of the 
republic, in which counsel it was considered 
that he was not without the concurrence of 
Leo XIII. He was made cardinal in 1882. 
His published works include ‘CEuvres choisis” 
(Paris 1884). 


LAVIGNAC, la’vén’yak’, Albert, French 
teacher and critic of music: b. Paris, 1846. He 
was educated at Paris and in 1882 was appointed 
professor of solfeggio at the Conservatory, 
where he later became professor of harmony. 
Author of ‘Cours complet théorique et prac- 
tique de dictée musicale? (1882): “La musique 
et les musiciens? (1895; English ed., 1899) ; 
- Le- voyage artistique -4 Bayreuth? (1897), 
translated into English as ‘The Music-Dramas 
of Richard Wagner? (1898); ‘Les gaités du 


Conservatoire? (1900); ‘Notions scolaires de 
musique? (1905). He completed in 1913 the 
first volume of an ambitious undertaking 


‘Encyclopédie de la musique,’ of which he is 
editor-in-chief. 


LAVISSE, la-vés, Ernest, French histo- 
rian: b. Nouvion-en-Thiérache, France, 17 Dec. 
1842: d. Paris, 18 Aug. 1922: In 1888 he was 
appointed to the chair of modern history in the 
Paris Faculty of Letters and in 1892 was elected 
to the French Academy. His historical researches 
had chiefly to do with Germany, with which coun- 
try he endeavored to promote more friendly rela- 
tions; and they are marked by a ripe scholarship 
which enhances their authoritativeness. Among 
important works by him are ‘The Mark of 
Brandenburg under the Ascanian Dynasty’ 
(1875); ‘Studies of the History of Prussia? 
(1879); ‘Frederick the .Great Before his 
Accession? (1893); ‘The Three Emperors of 
Germany: William I, Frederick III, William 
II (1888); ‘Political History of Europe? 
(1890); ‘The Youth of Frederick the Great? 
(1893-1901) ; a “Histoire génerale? (with Ram- 
band); a monumental ‘History of France? (9 
vols., 1900-11) ; and a volume of ‘Souvenirs? in 
1912. 


LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, 4n-twan 
16-r6n la-vwa-zé-a, French chemist: b. Paris, 
26 Aug. 1743; d. there, 8 May 1794. He was 
the son of a wealthy tradesman; was educated 
at the College Mazarin; studied mathematics 
and astronomy under Lacaille, chemistry in the 
laboratory of Rouelle and botany under Jus- 
sieu. In 1766 he received a prize offered by 
the Academy of Sciences (of which in 1768 


LAVIGERIE — LAVROV 


he became an associate), for an essay on light- 
ing the streets of Paris. Soon after this he 
traveled through France collecting material 


' from which he constructed the first geological 


chart produced in that country, during the same 
period publishing a number of scientific treat- 
ises. In 1769 the was appointed one of the 
farmers-general of the revenue. By means of 
his wealth and influence he secured special ad- 
vantages for extending his investigations, 
which were also stimulated by the new dis- 
coveries of Priestley, Cavendish and-> Black. | 
In 1776 he was director of the government 
powder-works; sat on the commission of 
weights and measures in 1790; and in 1791 be- 
came commissary to the treasury. In May 
1794 he was accused before the Convention as 
an ex-farmer-general, condemned by the Rey- 
olutionary tribunal and guillotined. 

To Lavoisier modern chemistry looks as its 
chief founder; he organized its methods, re- 
formed the old nomenclature and virtually 
established for this science a new terminology. 
By his work mainly the old phlogistic chem- 
istry was. displaced, and he shares with Joseph 
Priestley (q.v.) the distinction due to the dis- 
covery and analysis of oxygen, to which he 
gave its name, Priestley having already called 
it “dephlogisticated air.” “Lavoisier,” says 
Huxley, “first showed, by the most conclusive 
experiments, what was really the composition 
of atmospheric air” (1777). His chief works, 
as containing his most important discoveries, 
are his ‘Traité élémentaire de Chimie? (1789) ; 
and his posthumous ‘Mémoires de Physique et 
de Chimie? (1805). Among his others are ‘Sur 
la combustion en général? (1777); ‘Réflexions 
sur le phlogistique? (1777); ‘Considérations 
sur la nature des acides? (1778); ‘Méthode 
de nomenclature chimique? (with Guyton de 
Morveau, Berthollet and Fourcroy, 1787). His 
complete works were published by the French 
government under the title of ‘C®uvres de 
Lavoisier publiées par les Soins de son Excel- 
lence, le Ministre de 1’Instruction Publique? 
(6 vols., 1864-93). There are many accounts 
of his life and work. Consult Grimaux, ‘La- 
voisier d’aprés sa correspondance, ses Manu- 
scrits, ses papiers de famille et d’autres docu- 
ments inédits? (Paris 1888) ; and Schultze, ‘La- 
voisier, der Begrtinder der Chemie”? (Hamburg 
1894); Thorpe, ‘Essays in Historical Chem- 
istry» (New York 1911). 


LAVROV, lav-rof’, Peter Lavrovitch 
(Mirtov), Russian revolutionist, scientist and 
scholar: b. province of Pskov, 2/14 June 1823; 
d. Paris, 6 Feb. 1900. He received a military 
education at Saint Petersburg and became 
colonel of artillery and instructor in ‘mathe- 
matics at the’ Academy of Artillery, re- 
maining there for 22 years. It was not 
until 1862 that he joined the Land and 
Liberty party, thereby identifying himself 
with the revolutionists. He was arrested 
for his political activities in 1866 and 
in 1868 was sentenced to banishment in the 
Ural Mountains. He succeeded in making his 


escape to France and ‘settled in Paris. He — 


was elected a member of the Society of An- 
thropology in Paris in 1870, and in 1871 he was 
in England and Belgium as a representative of 
the Paris Commune. He founded and edited, 
1873-77, a Socialist periodical, Forward, in 


LAW 


which he gave particular consideration to Rus- 
sian politics. “ Before leaving Russia he had 
contributed extensively to the literature of the 
revolutionary movement, and he now continued 
anonymously to contribute to various publica- 
tions in its interest. He was well grounded 
in history, science, philosophy and psychology 
and spent the greater part of his time after 
leaving Russia in writing. His political pam- 
phlets are voluminous in number and made him 
widely popular in Russia, because of their 
clarity, sanity and belief in the power of the 
people through education to bring about the 
reforms he so earnestly advocated. Author of 
‘The Hegelian Philosophy? (1858-59); ‘An 
Attempt at a History of Modern Thought? 
(2 vols. 1859); ‘Outline of the Physico- 
Mathematical Sciences? (1866); ‘Historical 
Letters? (1879), etc. 


LAW, Andrew Bonar, British statesman: 
b. New Brunswick, Canada, 16 Sept. 1858; d. 
London, England, 30 Oct. 1923. Educated in 
Canada and Glasgow, he engaged in the iron 
business in the latter place and acted as chair- 
man of the Scottish Iron Trade Association. 
He entered Parliament as Unionist (Conserva- 
tive) member for the Blackfriars division of 
Glasgow in 1900. He was defeated in the Jan- 
vary 1906 election, but found a seat a few months 
later for Dulwich. In 1910 he contested North- 
western Manchester on a straight Tariff Reform 
issue, but lost. In 1911 he was returned for the 
Bootle division of Lancashire, and in December 
1918 for the Central Division of Glasgow. Be- 
tween 1902 and 1905 he was parliamentary sec- 
retary to the Board of Trade. In 1911-15 he 
was leader of opposition in the Commons and 
in 1915 when a coalition ministry was formed 
Mr. Law became Colonial Secretary. He had 
succeeded Mr. Balfour in the leadership of the 
Unionist party in 1911. In 1916 he became Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer. In October 1922 he 
became Premier, but resigned within a few 
months owing to ill health. 


LAW, Edmund, Anglican bishop: b. Cart- 
mel, Lancashire, 6 June 1703; d. Rose Castle, 
Carlisle, 17 Aug. 1787. He was educated at 
Saint John’s College, Cambridge, and was later 
elected a Fellow of Christ’s College. He be- 
came rector of Graystoke, Cumberland, in 1737, 
and was made archdeacon of the diocese of 
Carlisle in 1743, which office he resigned upon 
his becoming master of Peterhouse in 1756. 
He was appointed proto-bibliothecarius at the 
University of Cambridge in 1760, and in 1764 
he was made Knightbridge professor of moral 
philosophy. In 1768 he became bishop of Car- 
lisle. His writings are characterized by a broad 
religious toleration, and he regarded his ap- 
pointment to a bishopric as a proof that free- 
dom of religious inquiry was not rebuked. Be- 
sides translations and numerous religious papers 
he wrote ‘An Enquiry into the Ideas of Space 
and Time? (1834); ‘Considerations on the 
State of the World with Regard to the Theory 
of Religion» (1745), etc. 


LAW, John, of Lauriston, Scottish specu- 
lator: b. Edinburgh, 21 April 1671; d. Venice, 
21 March 1729. His father was a goldsmith 
in Edinburgh. He was educated at Edinburgh 
University, where he was remarkable for profi- 


121 


ciency in arithmetic and algebra. He early 
migrated to London deep in debt, and while in 
that city killed a man in a duel, but managed 
to escape to the Continent. He returned to 
Scotland in 1700, and the following year pro- 
posed to the Scottish Parliament the establish- 
ment of a bank with paper issues to.the amount 
of the value of all the land in the kingdom and 
the abolishment of the farming of the rey- 
enues; but his scheme was rejected. The years 
from 1708 to 1715 were spent on the Conti- 
nent, and his success as a gambler caused him 
to be banished from Venice and Genoa as a 
designing adventurer. He accumulated a large 
fortune by gambling, and at length secured the 
patronage of the Duke of Orleans, regent of 
France, and in company with his brother, Wil- 
liam, established his bank: in 1716 by royal au- 
thority. It was at first composed of 1,200 
shares of 3,000 livres each, which soon bore a 
premium. ‘This bank became the office for all 
public receipts, and there was annexed to it 
a Mississippi company, which had grants of 
land in Louisiana, and the exclusive right of 
trade in that territory for 25 years, and 
of receiving and exporting the beaver skins 
of Canada, and it was expected to realize im- 
mense sums by planting and commerce. In 
1718 it was declared a royal bank, and shares 
rose to 20 times their original value. A 
vast quantity of paper money was issued, the 
credit of which was unquestioned, whilst the 
national bonds remained at a price far below 
their nominal value. In 1720 Law became a 
Roman Catholic and was made a councillor of 
state and comptroller-general of the finances; 
but the shares sank in value as rapidly as 
they had risen. He was obliged to resign his 
post, after five months, and for personal safety 
to quit the kingdom. (See Muississippr Bus- 
BLE). He lived afterward in great obscurity, 
finally settling in Venice, and died still occupied 
in vast schemes, and fully convinced of the 
solidity of his system, the failure of which he 
attributed entirely to enmity and panic. Vari- 
ous opinions have been entertained of the 
merit of his project, and by some it has been 
thought to have possessed feasibility, had it 
been carried more moderately into practice. A 
volume entitled ‘CEuvres de J. Law” was pub- 
lished (1790). Consult Wood, ‘Memoirs of the 
Life of John Law? (1824); Mackay, ‘Memoirs 
of Extraordinary Popular Delusions? (1850) ; 
Thiers, ‘Histoire de Law? (1858); Weston- 
Glynn, ‘The Financier Law: his Scheme and 
Times? (1907). 


LAW, John, American lawyer: b. New 
London, Conn., 1796; d. Indiana, 1873. He was 
graduated at Yale and admitted to the bar in 
1817, but soon after emigrated to Indiana, 
where he settled at Vincennes. He was quickly 
brought to the front as a lawyer; became suc- 
cessively prosecuting attorney, judge for eight 
terms aad in 1838 receiver of public moneys. 
In 1855 he was appointed judge of the Court 
of Land Claims. He afterward served in the 
37th and 38th Congresses on committees of li- 
brary, agriculture and Revolutionary pensions. 
He was descended from a long line of lawvers, 
which included the chief justice of the Connec- 
ticut Supreme Court, Jonathan Law, and was 
president of the Indiana State Historical So- 
ciety, 


122 


LAW, William, English clergyman and 
writer: b. King’s. Cliffe, Northamptonshire, 
1686; d. there, 9 April 1761. 
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1712, hav- 
ing been ordained and elected a Fellow of his 
college in 1711. He afterward lived at Cam- 
bridge, tutoring and occasionally acting in his 
capacity as a clergyman. His loyalty to the 
Stuarts prevented his taking the oath of alle- 
giance to George I, and he was deprived of 
his fellowship. He is thought afterward to 
have become a curate in London, but from 
1727 he was a member of the household of 
Edward Gibbon, grandfather of the historian, 
as tutor and spiritual adviser. His influence 
extended over a widening circle of friends, 
among them Charles and John Wesley, and 
Archibald Hutcheson, M.P. from | Hastings. 
His writings extended his influence over a 
wider sphere, Dr. Samuel Johnson, Lord Lyt- 
telton, Bishop Horne and others attesting the 
worth of his teachings. In 1740 the Gibbon 
household was broken up and Law returned 
to his house at King’s Cliffe. There he was 
subsequently joined by the wealthy widow of 
his old friend, Archibald Hutcheson, who had 
counselled her to place. herself under Law’s 
spiritual guidance and by Miss Hester Gibbon, 
sister of his former pupil, who also possessed 
considerable means. The three formed a 
household devoted to the following of Law’s 
famous book, ‘The Serious Call to a Devout 
and Holy Life, spending most of their in- 
_ come in charity, and their time in religious 
study and devotion; an arrangement which con- 
tinued until Law’s death, 21 years later. 

As a writer Law had among his contempo- 
raries no rival except Richard Bently in the 
field of controversy, always supporting the 
High Church party; while in matters of 
practical divinity his influence was indispu- 
table. The Wesleys, however, broke with 
Law after his teachings and writings _be- 
gan to evince a tinge of mysticism. This 
tendency appears to have been the out- 
growth of his admiration for the Teuton 
theosophist, Jacob Boehme, although Law was 
by no means a disciple of that writer. Author 
of ‘Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor? 
(1717); ‘Remarks on Mandeville’s Fable of 
the Bees? (1723); ‘Treatise on Christian Re- 
flection? (1726); ‘Serious Call to a Devout 
and Holy Life? (1728); ‘Case of Reason” 
(1732) ; ‘An Appeal to all that Doubt and Dis- 
believe “the Truths of the Revelation? (1740) ; 
‘The Way to Divine Knowledge? (1752); 
‘Dialogue Between a Methodist and a Church- 
maim (iC 1/GU), “etG-. CONSULABOVEMOR, \ |a ora. 
‘Law, Non-Juror and Mystic? (1881) ; Walton, 
ies ‘Notes and Materials for a ‘Complete 
Biography of W. Law? (1848). 


‘LAW (M.E., lawé; A.S., lagu). The An- 
glo- Saxon form is of rare occurrence, except 
in compounds; but from these, and from the 
cognate Icelandic lég, pl. lag — i.e., “things ly- 
ing in due place,” like strata of slate, for in- 
stance — the original meaning of /Jagu as, “that 
which lies in order,” is inferable. The transi- 
tion of the idea to sheets of parchment or 
other material, upon which an order is in- 
scribed, and, ultimately, to that which had been 
written, ordered or ordained, could not have 
been difficult, The derivation of the English 


He was graduated | 


LAW 


word “law” from the French Joi (Norm. Fr. 
lay) or from the Latin lex, legd, is incorrect. 
But the Latin and Teutonic words evidently 
come from the same Aryan root (lagh, to lie). 
The oldest meaning of lex was “a bill” — prob- 
ably so called because it was laid before the 
people in comitia for approval (cf. Ger. vor- 
lage, a bill). When a-lex, or bill, had been 
agreed to it was still called a lex, just as we 
speak of a “McKinley Bill? or a “Hepburn 
Bill» even when it has become an act of Con- 
gress and been a law for many years. This 
word-history shows that the term “aw” is 
used in its original and proper sense only when 
it is used as the generic name for that which 
has been ordered and made applicable to the 
conduct of human beings. In medizval times 
animals were regularly tried and condemned 
for their defaults and we still speak of trivial 
and defective evidence as “insufficient to hang 
a dog. This practice of trying and passing 
judgment on dumb creatures, however, was an 
aberration. When ancient law declared for- 
feited an animal or inanimate object, which 
had caused the death of a person, it was a 
liability of the human owner of the offending 
thing that was enforced. When a well was 
filled up because a child had been drowned 
therein, this was a penalty enforced upon the 
owner of the well; when an ox was made to 
furnish forth funeral baked meats for the rela- 
tives of the man whom the animal had gored, it 
was at the cost of the owner of the ox— the 
owner, not the thing that had caused a mis- 
chief, was responsible to the law. In admiralty 
practice ships are made defendants in actions 
for debt and are libelled in suits for damages, 

just as if they were persons, but the liability 
enforced in every case is that of the master or 
owner of the vessel. A law, therefore, is a 
rule of human conduct. This being so the in- 
appropriateness of the term, “laws of na- 
ture,” in its modern sense, becomes apparent- 

Records of natural phenomena and their se- 
quences, though set down with mathematical 
preciseness and logical perfection, are not. 
rules of conduct at all; they are descriptions. 
The statement that “an apple falls to the ground 
from a height of 15 feet in one second,” is not 
a “law” of gravitation, but a fact —just as if 
one should say “he stole,» one would merely 
be describing an act. The commandment, 
“thou shalt not steal,” however, is a law. The 
distinction is obvious. Mathematical laws are 
rules of quantity, not of conduct. In the do- 
main of esthetics such terms as the “law of 
beauty” or the “law of harmony” are familiar 
expressions; but these, like all the others men- 
tioned, are “laws” merely in figure of speech. 

Terms like “Grimm’s law,” the “laws of pho- 
netics,» or the “laws of metre,” are justified, 

because they are rules of human conduct in the 
use of language, having their origin in cus- 
tom. The commandment “thou shalt not covet” 
is a rule of ethics, a moral precept and also a 
law; but the science of ethics is concerned with 
resolutions and operations of the human will, 

or with states of mind, which have not found 
expression in action. The rules of this science, 

therefore, are not, properly speaking, laws. 

Covetousness is a sin and invites no legal 

penalty until it has manifested itself by the 
infraction of some legal right. Law is a rule 


LAW 


of conduct governing external human acts. 
Speaking and writing are actions, but thinking 
is not an external act and a mere inclination 
to do is not an act at all. 

Rules of human conduct are most varied in 
their origins and degrees of sanctity. The 


“laws of etiquette” and “fashion” need not be . 


observed by anybody who has no fear of being 
laughed at for his oddity or of being shunned 
for his boorishness; yet few laws are more 
generally and more willingly obeyed. “No- 
body,” as Locke remarks, “escapes the punish- 
ment of their censure and dislike who offends 
against the fashion and opinion of the com- 
pany he keeps.” He would be a brave man 
who should defy a college class custom by 
supplanting the members at a club table, 
and the rules of the Stock Exchange are bet- 
ter enforced than some statutes. The “laws 
of honor” have points of exceeding delicacy 
and “conduct unbecoming a gentleman” could 
be such as neither ordinary morality nor com- 
mon custom would condemn. Though not en- 
forceable by law, “debts of honor” are more 
scrupulously paid than commercial obligations. 
The rule of the “code of honor,” that duels 
may be fought only among equals, has an in- 
teresting parallel in early English criminal 
procedure, which allowed trial by battle on an 
appeal for assault and wounding only when 
the wounds were caused by sharp weapons, 
such as would be borne by gentlemen. An in- 
jury done with a cudgel, and, presumably, in- 
flicted by a churl, gave merely a right of ac- 
tion for damages. The special rules of con- 
duct above mentioned (and many others of 
like character) are outgrowths of custom and 
have their sanction in the general opinion of 
the larger or smaller classes of persons who 
observe them. But practically the whole body 
of human law grew up in the same way and 
had the same point of departure. Customs, 
indeed, were not merely the sources, they were 
the law itself. Insofar as the commands of 
the patriarchal or patrician chiefs of early so- 
cieties were not arbitrary expressions of irre- 
sponsible power, they recorded only rules of 
conduct that had become habitual in the tribe 
or clan. Legislative promulgation of these 
customs was an unessential formality. Their 
general obsevyvance was proof of their exist- 
ence. General observance also proved that 
they had the sanction of public. opinion and 
that they were matters cf common knowledge. 
No man, as Dr. F. J. Stimson remarks, had to 
be told what the law was; everybody knew the 
law just as he knew hunting or fishing. It was 
the business of nobody in particular to com- 
pel obedience to the law. When a man’s en- 
closure was broken into, his house set afire 
or the lives of his family menaced, he did not 
run to a judge for advice nor call in the sheriff 
and his posse. He repelled any attack with his 
strong right arm and, if an assailant was killed, 
the resulting lawsuit would not be concerned 
with assigning a penalty for the violation of a 
custom by the attacking party; the question 
would be whether the defender of his home 
and his customary rights should suffer any pen- 
alty for killing a lawbreaker. In fact, the 
fear of being killed in the act of violating an- 
other’s rights was the only real restraint upon 
lawbreakers in early times. In our own “Wild 


123 


West” the rule was “Shoot first, then palaver.” 
At the stage of social development here spoken 
of law would be definable as a rule of con- 
duct governing external human actions, sanc- 
tioned by public opinion and enforced by indi- 
viduals with the acquiescence of the commu- 
nity. The idea of a law as a rule promulgated 
and imposed by legislative act, and enforceable 
only by the public authorities, was a later con- 
ception — meaning later in the stage of sociai 
growth, not later in historic time. Some com- 
munities had laws in the strict sense of the 
word thousands of years before others. 
Early Codes.— ‘The earliest known sys- 
tem of secular law is contained in the legisla- 
tion (circa 2350 B.c.) of Hammurabi, king of 
Babylonia, who was a contemporary of Abra- 
ham and of Chedorlaomer the Edomite. This 
legislation took the form of a code of 282 
paragraphs, regularly arranged under heads 
and subheads, dealing with the rights of per- 
sons, property, the family, contracts, torts and 
procedure in a very adequate manner. It for- 
bade widows to remarry, without first making 
provision, under the direction of a judge, for 
the care of her deceased husband’s household 
and children; it penalized surgeons for injuries 
done by them in unsuccessful operations, and 
various other tradesmen for damages caused 
by their neglect. It demanded retribution, “an . 
eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” in the 
very words of the Levitical law made over a 
thousand years later. It was a civil code 
throughout, containing no religious ordinances; 
in fact, it transferred the judicial function 
from the priests to the elders. The idea of the 
Single Taxers that land held out of use should 
be burdened as heavily as land under cultiva- 
tion was anticipated by 4,000 years. The as- 
sumption would be unwarranted that a code, 
which reflects an advanced social order and 
rather complex economic conditions, was 
evolved out of the innermost consciousness of 
a lawgiver. On the contrary, it is a reasonable 
supposition that the Babylonian codifiers did 
little more than restate, in orderly form, an 
existing body of customs. The transition from 
unwritten customs to written code marks a 
stage in the history of almost every juristic 
system. As human societies developed and hu- 
man relations increased in complexity so did 
the rules for the government of human conduct; 
a few simple customs, with which everybody 
was familiar, no longer sufficed. Knowledge of 
the law became the privilege of a class—ofa 
priesthood or a military and political aristoc- 
racy. Various motives impelled these privi- 
leged repositories of legal knowledge to part 
with a monopoly so advantageous to themselves. 
The religious oligarchies of Asia embodied 
their legal learning in codes either for their 
own guidance, to relieve their memories, or to 
instruct their disciples. The opportunity inci- 
dentally afforded them to magnify and con- 
solidate their influence was too tempting to be 
resisted and their monopoly of knowledge en- 
abled them to pass off on the public collections, 
not of rules actually observed, but of rules 
which the priestly order thought proper to be 
observed. Such a collection is that known as 
the Laws of Manu. The claims to the highest 
antiquity made for this Hindu code are not 
well founded—and, while it is evidently of 


124 


Brahmanical origin and enshrines many genu- 
ine observances, it does not embody a set of 
rules that were followed, as a whole, any- 
where in India. It gave general sanction to 
localized cruel practices, like the suttee, and it 
hardened the law of status into the abhorrent 
social institution of caste. Another reason for 
codification may be found in territorial expan- 
sion through conquest. This probably was the 
motive for the compilation of the early Baby- 
lonian code. Hammurabi had forced his sov- 
ereignty on Assyria and would, naturally, de- 
sire all his subjects to obey one law. The 
writing down of the laws of Minos, additional 
fragments of which have recently been found 
in the Gortyna inscriptions, was probably sim- 
ilarly influenced — Minoan sovereignty having 
been extended over practically all the city- 
states of Crete. Lycurgus of Sparta took 
from these laws the institution of the syssitia 
—public tables at which all citizens dined in 
common — and also their general policy, which 
was to train and control, not only the young 
but mature citizens as well, in all the habits 
and relations of life from the cradle to the 
grave. This policy comported with the pur- 
pose of Lycurgus to create an invincible mili- 
tary machine. The laws of Sparta cultivated 
the soldierly virtues at the cost of nearly every- 
thing else. A warrior who returned from bat- 
tle without his shield suffered disgrace, inef- 
faceable during life, and scarcely effaced by 
subsequent death in the performance of a dis- 
tinguished heroic action. A Spartan boy, on 
the other hand, was encouraged to practice dis- 
simulation and to appropriate whatever he de- 
sired and was disgraced for lying and stealing 
only when caught at it. Aristotle damns the 
Minoan law with faint praise and, if its moral 
level was no higher than that of the Spartan 
institutions, the high respect accorded to the 
former by the ancient Greeks seems hardly 
deserved. But the 180 or more codes of the 
Greek cities and their colonies in Asia, Africa, 
Italy and Sicily were not, generally speaking, 
inspired by the desire to confirm and perpetu- 
ate the power of a ruling class. On the con- 
trary, they were usually the outcome of suc- 
cessful assaults by the plebeian or popular 
elements of the community on the aristocratic 
repositories of legal lore and on the latter’s 
monopoly of knowledge. The rules of con- 
duct were graven on stone or written on 
scrolls, so that they might be known to all 
whom they concerned and who were expected 
to observe them. The communities in which 
they were promulgated were fairly advanced in 
their institutional development and familiar 
with rules of conduct imposed by public au- 
thority and enforced by a public magistracy. 
This ideal was fully realized by the promulga- 
tion of a written law. . 


The Civil Law.— The Roman Law of the 
Twelve Tables; more clearly than some other 
of the codes mentioned, was the fruit of a pop- 
ular revolt against the legislative monopoly of 
a class. The institution of the tribunate had 
subjected the pronouncements of the patrician 
Senate to the veto of a popular representative ; 
the Publican Law had given the plebeians the 
right to make laws in their own assemblies; 
finally the Decemvirate was established for 
the express purpose of ordering and declaring 


LAW 


a law which should be applicable to all citizens 
of Rome, and known to all through its pub- 
lication. When its task was completed, the 
Decemvirate was dissolved. One should not 
expect these early collections to be codes in 
the modern sense. Solon’s Constitution of 
Athens had but little order and usually these 
compilations mingled religious and civil ordi- 
nances and moral precepts without regard for 
their essential differences in character. The 
Roman code is a mere enunciation of customs 
existing at a time when Roman society had 
barely emerged from the intellectual condition 
in which religious duties and civic obligations 
are invariably confounded. Its provisions re- 
specting contracts, and many other things, 
might have more properly found place in 
a book of rites than in a book of laws; and it 
embalmed cruel and superstitious practices. 
The body of a bankrupt might be cut up and 
divided among his creditors. The inflexibility 
of a code would not at first be regarded. as an 
evil comparable with the evil of living under a 
law held in guardianship by the privileged few 
and altered by these at will to suit their pur- 
poses. Their strict adherence to the letter, 
moreover, enabled the Romans to preserve 
their legal institutions intact amid great social 
changes and to avoid the dangers of a too 
rapid development — such as reduced some of 
the Greek codes to formlessness and made the 
law as administered by Athenian juries, for 
instance, very little better than the rule of the 
mob. When the Roman jurists had to adapt 
their code to new circumstances they did so 
with great caution and, at the outset, by legal. 
fictions. These fictiones, as they were called, 
while concealing, or affecting to conceal, any 
change in the letter of the law, permitted a 
change in its operation or direction. For in- 
stance, the jus civilis (literally the law per- 
taining to citizens) gave strangers no standing 
in court. But justice could not be denied to 
the great number of aliens who had flocked to 
the city; so a rule of pleading was made that 
a plaintiff might aver his citizenship and that 
this averment could not be traversed, even 
though it might be untrue. The form of mar. 
riage known as usus required continuous co- 
habitation for one year to establish the rela- 
tion with all its legal consequences; a woman 
thus married (and usus became the prevalent 
form of marriage) could, by absenting her- 
self from the marital domicile for one day in 
each twelvemonth, defeat the law which gave 
the husband absolute power. over the person 
and property of his wife. The legal fictions 
were many. In their responsa prudentum, 
learned jurists applied the law in a sense other 
than literal. But a more effective solvent of 
the harshness of the code was equitas. This 
was an outgrowth of the jus gentium. The 


Pretor annually published-an edict (it after- 
ward became perpetual) containing a statement 
of the law which he proposed to apply in the 
cases of foreigners seeking justice in the courts 
of Rome. The pretorian edict was a collation 
of alien laws on various topics which seemed 
likely to be brought into judicial consideration. 
In the beginning the edict was a contemptuous 
concession to the gentiles; but the uniformity 
of the legal rules on given subjects, though 
drawn from many and quite unrelated sources, 


LAW 


could not fail to become impressive. It seemed 
reasonable that rules, which served the ends of 
justice between Syrians, Egyptians, Gauls and 
Greeks, would produce equitable results also 
when applied to Romans. If strangers could 
transfer all kinds of property by simple deliv- 
ery, or could make contracts by simple memo- 
randum, by letter or by word of mouth, why 
should a Roman be obliged to go through an 
elaborate ceremonial, which had become mean- 
ingless and superfluous, in order to achieve the 
same purpose? While the rules of equity, 
which were published by the Pretor from time 
to time and added to the perpetual edict, could 
not supersede the rules of law, they could, and 
did, make the latter inoperative. A Roman 
woman and her property might still be left (by 
the law) in lifelong wardship of her mate rela- 
tives; but a rule of equity would enable her 
to snap her fingers at her guardians by recog- 
nizing her right to use and dispose of that 
which was hers as she wished. Wills originally 
could be made only in the presence, and with 
the consent, of the comitia calata; they might 
be regarded, therefore, as special acts of legis- 
lation. The object of a will was to enable a 
father to direct who should be his heir and 
thus to defeat the law of inheritance which 
made an emancipated son incapable of taking 
his heritage by regular legal succession. The 
Pretor, however, actively intervened to pre- 
vent the abuse of testamentary power. An 
“indutious will” could be set aside and any 
disposition of the patrimony contrary to the 
equitable rights of a wife or children would 
be disregarded. There was comparatively little 
legislation affecting private Roman law until 
the time of the later emperors. But the fic- 
tional and equitable exceptions ultimately be- 
came the rules and the moral speculations of 
the Greek philosophers exerted a profound in- 
fluence. Aristotle mentions a distinction be- 
tween written law and “the law which is ac- 
cording to nature and immutable” The 
Stoics habitually opposed to the law imposed 
by human authority “the common law, which 
is the right reason, and which pervades all 
things.» In the same strain, Cicero speaks of 
law, as “implanted by Nature, commanding 
those things which ought to be done and pro- 
hibiting the reverse.” This “highest law,” he 
says, “was born in all ages before any- statute 
was written or any state was formed” ‘The 
Roman lawyers had already perceived a ma- 
_ terial unity in the laws of all nations in their 

contemplation of the jus gentium; they were 
well prepared, therefore, for the reception of 
the ideal of a universal law, to which all legal 
systems tend and to which they should con- 
form— and which has its basis in an all-per- 
vading sense of justice. This conception of a 
“law of nature” is a little different from and 
more rationalistic than that of the moral phi- 
losophers. And it led to an ever-increasing 
conformity of the jus civilis to natural ideas 
of right and the elimination therefrom of wn- 
reason and non-essential formality. The devel- 
opment of the jus civilis was complete in the 
time of Hadrian; the codification of Justin- 
ian, four centuries later, was little more than a 
recension. It became practically a universal 
law when Caracalla’s decree enabled every in- 
habitant of the empire to say “civis Romanus 


‘labor. 


125 


sum,” and the distinction between citizens and 
gentiles ceased to exist. Its general provisions, 
regulative of the rights of property and of per- 
sons in their private relations to one another, 
have since been bettered in only few respects 
and have deteriorated in some. The original 
barbarity of the patria potestas had been re- 
fined, so that the power of the father over the 
persons of his children had been reduced to a 
conditional veto of their marriage, while his 
power over the property of unemancipated 
sons was modified through the general practice 
of emancipating them when they had attained 
the age of discretion. Children, irrespective of 
sex, shared equally in the patrimony, though 
the estate might be held in trust by the gen- 
eral heir appointed by will. Marriage, rest- 
ing on the consent of the married, it was con- 
sidered “immoral” to hold the parties in the 
bonds of matrimony when consensus no longer 
was present. Milton postulated his theory of 
divorce on the same premise and the doctrine 
is really not moré shocking coming from a 
heathen Roman lawyer than from an English 
Puritan pamphleteer. The jus civilis gave 
more freedom to women, married or unmar- 
ried, than most modern laws do; but it recog- 
nized chattel slavery. 

The Feudal System.— The barbarian erup- 
tion broke the continuity of the develop- 
ment of the law on a Roman foundation. 
The customary laws of the Teutonic in- 
vaders were modified here and there through 
contact with the Roman _ system. Theo- 
doric the Goth had received his education at 
the imperial court at Constantinople; but the 
Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy was too short 
lived to permit the growth of a Romanized 
system of Teutonic law. The Forum Judicum 
is the only extant code in which a fusion of 
the two systems was made with a measurable 
degree of success. This code was framed (649- 
652 a.D.) during the reigns of Chintasvintus 
and Recesvintus, two Visigothic kings in Spain, 
and is a combination of the Visigothic laws, re- 
duced to writing in the second half of the 5th 
century by Euric at Arles, and of the Brevia- 
rum Alaricum, compiled from the Roman codes 
at the beginning of the 6th century. The Visi- 
gothic kingdom was overthrown in 711, but its 
code was adopted by Ferdinand III of Ara- 
gon about 1350. The Christian Church intro- 
duced and administered the Roman law of in- 
heritance and of marriage and the family — 
modified by Christian concepts and the Leviti- 
cal canon —and influenced the embodiment of 
the principle of the widow’s dower into the cus- 
tomary law of all western Europe. In almost 
all other respects, however, the rupture with 
the past became complete when the feudal sys- 
tem had become firmly established. The ex- 
clusive right of the first-born to the succession 
and the rules for the entailment of estates 
were originally promulgated in the “house 
laws” of the great feudatory chiefs, who com- 
pelled weak sovereigns to incorporate them in 
their land grants; but these regulations did not 
have long to wait for their embodiment into 
the customary law. On top of the institution 
of chattel slavery, or serfdom, feudalism im- 
posed the institution of villeinage, with the 
right of the lord to heriots and unpaid forced 
While the right of unmarried women to 


126 


hold property, as recognized by the Roman law, 
was continued, the property of a married 
woman passed absolutely under the dominion 
and ownership of her husband. As a legal per- 
son a woman ceased to exist when she became 
a wife. When European society worked its 
way out of these conditions, after centuries of 
struggle, it was with little help from the Ro- 
man law. There was no central source of au- 
thority. The empire of the Franks fell to 
pieces after the death of Charlemagne and the 
medieval empire of the Germans, sometimes 
called “Holy” and “Roman,” was a mere thing 
of parchment and ink. It was not recognized 
in France after the 10th century. Germany 
from the beginning was a loosely-knit aggre- 
gation of duchies, whose chiefs were as often 
at war with the Kaiser as in his allegiance. 
The grand seigneurs of France were more pow- 
erful than the king. Conditions were not pro- 
pitious for the development of a common law 
and became less so as political and class divi- 
sions grew smaller and more numerous.. The 
organization of secret courts (Ger. Vehm- 
gerichte) whose judgments, made in the dark, 
were executed in the dark by the daggers of 
oath-bound brotherhoods, was only one of many 
indications of the general lawlessness. What 
law developed was of limited application with 
respect to the territory, or the social classes, 
affected. Every province in France had a dif- 
ferent legal system, every German principality 
had its “Landrecht”; every incorporated city 
had its “liberties,» every guild its institutions 
and ordinances, and every robber baron was a 
law unto himself. A lex maritima was devel- 
oped for mariners and over-sea traders, and a 
lex mercatorum for merchants. The two last 
named had some claim to universality, for 
they were observed, by the classes for which 
they were made, throughout Europe, irrespec- 
tive of nationality and were administered and 
enforced by special courts. - Their basic prin- 
ciples were taken from the Roman law, as 
were those of the ail-pervading canon law, and 
in these three systems the jus civilis mani- 
fested the most of its posthumous power. 
The revival of the study of the corpus juris 
civilis at the University of Bologna and other 
seats of learning toward the end of the Middle 
Ages produced a flow of knowledge in many 
streams. But human societies were becoming 
nationalistic and patriotic; the universities were 
cosmopolitan and scholastic, with little sympa- 
thy for the new spirit that was actuating the 
nations of western Europe. It is not sur- 
prising, therefore, that the product of the new 
learning was a groundwork of ideas rather 
than a body of laws; academical theorizing that 
led to nothing practical. Neither is it sur- 
prising that the finest fruits of the legalistic 
renaissance were works on international, rather 
than civil, law. Grotius’ treatise “De Mare 
Liberum” has its basis in the Roman law of 
the freedom of navigable waters; his “De Jure 
Bellum et Pace” is a negation of the Roman 
rule that enemy property (invaded territory 
included) is “ownerless”—— just as wild animals 
are—and, therefore, subject to capture and 
appropriation by the captor. The Reformation 
in Germany in its political aspects was mainly 
a struggle for legal order —on the part of the 


burgesses for a supreme imperial law; on the- 


LAW 


part of the peasants for liberation from feudal 
serfdom. The struggle was bootless. The 
corpus juris, indeed, became authoritative, when 
it was not in conflict with local law, but 
German peasants remained serfs for three 
more centuries. France, notwithstanding the 
consolidation of the monarchy, remained un- 
der the curse of an anomalous and discord- 
ant jurisprudence. The south continued to be 
the Pays du Droit Ecrit; the north, the Pays 
du Droit Coutumier; but province differed from 
province. One influence might have been ex- 
erted for betterment. The French lawyers had 
attained a political and social position beside 
the feudal nobility; they were organized in 
great chartered corporations with large powers 
and larger claims; they excelled their compeers 
throughout Europe in the qualities of the ad- 
vocate, legislator and judge; their generaliza- 
tions displayed an elegance of diction and a 
refinement of logic, unexampled since the pass- 
ing of the jurisconsults of ancient Rome. But 
not one venerable or lucrative quiddity would 
they sacrifice in the interest of legal harmony 
and clarity. .For the “law of nature” they de- 
veloped an almost passionate admiration. It 
overlapped all provincial boundaries; it did not 
distinguish between noble and burgess, nor be- 
tween burgess and peasant; it exalted lucidity 
and system — and it did not commit its devotees 
in any specific improvement. Affecting to be- 
lieve that the vices of the French law were in- 
eradicable, the legal profession obstinately re- 
sisted the reform of abuses. Montesquieu tried 
to instill a different spirit, but French law was 
to be purified in the fires of the Revolution. 
English Legislation.— In England the evo- 
lution of a homogeneous legal system was 
favored by the concentration of the law- 
making power. As early as the 13th cen- 
tury the common law was centralized in 
the King’s Court; and it was the law 
spoken by the king’s judges. There was 
no other school; and there was no other 
masters from whom it could be _ learned. 
The systematic study of the Roman civil law 
was discouraged, and, finally, its citation as 
precedent was interdicted. The courts, making 
law by working on material presented for their 
consideration, demanded skilful pleaders — and 
in the course of a few generations a learned 
profession arose and became established in the 
societies of the inns of court. The processes 
whereby the English law was adapted to the 
changing needs of society were much the same 
as those which had been employed in Rome © 
a thousand years before. By the legal fiction 
of levying a fine and suing for a common re- 
covery the strictest entail could be broken; by 
the transformation of a tenure in fee into an 
equitable use, an inalienable feudal benefice be- 
came property, which could be conveyed by 
deed or devised by will; by the substitution of 
money for personal labor in the payment of 
rent, and the recognition of leases as freeholds, 
the tenants became freeholders and, conse- 
quently, free men. The law did not permit 
married women to own personal property; but 
equity enabled them to hold any kind of prop- 
erty in trust for their own benefit, and to dis- 
pose of the same at pleasure. The private 
law remained mostly unwritten until modern 
times. All the statutes enacted between the 


LAW 


time of the Conquest and the time of the Com- 
monwealth, embracing topics of the private 
law, would scarcely cover 30 printed pages of 
an ordinary law book. The Statute of Merton 
(1233) declared it to be the English law that 
children born out of wedlock could not be 
legitimized by the subsequent marriage of their 
parents. The Statute of Merchants (1285) au- 
thorized the imprisonment of insolvent debtors, 
but it also provided that the goods of travelers 
who died while passing through England could 
not be seized and withheld from their heirs — 
in which respect English law was centuries in 
advance of that of the Continent. The guilds, 
generally speaking, were treated with consider- 
dtion, though there were several statutes pro- 
hibiting and penalizing restraints of trade and 
combinations to unreasonably enhance prices. 
Artificers, however, received much unfriendly 
attention from the law-makers. In 1304 a com- 
bination to bring about, by lawful means, an 
injury to a third person was declared con- 
spiracy; in 1360 all “alliances and covins” be- 
tween masons, carpenters, etc., were declared 
void; the act of 1452, empowering the Chan- 
cellor to issue writs of proclamation against 
disturbers of the peace, and to punish disobe- 
dience by outlawry, is believed to have orig- 
inated the suppression of strikes by injunctive 
order. The Statute of Victuallers (1548), while 
it gave freedom of employment to skilled me- 
chanics in any town, forbade artificers to form 
oath-bound confederacies not to work, or to 
make agreements among themselves as to hours 
of labor. In 1349, and persistently for 100 
years thereafter, efforts were made to fix 
wages by law; and they were abandoned only 
when masters complained that they could get 
no servants unless they paid more than the 
statutory wage. Worst of all fared the agri- 
cultural laborers or villeins. They were com- 
mitted without bail by any justice of the peace 
for refusing to work. Wat Tyler’s rebellion 
(1383) was a plebeian revolt, and samong the 
demands of the rebels was one that labor in 
husbandry be commuted to a money rent. In 
part the demands were allowed. Villeins were 
thereafter paid wages, but the act of 1585 re- 
stricted them to labor in their hundreds and 
required them to follow the calling of their 
fathers. Willeinage was formally abolished in 
1425, but as late as 1574 commissioners were 
appointed by Queen Elizabeth to manumit bond- 
men.and bondwomen. The Statute of Labor, 
passed (1562) in the reign of Elizabeth, re- 
quired unmarried artisans with incomes of less 
than 40 s. to serve at their handicrafts. Per- 
sons under 30 having no trade could be com- 
pelled to labor at the request of any person 
having an art or mystery; all persons between 
12 and 60, not otherwise employed, might be 
compelled to labor at husbandry. Employment 
was for a year and masters could not dismiss, 
nor servants leave, without good cause. Un- 
skilled and agricultural laborers could not de- 
part from the parish without the certificate of 
a constable and two good citizens. The wages 
of artisans were fixed by justices of the peace. 
The statute against the monopolies by royal 
patent was passed in 1623, after 50 years of 
shilly-shallying by Elizabeth and~ James. 
Feudal tenures were abolished by a statute of 
Charles I. 

Era of Rationalism.— Philosophy in the 


‘plicated. 


127 


18th century had become a rationalistic ideal- 
ism. Every philosopher, moreover, was dupli- 
cated as a publicist, seeking new principles on 
which to base a reconstituted social order, 
Man, in a state of nature, was imagined to 
have lived under conditions of almost absolute 
liberty. Society was assumed by Rousseau to 
have been established through a “social con- 
tract,» whereby each individual surrendered 
only so much of his complete freedom as was 
necessary to the enjoyment of the equal right 
of every other individual to perfect liberty 


of action. To ensure this equality was con- 
sidered the only function of government. This 
was the theory; what were the facts? The 


political condition of France was that of a 
feudal aristocracy, succeeded, when the Revo- 
lution had been accomplished, by an imperial 
despotism with a limited elective franchise. The 
population was largely agricultural; the 
burgesses were mostly engaged in petty indus- 
try. Land was burdened with feudal charges 
and movable property practically non-existen’ 
Legal relations between persons were few and 
well-defined, and were wholly individualistic. 
Unrestricted private ownership was considered 
the basic principle of private law. ‘The prop- 
ertyless workingmen were disunited and ignored. 
“Egalité? was understood to mean_ political 
equality. During the whole revolutionary pe- 
riod legislation was regarded the only right ~ 
source of law. Legislators, however, were not 
expected to weigh the morality of each indi- 
vidual action; if the law secured a maximum 
of liberty to each, that was sufficient. Every- 
body favored a code—the economist-philoso- 
phers because it tended toward:a desired har- 
mony and universality of legal principles, not 
because they believed a perfect system could 
be created at one stroke. They were rather 
partial to the coutumes, which they deemed to 
reflect present social needs more nearly than 
the jus civilis. But when the radicals had ob- 
tained supremacy in the convention all previous 
legislation was pronounced barbarous and un- 
civilized. Cambacérés and a legislative commis- 
sion were directed, in 1793, to prepare a brici 
code. The first draft was rejected as too com- 
The second effort of Cambacérés, 
“The Code of Nature, Sanctioned by Reason 
and Guaranteed by Liberty,” was criticised as 
a mere table of contents. It was under the 
Consulate that codification was finally accom- 
plished. Tradition had reasserted its power; 
it was agreed to retain what was good from 
the past; land was to be unburdened of feudal 
obligations and no inequalities growing out of 
personal status could be tolerated; but, other- 
wise, the code prepared under the supervision 
of Portalis was a compromise between the cus- 
tomary and civil laws. The “Code Civil” was 
to be regarded as a book of institutes, rather 
than as a book of laws. In the report accompany- 
ing the draft, Portalis remarks, that it is im- 
possible to provide for everything in advance; 
much must be left to usage, the discussion vf 
learned jurists and the decision of judges. The 
function of a statute is to fix, in broad lines, 
the general maxims and to establish principles 
that will be fertile in consequences; to descend 
in detail to every question that might possibly 
arise would not be conducive to the required 
simplicity and lucidity. The liberty of the in- 
dividual — who is assumed, with respect to his 


128 


private affairs, to act in his own interest and 
not the interests of the public— remained the 
ideal. The absolute right of private ownership 
and freedom of contract were the cornerstones 
of the edifice. 
the French Revolution was reactionary and 
quiescent. The Combination Act of 1800 out- 
lawed workingmen’s associations, transitory or 
permanent, which had for their object the in- 
crease of wages or other regulations of the 
terms of employment. Any person offering to 
assist in the maintenance of a strike might be 
proceeded against summarily before a peace 
officer. The Health and Morals Act of 1802, 
though an emergency law called forth by an 
epidemic, may be regarded as the beginning of 
factory legislation. The slave trade was pro- 
hibited in 1806; the whipping of women at the 
pillory for misdemeanors was abolished in 
1820, and in 1822 the first law for the preven- 
tion of cruelty to animals was passed. The era 
of individualistic and utilitarian law reform 
-(1825-70) was ushered in by the writings of 
Jeremy Bentham and was dominated by his 
ideas. According to Bentham, legislation is a 
science; its aim is to carry out the principle of 
utility, hence the proper end of every law is 
the greatest happiness to the greatest number. 
Every person is, in the main, the best judge 
of his own happiness; hence, all restrictions on 
free individual action, which are not necessary 
to the security of like freedom to other per- 
sons, should be removed. Maine’s aphorism 
that, “modern law substitutes contract for 
status,» embodies the fundamental conception 
of the Benthamite Liberals, who regarded the 
unrestricted exercise of the right of contract 
as the most satisfactory way of disposing of 
the whole body of antiquated legal institutions. 
The British utilitarians, like the French ration- 
alists, fell short of the conception that posses- 
sion and ownership might impose legal duties 
as well as give legal rights, and that it may 
be a function of the law to protect individuals 
—even mature normal men— from, their own 
weakness, as well as to ensure to the strong 
freedom in the exercise of their legal powers. 
Modern Development.— American legisla- 
tion did not become fecund until 50 years after 
the adoption of the Constitution, receiving its 
impetus from the great moral movements — 
anti-slavery, woman’s rights and prohibition. 
The legal right of married women to own and 
dispose of property separately from their hus- 
bands was generally recognized by statutes en- 
acted before the 19th century had passed its 
meridian. After the Civil War came other 
moral and social movements, resulting in laws 
for the benefit of labor and for the suppres- 
sion of trusts. Peaceful strikes have ceased 
to be criminal conspiracies. The principals 
underlying the anti-trust laws are as old as 
the early English statutes against combinations 
in restraint of trade and price-fixing agree- 
ments. The law restricting woman and child 
labor and the minimum wage laws, however, 
are limitations upon the liberty of contract, 
and they are among the few in which the right 
of the state to restrict this freedom is recog- 
nized. The compensation laws transfer the 
burden of insuring against industrial accidents 
from the workingmen themselves to the indus- 
tries in which they are employed. The regu- 
lation of injunctions in labor disputes gives 


In England the first effect of~ 


LAW 


expression to the thought somewhere enter- 
tained that judge-made law is more “aristo- 
cratic” than that made by democratic legislators. 
The provisions of the constitutions of North 
Carolina, Missouri and Oklahoma, that men 
have “a natural right to enjoy the fruits of 
their own labor,» are less broad than those 
of the fundamental laws of most of the States 
respecting the sanctity of private property. 
But the interdiction by the Federal Constitution 
of State laws impairing the obligation of con- 
tracts is a safeguard against radical departures 
from conventional rules — though prohibition 
laws and police and health regulations, confis- 
catory in their effect, have passed the test of 
constitutionality. The jurists of Continental 
Europe have been more receptive to advanced 
ideas in legislation than those of Great Britain 
or America. The Code Civil protects spend- 
thrifts from their own weakness by preventing 
them from squandering their fortunes. Why, 
it is asked, should not the law also protect 
those who possess nothing but their physical 
strength from squandering all they have by 
making improvident bargains under compulsion 
of necessity? This thought lies at the bottom 
of a whole mass of modern social legislation. 
There has been a complete transformation ot 
ideas with respect to the proposition that the 
state can impose no affirmative obligation upon 
the individual beyond the payment of taxes, 
—in money, in kind or in blood—nor any 
negative obligation except that of respecting 
the rights of his neighbor. It is asserted that 
restraint may be put on the interest of the 
individual in himself, or in that which he owns. 
No person, for instance, has the legal right 
to commit suicide. Property is not to be re- 
garded as a subjective right; ownership is a 
“social function.” The argument runs thus: 
every individual is under obligation to per- 
form a function in the community; the pos- 
sessor of wealth, by reason of his possession, 
is enabled to accomplish certain work which 
others cannot accomplish; he alone can increase 
the general stock by putting his capital to use. 
For social reasons, therefore, he is under a 
duty to perform this work, and society will 
protect him only if he accomplishes it and 
in accord with the measure of his accomplish- 
ment. This juridical idea has found legislative 
expression in laws obliging owners to cultivate 
their land and in the taxation of unearned 
increment. The misuse of property, says the 
Swiss Code, is unlawful and one who clearly 
misuses his right will not be protected. Of 
course, the rule might be extended, beyond 
the misuse of ownership, to the unsocial use of 
anything, aptitudes or even of mere physical 
capacity for work. A code thus motivated 
would be a body of laws to enforce duties, 
rather than to enforce rights. Morality and 
legislation would have become one. 
Bibliography._Ames, Jas. B., ‘Lectures 
on Legal History? (Cambridge, Mass., 1913); 
Austin, John, ‘Jurisprudence or the Philosophy 
of Positive Law? (5th ed. London 1885) ; 
Bentham, Jeremy, ‘Principles of Morals and 
Legislation? (Clarenden Press 1879); Dicey, 
A. V., “Law and Public Opinion? (London 
1905); Gaius, ‘Institutes? (Engl., by E. Poste, 
Oxford 1890); Ihering, Rud. v., ‘Law as 
a Means to an End? (tr. by I. Husik., Boston 
1913); same, ‘Law in Daily. Life? (tr. by H. 


LAW — LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF 


Goudy, Oxford 1904); same, ‘Struggle for 
Law? (tr. by J. W. Lalor, Chicago 1879) ; 
Lee, Guy Carleton, ‘Historical Jurisprudence? 
(New York 1900); Maine, Henry Sumner, 
‘Ancient Law? (New York 1888; London 1906) ; 
Montesquieu, Charles Louis de, ‘Spirit of the 
Law’ (lst ed., Paris 1748); Pollok and Mait- 
land, ‘History of Law in England? (2d ed., 
Boston 1899); Savigny, Fr. Carl v., ‘Jural 
Relations» (2d ed., book of the ‘System of 
Modern Roman Law,” tr. by W. H. Rattigan, 
London 1884); Stimson, Fred. J., ‘Popular 
Law Making? (New York 1910); Continental 
Legal History Series, published under auspices 
of Association of American Law Schools (11 
vols., Boston 1912-18; Vol. I, General Survey; 
‘Vol. II, Progress in the 19th Century). 


STEPHEN PFEIL. 


LAW, in. science and in philosophy, a gen- 
eral formula expressing either a de facto uni- 
formity of nature as we actually find it or 
a necessary property of all conceivable worlds. 
The first type is exemplified by the law of gravi- 
tation, which asserts that two particles attract 
one another with a force varying directly as 
the product of their masses and inversely as 
the square of the distance separating them. It 
is. quite conceivable from the purely logical 
standpoint that there might be a world where 
the attractive force might vary as the sum of 
the masses of the particles.concerned; observa- 
tion, however, teaches us that our world is not 
of this sort. On the other hand, the law of 
contradiction, which says that no proposition 
can at once be true and false, is ot necessity 
valid in any universe whatever. The distinc- 
tion between the two types of laws has been 
minimized into one of degree by those who 
hold the consistency theory of truth, for these 
writers claim that even such laws as that of 
gravitation follow from the nature of any 
possible universe, and that their denial involves 
an inconsistency, or at any rate a greater degree 
of inconsistency than their assertion. How- 
ever, from the standpoint of those who main- 
tain the correspondence theory of truth believ- 
ing that the truth of a statement depends on 
whether it correctly portrays a certain con- 
tingent real state of affairs, the distinction be- 
tween necessary and de facto or empirical laws 
may well be absolute, and usually is absolute. 
Both necessary and empirical laws differ funda- 
mentally from laws of right and wrong or the 
laws established by states. Ethical and polit- 
ical laws are either descriptions. of things as 
they ought to be or schemes of procedure in- 
tended to create some desired state of affairs. 
Ethical and political laws may be violated 
without falsifying them; the violation of an 
ethical law is a sin; of a political law, often 
a crime; and many political laws contain 
clauses contemplating their own violation. On 
the other hand, to precisely the extent to which 
a scientific law is violated, it is not a law at all. 
The laws of ethics speak in the imperative; 
those of a natural science in the indicative. 
Notwithstanding the fact that, strictly speaking, 
a law of science is rendered invalid by a 
single exception, all empirical laws are either 
marred by exceptions or by the possibility of 
exceptions. Owing to the general uniformity 
of nature, and especially to the particular uni- 
formities. which ages of observation have dis- 

yoL.17—9 — 


129 


closed to us in certain fields, when a certain 
conjunction of circumstances have occurred 
time and again, while a certain component part 
of that conjunction has never or but rarely 
been known to occur in isolation, we are able 
to formulate the law that the component part 
is an index of the presence of its associates, 
and to expect that whatever exceptions this 
law may have will be rare in proportion to 
the number of times it is satisfied. Further 
than this we can never go; the law of gravita- 
tion itself, that image of all a law of nature . 
should be, has recently been suspected of small 
variations from the facts. Of small variations 
be it noted; the fact that we can make the 
quantitative errors of the laws of nature re- 
cede further and further is what renders a 
mathematical physics, and in general a 
precise science of any sort, at once pos- 
sible and valuable. In the case of such laws as 
that of recapitulation in biology and of many 
psychological generalizations, the enormous 
quantitative error is concealed by a loose termi- 
nology, which is able to assume just such 
slight changes as to cover the facts throughout 
all the changes of the observations. Laws such 
as these are sometimes called empirical laws 
or generalization in a sense narrower than 
that in which this term has been employed in 
the present discussion. The justification for 
the larger sense of the phrase which has been 
employed here is that the distinction between 
the rawest generalization of a new science and 
the law of universal gravitation is simply one of 
degree: of the clearness of the terms employed, 
the measure of interrelation of the facts em- 
braced with the other facts of the science, the 
amount of observation. and research that. has 
been made, and the rarity of observations con- 
tradicting the law. The law of gravitation is 
not equally fallible to the law of recapitulation 
in biology, but it is similarly fallible. For a 
discussion of the methods by which scientific 
laws are established (see INDUCTION) ; the dis- 
cussion of induction under Loaic. 


NorBERT WIENER. 


LAW, American Schools of. Among the 
notable features of educational progress in the 
United States during the 19th century, there 
was, possibly, none more remarkable in scope 
or destined to exert weightier influence upon 
the future of the nation than the marvelous in- 
crease in number and growth in importance 
of our American schools of law. That this 
statement is conservative rather than extray- 
agant is demonstrated by the fact that while 
at the opening of that century there existed in 
our nation but a single professional law school 
—and that a private enterprise which never 
conferred a degree —at its close, more than 
100 publicly chartered academic institutions were 
given official recognition as such by the national 
commissioner of education. 

And the American school of law is to-day 
an institution peculiar to itself, for the reason 
that there existed in the mother country from 
which our common law and so large a propor- 
tion of our earlier statute law, as well as the 
formal machinery of our administration of 
justice, were derived, no similar scholastic or- 
ganizations which could serve as models in the 
development of a system of. instruction in 
jurisprudence. 


130 


Among the Continental nations of Europe, 
of course, and particularly among races. of 
Latin derivation, schools of law had been 
firmly established from a period of remote 
antiquity and were held in exalted importance. 

Thus, great schools of jurisprudence flour- 
ished, long prior, even to the time of Justinian, 
at Berytus, Rome and Constantinople, and be- 
came especial objects of the sedulous watch, 
care and protection of that great emperor to 
whose enlightened supervision the Roman law 
owed its systematization and codification at the 
hands of Tribonian and his colleagues.  Al- 
though, in the earlier period of Roman history 
and under the republic, the youthful student 
who aspired to master the principles of juris- 
prudence usually attached himself to some law- 
yer of prominence from whose discourse and 
practice he might acquire the desired knowl- 
edge, this custom became obsolete to the degree 
that, under the emperors, nowhere in Rome’s 
vast domain, outside of these three schools, of 
which the Sidonian was pre-eminently the most 
famous and successful, was professional in- 
struction in law permitted to be given. 

The impetus given by these law schools of 
antiquity, not alone to the study of legal 
principles but to the cause of learning in all 
branches, was incalculable. And, similarly, the 
renaissance ‘of modern education has been 
justly held to date from the successful effort 
of Irnerius, at the dawn of the 12th century, 
to revive scholastic imterest in the juridical 
learning of the civilians. This notable scholar 
and teacher, himself an alumnus of Constanti- 
nople, by the establishment, under the auspices 
of Frederick I of Germany and at the sugges- 
tion of Hildebrand’s friend, the Countess Ma- 
tilda, of his wonderfully successful lectureship 
on the Corpus Juris Civilis, provided the actual 
nucleus around which was eventually assembled 
the great university of Bologna, forerunner of 
all modern institutions of the kind. 

But such was the history of the growth of 
the English common-law that slight parallelism 
existed between the methods by which instruc- 
tion in its principles and practice could be 
gained by the neophyte and those open to stu- 
dents of legal science in Continental countries 
and especially among peoples whose jurispru- 
dence was derived from or dominated by the 
elementary fundamentals of the Roman civil 
law. Thus, while elaborate and erudite courses 
in the history and principles of jurisprudence, 
ancient and modern, including both the canon 
and the civil law, have for centuries figured 
prominently in the curricula of the two great 
English universities, neither the highest profi- 
ciency in their scholarship nor any degree in 
law conferred by Oxford or Cambridge ever 
led to the bar in England. On the contrary, 
the wardship of the door to the practice of the 
legal profession in our mother country has ever 
been in the keeping of the Inns of Court, curi- 
ous bodies politic which, while neither hostelries 
nor seminaries, partook in some respects of the 
nature of both, and have remained the peculiar 
custodians of instruction in ‘the arcana of com- 
mon-law practice and pleading. 

Whether or no acceptance be accorded to 
the view of that eminent American jurist and 
legal educator, Judge Simeon E. Baldwin, that 
the unsystematic texture of the common law 
was less friendly to its pursuit as a scholastic 


LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF 


exercise, acquiescence must be full and unre- 


-served in his conclusion that the absence of 


English law schools in modern times left Amer- 
ica no guide in this direction; and that, great 
as seems the present measure of her success, 
whatever our country has done she has done 
for herself, slowly, painfully, with hesitating 
and uncertain step. 

To Tapping Reeve, lawyer, judge and legal 
writer of eminent distinction, belongs the honor 
of establishing the first American law school, 
at Litchfield, Conn., in 1784. Judge Reeve, a 
graduate of Princeton in the class of 1763, had 
settled in the practice of law at Litchfield as 
early as 1772, and had married a sister of Aaron 
Burr, who was'an early student of law under 
him and an inmate of his. household. Under’ 
the able guidance of its founder, who remained 
its sole instructor until his elevation to the 
judgeship of the Superior Court of Connecticut, 
in 1798, the Litchfield Law School speedily 
gained a widespread and favorable reputation. 
Upon his assumption of the duties of the bench, 
Judge Reeve associated with himself in the con- 
duct of the school; James Gould, the well-known 
legal author and jurist. The Litchfield school, 
though, as has been said, never conferring a 
degree, maintained a successful career for a 
round half century, and during its existence 
numbered more than 1,000 students upon its 
rolls. Of its thousand alumni, some 40 rose 
to be justices of courts of last resort in the 
States of their various residences, while others 
reached positions of eminence as legislators 
in both houses of Congress. To the experience 
of its founder and his colleague in this pioneer 
school, American students and practitioners of 
law unquestionably owe the production of two 
valuable and important textbooks, each of which 
for more than half a century remained a stand- 
ard of authority in its line. These were 
Judge Reeve’s treatise on the ‘Law of Baron 
and Feme; Parent and Child; Guardian and 
Ward (1816), familiarly known as “Reeve on 
Domestic Relations»; and Judge Gould’s mas- 
terly work on’ ‘Common Law Pleading.» In 
passing, mention should not be omitted of the 
second proprietary or private law school in 
America which was that founded at Northamp- 
ton, Mass., in 1823, by Judge Samuel Howe 
and Mr. E. H. Mills, a lawyer, who later be- 
came a Federal senator. The Northampton 
school, however, had but a brief existence of 
six years, and its attendance was never large. 

Coming now to the question of the estab- 
lishment of regular academic courses of instruc- 
tion in law in publicly chartered institutions, 
while a professorship in English law had been 
established, largely through the efforts of 
Thomas Jefferson, in the ancient College of 
William and Mary in Virginia in 1782, the 
earliest course of collegiate law lectures ever 
given in America was that delivered in 1790 by 
Justice James Wilson of the Supreme Court of 
the United States, as incumbent of the chair of 
law in the College of Philadelphia, the institu- 
tion founded by Benjamin Franklin, and merged © 
in 1792 in the University of Pennsylvania. 
Auspicious circumstances attended this opening - 
of American collegiate instruction in law, the 
lecturer being not only one of the best read 
and most deeply learned lawyers of his time, 
but, by reason of his distinguished record as a 
signer of the Declaration of Independence, and 


LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF 


a member of the Constitutional Convention of 
1787,.a van-leader of public thought and action. 
In deference, we may suppose, to his high dig- 
nity as a member of the Federal judiciary, his 
introductory lecture on 15 Dec. 1790, was at- 
tended by a brilliant concourse of public 
officials, including the President of the United 
States and his Cabinet, as well as the governor 
of Pennsylvania, members of Congress and of 
the State legislature.’ But the course, or rather 
series, for Judge Wilson delivered three courses 
of lectures during that academic year, ended 
with its close; and no further instruction in 
the subject was attempted in the University of 
Pennsylvania until 1817, when-law lectures were 
once more given during the period of a single 
year; following which came another interval of 
fe a inactivity in that institution lasting until 
1850. 

In New York, the history of academic legal 
instruction began with the appointment of 
James Kent, in 1793, to a professorship of law 
in Columbia College, his first course of lectures 
being delivered to a small class, during the 
following year, and succeeding courses in 1795 
and 1797. Owing to the slight attendance, how- 
ever, he resigned the chair in 1798, upon his 
accession to the bench of the Supreme Court 
of New York, of which he became chief justice 
in 1804. In 1823, at the age of 60, having 
served in the previous year as a member of 
the convention to revise the State constitution, 
and having been chancellor of New York since 
1814, he retired from the bench and was re- 
elected to his former chair at Columbia. The 
incalculably valuable service which he had ren- 
dered to the cause of American jurisprudence 
and especially to the administration, develop- 
ment and extension of equitable jurisdiction, he 
now supplemented by elaborating his learned 
and lucid lectures into those incomparable com- 
mentaries on American law in four volumes 
(1826-30), which for more than three-quarters 
of a century have remained for the lawyers of 
our country as solid and standard an authority 
of reference as were the works of Coke and 
Blackstone to English practitioners. Attend- 
ance upon the chancellor’s lectures appears, 
however, to have been perfectly vountary with 
the student body, no regular law course being 
prescribed, no examinations on the subject being 
held and no degrees in law conferred. In point 
of fact, no department of law appears to have 
been regularly organized at Columbia until 
1858; and it seems'that prior thereto no law 
school existed in New York city. 

Eldest of existing American law schools 
organized as such is the Harvard Law School, 
which was established in 1817. While it is true 
that as early as 1779 Isaac Royall, a Massachu- 
setts citizen, then resident in London, had be- 
queathed property to Harvard College for the 
establishment of a chair of law, the fund did 
not become available until 1815, and the duties 
of the incumbent, up to the time of the ap- 
pointment of Hon. Asahel Stearns as university 
professor of law in 1817, consisted merely in the 
delivery of 15 lectures annually to the senior 
class in the college. Professor Stearns re- 
mained 12 years at the head of the law school, 
and it may justly be said with every desire to 
render due credit to this distinguished and 
faithful instructor that they were years of 
small beginnings and of little advancement for 


13] 


the institution. The Litchfield school enjoyed 
such.a high repute that it easily attracted a far 
larger and more enthusiastic attendance, while 
even the Northampton school was a dangerous 
rival. In 1829, however, a new phase was 
placed upon the condition and prospects of the 
Harvard Law School by Hon. Nathan Dane’s 
generous donation of $10,000 for the endowment 
of a new professorship of law, coupled with his 
request that Mr. Justice Story of the United 
States Supreme Court, Marshall’s great co- ~ 
adjutor and the only one of his associates who 
fairly divides with him the fame of the early 
administration of that mighty bench, be ap- 
pointed the first Dane professor. 

Simultaneously, John Hooker Ashmun, then 
head preceptor of the Northampton school, 
was tendered the chait of the Royall professor- 
ship. The average of attendance at the Cam- 
bridge school had then sunk to that of a single 
student, but upon the acceptance of its head- 
ship by Judge Story a revival of interest was 
manifested and the close of his first year’s 
administration saw in the neighborhood of 30 
pupils enrolled. The Northampton school im- 
mediately ceased to exist and the Litchfield 
school was abandoned four years later. Pro- 
fessor Ashmun’s death in 1833 was followed 
by the election, as Judge Story’s colleague, of 
Simon Greenleaf, an advocate of eminence, the 
first official reporter of the decisions of the’ 
Supreme Judicial Court of the State of Maine, 
and the distinguished author of that treatise on 
the law of evidence, which at once became, 
as it has since remained, a standard of au- 
thority in all countries ruled by English law. 

The Yale Law School is second in age only 
to that of Harvard, and, while ordinarily spoken 
of as established in 1824, practically dates from 
the appointment in 1826 of Hon. David Daggett, 
a judge of the Superior Court of Connecticut, 
to the professorship of law in the college—a 
chair which had been established, indeed, as 
early as 1801, under the presidency of Rev. Dr. 
Timothy Dwight, and had been previously ad- 
ministered by the Hon. Elizur Goodrich, but 
merely as a lectureship on the leading principles 
of legal science with no view to qualifying 
students for the bar. Professor Daggett, how- 
ever, had been, up to the time of his appoint- 
ment, associated with a leading advocate, Sam- 
uel J. Hitchcock, in the conduct of a private 
law school in New Haven, and, under his su- 
pervision, the Yale department of law speedily 
took: shape as a practical law school. 

In 1833, graduates of the Litchfield school 
established a law school at Cincinnati, and 
similar schools were founded at Louisville, Ky., 
in 1846 and at Lebanon, Tenn., in 1847. The 
number of American law schools prior to 1850 
was thus extremely limited and the aggregate 
attendance upon their courses was correspond- 
ingly small. 

Twenty years later, in 1870, the number of 
law schools had increased to 28, with an aggre- 
gate attendance of 1,653 students. In 1880 there 
were 48 schools, serving 3,134 students; in 1890, 
54 schools with 4,518 attendants, and in 1901 
the number of schools had reached 100, with 


more than 13,000 pupils enrolled. The report 


of the United States Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for 1910 gives statistics of attendance at 
114 law schools of a total student body num- 
bering 19,567, of whom 205 were women. The 


132 


distribution of these schools among the various 
States was as follows: One each in Alabama, 
Arkansas, Connecticut, Idaho, Maine, New Jer- 
sey, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, 
Texas, Utah, Washington and West Virginia; 
two each in Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Kansas, 
Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Oregon and Wisconsin; three each in Georgia, 
Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska and Vir- 
ginia; four each in California, Pennsylvania 
and North Carolina; five each in Kentucky and 
Tennessee; six each in the District of Columbia, 
Indiana and Missouri; seven in Ohio and nine 
each in Illinois and New York. The signifi- 
cance of this vast and rapid growth may- per- 
haps be more readily grasped when one remem- 
bers that from 1875 to 1899 the number of 
students enrolled in professional schools in the 
United States increased as follows: In theol- 
ogy, 58 per cent; in medicine, 177 per cent; in 
law, 343 per cent. 

In 1910 there were 184 American schools of 
theology, with an attendance of 11,012 students, 
an increase of 3,000 students over the number 
of students in 1900, while the number of stu- 
dents in the 114 law schools rose from 12,516 in 
1900 to 19,567 in 1910. 

At 55 law schools the course essential 1o 
graduation covers three years; at 38 a two- 
years’ course leads toa bachelor’s degree, while 
five institutions in the Southern States have 
only a one-year course. Under the influence of 
the section on legal education of the American 
Bar Association, a constant and gratifying ad- 
vance in the standard of instruction and in the 
lengthening of the course for the bachelor’s de- 
gree in American law schools is to be noted. 
In 1890, only eight schools required three years’ 
attendance for the bachelor’s degree, while eight 
years later progress in this direction had been 
so great that no less an authority than Joseph 
H. Choate, in the annual address delivered be- 
fore the American Bar Association, did not 
hesitate to declare, “The standard of legal edu- 
cation has never before been advanced to its 
present height. The young men who come 
annually from the law schools to recruit our 
ranks, are better equipped and qualified — far 
more so, than we ever were—to enter upon 
the arduous and responsible duties that await 
them.” 

The marked elevation in the requirements 
for admission to American schools of law~is 
shown by the fact that while, prior to 1877, 
no entrance examinations were prescribed. in 
any of them, and so late as 1890 there was but 
a single institution demanding a demonstration 
of precedent educational attainments equivalent 
to the requirements for college matriculation, 
nearly ‘one-half of the recognized law schools 
of this country now deny admission to appli- 
cants except upon terms that would practically 
secure their entrance to the average college of 
liberal arts. The highest standard of admission 
is that prescribed by Harvard, which for some 
years past has refused to admit, as candidates 
for degrees of law, students not holding the 
degree of bachelor of arts, conferred by some 
college of recognized standing. In this position 
the Cambridge authorities have been followed, 
not without great hesitation and well-founded 
reluctance, by Columbia. The strongest objec- 
tion to such a requirement may be summed up 
in the statement that, there being no necessary 


LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF 


correlation between the courses of study pur- 
sued by various students in different institu- 


tions leading up to the academic degree, its 


possession is not strong evidence of any special 
equipment for the pursuit of legal studies; and 
that the object aimed ‘at might be better and 
more directly attained by the establishment of 
entrance examinations at the various schools 
of law sufficiently comprehensive in scope and 
exhaustive-in character to establish the appli- 
cant’s fitness to enter intelligently upon the 
study of the principles of law. \ Ninety-seven 
schools, with an enrolment of 8,464 students, 
constituting the Association of American Law 
Schools, have united in the uniform requirement 
that each school belonging to the association 
shall maintain an entrance examination equiv- 
alent to that required for graduation from a 
high school. 

It is a matter of singular interest that with 
the steadily advancing standard of entrance re- 
quirements, there has followed an almost equiv- 
alent decline in the importance of a diploma of 
graduation from a law school as a factor in 
securing admission to the bar. Formerly, in 
many jurisdictions, such a diploma was by 
statute an immediate passport to the practice of 
the profession, but with the stiffening of the 
educational requirements demanded of the law 
student there has most fortunately concurred 
a quickening of the conscience of the courts as 
to their duties and responsibilities in the prem- 
ises; with the result that the sound judgment 
of lawyers and legal educators has been gradu- 
ally led to endorse the proposition that it is 
neither logical nor desirable for schools of law 
in no way subject to the supervision of the 
courts to possess the unrestricted power to 
create officers thereof. The influence of the 
American Bar Association and its junior organ- 
ization, the Association of American Law 
Schools, has for some years been steadily and 
wisely directed to securing the abolition of the 
exercise by law schools of this power, which 
should properly be exercisable only by the 
courts. While there can be no doubt of the 
eventual establishment of this reform wuniver- 
sally, a law school diploma still admits to the 
bar in the States of Alabama, Georgia, Kansas, 
Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, 
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, 
West Virginia and Wisconsin. 

In many of the States this matter has now 
been wisely regulated by placing the matter 
of admission to the practice of law exclusively 
within the jurisdiction of State boards of law 
examiners, the members of such boards being 
usually appointed in rotation for fixed terms by 
the justices of the highest appellate courts of 
the respective States. 

As the American school of law was prac- 
tically compelled to construct its own road to 
success, it is not unnatural that there should 
have arisen considerable divergence of opinion 
and of practice in the matter of methods of 
instruction. Roughly, it may be said that three 
systems have prevailed; a system of instruction 
by lectures and dictation; a system of instruc- 
tion by the study of and recitation from pre- 
scribed textbooks of authority; and a system of 
instruction confined largely to the reading and 
expounding of selected cases of leading imfort- 
ance, indicated by the instructor, through which 
the student is encouraged to delve for a mas- 


LAW, CANON 


tery of the principles involved. The latter 
method, first generally introduced on a scientific 
basis by Prof. C. C. Langdell, Dane professor 
of law at Harvard, and since greatly elaborated 
by his colleagues, Profs. James Barr Ames, 
Joseph H. Beale, Jr., and Samuel R. Williston, 
as well as by Prof. W. A. Keener, of Columbia, 
and Prof. Ernest Huffcut, of Cornell, may be 
justly considered the prevailing system in ‘our 
law schools of to-day, although justice requires 
the statement that none of these methods is or 
ever has been exclusive of the others, but 
rather that the curriculum of every well- 
directed law school in the present, as in the 
past, has ever included a greater or less pro- 
portion of attention to each of these systems. 

No review of the history of American law 
schools would be just or complete which failed 
to note the remarkable debt under which the 
practice and the administration of law in this 
country has been placed by the contributions to 
legal literature made by members of their vari- 
ous faculties in the form of standard textbooks, 
usually, if not universally, the outgrowth of 
carefully prepared courses of lectures primarily 
designed solely for the guidance of their stu- 
dent bodies. Reeve’s on ‘Domestic Relations,” 
Gould on ‘Pleading? and Kent’s ‘Commen- 
taries on American Law? have already been 
instanced. Story’s treatises on the ‘Elements 
of Constitutional Law? and on ‘Equity Juris- 
prudence? ; Greenleaf’s exhaustive summariza- 
tion of the law of evidence and Parsons’ great 
work on the ‘Law of Contracts? constitute three 
monuments of this sort which alone would re- 
flect imperishable renown on the Harvard Law 
School could it point to no other ground of 
claim to its present distinction. And an inter- 
esting parallelism subsists between the facts 
that, as it was the donation to Oxford by Viner 
of the profits of his compendious abridgment 
of English law which furnished the foundation 
of the Vinerian professorship, the first and 
greatest fruit of which was the elaboration by 
Sir William Blackstone of his course of lec- 
tures into the imperishable ‘Commentaries on 
the Law of England, so it was the donation to 
Harvard by Dane of the profits of his later 
abridgment of law which directly stimulated 
the production of Joseph Story’s masterly work 
on ‘Equity Jurisprudence.” 

Other notable instances of legal authorship 
in point are the great work on ‘Constitutional 
Limitations,» by Judge Cooley of the law school 
of the University of Michigan, the elaborate 
and finished analysis of private international 
law by Prof. Raleigh C. Minor of the University 
of Virginia, and the learned exposition of the 
‘Law of Estoppel? by Melville M. Bigelow, of 
the ‘Law of Wills and Administration, by 
James Schouler, and of the ‘Law of Wills,” by 
George Enos Gardner, of Boston University. 

C. Vey Hotman, LL.M., 
Lecturer on Mining Law, University of Maine. 


LAW, Canon. See Canon Law for history 
previous to the new Code. 


LAW, Canon, The New Code of. That 
the Catholic Church, as a perfect society, en- 
joys the right of directing her members by 


positive laws in the attainment of her end, the 


sanctification and salvation of souls, no one 
will deny. Early Christians, strong in their 
belief and diligent in the observance of di- 


133 


vine precepts, were guided chiefly by apostolic 
men and by the Sacred Scriptures. Increasing 
in number, spreading over the world and grow- 
ing less fervent in religious practices, Chris- 
tians were of necessity subjected more and 
more to positive regulations. Various laws to 
meet various conditions of time and place 
were enacted, for while the Church is immu- 
table in her doctrine, her discipline is neces- 
sarily subject to change. Indeed of the many 
ecclesiastical laws promulgated throughout the. 
centuries, not a few had been abrogated by the 
supreme authority of the Church, some had 
become obsolete, while others, owing to 
changed conditions, were found to be difficult 
of execution or less useful and expedient for 
the common good. Because too of their number 
and the fact that they were not easily acces- 
sible, Pius X, soon after his election as Pope, 
4 Aug. 1903, realizing how helpful it would be 
for the stable restoration of ecclesiastical dis- 
cipline to put an end to these inconveniences 
resolved to arrange in a clear and orderly col- 
lection all the laws of ‘the Church that had 
appeared adown the ages, abolishing those 
that had become obsolete, adapting others to 
present needs, and enacting new ones as neces- 
sity or expediency might suggest. The first 
steps were taken in March 1904, a commission, 
as it is called, of cardinals being put in charge 
of the project under the leadership of Cardinal 
Gasparri, while canonists of note from various 
countries were asked to aid by their counsel 


and labors. The work when nearing completion 


was submitted to the bishops of the world, 
whose suggestions had been sought in the 
beginning, as well as to the superiors of re- 
ligious orders, for a final expression of opinion 
on the prepared canons. Meanwhile Pius X 
had been succeeded in the chair of Peter by 
Pope Benedict XV, to whom it fell to give to 
the world on Pentecost, 27 May 1917, the com- 
pleted code, over 13 years after the inception 
of the task. The prescriptions of the new code, 
however, did not become effective till the fol- 
lowing Pentecost, 19 May 1918: The bull of 
promulgation, which is styled, as is the custom, 
from the first words Providentissima Mater 
Ecclesia — Most’ Provident Mother Church, is 
addressed: To our venerable brethren and 
beloved ‘sons, the patriarchs, primates, arch- 
bishops, bishops and other ordinaries, and also 
to professors and students of Catholic uni- 
versities and seminaries. The code, as might 
be expected, is in Latin, the language of the 
Church. To translate it tnto another tongue 
or to reprint the original Latin text permission 
of the Holy See is required. 

Introduction—A lengthy preface to the 
code, written by Cardinal Gasparri, enters ex- 
tensively into the history of canon or ecclesi- 
astical law and its compilations, giving especially 
the particulars of the present codification. Then 
come the constitution providentissima and a 
decree (15 Sept. 1917) of Benedict XV, by 
which a commission of cardinals and counsellors 
is instituted to interpret the new code. This 
constitution moreover reminds the Roman con- 
gregations that their office is to enforce the law 
and forbids them to issue new regulations of 
general character, except the need be apparent. 
Such new legislation, if contrary to: the code, 
must have the approval of the Pope. The 
commission will see also that insertions or 


134 


additions to the code are put in the proper place 
and all discrepancies removed. Thus it is hoped 
to keep the code ever complete and consonant 
with actual circumstances or needs. These con- 
stitutions are followed by a profession of 
faith, in the usual form, which is obligatory at 
certain specified times for certain clerics, as for 
example in synods or on promotion to a parish. 
This formula then will be at hand when 
required. 

Contents and Divisions.— The code, com- 
prising 2,414 canons, is divided into five books. 
The first book contains certain preliminaries and 
general: ‘notions concerning laws, customs, re- 
scripts, privileges, dispensations and the method 
of computing periods of time as applicable in 
canon law. The other books treat respectively 
of persons, things, processes, crimes. and 
punishments. We note the following: Future 
laws, emanating from the Holy See, will not 
bind, unless otherwise stated, wntil three months 
after their promulgation in the official period- 
. ical, Acta Apostolicae Sedis. Laws, however, 
that are merely confirmatory of natural or 
positive divine law are of immediate obligation. 
Bishops or other legislators inferior to the 
Holy See are free to adopt any adequate 
method of making known their laws, and may 
insist on immediate observance of them. Laws 
are assumed to be territorial, not personal, 
unless there is evidence to the contrary. Dis- 
ciplinary laws, not found in the code, are 
abrogated; liturgical norms on the contrary 
‘remain in force. Merely prohibitive laws must 
be clearly distinguished from those that render 
an act null. Subjection to local laws, with 
certain exceptions, is determined by domicile, 
namely, by dwelling in a place with the inten- 
tion of remaining there. A domicile is usually 
parochial, though a person may possess a 
domicile in a diocese and not in a particular 
parish. One who is unbaptized, or, if baptized, 
has not attained the use of reason or is men- 
tally irresponsible, is not subject to ecclesiastical 
laws. Those who are under 21 years of age 
are minors, beyond that majors; an idea that 
has its bearing in the application of certain laws. 
Dioceses are divided territorially into parishes, 
while in countries where dioceses do not exist, 
but vicariates and prefectures apostolic, these 
divisions are styled missions or quais-parishes. 
The priest who is in charge of a parish is a 
pastor, while a rector administers a mission, 
Parishes are determined by territorial lines, not 
by languages or nationalities, though where 
these latter exist they are to remain. 

By virtue of the constitution sapiente con- 
silio the Roman congregations, tribunals and 
offices were remodeled under Pius X. Some 
further changes are noted in the code... The 
Holy Office assumes the work of the congrega- 
tion of the index; a separate congregation for 
Oriental affairs is established while the congre- 
gation of seminaries and universities appears 
with its new title. The privileges of cardinals 
are mentioned in detail. Bishops for the most 
part are selected directly’ by the Holy See, 
must be at least 30 years of age and possess 
the qualities demanded by the office. A 
diocesan bishop is obliged to pay an official 
or canonical visit to the various parishes and 
institutions of his territory at least every five 
years, while all are required at prescribed 
times, varying from 3 to 10 years according 


LAW, CANON 


to the distance from Rome, to report personally 
to the Holy See. The bishops of America 
are called on also for a written report every 
five years. A diocesan bishop is assisted by a 
vicar-general, who has jurisdiction throughout 
the diocese, and various others who constitute 
the episcopal curia or official family of the 
bishop... An official, distinct from the vicar- 
general if the yolume of work involved require 
it, has charge of juridical matters. Deans or 
vicars forane enjoy minor delegated powers, 
each within his own section of the diocese. A 
bishop has his advisory board. In some coun- 
tries the cathedral chapter fills this office, but 
in America the diocesan counsellors are priests, 
usually six in number, selected by the bishop | 
for a term of three years from the clergy of 
the episcopal city or vicinity. All matters re- 
lating to them are determined in the code. 
Appointments to ecclesiastical offices should be. 
in writing. 

Pastors.— It is the mind of the Church 
that a pastor’s tenure of office, as far as the 
good of religion will permit; should be per- 
manent. In the United States some are per- 
manent, others not. Bishops, however, may 
with the advice of the cathedral chapter or 
council, grant permanent pastors to all parishes. 
Parishes that may be erected in ‘the future will 
have permanent pastors, unless the bishop in 
consultation with his advisory board decide 
otherwise. A concursus or competitive ex- 
amination, where formerly prescribed for pro- 
motion to a pastorate, still remains in force. 
A non-competitive examination is required for 
appointment in other cases. All pastors, even 
though they belong to the permanent class, may 
be removed, transferred or demoted for rea-. 
sons assigned in law. Unbecoming. conduct, 
physical or mental unfitness, the peculiar quali- 
ties of the pastor which the bishop wishes to 
employ elsewhere, and other causes are found 
among the legal reasons for removal. In all 
cases where the authorities proceed without the 
consent of the pastor in question. certain 
formalities must be observed, and when a 
criminal charge is alleged as the reason for 
action, formal judicial proceedings are required. 

Pastoral duties and rights remain | prac- 
tically as they were in previous. legislation, 
though our former rectors are now pastors 
with parochial rights, obligations and privileges 
by reason of their office. They may now grant 
absolution from sin in the sacrament. of pen- 
ance under the usual conditions, to the mem- 
bers of their parish, not merely within the 
limits of their diocese, but anywhere through- 
out the world. They have the obligation, bind- 
ing in strict justice, of applying, the Holy 
Sacrifice of the Mass for their parishioners on 
all Sundays, and some other specified days 
during the year. The administration of the 
sacraments of baptism and extreme unction, 
and assisting at the marriage and burial of 
parishioners, are parochial rights, reserved to 
pastors ordinarily. The chief duties incum- 
bent on pastors are to reside in the parish, 
preach, instruct, visit the sick and to administer 
in every. way to the spiritual welfare of their 
people. .The administration of the temporal 
goods of the parish is a most important duty | 
in some countries. The number, appointment 
and removal of associate pastors or assistant 
priests belongs to the bishop of the diocese. 


LAW, CANON 


Clerics and Religious.— The clerical state 
is embraced in the reception of. tonsure. 
Every cleric must be attached to a diocese or to 
a religious community. A bishop may promote 
to the priesthood or other orders his own sub- 
jects only. In this respect one becomes sub- 
ject to a bishop either by reason of his birth 
and domicile in the diocese, or by acquiring a 
domicile in the diocese. For legitimate reasons 
a cleric, if he desire, may be transferred from 
one diocese to another with the approval of 
both bishops. The transfer, with a few ex- 
ceptions, must be made in writing. 

A novitiate or period of probation of at 
least one year is necessary for admission to the 
religious state. Then follow vows of. poverty, 
chastity and obedience for three years, after 
which perpetual vows may be made, if agree- 
able to superiors. Some religious are likewise 
clerics. The profession of perpetual vows in 
a religious society releases a cleric from his 
diocese. Should he later for any reason what- 
ever be dispensed from his vows or become 
secularized, he must find a bishop who is will- 
ing to accept him. A cleric: who has not made 
perpetual vows in religion reverts, on leaving 
his community, to the diocese to which he was 
canonically attached. 

The Sacraments.—As far as possible the 
sacraments are to be conferred in a church, 
not in private houses. The ordinary minister 
of the sacraments of confirmation and orders 
is a bishop; of the other sacraments, a priest. 
As baptism is necessary for salvation, infants 
receive this sacrament. At least one sponsor, 
if possible, is required in baptism, while more 


than two, one of each sex, are not allowed. — 


A sponsor, as a rule, should have reached the 
age of 14. To act in this capacity clerics in 
major orders require their bishop’s permission, 
while religious are excluded except in case of 
necessity, and then too permission of the 
proper superior is necessary. Only the spiritual 
relationship which is contracted in baptism con- 
stitutes at present a nullifying matrimonial im- 
pediment, and merely between the one baptized 
and the sponsors; a modification of previous 
discipline. Confirmation is not to be ad- 
ministered ordinarily to children under seven 
years of age. A sponsor is required and one 
only is permitted. The same sponsor acts for 
one or at most for two, though the prelate 
confirming may for sufficient reason determine 
otherwise. As a rule the same sponsor should 
not act for the same person both in baptism 
and confirmation. 

Not every priest, merely by reason of his 
ordination, is qualified to hear sacramental con- 
fessions. To pronounce sentence in _ the 
tribunal of penance he needs jurisdiction. This 
a bishop grants for his own diocese. A special 
authorization is required to hear the confes- 
sions. of religious or. novices in their own 
houses. . 

Any priest not inhibited may offer the Holy 
Sacrifice of the Mass once each day, twice in case 
of necessity on Sundays or other days on which 
the faithful. are obliged to hear Mass, three 
times on Christmas and All Souls Day (2 Nov- 
ember). Mass and the distribution of Holy 
Communion are allowed from one hour before 
the aurora till one hour after midday. An 
exception to this regulation permits Mass at 
midnight on Christmas eve with certain restric- 


135 


tions. No matter how late the hour the cele- 


. brant must be fasting from midnight. On 


Good Friday the Mass of the presanctified, 
without consecration, |is offered and the 
Blessed Eucharist is not: distributed to the 
people. The sick at times, under well-defined 
conditions, are permitted to receive Holy Com- 
munion when ‘not. fasting. All who have at- 
tained the use of reason are obliged to receive 
Holy Communion at Easter time> In some 
countries only two weeks, from the Sunday © 
before till the. Sunday after Easter, are allowed 
for. fulfilling this precept. Bishops may, how- 
ever, extend the period from the fourth Sun- 
day of Lent—and in the United States from 
the first Sunday of Lent—to Trinity Sunday. 
Frequent, even. daily, communion is -recom- 
mended. 

In Extreme Unction, the anointing of the 
feet may be omitted for any reasonable cause. 
The anointing of one sense, preferably of the 
forehead, with a briefer verbal form too than 
usual, will suffice, when death appears im- 
minent., The usual prayers. and unctions are 
supplied later, should death be delayed. This 
sacrament is administered conditionally, when 
it is doubtful whether the person. is actually 
sick. unto death, or is still alive, or has at- 
tained the use of reason. 

At least the theological course of candi- 
dates for the priesthood should be spent in a 
seminary. The age prescribed for the various 
orders remains as before, except that tonsure 
may not be given before the candidate has 
commenced the study of theology, subdeacon- 
ship not earlier than toward the end of the 
third year of theology, deaconship at the be- 
ginning and priesthood after the middle of the 
fourth. The space that should intervene be- 
tween the orders is practically left to the judg- 
ment of the bishop.. Nevertheless the reception 
of tonsure and a minor order, or all four minor 
orders, or the last minor order and subdeacon- 
ship, or two major orders on the same day is 
forbidden. While the Saturdays of the ember 
weeks, the Saturday before Passion Sunday and 
the Saturday of Holy Week are the usual 
ordination days, tonsure may be given on any 
day, minor orders on Sundays and feast days 
that are doubles (a, liturgical term), major 
orders on Sundays and holydays. All privi- 
leges contrary to these prescriptions have been 
withdrawn. Irregularities, which are certain 
canonical hindrances either to the reception or 
to the exercise of orders, have undergone some 
modifications. The law is precise in demand- 
ing testimonial letters, examinations and 
Spiritual exercises in preparation for orders. 
Announcement too is made in one’s parish that 
he is about to receive a major order. 

Espousals, to have any effect, must be in 
writing and properly witnessed. The marriage 
of a Catholic is not recognized unless it take 
place in the presence of a pastor or ordinary 
(bishop, vicar-general or administrator) within 
his own territory or before a priest duly dele- 
gated by one of these, and two witnesses. 
Some exceptions are made to the general rule 
when one of the contracting parties is in dan- 
ger of death, and in other cases when it is 
foreseen that a duly authorized priest cannot be 
approached within a month. The age of law- 
ful consent for marriage is 16 for the male, 
14 for the female. A Catholic contracts mar- 


136 LAW, CIVIL — LAW, 


riage invalidly with an  unbaptized person, 


illicitly with a baptized non-Catholic, without . 


proper: dispensation. Until the code became 
effective a marriage between a baptized and un- 
baptized person was always null. At present 
disparity of worship, as this impediment is 
called, nullifies a marriage only when one of 
the parties has been baptized in the Catholic 
Church or has been received into the Church. 
Affinity, which arises from a valid matrimonial 
contract, constitutes a diriment impediment, 
indefinitely in the direct line, inclusive of the 
second degree in the indirect. Public decency 
or fitness, an impediment which has its origin 
in an invalid marriage or in public or notorious 
coneubinage, does not extend beyond the sec- 
ond degree and then in the direct line only. 
The impediment of consanguinity, which 
formerly embraced the fourth degree in the 
collateral line, now ceases at the third; thus 
second cousins are within the prohibited de- 
gree: in the direct line marriage is never 
tolerated. The reception of subdeaconship, as 
well as a solemn religious profession, begets a 
diriment impediment. The forcible retention, 
as well as abduction, of a woman with a view 
to marriage, renders her incapable of a lawful 
matrimonial consent, while still in duress. 
Fear or force may be sufficient to invalidate 
matrimonial consent. The Church may for 
sufficient reasons dispense in matrimonial im- 
pediments which she herself originated, not in 
. those which are founded on the natural or 
divine law. 

Holydays and Fasting.—Catholics on 
holydays are bound to abstain from servile 
work and to assist at Mass. The feasts of 
Christmas, Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension, 
Corpus Christi, Immaculate Conception, As- 
sumption, Saint Joseph, Saints Peter and Paul 
and All Saints are holydays, except where, 
with permission of the Holy See, they have 
been abrogated. Thus in the United States 
the feasts of Epiphany, Corpus Christi, Saint 
Joseph and Saints Peter and Paul are not ob- 
served as holydays. 

The law of abstinence forbids the eating of 
flesh meat, while the law of fasting allows 
only one full meal a day with a small amount 
morning and evening. The prohibition of par- 
taking of meat and fish at the same meal on 
certain days no longer obtains. The law both 
of abstinence and fasting ceases on Sundays 
or holydays, except on holydays during Lent. 
Abstinence alone is obligatory on all Fridays. 
The law of abstinence together with fasting is 
binding on Ash-Wednesday, the Fridays and 
Saturdays of Lent, Ember Days, and on the 
vigils of Pentecost, Assumption, All Saints 
and Christmas. On all other days of Lent 
fasting alone is incumbent on Catholics. Both 
laws cease at noon on Holy Saturday. All 
who. have reached the age of seven years are 
subject ‘to the laws of abstinence, while the 
regulations concerning fasting affect those who 
are between 21 and 60, unless they are excused 
through infirmity, hard labor or other legiti- 
mate reason. 

Records and Examinations.— The Church 
is solicitous concerning her records of bap- 
tisms, confirmations, marriages, orders, funerals 
and interments, financial matters and admin- 
istration of property, spiritual status of pa- 


CONSTITUTIONAL 


rishioners, etc. Many minute details in regard 
to all these matters are now prescribed. 

An examination is the usual method pre- 
scribed for determining one’s fitness for “re- 
ceiving orders, preaching, hearing sacramental 
confessions, accepting a pastorate. An annual 
examination for at least three years after pro- 
motion to the priesthood is prescribed for the 
diocesan clergy, as well as conferences, essays, 
papers and the like at stated times on theolog- 
ical subjects. 

Delicts, Processes and Punishments.— 
Crimes against faith, religion, ecclesiastical au- 
thority, violations of the rights of others, 
maladministration of ecclesiastical goods, abuse 
of authority, neglect of one’s duties, these and 
similar matters have their place in the code, 
with the process, judicial or extrajudicial, as 
the case may require, to be observed in estab- 
lishing guilt and inflicting punishment. Pre- 
scriptions regarding the personnel of courts 
and other matters are many and varied. The 
penalty to be inflicted in punishment of delicts 
or violation of law is often stated specifically 
in the code, sometimes it is left, within certain 
restrictions, to the presiding judge. Ecclesias- 
tical penalties for the most part are spiritual, 
the most severe of all being excommunication, 
suspension and interdict, which ‘are included 
under the general term of censure. Admoni- 
tions, corrections, penances, loss of emoluments, 
pecuniary fines, denial of promotion are among 
the less rigorous canonical punishments. Proc- 
esses that are not of a criminal character are 
likewise noted in the code, such as civil suits, 
processes to determine the invalidity of a 
matrimonial contract, of orders received, or of 
a religious profession, as well as various others 
that are extrajudicial. 

Conclusion.— Some constitutions that are 
not new, and which relate to the Holy See 
while vacant, the regulations governing the 
conclave in which the new Pope is elected and 
other matters during the interregnum, are 
given in the: code. A most satisfactory 
alphabetical index of its contents completes the 
volume. . 
Very Rev. ANDREW B. MEEHAN, 
Saint Bernard’s Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. 


LAW, Civil. See Civm Law. 


LAW, Commercial. See 
Law. 


LAW, Common. See Common Law. 


LAW, Constitutional, that part of public 
law which regulates the political organization 
of a State and so named because usually em- 
bodied in a written instrument called a con- 
stitution. It is sometimes spoken of as the 
organic or fundamental law of the State be- 
cause it is the basis of all other municipal law. 
It differs from international law in being 
wholly municipal in character and from admin- 
istrative law in that i#t regulates only in a gen- 
eral way the organization of the government, 
leaving the details to be regulated by the rules 
of administrative law. It differs from ordinary 
statute law both as to its source and method of 
enactment and as to its content. While statute 
law 1s enacted, modified and repealed by the 
legislature, constitutional law is usually enacted 
by a constituent convention especially chosen 
for the purpose while its validity is, in America 
at least, usually made to depend upon the ap- 


COMMERCIAL 


LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL 


proval of the electorate, to whom it is sub- 
mitted by way of referendum. Hence it is 
commonly said that constitutional law is enacted 
by the people, whereas statute law is the work 
of their representatives. This distinction as to 
method of enactment, however, is not universal. 
In some States the same bodies which enact 
ordinary statute law also ordain and alter the 
body of constitutional law. 

This is true in Great Britain, where the 
Parliament may alter the constitution in the 
same manner in which it may enact or repeal 
an ordinary statute. Likewise in France and in 
Germany the Parliaments may make amend- 
ments to the constitution subject only to the 
limitation that the French Chambers are re- 
quired to observe certain formalities which 
they do not observe in passing ordinary 
statutes, and in Germany an _ extraordinary 
majority is required. In Switzerland the peo- 
ple participate directly in the enactment of their 
constitutional law, not only through the refer- 
endum (q.v.) but also through the so-called 
initiative by which they are empowered to draw 
up proposed constitutional amendments and 
submit them directly to the electorate for ap- 
proval. For the different types of constitutions 
see the article: CONSTITUTION. 

The distinction between the content of con- 
stitutional law and that of ordinary statutory 
legislation is largely one of degree and in the 
States of the American Union this distinction 
is fast disappearing. Among the proper sub- 
jects of constitutional law are (1) the struc- 
ture and powers of the government including 
a distribution of its legislative, executive and 
judicial functions, among separate and distinct 
organs; (2) a definition of the class empowered 
to participate in the choice of elective officers 
and the method by which that choice is to be 
exercised; (3) the determination of the qualifi- 
cations, duties and privileges of those em- 
powered to hold government offices and man- 
dates; (4) the creation of a <phere of indi- 
vidual liberty — usually embodied in a bill of 
rights — upon which the government is for- 
bidden to encroach, and (5) provision for a 
legal and orderly method of making changes in 
the constitution so as to avoid the risks and 
dangers of revolution. In addition to these 
subjects which may be denominated the essen- 
tials of a constitution scientifically drawn, it is 
common to incorporate therein various pro- 
visions relating to education, patents, copy- 
rights, the army and the navy, the militia, cor- 
porations, public debts, rules of judicial pro- 
cedure, regulations concerning official salaries, 
taxation and administration, etc., which accord- 
ing to strictly juristic tests are more properly 
subjects for statutory regulation. The effect 
of this practice has been to introduce into the 
domain of constitutional law a considerable 
amount of private law, thus derogating from 
the principle that the constitution should be ex- 
clusively an instrument of public law. On the 
other hand the usual difficulty of amending the 
constitution so as to adapt it to new conditions 
and exigencies has made it necessary to deal 
with certain subjects by statutory legislation, 
although they are properly matters that should 
come within the province of constitutional law. 
Notable instances are statutes for the govern- 
ment of dependencies. Thus the ordinance of 
the old Confederate Congress of the United 


137 


States, passed in 1787, for the government of 
the Northwest Territory, the various statutes 
for the organization of the other Territories of 
the United States, the acts for the government 
of the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico were 
of the nature of constitutions of government 
for the dependencies to which they applied. 
They were mainly instruments of constitutional 
public law, although cast in the form of 
statutes. / 

A final distinction between constitutional 
law and statute law is the element of para- 
mountcy which belongs to the former. In all 
countries where constitutional law is a separate 
and distinct body of jurisprudence its prescrip- 
tions take precedence over all statutory enact- 
ments in case of a conflict between the two. 
In such cases the conflicting statute is said to 
be “unconstitutional” and is treated as invalid. 
The power of determining the fact of irrecon- 
cilability has been assumed by the judicial 
branch of the government in the United States 
and has been so long acquiesced in that the 
power will probably never be questioned, al- 
though it is not expressly conferred by the 
Constitution. In none of the continental 
European countries have the judiciaries as- 
sumed such power, and in England the “consti- 
tutionality? of an act of Parliament . can 
scarcely arise, since that body is legally omnip- 
otent. The rules for the construction of the 
prescriptions of constitutional law are essen-- 
tially the same as those for the construction 
of statutes except that constitutions are more 
strictly interpreted and constitutional com- 
mands are more often construed as mandatory 
where similar provisions in statutes would be 
treated as directory only. 

In the United States, and in fact in all coun- 
tries having the federal form of government, 
there are two bodies of constitutional law, 
namely, that which is national in scope and that 
which is local, the former being paramount to 
the latter in case of conflict. In the United 
States that part which is federal or na- 
tional consists of the Constitution “estab- 
lished and ordained by the people” in 1788, 
including the subsequent amendments thereto, 
together with the interpretations of the Federal 
judiciary and the usages and customs which 
have grown up in connection with the ad- 
ministration of the government. Among the 
important principles which have been developed 
as a result of judicial interpretation may be 
mentioned the right of the government to ac- 
quire and administer, foreign territory, the 
immunity of the saational government, its in- 
strumentalities and agencies from taxation by 
the States, the right of the government to issue 
legal tender paper currency. both in time of 
war and in time of peace, the exclusive power 
of Congress over foreign and interstate com- 
merce, the exclusive power of the States over 
all matters relating to the suffrage subject to 
the limitations of the 14th and 15th amend- 
ments, the right of the national government to 
undertake internal improvements, the right of 
the courts to declare laws unconstitutional, the 
right of Congress to abrogate a treaty, etc. 
Among the usages which have become for all 
practical purposes a part of Federal constitu- 
tional law may be mentioned: the ineligibility 
of the President for a third term, the obliga- 
tion of presidential electors to vote for the 


138 


party nominees, the power of the President 
to remove his appointees without the consent 
of the Senate, the method of legislation by the 
committee system, the requirement that repre- 
sentatives in Congress shall reside in the dis- 
tricts from which they are chosen, etc. 

Likewise the constitutional law of the in- 
dividual States is embodied in written constitu- 
tions, in most cases prepared by constituent as- 
semblies and approved by the electorate upon 
referendum, together with the amendments 
thereto and the interpretations of the State 
judiciaries. Several of the early State consti- 
tutions were prepared and put into effect by the 
legislatures or by irregular revolutionary as- 
semblies' without popular ratification. 

With one exception (Delaware), no altera- 
tion can be made in any of the existing consti- 
tutions without the approval of the people at 
the polls, and but three of the constitutions 
now in force were put into effect without rati- 
fication by the electorate. The earlier consti- 
tutions were brief instruments containing but 
little more than the law for the organization 
of the government and the necessary safe- 
guards for the protection of individual liberty, 
but the later ones are bulky documents: con- 
taining a vast amount of private law relating 
to matters which are properly subjects of 
statutory regulation. This increasing tendency 
to amplification has resulted from the popular 
distrust of the State legislatures and the conse- 
quent desire to place the regulation of many 
matters beyond the power of the legislature to 
alter or repeal it. The effect has been to 
destroy in a large degree the scientific distinc- 


tion between constitutional law and statutory | 


law, to retard the constitutional development of 
the commonwealth, and: to add confusion to 
the task of the student and the practical con- 
stitutional lawyer. 

In Great Britain the existing body of con- 
stitutional law differs in several respects from 
that of the United States. In the first place it 
is not so much the result of revolution nor is 
it so nearly the finished product of a constit- 
uent assembly. It is more the product of 
evolution and growth and is more largely un- 
written than that of the United States. More- 
over, what is written is scattered through dif- 
ferent acts instead of being contained in a 
single compact instrument. Finally, the Parlia- 
ment being the chief source of constitutional 
as well as of statutory law there are no juristic 
tests upon which a distinction may be founded 
a fact which has led Mr. A. V. Dicey, one 
of the most learned English commentators, to 
declare that the constitutional law of England 
is a “sort of maze in which the wanderer is 
perplexed by unreality.». He questions whether 
English constitutional law is really law, and 
expresses the opinion that it is only a cross 
between history and custom, undeserving of 
the name of law. As the term is used in Eng- 
land, he says, it includes all rules which define 
the members of the sovereign power and regu- 
late their relations to each other, which de- 
termine the mode in which the sovereign power 
is exercised, which prescribe the order of suc- 
cession to the throne,’ which regulate the 
prerogatives of the chief magistrate, determine 
the form of the legislature, define the territory 
of the state, etc. Such of these rules as are 
enforced by the courts he calls collectively the 


LAW CRIMINAL — 


LAW, MILITARY 


“law of the constitution” The others which 
consist of understandings, habits or practices, 
and which are not enforced by the courts, he 
calls the “conventions of the constitution,” or 
constitutional morality. To the former class 
belong the rule as to the irresponsibility of the 
king and the responsibility of his ministers; to 
the latter belong the rules relating to the 
executive veto, the initiation of revenue bills 
and the resignation of ministers. Monsieur 
Boutmy, a learned French commentator on the 
British Constitution, points out that the prin- 
cipal sources of the constitutional law of Eng- 
land are: (1) Treaties or quasi-treaties, such 
as the Acts of Union; (2) the common law; 
(3) solemn agreements, for example, the Bill 
of Rights; (4) statutes. Of the other European 
countries the constitutional law (Staatsrecht) 
of Germany is most nearly like that of the 
United States as to its source, content and dual 
character. The constitutional law of the French 
Republic may be dismissed within a sentence. 
It is embodied in a brief instrument of a few 
hundred words, contains a bare outline of the 
organization of the government, does not con- 
tain a solitary provision in behalf of individual 
liberty, and any part or the whole may be 
altered by the legislature at will. 

Bibliography.—Anson, ‘Law and Custom 
of the Constitution?; Burgess, ‘Political 
Science and Constitutional. Law?; Boutmy, 
‘Studies in Constitutional Law? ; Cooley, ‘Prin- 
ciples of Constitutional Law; Dicey, ‘The 
Law of the Constitution?; Story, ‘Com- 
mentaries on the Constitution?; Lebon, ‘Das 
Staatsrecht der franzdsischen Republic?; 
Laband, ‘Das.  Staatsrecht des deutschen 
Reiches?; Willoughby, ‘On the Constitution.” 

JAMES WILFORD GARNER, 

Professor of Political Science, University of 
Illinois. 


LAW, Criminal. See CRIMINAL Law. 
LAW, Customary. See Customary Law. 


LAW, International. See INTERNATIONAL 
Law. . 
LAW, Maritime. See Maritime Law. 


LAW, Military, a term, which, in its more 
restricted sense, describes the legal system that 
regulates the organization and government of 
the military establishment of a state and the 
discipline of its armed forces. It applies to 
the conduct of civilians in a very limited num- 
ber of cases. Even military persons are, 
ordinarily and in time of peace, amenable to 
military law for military offenses only — for 
instance, desertion, mutiny, insubordination, 
neglect of duty, unbecoming conduct, frauds 
upon the government, etc. Though officers 
and men may be further disciplined in ac- 
cordance with military law (by degradation, 
dismissal from service and other like penalties) 
for infractions of the law of the land, they are 
answerable in time of peace for such infrac- 
tions, in the first instance, to the civil authori- 
‘ties and triable in the ordinary courts of law. 
An interesting controversy on this subject 
arose while the Pershing expedition was in~ 
Mexico on its hunt for the bandit Villa. 
Several men were accused of violations of the 
local law, and the question was whether they 
should be delivered to the civil authorities for 
trial in the Mexican courts, or whether they 


LAW, MILITARY 


should be judged by their own proper military 
tribunals. The United States were not at war 
with the Mexican government and, out of re- 
spect for Mexican punctilio, the authorities at 
Washington had disavowed any intenpretation 
of its intervention as purposing an occupa- 
tion. The conditions under which military 
penalties are usually applied to civil offenses, 
therefore, did not, exist. It was finally de- 
cided that when an armed force enters foreign 
territory to carry out orders of its own 
sovereign superior, it cannot be assumed to 
submit itself to the civil jurisdiction of. the 
country thus entered; that a condition simulat- 
ing war exists and that martial law prevails in 
the zone of operations and so far as the mem- 
bers of the expedition are concerned. The 
obscurities on this point’ have since been re- 
moved by the amended Articles of War, 
adopted by Congress in 1916. 

The greatest part of the military law. of 
the United States is statutory and its most 
important provisions are contained in the 
Articles of ~War. These statutes, like other 
enactments of Congress, are subject to interpre- 
tation by the higher civil courts, and judicial 
decisions interpreting the law in cases as they 
arise are of equal authority with the statutes 
themselves. Among other forms of written 
military law may be mentioned the decisions of 
the President and Secretary of War; the 
opinions of the Attorney-General and Judge 
Advocate-General; the Army Regulations and 
the General Orders of the War Department. 
The latter include the famous “General Order 
No. 100 (of 1863) for the Conduct of Ameri- 
can Armies in the Field» There is also a 
body of well-established usages, known among 
military men’ as the “law of war,” which 
corresponds to the common law in_ binding 
force. A distinction is made between. military 
and martial law; but martial law, with respect 
to the army, is merely military law under war 
conditions. In a state of war the penalties for 
offenses of a military character greatly in- 
crease in severity. Desertion and insubordina- 
tion are, and neglect of duty may be, punished 
with death. A sentinel found asleep at his 
post “shall suffer death, or such other penalty 
as a court martial may direct.” Persons in 
the military service who, in time of war, com- 
mit larceny, robbery, burglary, arson, mayhem, 
manslaughter, murder, rape or assault. and 
battery with intent to kill or to accomplish a 
rape, are not punishable by the civil courts but 
by the sentence of a general court-martial. 
The military courts may also take cognizance 
of other offenses than those enumerated when 
committed by military persons in time of war. 
The sentence of a court-martial shall not be 
less than the penalty provided: for by the civil 
law of the place. When a crime is committed 
by an American soldier in a hostile country 
against the inhabitants thereof, it is not only 
punishable as at home, but, in all cases in which 
the death penalty is not ordinarily inflicted, 
the severer penalty shall be preferred. This 
last-mentioned rule ‘is really a part of the un- 
written law of war and, specifically, of the 
“aw of hostile occupation” or “military gov- 
ernment” It is difficult, however, to distin- 
guish between the various kinds of military law 
as applied to individuals. Both the statutory 
law of the United States (which is national) 


-army or the success of its operations. 


138 


and the commen law of war (which is inter- 
national), provide penalties for wrongs done to 
the inhabitants of occupied territory. For in- 
stance, it is declared in the Articles of War 
that, an officer or soldier who does violence to 
a person bringing provisions to a camp in 
foreign parts may, and one who forces a safe- 
guard shall, suffer death. 

With respect to civilians the ordinary civil 
and criminal laws are not, ipso-facto, suspended 
when a nation is at war, though in a zone of 
actual operations military rule may be estab- 
lished and martial law enforced. But in 
hostile territory occupied by an invading army 
the functions of civil government cease, or 
continue only with the sanction and, if deemed 
necessary, the participation of the occupier. 
The latter may, and will, continue in force the 
territorial law, to be administered as between 
the civilian population and, as far as prac- 
ticable, by the. local magistracy, when to do so is 
notin conflict with provisions for the security, 
maintenance and’ efficiency of the occupying 
But the 
government of occupied territory is of neces- 
sity military and any violation of the law of 
war by a civilian comes under the jurisdiction 
of the military tribunals of the occupier. Re- 
lieving the enemy with money, food or am- 
munition; harboring or protecting an enemy; 
aiding war prisoners to escape, or destroying 
railroads, bridges, telegraphs, etc., are war 
crimes. Any secret or unauthorized communi- 
cation with the enemy is considered treasonable 
by the law of war. Foreign residents in oc- 
cupied territory, or foreign visitors in the same, 
can claim no immunity from this law. They 
may communicate with foreign parts so far as 
the military commander permits and no further. 
A war crime is always severely punished. 
The penalty for war treason is death, when the 
offense consists in the betrayal to the enemy 
of anything concerning the condition, safety, 
operations or plans of the troops holding or 
occupying the place or district. The law of 
war, like the criminal law, takes no account of 
sex, concerning the spy, the war traitor or the 
war rebel. (General Order No. 100, Art. 
102). Most of the offenses indicated above as 
crimes under the common law of war are also 
defined as crimes in the statutory law of the 
United States. They are punishable in accord- 
ance with the latter law. whether or not com- 
mitted within zones of operation or in hostile 
occupied territory. Martial law at home is a 
mere euphemism for military government as a 
domestic fact. It is an extension of military 
power over persons and things not ordinarily 
subject to it, and such power may be exercised 
in time of war, insurrection or rebellion in 
parts of the country retaining allegiance. 
Whenever feasible, martial law is carried out 
in cases of individual offenders by military 
tribunals. (General Order No. 100, Art. 12). 

Courts-martial are tribunals created by the 
order of a proper convening authority and are 
empowered to try accusations, reach findings 
of guilt or innocence and to impose appro- 
priate sentences. Their sentences, however, 
have no legal validity of themselves, being in 
the nature of recommendations merely until 
they have received the approval of a military 
commander, designated by law for this purpose, 
who is called the reviewing authority. Only 


140 


with such approval or confirmation do the 
sentences of these tribunals become operative 
and acquire the same sanction as the sentences 
of civil courts having criminal jurisdiction. 
Courts-martial differ trom civil tribunals not 
only in the nature and extent of their jurisdic- 
tion but also in the manner of their creation. 
Civil courts are created: by statutes which 
define their composition and endow them with 
appropriate powers, and which make them 
permanent institutions of the State. Courts- 
martial, on the other hand, though authorized 
by statute, are created in every instance by 
military orders issued by the commander-in 
chief or other officers empowered by the 
Articles of War to call them into being. When 
the case, or cases, referred to a court-martial 
for trial have been disposed of, the tribunal 
is dissolved by the authority that created it 
and ceases to exist. 

Courts-martial may be composed only of 
commissioned officers and are of three grades 
—general courts-martial, special and summary 
courts-martial. Special and summary courts-, 
martial are tribunals of limited powers, ap- 
pointed by the commandants of garrisons, forts, 
camps or other places where troops are on 
duty, for the enforcement of discipline among 
the rank and file of their commands. They 
have no jurisdiction over commissioned officers 
nor over the more serious military offenses. 
Special or summary courts-martial can impose 
no penalties more severe than imprisonment 
and loss of pay for six or three months, re- 
spectively. Non-commissioned officers cannot 
be tried by a summary court, if they object, 
without authority of a superior officer who 
would be competent in law to bring them to 
trial before a general court. Neither may a 
summary court try a soldier holding the 
privileges of a certificate of eligibility to pro- 
motion to commissioned rank. Special courts- 
martial are composed of three officers of the 
regiment, corps or other detachment, or of the 
camp or garrison, for which they are ap- 
pointed. A summary court for a detachment 
or post in which there is but one commissioned 
officer may consist of that officer alone; but its 
judgments, in that event, cannot be carried out 
without the special approval of a superior au- 
thority if they involve penalties greater than 
one* month’s imprisonment and forfeiture of 
pay. As its name implies, the procedure of 
this court is summary. The officer constituting 
the court is not sworn, but performs his duty 
under sanction of his oath of office. When the 
accused party in arrainged, if his plea be guilty, 
he is given an opportunity to make a statement 
and to introduce testimony in respect to char- 
acter. If the plea be not guilty, the trial pro- 
ceeds in the usual manner, but the evidence is 
not recorded. The commanding officers who 
are empowered by law to approve the sentences 
of inferior courts-martial have power, also, to 
remit or mitigate the same. 

General courts-martial may be appointed by 
the President, the commanding officer of any 
territorial division or military department, the 
commanding officer of an army, a field army, 
an army corps, a division or a separate brigade. 
Also, whenever necessary, and when empowered 
by the President, by the commanding officer 
of any district or of any force or body of 
troops. When any commander “is the accuser 


LAW, MORAL —LAW, NATURAL 


or prosecutor the court shall be appointed by 
a superior competent authority. No officer 
shall be eligible to sit as a member of such 
court when he is the accuser or a witness for 
the prosecution. General courts-martial have 
the most extensive jurisdiction of all military 
tribunals, both in respect to persons and cases. 
They are empowered to try any military per- 
son, whatever his rank, for any act made pun- 
ishable by the Articles of War; also any other 
person, civilian or military, who, by the statutes 
of the United States or the common law of 
war, is subject to trial by a military tribunal. 
General courts-martial have the power to im- 
pose the death penalty, which special and 
summary courts have not. General courts- 
martial may consist of any number of officers 
from 5 to 13. They shall consist’ of the 
larger number when that many officers can be 
convened without manifest injury to the sery- 
ice. But the judicial functions of general 
courts-martial may be exercised only by prop- 
erly constituted tribunals of at least five mem- 
bers. A less number is without power to enter 
upon the trial of a case, to proceed with a 
trial already begun or to perform any act of a 
judicial character. The number of officers who 
shall compose a particular court is determined 
in conformity with the statute by the conven- 
ing authority, and his conclusion in that re- 
gard is final. No officer or soldier put in 
arrest shall be continued in confinement more 
than eight days or until such time as a court- 
martial can be assembled. The procedure of 
courts-martial is substantially the same as that 
of civil courts having criminal jurisdiction, 
The accused may challenge any member of the 
court for cause, but peremptory challenges are 
notallowed. The court and judge-advocate are 
sworn and witnesses are put to their oath. The 
allegations against the accused are embodied in 
charges and specifications which correspond 
with the indictment and counts in ordinary 
criminal actions. When. arraigned, the ac- 
cused may plead to the jurisdiction, in bar of 
the trial, or in abatement of the action. When 
these pleas are exhausted, or if none of them 
is resorted to and a plea to the general issue 
is made, the case goes to trial on its merits. 
The rules of evidence are those which regulate 
the admission of testimony in criminal cases 
in the courts of the United States. See HaBeas 
Corpus; HicH ‘Treason; Miurirary Courts 
MarTIAL; and consult ‘Regulations of the Army 
of the United States”? (Washington, Government 
Printing Office, 1916, containing the revised 


‘Articles of War); ‘Rules of Land Warfare? 


(issued by the War Department — Office of the 


Chief of Staff, Washington 1914). 
STEPHEN PFEIL. 
LAW, Moral. See Mosszs. 


LAW, Municipal. 
NICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 


LAW, Natural. Many laws have been 
found necessary to regulate the conduct of man 
in his various relations to society which are 
more or less arbitrary according to the re- 
quirements of localized conditions, but underly- 
ing them all are the laws of nature. 

If a man kill an animal and eats of its flesh 
he has no reason to conceal the act; he goes 
his way with a full stomach and a clear con- 
science, and no one charges him with the com- 


See GOVERNMENT; Mvu- 


LAW, PARLIAMENTARY -—-LAW OF HUSBAND AND WIFE 


mission of crime. He has simply conformed 
to the law of nature and answered the instinct 
of self-preservation. But if a man kill another 
man, his whole deportment, and even the ex- 
pression of his features, indicate the conscious- 
ness of guilt and fear. Natural law might be 
said to be the law dictated by conscience, not 
law deduced from man’s education and experi- 
ence in the world—law regulating his own 
general rights and duties in relation to the 
moral government of God, or Nature, and his 
own moral capacity and accountability. 

So natural law covers a man’s duty to God, 
or Nature — the duties of man toward himself, 
such as self-preservation, temperance, etc.; the 
duties of man toward other men or duties 
which arise from his relations to others near 
or dear to him; and finally the duties of man, 
generally and politically, to universal society, 
especially to the community in which he lives. 

At different periods of the world’s history 
men have had various conceptions of justice. 
Self-preservation was the basis of law among 
the Sophists of Greece and the Epicureans; the 
Stoics believed that natural law was founded 
upon reason and used the term “rational law.” 
Aristotle conceived natural justice to be partly 
legal (made by man) and partly natural (dic- 
tated by God). 

Natural law, or jus naturale, as defined by 
Roman philosophers and jurists, is that law 
which is naturally discerned by right reason, 
as opposed to the law found necessary and 
made by man for the safe conduct of the state 
under localized conditions or by agreement for 
the preservation of international rights. Later, 
however, they distinguished jus naturale from 
jus gentium, the former being known by Ulpian’s 
definition, “Natural law is that which nature 
has taught all living things,” and the datter in- 
cluding the laws of expressed or implied agree- 
ment between men, or humanistic laws. Aris- 
totle interpreted natural law simply as the law 
of nations; the Stoic conception was _ that 
natural law makes all men free, but that the law 
of nations permits slavery. The Epicureans 
thought that commercial trade or profit-making 
came under natural law. In the administration 
of Roman justice, natural law was often re- 
ferred to in justification of ‘an act of judgment, 
but the validity of a Roman law was never 
questioned because opposed to natural law. 

‘During the Middle Ages natural law seems 
to have been considered mostly in its humanistic 
aspect, that is, in its acquired or mnécessary 
application to particular conditions. Owing to 
the dominant religious trend of the period, 
natural law came to be identified with the law 
of God. And in the development of English 
and Continental law there seems to exist a 
stronger inclination to consult the flexible laws 
of human reason rather than the immutable 
rules of natural law. 

During the 17th and 18th centuries the the- 
ories and doctrines of natural law formed an 
important part of the discusstons in relation 
to international law, general jurisprudence, 
politics and political economy. This was par- 
ticularly true in relation to the rehabilitation 
of the laws relating to liberty, personal rights, 
property-holding, etc. But in the end utili- 
tarianism played a more important part in the 
period of legal reconstruction and reform. 

When jurisdiction passed from ecclesiastical 


141 


authorities to the people at large, the popular 
theory that conscience is the true interpreter 
of law (consult the writings of Marsiglio of 
Padua, c. 1270-c.. 1343) developed a strongly 
anarchistic trend, in that it made each man an 
arbiter of right and wrong, from whom no 
appeal could be taken to a higher authority. 
This view, of course, could not be carried to 
its logical extreme in practice. However, in 
England the populace gained the privilege of 
participating in the constitution of government. - 
mainly through the forced recognition of the 
natural-rights theories which they had long 
asserted against the Crown. The natural rights 
to which claim was chiefly made in the period 
of the enlightenment were those to life, liberty, 
the pursuit of happiness and property. As will 
be seen, the American Declaration of. Inde- 
pendence is an expression of the natural law 
theory. These same views were previously 
expressed in the writings of Locke and Rous- 
seau (qq.v.), and played an important part in 
the French Revolution. 

The theory ‘of natural law has ever had its 
adherents and its enemies. One reaction against 
it was notably set forth by Hobbes (q.v.). It 
can be variously construed, according to the 
philosophical reasoning of the definer. Some 
one reasons that polygamy is against natural 
law, another claims that marriage should never. 
exist at all; this one claims that it is natural 
for man to worship a Supreme Being, that one 
says that all religion is superstition and human 
weakness, and is not a natural desire. Unless, 
indeed, we assume that fundamentally all men’s 
consciences are the same, the interpretation of 
natural law is dependent upon the moral sensi- 
bilities of the individual. However, owing to 
the great measure of uniformity which actually 
exists in human nature, there is a certain high- 
est common factor of the many. diverse con- 
sciences of mankind, and this common factor is 
recognized in the formulation of all lezai issues. 
This common element does not owe its exist- 
ence to anything a priori in the nature of mor- 
ality, but to the de facto homogeneity of the 
human race. It can be seen that a community 
less in extent than the human race will possess 
more homogeneity, and accordingly it will pos- 
sess a natural law more developed in details. 
(See Law; Crvit Law; INTERNATIONAL Law). 
Consult Abbot, E: B., “Justice and the Modern 
Law? (New York 1913); Ahrens, ‘Cours de 
droit naturel? (8th ed., Leipzig 1892); Ansilotti, 
‘La ‘scuola del diritto naturale’ (Florence 
1892) ; Bergbohm ‘Das Naturrecht der: Gegen- 
wart? (Leipzig 1892); Bryce, Viscount, ‘The 
Law of Nature, in “Studies in History and 
Jurisprudence? (New York 1901); Gierke, 
‘Johannes Althusius und die Entwickelung der 
Naturrechtlichen Staatstheorien” (Leipzig 1880) ; 
Rothe, ‘Traité de droit naturel? (Paris 1884-95). 


LAW, Parliamentary. 
ARY LAw. 


LAW, Patent. See PATENTS, THE LAWS OF. 
LAW, Physical. 
LAW, Public. “See Pusric Law. 


LAW OF FAMILY, The. See Famity 
Law. 


LAW OF HUSBAND AND WIFE, The. 
See HusBAND AND WIFE. 


See PARLIAMENT- 


See PuHysIcs. 


142 


LAW OF MARRIAGE. See MaArriace, 
LAW OF. 


LAW MERCHANT, The. The law mer- 
chant was a system‘of law which grew up in 
Europe during the Middle Ages for the regula- 
tion of the dealings of mariners and merchants 
in all the commercial countries of the world. 
It comprised much of what is found in the 
modern codes of maritime and commercial law. 

Four features of the law merchant may be 
noted: First, it was customary law, unwritten 
in form, and not emanating from any legisla- 
tive body. It developed to meet the needs and 
usages of commerce. Second, its procedure and 
operation were summary in character. The 


justice dispensed was prompt, speedy and sure.. 


Thus it was designed to meet the needs of the 
merchant class who wanted their disputes set- 
tled quickly. Third, it was permeated by the 
principles of equity, justice and good faith. 
It was eminently practical and disregarded tech- 
nicalities. Fourth, it was international in char- 
acter. It has often been defined as the “private 
international law of the Middle Ages.» It orig- 
inated, not in any one country, but in the com- 
mercial countries of the civilized world. It ap- 
plied to alien and citizen alike provided he was 
a merchant or mariner. 

The law merchant has now become more or 
less definitely incorporated into the formal legal 
systems of the nations of the world, although 
in some cases, as in Germany and France, it is 
still administered by separate courts. 

The evolution of the law merchant in Eng- 
land has been an important chapter in legal his- 
tory inasmuch as England has been a great law- 
giving nation as well as a nation dependent to 
an unusual degree upon trade and commerce, 

In the Middle Ages the law merchant in 
England comprised both maritime and com- 
mercial law and was administered in special 
local courts created for that purpose in the im- 
portant commercial cities of England. These 
courts were sometimes the courts created to 
dispense justice at the commercial fairs. In 
the larger cities special courts grew up for the 
express purpose of administering the law mer- 
chant. Their jurisdiction was recognized by 
the English statutes. 

In the reign of Edward III separate ad- 
miralty courts were created for ‘the trial. of 
maritime and piracy cases, thereby limiting. to 
commercial actions alone the jurisdiction of the 
courts of the law merchant. The common law 
courts as they developed -became jealous of 
competing tribunals and by the end of the 16th 
century had succeeded in transferring from the 
jurisdiction of the law merchant to that of the 
common law all cases arising in internal trade. 
By the end of: another century these special 
mercantile courts had disappeared entirely and 
the ordinary courts of common law and equity 
had assumed jurisdiction in commercial mat- 
ters. The principles of the law merchant were 
not, however, lost. Litigants could still have 
their cases decided in accordance with them i by 
“proving” such principles as foreign law is now 
proved, in other words, by convincing the com- 
mon-law courts that such principles were rec- 
ognized by the customary law of commercial 
intercourse. When thus “proved” the principle 
of the law merchant became part of the law 
of the land. It thus became amalgamated jnto 
the general system of the English law, 


LAW OF MARRIAGE — LAWES 


Consult Carter, ‘A History of English Legal. 
Institutions? (4th ed., Chap. 27, 1910) 3 Holds- 
worth, ‘A History of English Law? (1903, Vol. 
I, Chap. 7); Mitchell,.‘The Law. Merchant? 
(1904) ; ‘Select Essays in Anglo-American 
Legal History, by various authors (1907). 

RoBert EUGENE CUSHMAN, 
Associate in Political Science, University ‘of 

Illinois. 

LAW OF NATIONS. 
TIONAL Law. 


LAW SCHOOLS. See Law, American 
SCHOOLS OF; EDUCATION, PROFESSIONAL. 


LAW TERMS, space of time prescribed 
by law in which a court may be in session with 
adjournments from day to day, or time to time, 
until its adjournment sine die. In the United 
States a “regular” term is one begun at a time 
fixed by law and adjourned at the discretion 
of the court in consistency with the law. 
“special term” is held by a single justice pre- 
siding over motions and causes of equitable 
nature, as opposed to the “general term” with 
three justices, held for the consideration of 
appeals. The original conception of ‘the term, 
dividing the year into law terms, was abolished 
in the United States at the time of the Revolu- 
tion and in England has been superseded by 
an arrangement by which the Supreme Court 
of Judicature has four sittings each year: 
Michaelmas, 2 November to 21 December, but 
by order of council commencing 24 October; 
Hilary, 11 January to the Wednesday preceding 
Faster; Easter, Tuesday after Easter week to 
Friday before Whitsunday, and Trinity, Tues- 
day after Whitsun-week, to 8 August, but end- 
ing by order of council on 12 August. 


LAWES, 1laz, Henry, English composer: 
b. Dinton, Warwickshire, 1596; d. London, 21 
Oct. 1662. He was a brother of William Lawes 
(q.v.) and was educated as a classical musician. 
He became famous as a composer for masques 
and songs, and he is eulogized by Milton in 
several poems. He set to music the poet’s 
‘Masque of Comus” and supervised its produc- 
tion at Ludlow Castle in 1634. He published 
‘Ayres and Dialogues, for One, Two and 
Three Voices? (1653). 


LAWES, Sir John Bennett, English chem- 
ist: b. Rothamsted, Hertfordshire, 28 Dec. 
1814; d. there, 31 Aug. 1900. He was edu- 
cated at Eton and at Oxford, whence he went 
to London, and. there remained for a while en- 
gaged in the practical study of chemistry.. 
Reaching his majority, he came into possession 
of his estate, where he undertook experiments 
in agricultural chemistry in the interest of a 
more scientific method of agriculture. In 1843. 
he employed Dr. (afterward Sir). J. H. Gil- 
bert as superintendent of laboratory work at 
the Rothamsted farm, and uniting his own 
labors with those of his colleague, by a course 
of investigations, indoors and out, developed 
scientific processes whereby superphosphate of 
lime came to be used.as.a fertilizer. For over 
50 years they carried on these labors together, 
and important practical results for improved 
agriculture are recorded to their credit. In 
1899 Lawes transferred his laboratories and ex- 
perimental fields, with an endowment amount- 
ing to about £100, 000, to a board of trustees, in 
order to secure their permanent usefulness. He 
was created a. baronet in 1882,, Consult Hall, 


See INTERNA- 


LAWES — LAWN-TENNIS 


A. D., ‘The Book of the. Rothamsted Experi- 
ments? (1905). 


LAWES, William, English composer: d. 
Chester, England, 1645. He was an elder 
brother of Henry Lawes (q.v.), with whom he 
was associated in various musical matters, and 
not only wrote music for many of the songs of 
the time, but the music for Shirley’s masque, 
‘The Triumph of Peace? (1636), and for 
soe version of the Psalms, published in 


LAWES, William George, English Con- 
gregationalist clergyman: . Aldermaston, 
Berkshire, 1 July 1839; d, 1915. He was or- 
dained in the Congregationalist ministry in 
1860 and was appointed to the South Sea Mis- 
sion by the London Missionary Society, serving 
there in 1861-71. After a furlough in England 
he was, in 1874, sent to New Guinea where he 
was the first European resident and pioneer 
missionary in British New Guinea. 
in the proclamation of the British protectorate 
in 1884 and in the annexation to the British 
Empire in 1888. He founded a college for na- 
tives at Vatorata, New Guinea, in 1896 and was 
its president until 1906, when he retired to 
Sydney, New South Wales. He translated parts 
of the Bible into Motu and was author of 
‘Grammar of Motu, New Guinea Language? 
(1895; 3d ed., 1896). 


LAWES-WITTEWRONGE, 1az'wit'rong, 
Sir Charles, English sculptor: Teign- 
mouth, 3 Oct. 1843; d. 6.Oct., 1911. He-was 
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, suc- 
ceeded his father as baronet in 1900, and in 
1902 assumed by royal license the additional 
name of Wittewronge. His work as a sculptor 
is characterized by strength and vigor of line 
and usually is full of action. He was an ardent 
sportsman and was keenly interested in agri- 
culture. He was president of the incorporated 
Society of British Sculptors and chairman of 
the Lawes Agricultural Trust. Among his well- 
known works are the bronze group ‘They 
Bound Me On? (1888) and the high relief of 
10 female figures called ‘United States of 
America? (1890). 


LAWLESS, Emily, Irish novelist, daugh- 
ter of the third Baron Cloncurry: b. 1845; d. 21 
Oct. 1913. She has. published several popular 
romances of Irish life, full of pathos and pic- 
turesqueness, among which are ‘Hurrish: a 
Study> (1886); ‘Grania,» her most powerful 
work (1892), and ‘Maelcho,? a story of the 
rebellion of Sir James Fitzmaurice in the 16th 
century (1894). She is also the author of 
“Treland,? in the ‘Story of the Nations? series 
(1890) ; ‘A Garden Diary? (1901); ‘With the 
Wild Geese,” poems (1902); ‘Maria Edge- 
worth, a biography (1904), and ‘The Book of 
Gilly» (1906). . 

LAWLEY, Alethea Jane Wiel; English 
historical writer: 2d daughter of the 2d Baron 
Wenlock. She was married to the Cavaliere 
Tatteo Wiel in 1890 and lives in Italy. She 
has published ‘Vittoria’ Colonna, a- study 

1888) ; ‘Venice,» ‘Story of the Nations? series 
(1894) ; “The Romance of the House of Savoy? 
(1898) ; “Verona,? in ‘Medieval Towns? series 
(1902) ; ‘The Navy of Venice? (1910), etc. 


LAWLEY, George, American — yacht 
builder; b, London, England, 1823; d. 27 Feb, 


He took part — 


143 


1915. He emigrated to the United States in 
1851 where he engaged in shipbuilding. His 
firm, Lawley & Son, Boston, built the America’s 
cup defenders the Puritan (1885) and the May- 
flower (1886). The Volunteer defender was a 
joint product of the Lawley yards and of build- 
ers at Wilmington, Del. The Vanitie, which 
in, 1914 failed to qualify for the America’s cup 
race, was also, .built under Lawley’s super- 


vision. > 


LAWN, finely woven white goods, cotton 
or linen, of an open texture, plain or printed. 
The white «sleeves, ‘which form a part of the 
dress of a bishop in the English Church, are 
made of lawn. ' 


LAWN-TENNIS, a modern game, played 
on grass, gravel, cinder or asphalt courts, with 
balls and rackets. The face of the racket is 
now invariably plane, and consists of a net 
formed of tightly-strung gut. The balls are of 
rubber covered , with white flannel, about two 
and one-half inches in diameter and. two ounces 
in weight. For a game between two players (a 
singlethanded game) the court is 78 feet long by 
27 wide. It is divided across the middle by a 
net, the ends of which are attached to two posts, . 
which stand three.feet outside the court on each 
side. The height of the -net is three and one- 
half feet at the posts and three feet at the 
centre. At each end of the court, parallel to the 
net and 39 feet from it, are drawn the base- 
lines, the extremities of which are connected by 
the sidelines. Half-way between the side-lines, 
and parallel to them, is drawn the half-court 
line, dividing ethe space on either side of the 
net into two equal parts called the right and 
left courts. On either side of the net, at a dis- 
tance of 21 feet from it, and parallel to it, are 
drawn the service-lines, The players take up 
their positions on opposite sides of the net and 
one of them, decided by tossing, called the 
server, standing with one foot behind and one 
foot on the base-line, serves the ball from his 


tight court into the diagonally opposite court. 


The ball is served by being struck with the 
face of the racket while it is in the air, and the 
stroke is counted-a fault if the service be from 
the wrong court, or if the server do not stand 
as directed, or if the ball. do not ‘strike the 
ground in the diagonally opposite court within 
the service-line. After a fault the server must 
serve again from the same court, unless the 
stroke was a. fault because served from. the 
wrong court. The next.service comes from the 
left court, and thereafter the courts are taken 
alternately. The non-server is called the striker- 
out, and. it is ‘his business to return the ball by 
striking it with the face of his racket. The 
server wins a‘stroke if the striker-out “volley 
the service,” that is, strike the ball before it 
touches the ground, or fail to. return the service 
or the ball in-play, or return the service or the 
ball in-play so that it drop outside any of the 
lines which bound his opponent’s court, or 
otherwise lose a stroke in accordance with the 
recognized Jaws of-the.game. The striker-out 


wins a stroke if the server serve two consecu- 


tive faults, or fail'to return the ball in-play, or 
return the ball in-play so that it drop outside 
any of the lines which bound his opponent’s 
court, or otherwise lose a stroke. On. either 
player winning his first stroke the score is 
called 15 for that-player;.on either player win- 


144 


ning his second stroke the score is called 30 
for him; on either winning his third stroke his 
score is called 40, and the fourth stroke won by 
either player is scored game for that player. 
However, if both players have won three 
strokes, the score is called deuce, and the next 
stroke won by either player is scored advantage 
for that player. If the same player win the fol- 
lowing stroke, he wins the game; but if he lose 
the next stroke, the score is again called deuce, 
and so on until one player win two strokes 
immediately following the score at deuce. The 
player who first wins six games wins a set, but 
with both at five a method of scoring similar 
to advantage is often introduced. Sides are 
changed at the end of every set.. Three-handed 
and four-shanded lawn-tennis differ in no essen- 
tials from the game as above described. The 
game of lawn-tennis as now known was intro- 
duced about 1875. 

Bibliography.— Dewhurst, E. B. 


of Lawn Tennis? (Philadelphia 1910) ; Do- 
herty, R. F. and H. .L.,. ‘On Lawn Tennis? 
(New York 1903) ; Heathcote, JM. pccnnis, 


Lawn Tennis and Racquets? (new ed., London 
1903) ; Lambert-Chambers, D. K. D, ‘Lawn 
Tennis for Ladies? (New York 1910) ; Little, 
R. D., ‘Tennis Tactics? (ib. 1913) ; Myers, A. 
aS ‘Lawn Tennis at Home and Abroad? (ib. 
1903) ; id., ‘Complete Lawn Tennis Player? 
(Philadelphia 1908) ; Paret, J. H., ‘Lawn Ten- 
nis: Its Past, Present and Future? (New York 
~ $904) ; Walsh, G. E., ‘Making a Tennis Court? 
(ib. 1912); Wright and Ditson, ‘Official Lawn 
Tennis Guide? (Boston, annually) ; Spalding’s 
Athletic Library, ‘Lawn Tennis? (New York, 
annually) ; ‘(Lawn Tennis Handbook? (London, 
annually). 


LAWNS: Their Preparation and Care, a 
closely-mown turf maintained for ornament in 
parks and private grounds. It may or may not 
be dotted with trees, shrubs or other specimen 
plants, or even with flower beds. These are, 
however, mere incidents, and since they usually 
detract from the natural beauties of an open 
sward, should usually be confined to the borders 
in irregular, rather than formal, order. The 
lawn thus becomes the canvas and the side- 
planting the frame for a natural picture in 
which the dwelling or other prominent feature 
is placed. 

Whether the contour of the surface be level, 
convex or concave, it should always be graded 
so as to avoid even slight irregularities, and 
where the land is rolling all three contours 
should be harmoniously blended so as to avoid 
breaks such as terraces, and so as to ensure the 
repose that comes from such blending. Except 
on sand and clay, lawns do well on practically 
all soils if properly prepared and maintained. 
After the grading the dand should be plowed, 
dug, or forked, as deeply as the soil will permit, 
even to the depth of two feet, then harrowed 
thoroughly, removing all stones and burning 
all rubbish, weeds, etc. A liberal dressing of 
complete fertilizer containing potash, phos- 
phoric acid and nitrogen in readily available 
forms should be given, and where possible a 
covering of an inch or more of rich soil is often 
of decided advantage. Except for their con- 
taining seeds of weeds, animal manures are 
especially valuable, that of sheep and cattle be- 
ing usually better than ordinary stable-manure; 


rerigs 


LAWNS — LAWRANCE 


when the latter is applied it should always be 
after thorough composting and rotting to de- 
stroy weed-seeds. The surface being very 
smooth, the fertilizer well harrowed in and the 
wind asleep, seeding may be performed, prefer- 
ably just before rain. The seed should be the 
purest that can be obtained, and may or may 
not be raked in, but the land should always be 
heavily rolled. In the Northern States the pop- 
ular grasses for lawns are Kentucky bluegrass, 
which is especially valuable for soils rich in 
lime, red-top and. Rhode Island bent-grass. 
(See Grasses). Mixtures of several grasses 
are valuable because the grasses that start first 
choke out weeds and are later themselves choked 
out by the slower- -growing blue-grass. 

When the grass is three inches tall it should 
be cut with a scythe, and afterward with a 
lawn-mower as occasion may require. In the 
autumn a dressing of well-composted manure 
should be given, and in the spring the strawy 
useless parts should be raked off before growih 
starts. After the frost is out of the ground 
the lawn should be rolled to compact the turf, 
which usually heaves more or less during the 
winter. It is further essential that weeding be 
performed every year, but especially during the 
first, second and third. If desired, a sprinkling 
of white clover. (Trifolium repens) may be 
given by sowing the seed after or. before the 
grass seed; being of different weights, they 
cannot be sown together. White clover may 
also be sown upon heavy and poor soils, where 
it will often make a good stand and a good pre- 
cursor for grass. In the South the grasses 
mentioned -usually fail, and should be replaced 
by species that can withstand the climatic con- 
ditions. The most satisfactory and popular are 
Bermuda grass, joint grass and Saint Augustine 
grass. The first is usually propagated by pass- — 
ing the roots, freed from soil, through a feed 
cutter, sowing and harrowing the pieces. 

Small lawns are frequently made by trans- 
planting sod from old pastures, in which cases 
the turf is cut in long strips about 15. inches 
wide, rolled up and laid down like carpet, and 
then pounded or heavily rolled to press the 
roots firmly against the soil, The subsequent 
management should be that given seed-sown 
lawns. Owing to the dryness of the summers 
in many parts of the United States lawns are 
often considered failures. Too frequently, how- 
ever, these results follow imperfect preparation 
and improper management. As a rule lawns 
should not be watered while they are young or 
in the early part of the season, because this 
tends to keep the roots near the surface and to 
make the grasses less able to withstand dry 
weather. Water should therefore be withheld 
until the plants seem to be in dire need, and 
then it should be applied in what may seem ex- 
cessive quantities. Consult Barron, Leonard, 
“Lawns and How to Make Them? (New York 
1906) ; Corbett, L. C., ‘The Lawn? (in ‘Farm- 
ers’ Bulletin No. 249 Washington 1906) ; 
Doogue, L: J., “Making a Lawn? (New York 
1912) ; Kelligan, C. P., ‘Starting a Lawn? (in 
‘Circular No. 20,? of the Michigan Experiment 
Station Lansing 1913) ; Schreiner and Skinner, 
“Lawn Soils? (in ‘Farmers’ Bulletin No. 494 
Washington 1912). °°. 


LAWRANCE, John, American lawyer, 
soldier and legislator : b. Cornwall, England, 


LAWRENCE 


1750;.d. New York city, November 1810. He 
emigrated to America in 1767, settling in New 
York, where he was admitted to the bar in 
1772. He early attained a considerable success 
as a lawyer, and at the outbreak of the Revo- 
lution warmly espoused its cause. He received 
an officer’s commission in the First New York 
regiment, serving under his father-in-law, 
Gen, Alexander MacDougall. He was. ap- 
pointed aide-de-camp to Washington in 1777, 
and in October of that year presided over the 
trial of Major André. He returned to the prac- 
tice of law after the war, and in 1785-87 was 
a delegate to the Continental Congress. He 
was an ardent supporter of the constitution 
proposed by the Federalists, and lost his seat to 
an anti-Federalist in 1788. He served in the 
New York State senate in 1789 and was elected 
the first representative of New York city in the 
first United States Congress, 1789-91, succeed- 
ing himself in the second Congress, 1791-93. In 
1794 he was the first justice appointed to the 
United States District Court of New York, re- 
signing upon his election to the United States 
Senate in 1796. He served as president pro- 
tempore of the Senate in 1798-99. Lawrance 
was a personal friend of both Washington and 
Hamilton. ‘ 


LAWRENCE, Abbott, American manu- 
facturer and diplomatist: b. Groton, Mass., 16 
Dec. 1792; ‘d. Boston, 18 Aug. 1855. In 1814 
he became one of the firm of A. and A. Law- 
rence, which for many years conducted a pros- 
perous business in the sale of foreign cotton 
and woolen goods on commission, and later 
established a cotton industry in Lowell, Mass., 
with his brother Amos (q.v.). He was a mem- 
ber of the 24th Congress and again, 1839-40. 
He was a commissioner in 1842 to settle the 
Northeastern Boundary question and arranged 
a basis for ‘settlement with Lord Ashburton 
which was satisfactory to both the United States 
and England, and was Minister to Great 
Britain in 1849-52. He founded the Lawrence 
Scientific School of Harvard University, to 
which he gave $100,000; and was a liberal phi- 
lanthropist. Consult Hill, A. H., ‘Memoir of 
Abbott Lawrence? (2d ed., Boston 1884). 


LAWRENCE, Amos, American merchant: 
b. Groton, Mass., 1786; d. Boston, 31 Dec. 1852. 
He was educated in his birthplace at an acad- 
emy founded by his father. He worked for 
many years as a clerk and in 1807 started at 
Boston a dry-goods business of his own, formed 
a partnership with his brother (1814) and be- 
gan a large wholesale business. Lawrence and 
Lowell became the centres of this firm’s manu- 
facturing activity which soon placed them at 
the head of the cotton-spinning and weaving 
trade. Amos Lawrence retired from active bus- 
iness in 1831 through ill health and spent much 
of his later years in promoting works of philan- 
thropy and patriotism. The academy at Groton, 
of which he was a liberal benefactor, was 
named Lawrence Academy in his honor (1843) ; 
he contributed liberally to the raising of the 
Bunker Hill monument and made large con- 
tributions to Williams College. Consult ‘Ex- 


tracts from the Diary and Correspondence of 


Amos Lawrence with a Brief Account of Some 
Incidents in His Life? (1855). 

LAWRENCE, Amos Adams, American 
philanthropist: b. Boston, Mass., 31 July 1814; 


VOL. 17--10 ‘By 


145 


d. Nahant, Mass., 22 Aug. 1886. He was grad- 
uated at Harvard University in 1835, invested 
extensively in cotton manufactories and later 
became interested in various industrial corpora- 
tions and banking firms. He served as an 
officer in various charitable institutions and was 
principal manager of the Emigrant Aid Asso- 
ciation ofganized to aid in the colonization and 
maintenance of Katisas as a free State, in which 
connection he was associated with Eli Thayer 
and others in 1853-54. The town of Lawrence 
in Kansas was named in his honor. In the 
Civil War he was active in recruiting the 2d 
Massachusetts Cavalry regiment. He was one 
of the founders of Lawrence College, Appleton, 
Wis., and he built Lawrence Hall, the Epis- 
copal Theological Seminary, at Cambridge. 

LAWRENCE, Frederick William Peth- 
ick, English social reformer and barrister-at- 
law: b. 28 Dec: 1871. He was educated at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1897 was 
elected a Fellow there. He made a tour around 
the world investigating social conditions, and 
in 1899-1901 lived at the Mansfield Settlement 
House, Canning Town. He made an effort to 
enter Parliament but his opposition to the South 
African War defeated him. He purchased a 
controlling interest in the Echo in 1901 and 
edited it until its demise in 1905, when he per- 
sonally settled its obligations. He was asso- 
ciated with Mrs. Pankhurst in the militant 
demonstrations of the Woman’s Suffrage Party 
and was joint editor of Votes for Women in 
1907-14. He was sentenced to nine months’ 
imprisonment for connection with a destructive 
raid of the militant suffragists in 1912 and was 
ordered to pay the costs of the prosecution. 
Upon his refusalehe was declared bankrupt, the 
bankruptcy being annulled after the court had 
deducted the costs of the trial from the estate. 
In 1916 he became honorary treasurer of the 
Urban District Council. Author of various 
papers on mathematics, economics, free trade 
and woman suffrage, and ‘Local Variations in © 
Wages? ; ‘Woman’s Fight for the Vote’; ‘The 
Man’s Share?; ‘Reformer’s Year Book, 
1904-08. 


LAWRENCE, George Alfred, English 
novelist: b. Braxted, Essex, 25 March 1827; d. 
Edinburgh, Scotland, 23 Sept. 1876.. He was 
educated at Oxford, studied law, but soon 
turned his attention to fiction and became sud- 
denly famous by his novel, “Guy Livingstone, 
or Thorough? (1857). He was much read in 
America as well as in his own country, and 
“Sword and Gown? (1859); ‘Breaking a But- 
terfly? (1869) and other works gave him an 
evanescent popularity. His ‘Border and Bas- 
tile? (1863) has an autobiographical interest, in 
which he records his adventures in the United 
States, undertaken with a view to joining the 
Confederate army. He was taken prisoner by 
Federal troops before his purpose could be 
accomplished, and was only released on con- 
dition that he return to England. 


LAWRENCE, George Newbold, Amer- 
ican ornithologist: b. New York, 20 Oct. 1806; 
d. 1895. He was privately educated, was for 
some years in the drug business, but.in 1867 
retired, and thereafter devoted himself to orni- 
thology. From 1846 he contributed to the litera- 
ture of ornithology; and the also made an _ex- 
tensive and valuable collection of birds, includ- 


146 


ing 8,000 specimens, representing almost every 
variety found in the United States, and an 
excellent series of the birds of Mexico, Central 
America, the West Indies and South America. 
This collection he sold to the American Museum 
of Natural History. He assisted Spencer F. 
Baird and John Cassin in the preparation of 
‘The Birds of North America? (1860). He 
was a member of many scientific societies. 


LAWRENCE, James, American naval of- 
ficer: b. Burlington, N. J., 1 Oct. 1781; d.5 
June 1813. He entered the navy as a midship- 
man 4 Sept. 1798; in 1800 was made acting 
lieutenant and in April, 1802, lieutenant, and 
served during the war with Tripoli; he was first 
lieutenant of the schooner Enterprise and one 
of the party which boarded and destroyed the 
frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli on 
the night of 15 Feb. 1804.. Shortly before peace 
was concluded he was given. command of a 
gunboat, and on his return. to the United -States, 
served as first lieutenant of the Chesapeake and 
subsequently commanded the Viren, the Wasp 
and the Argus. In November 1810 he was pro- 
moted to the rank of master commandant and 
given command of the Hornet. In 1812 he 
cruised in the Hornet with Commodore Bain- 
bridge’s squadron along the South American 
coast, and at the mouth of the Memerara River 
he met the British brig Peacock, which after a 
severe action of about 15 minutes he forced to 
surrender. When she surrendered, the Peacock 
“was badly damaged and sinking, and Lawrence 
transferred the crew to his own ship. (See 
Hornet). On 14 March 1813 he was promoted 
to the rank of captain and appointed to the 
frigate Chesapeake, then lying in Boston; the 
Hornet was also placed under his orders and 
it was intended that the two ships should sail 
against the Greenland whale fishery. On 1 
June 1813, when the Chesapeake was ready for 
sea, Lawrence sailed out of the harbor to.meet 
the British ship Shannon; after a severe battle 
he was forced to surrender, and his ship was 
taken as a prize into Halifax. (See CHEsA- 
PEAKE AND SHANNON, BATTLE oF). Lawrence 
was fatally wounded and died four days after 
the battle; throughout the action he showed the 
greatest coolness and courage, and his last 
words as he was carried from the deck were, 
“Don’t give up the ship.» Consult Gleaves, 
Albert, ‘J: Lawrence, Captain U. S. Navy? 
(New York 1904) ; Niles, J. M., ‘Life of O. H. 
Perry? (Hartford 1821); Roosevelt, ‘Naval 
War of 1812? (2 vols., New York 1904). 


_ LAWRENCE, John Laird Mair, Ist 
Baron LAwRENCE, English viceroy and gov- 
ernor-general of India: b. Richmond, York- 
shire, 24 March 1811; d. London, 26 June 1879. 
He was a younger brother of Sir Henry Mont- 
gomery Lawrence and of Sir George Saint 
Patrick Lawrence, both of whom attained dis- 
tinction in India. He was educated at Foyle 
College, Londonderry, at Wraxall Hall, Clifton, 
Haileyberry College and the College of Fort 
William, Calcutta. He mastered Urdu and Per- 
sian, and in 1830 he was appointed assistant to 
the collector at Delhi. With brief intermisstons 
he was for 20 years magistrate and land rey- 
enue collector in that district, gaining a thorough 
understanding of the natives and so adminis- 
tering affairs for their comfort and prosperity 
that he gained a wide influence with them, He 


LAWRENCE 


was responsible for beneficent land reforms 
and was also largely instrumental in preventing 
oppression of the people by their own chiefs. 
At the outbreak of the first Sikh war he was 
able to raise and forward supplies and muni- 
tions of war which resulted in the victory at 
Sobraon.’ He then administered the territory 
of the defeated Sikhs: with such success that in 
the second Sikh war he was able again to come 
to the rescue, with the result that the Punjab 
was annexéd and Lawrence appointed commis- 
sioner and then lieutenant-governor. 
seven years before the outbreak of the Indian 
Mutiny he so pacified the territory as to be able 
to send troops to the relief of Delhi and other 
hard-pressed points, and earned for himself the 
title “the savior of India.» He was knighted in 
1858 and upon his return to India received the 
thanks of Parliament and a pension of £2,000 
annually in addition to his regular pension of 
£1,000. He became privy councillor, acting as 
secretary of the state’s council for India, and 
in 1864 became viceroy and governor-general 
of India. His administration was uneventful 
but marked by the prudent care and wisdom 
upon which he had built his power in Indian 
affairs. Upon his return to England in 1869, 
after 40 years of service in Indian affairs, he 
was created a baron. For the last 10 years 
of his life he was chairman. of the London 
School Board and of the Church Missionary 
Society. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 


. Consult) Smith, B., ‘Life of Lord Lawrence? 


(1885) ; Atchison, Sir C., ‘Lord Lawrence? (in 
“Rulers of India Series? 1892); Trotter, L. J., 
“Lord Lawrence? (1880); Gibbon, F. P., ‘The 
Lawrences of ‘the Punjab? (1908). 
LAWRENCE, Saint, tHE Deacon, Chris- 
tian martyr: d. about 258. He was deacon of 
Pope Sixtus II and in the persecution of 
Valerian ‘he was summoned before the judge to 
produce the treasures of the Church. He 
brought with him the poor and needy of the 
Church as the treasures in his keeping and 
upon refusal to retreat from his position was 
sentenced to’ be burned on a gridiron. His 
martyrdom followed by three days that of Pope 
Sixtus. While the legend and the details as 
related by Saint Ambrose are doubtless some- 
what enhanced by the narrator, there is no 
question of the occurrence of the martyrdom. 
He is supposed to have mocked his judge and 
executioners while under torment. His name 
appears in the canon of the Mass of the Roman 
Catholic Church and his calendar day is 10 
August... There have been enumerated 228 
churches named for him in England, and the 
Escurial was built in his honor by Philip II 
of Spain ‘in, celebration of the victory of Saint 
Ouentin which was won on his feast day in 
1597: ; 
LAWRENCE, Stringer, English soldier: 
b. Hereford; 6° March 1697; d. London, 10 Jan. 
1775. He entered:the army in 1727, served at 
Gibraltar, in Flanders and at the battle of Cul- 
loden, and in 1748 he went out to India to take 
command of the East India Company’s troops. 
He defeated the French attempt to capture 
Cuddalore soon after his arrival, but was later 
captured by the French cavalry patrol at Arian- 
copang and was held prisoner until the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle. He was in command of the 
capture of Devicota in 1749, at which time 


In the | 


/ 


LAWRENCE 


Chie served under him, a lifelong friendship 
ensuing. He returned to England in 1750, but 
in 1752 he took command of the forces intended 
for the relief of Trichinopoly and succeeded in 
forcing the surrender of the French besieging 
army. Later he defeated the French at Bahur, 
and in 1753 he once again relieved Trichinopoly 
and defended it for the 17 months preceding 
an armistice and conditional treaty. The ar- 
rival of regular forces of the Crown deprived 
him of the chief command in 1754, but he 
served under the new commander, Col. John 
Adlercron, in the operations around Wandi- 
wash in 1757. He was in command of Fort 
George in 1758-59 during the siege by the 
French, and after two years in England re- 
turned to India as major-general and com- 
mander-in-chief at his old post. He presided 
ever the reorganization of the Madras army 
in 1765 and retired in 1766. The monument to 
his memory in Westminster Abbey was erected 
by the East India Company. 


LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, English por- 
trait Tass b. Bristol, 4 May 1769; d: Lon- 
don, 7 Jan. 1830. His father was an inn- 
keeper, who in 1772 removed to Devizes, where 
the artist gave early proof of his ability by 
drawing portraits of his father’s guests or, 
standing on a chair, would recite passages 
from Pope or Milton. At the age of six he 
was sent to school, where he remained two 
years, and this, with the exception of a few 
lessons subsequently in Latin and French, con- 
stituted his whole education. The family re- 
moved ‘to Bath in 1779, where he had access to 
the galleries of some of the neighboring 
gentry, where he employed himself in copying 
historical and other pieces. From this time 
the was the ‘sole support of his family, and by 
the age of 12 his studio was the resort of the 
beauty and fashion of Bath, his works being 
mainly half-size ovals’ in crayon. In his 17th 
year the began to paint in oils. In 1787 the 
family removed to London, and Lawrence was 
admitted a student at the Royal Academy ; 
his subsequent career was successful and bril- 
liant. He was elected in 1791 a supplemental 
associate by the desire of the king, being under 
the age (24) fixed by the laws of the institu- 
tion. No other case of the kind has occurred. 
On the death of Sir J. Reynolds the next 
year he was made painter to the king. His 
reputation grew steadily, and he was soon 
considered the first portrait-painter of the age 
in England. His scene from the ‘Tempest? 
was a successful attempt at historical painting. 
In 1794 he was made a Royal Academician and 
was elected president in 1820.. In 1815 he was 
knighted by the Prince Regent, who also em- 
ployed him to take the likenesses of the allied 
sovereigns and the most distinguished persons 
of their suite. During their visit to England 
he finished the portrait of the king of Prussia, 
and went to Aix-la-Chapelle several years 
afterward to paint the Emperor Alexander; 
thence he went to Vienna, where he completed 
the portraits of the emperor, the archdukes, 
Metternich, etc., and in Rome painted Pius 
VII and Cardinal Gonsalvi. These portraits 
are now in the Waterloo Gallery at Windsor 
and are of great historical value. Lawrence’s 
portraits are striking likenesses and display a 
bold and free pencil; but they are, particularly 


147 


his later ones, chargeable with mannerism; his 
coloring, brilliant and effective as it is, is 
hard and glassy, and shows little insight into 
character. The ‘pleasing artificiality of his 
work, however gratifying to his sitters, has 
lowered his artistic reputation with succeeding 
generations. It was said of him that he never 
lost a sitter by an unflattering likeness. Pol- 
ished and courtierlike in his manners, he was 
an inveterate and in main a harmless flirt, his 
successive proposals of marriage to the two - 
daughters of Mrs. Siddons and subsequent 
withdrawals from these engagements being the 
only discreditable episodes in an otherwise 
honorable career. His income for the last 20 
years of his life was very large, but he died 
poor, owing to the lavishness with which he 
spent money in acquiring the first-rate produc- 
tions of his art, in assisting less fortunate 
attists and in’ other ways. His valuable and 
unrivaled collection of drawings by the old 
masiens was unfortunately dispersed after his 
deat 


LAWRENCE, Sir William, an soni Meith 
surgeon and anatomist: b. Cirencester, 16 July 
1783; d. 5 July 1867. In 1799 was apprenticed 
to the celebrated Abernethy, and was an in- 
mate of his house for five years. In the third 
year of his apprenticeship he had given such 
proofs of his zeal and capacity that Abernethy: 
appointed’ him demonstrator in anatomy at 
Saint Bartholomew’s, and for 12 years he dis- 
charged the duties ‘of his office with signal 
ability. From 1824-65 he became principal sur- 
geon to Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital. In 
1816 he published an ‘Introduction to Com- 
parative Anatomy and Physiology,» and in 
1819 “Lectures on the Physiology, Zoology and 
Natural History of Man,’ which provoked the 
hostile criticism of theologians. In 1829 he 
succeeded Abernethy as lecturer on surgery to 
Saint Bartholomew’s, and altogether he was 
connected with this hospital 65 years. Shortly 
before his death he was made a baronet. Few 
men of his time did more than he for the ad- 
vancement of surgery. His treatise on ‘Her- 
nia? was a standard work, and that on ‘Dis- 
eases of the Eye? (1833) marks an epoch in 
ophthalmic surgery. His lectures on surgery 
were published in 1863. He was twice presi- 
dent of the Royal College of Surgeons and on 
two occasions he delivered the Hunterian ora- 
tion. 


LAWRENCE, William, American politi- 
cian: b. Mount Pleasant, Ohio, 29 June 1819; 
d. 8 May 1899. He was graduated from Frank- 
lin College (1838) and at the Cincinnati Law 
School (1840). He early became prominent in 
politics, and from 1845 to 1847 owned and con- 
ducted the Logan County Gazette, and was 
afterward editor of the Western Law Journal. 
He served in the lower house of the State 
legislature and for five years as State senator, 
and from 1857 to 1864 was judge of the Court 
of Common Pleas and of the District Court. 
After seeing some military service (1862), he 
was elected to Congress in 1865 and in 1880 
appointed first Comptroller of the United 
States Treasury, from which office he retired 
in 1885. He has published several books on 
law, notably “The Law of Claims against the 
Government? (1875), and “The Treaty Ques- 
tion? (1871); “Decisions of the First Comp- 


148 


A 


troller in the Department of the Treasury of 
the United. States (1881-85). 


LAWRENCE, William, American Prot- 
estant Episcopal bishop : b. Boston, 30 May 
1850. He was graduated at: Harvard in 1871, 
and at the Episcopal Theological School, Cam- 
bridge, Mass., in 1875; was rector of Grace 
Church, Lawrence, Mass., 1876-84; professor 
of homiletics and pastoral theology at the the- 
ological school above named, 1884-93; dean of 
the. school,, 1888-93. He was university 
preacher at Harvard, 1888-91. .In October 
1893 he was elected bishof of Massachusetts 
to succeed Bishop Brooks, and. was consecrated 
to that office, which he continued to hold, in 
the following year. He has published a ‘Life 
of Amos. A. Lawrence, his father (1889); 
‘Visions and Service? (1896); ‘Life of Roger 
Wolcott? (1902); ‘Study of Phillips Brooks? 
(1903), and other works. 


LAWRENCE, William Beach, American 
jurist: b. New York, 23 Oct. 1800; d. there, 
26 March 1881. -He was graduated ‘at Colum- 
bia College in 1818, and after his admission to 
_ the bar in 1823 he practised in New York, 
where he attained eminence. He removed to 
Newport, R. I., in 1850; was elected lieutenant- 
governor of Rhode Island in 1851 and soon 
after became acting governor. He became 
widely known by reason of his connection with 
the “Circassian case” in 1873, before the Ameri- 
can and British International Court in Wash- 
ington, D. C., his arguments securing the case 
for his clients and leading to the only reversal 
of a decision by the United States Supreme 
Court that had ever occurred. He published 
‘History of the Negotiations in Reference to 
the Eastern and Northeastern Boundaries of 
the United States? (1841); ‘Belligerent and 
Sovereign Rights as Regards Neutrals During 
the War of Secession” (1873) ; ‘Disabilities. of 
American Women Married Abroad. (1871) ; 
‘Administration of . Equity Jurisprudence? 
(1874) ; ‘Etudes sur la jurisdiction consulaire 
et sur l’extradition? (1880). 


LAWRENCE, Kan., city and county-seat 
of Douglas County, on both sides of the Kan- 
sas River, and on the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fé and the Union Pacific railroads, 40 
miles west of Kansas City. It is the farming 
trade centre for Douglas and parts of two 
other counties, and is principally engaged in 
manufacturing, which is. greatly promoted. by 
the excellent water power furnished by. the 
river. It is the seat. of the Kansas. State Uni- 
versity, Haskell Institute and Government In- 
dian Industrial School; contains a hospital, pub- 
lic library, fine school buildings and several 
public parks, and has flour and paper mills, 
barbed-wire, ice, brick and tile, shirt, sash and 
door factories and foundry and machine shops. 
There are electric-light plants, waterworks, 
severa! national and State banks, daily, weekly 
and monthly periodicals and an assessed prop- 
erty valuation of over $1,000,000. The city 
was settled by an anti-slavery colony from the 
East in 1854 and was named in honor of Amos 
A. Lawrence. It was the first of the Kansas 
Free-State towns founded by the Emigrant 
Aid Society, soon after the passage of the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill (q.v.).. In 1856 a band 
of Missouri border ruffians sacked the town, 
which was defended by old John Brown 


LAWRENCE 


(q.v.) and his sons. In 1863, the Confederate 
raider Quantrell attacked the town and killed 
125 citizens. The commission plan of city gov- 
ernment has been in operation since 1914. 
Pop. (1920) 12,456. 


LAWRENCE, Mass., city, and one of the 
county-seats of Essex County, on both sides of 
the Merrimac River, and on the Boston and 
Maine Railroad, 26 miles northwest of Bos- 
ton. It is one of the notable and leading manu- 
facturing cities in the valley of the Merrimac 
River. Built at the lowermost available rapid 
on the river, the city has the concentrated 
power of all the tributaries of that stream and 
receives benefit from the entire watershed feed- 
ing the main current —an area of 4,450 square 
miles. The water power developed at. this 


point, amounting to about 15,000 horse power, 


is remarkably uniform and reliable. 

Water Power Plant.—In 1845-48 the’ Great 
Stone Dam” located at Bodwell’s Falls near 
the old historic “Andover Bridge” was built of 
hammered granite. When finished this struc- 
ture was considered the most complete and 
durable work of the kind then existing in 
America. It was bedded upon the underlying 
strata of bluestone or Merrimac schist and it 
was so thoroughly constructed that it has stood 
to this day without alteration or addition, 
seemingly a part of the ledges between and 
upon which it was built. This dam concen- 
trated at one point the power of three suc- 
cessive natural river rapids, the accomplished 
result being a fall of 26 feet, increased in 
height, when needful, by flashboards,- to 30 
feet. The overfall of water is in one unbroken 
sheet over a crest, nearly straight in line, 900 
feet in length between the granite abutments. 
In addition to this unbroken span of solid 
stonework the protecting wings of the dam | 
are 729 feet in combined length. There are 
two main canals, one along the northern bank 
of the river, one mile in length, and another 
upon the southern side, one-half mile long; 
these distribute water power to the large mills 
and workshops. In 1915 a survey was made 
under the supervision of a commission ap- 
pointed by the governor of the State for a 
navigable channel from the mouth of the river 
at Newburyport to Lowell, Mass., a distance 
of 36 miles. In 1917 the United States Board 
of Army Engineers reported favorably upon 
the survey, and in 1918 both branches of the 
Massachusetts legislature passed a bill author- 
izing the building of this navigable waterway 
in conjunction with the Federal government. 
Pending war induced the governor to veto 
the bill at that time, but it will in all proba- 
bility be passed as soon as conditions warrant. 
Such action will make of Lawrence a direct 
seaport town. Steam and electric power are 
also used in addition by nearly all manufac- 
turers and in some instances are exclusively 
relied upon. 

Manufacturing and Business.— Lawrence 
may well be known to Americans as “The 
Worsted City,» for the United States census 
returns show that in the production of worsted 
and woolen dress goods Lawrence leads the 
United States and is second in the world; 
Birmingham, England, being the only city which 
excels her in this respect. Lawrence leads the 
entire country in the amount of capital in- 
vested in any one locality in the worsted and 


LAWRENCE ~ 


woolen dress goods industry, and in the value 
of that class of goods produced, the sum in- 
vested in this distinct business in 1917 being 
$120,263,298 and the value of product $135 - 
618,681. Among wool-growers and dealers of 
the world, the eity is known as a leading con- 
sumer of that staple. Among the great manu- 
facturing companies that lead in importance 
are the Pacific Mills, having over 10,000 em- 
ployees; the American Woolen Company, em- 
ploying 17,000 operatives; the Arlington Mills, 
with 8,500 operatives; the Everett Mills, 
employing 5,500. The total investment in the 
textile industry in Lawrence in 1917 was 
$175,534,916 and the total value of textile prod- 
ucts was $174,495,698. Lawrence is also famous 
for its manufacture of calendered book paper. 
In the manufacture of wooden wheels Law- 
rence also leads the country, the Archibald 
Wheel Company manufacturing government 
artillery wheels, wheels for fire engines and 
automobile wheels. . 

The first steam fire-engine in America was 
manufactured in Lawrence. Paper-mill ma- 
chinery is also extensively manufactured, as 
are also shoes, foundry products, carriages and 
steam fire apparatus, engines, boilers and mill 
fittings and findings of all description. 

The industrial unrest which has been gen- 
erally attributed to Lawrence is now the sub- 
ject of systematic study by a commission of 
citizens employing a high-grade publicity ex- 
pert, and seeking by co-operation with the 
heads of the industries to establish a new in- 
dustrial consciousness and relationship be- 
tween the workers and the employers. The 
means employed are to be along the lines of 
those advocated in the Rockefeller Industrial 
Plan of Shop Committees, Co-operative Man- 
agement, ultimate partnership and ownership 
by such employees as fit themselves for it; an 
increase in home and property ownership as 
a stabilizer of labor and a means of reducing 
labor turnover; a development of parks, play- 
grounds and recreational centres; the increase 
in interest in education, Americanization. and 
naturalization, and a broad comprehensive plan 
of housing and city planning. 

Site and Environment,— The site was pe- 
culiarly adapted to the building of an import- 
ant industrial centre. The small Spicket River 
here enters the Merrimac from the north and 
the Shawsheen stream enters from the south. 
The location is healthful. The rapid Merrimac 
River divides the city into nearly equal sec- 
tions, the northern half now having the lar- 
gest population and most important industrial 
establishments. The city was laid out in 1845- 
46 by the founders and promoters, and has 
been built largely in accordance with original 
plans. : 

Public Works and Buildings.— The water- 
works, established in 1874-75, were so ample 
that extensions have not made it necessary to 
reconstruct the pumping plant or the storage 
reservoirs. The source of water supply is the 
Merrimac River. The filtration beds that 
cleanse the current before it is distributed for 
use were designed and constructed in 1892 
under the care and approval of the Massachu- 
setts State Board of Health. The experimental 
station of the Massachusetts State Board of 
Health is established here. Illuminating and 
heating gas and electric lighting and power are 


149 


supplied by a single chartered company. The 
courthouse was erected in 1903, at a cost of 
$250,000, and the post office was erected at 
about the same time at a cost of $150,000. 
The school buildings are large and commodious. 
The old city hall, the original “Town House,” 
served fora quarter century almost every con- 
ceivable public use and is still’ a noticeable 
structure. Other notable features are the 
Essex County Training School, Children’s 
Home, Cottage and Lawrence hospitals. <A 
noteworthy experiment is now being tried by~ 
the American Woolen Company at its Wash- 
ington Mill, where an immense modern build- 
ing has been erected, part of which is being 
devoted to the use of a day nursery where the 
mothers employed in the mill can bring their 
children mornings and leave them in charge of 
trained nurses. 

Parks and Pleasure Grounds.— The found- 
ers of the city wisely reserved a common of 
17 acres at the very centre of the business and 
residence section as a public pleasure ground. 
No buildings are allowed upon this central 
park and no public reserve in the common- 
wealth is more nobly wooded or more truly 
the people’s ground. About this central park 
the largest public buildings, the leading Prot- 
estant churches and many of the best residences 
are grouped. Four large outlying parks in a 
nearly wild condition but of much natural 
beauty and several smaller squares are well 
cared for by an established park commission of 
five members. A _ playstead of several acres 
exclusively for games and athletic exhibitions 
is conveniently located. 

Banks and Savings Institutions.—Lawrence 
has one national, three trusts, three savings, 
three co-operative and one Morris Plan bank, 
the total savings bank deposits being over 
$30,00,000, and the total bank deposits, savings 
and commercial, being over $56,000,000. 

Churches and Charities There are over 
40 organized churches in the community, the 
Roman Catholics having much greater numbers 
and larger value in property than any other 
denomination. There is an organized city mis- 
sion. A General Emergency Hospital and Chil- 
dren’s Home are maintained by the Ladies’ 
Union Charitable Society, a protectory or 
asylum for orphans or destitute children, an 


endowed Home for Aged People, and every 


nationality in the community has its own relief, 
benefit or social societies. 

Government, Schools, Free Libraries and 
Lectures.— Municipal control is vested in a 
commission of five, consisting of a mayor and 
four aldermen, each in charge of a department, 
namely, finance, public safety, public property 
and parks, engineering and public health and 
charities. The annual budget of expenditures 
for municipal maintenance and operation ap- 
proaches $2,000,000. There are 32 public 
schools, one industrial school, 11 parochial 
schools and one training school which is main- 
tained by the county. There is a high school 
and a recently constructed central grammar 
school of 36 rooms with the most modern 
equipment, including baths of all kinds, gym- 
nasium, lunchrooms, lecture halls, meeting- 
rooms for parents and having trained nurse 
and doctor constantly in attendance. The 
evening schools are maintained as a part of 
the public school system and give courses in 


150 


classical and English studies, also special in- 
structions in penmanship, mechanical and free- 
hand drawing, bookkeeping and _ typewriting 
and the natural sciences. A special feature in 
which Lawrence is very active is the course in 
Americanization and naturalization, which is 
being discussed and 
throughout the country. A free course of lec- 
tures especially for industrial classes, upon sci- 
entific and miscellaneous subjects, has for 
many years been sustained by endowment. The 
free public library of over 50,000 volumes is 
patronized by all classes. The main library 
building was the gift of a generous citizen. 
History.— Previous to 1845 the territory 
now included within city limits (about seven 


square miles lying in form nearly a square) ~ 


was an unimportant section of two old, his- 
toric towns — Andover and Methuen. The in- 
habitants of the site numbered only about 350 
and were nearly all the families of quiet farm- 
ers or river men; there was not a church build- 
ing, warehouse for trade or manufacturing 
establishment of any importance then standing 
in the entire district. In 1845-46 an associated 
company of manufacturers, financiers and mer- 
chants, the leading pioneer manufacturers and 
progressive business men of prominence in 
Massachusetts, after critical examination, asso- 
ciated themselves together and procured an act 
of incorporation under the name of the Essex 
Company, chartered for the purpose of de- 
veloping and controlling the water power and 
establishing factories and workshops at or near 
‘the site they selected. This company  pur- 
chased lands covering nearly half the area of 
the contemplated town and secured land or 
flowage rights for several miles above the site 
chosen for the projected city. It was decided 
to locate at the lowermost of three successive 
Merrimac River rapids below Lowell, at. the 
confluence of the Merrimac, Spicket and Shaw- 
sheen rivers. Promoted as the Lawrence build- 
ing and manufacturing enterprise was at the 
outset by responsible and powerful sponsors, 
the “New City,” as it was at first called, rap- 
idly developed and became almost at the be- 
ginning important as an industrial centre. In 
less than two years from the commencement 
of operations in 1845, the settlement was organ- 
ized as a separate town, taking the name of 
Lawrence in honor of the eminent merchant 
manufacturers of that name who were so deeply 
interested in establishing the town and city. 
The city has had its calamities. Its industrial 
enterprises survived the financial reverses of 
1857, 1858 and 1859, only because of powerful 
support given by loyal defenders and business 
leaders. This time of trial was succeeded by 
the gloom attendant upon the “Fall of Pember- 
ton Mill,” 10 Jan. 1860, an occurrence that en- 
listed the interest and sympathy of the entire 
country. In the War of the Rebellion the 
city’s volunteers were among the first to re- 
spond to the call for troops and were among 
the first to engage in conflict. A citizen, Sum- 
ner H. Needham, was the first martyr to fall 
in the ranks of the patriot soldiery in April 
1861. Lawrence was incorporated as a city 
10 May 1853. 

Population,— The cosmopolitan character 
of the population is particularly noticeable. 
Forty-six nationalities are represented among 
the population. Formerly the greatest immigra- 


studied by educators ° 


‘first incorporated in 1847. 


LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY — LAWS AND USAGES OF WAR 


tion was from France, the British Tsles, Canada 
and Germany, but of recent years the flow has 
been from Italy, Greece, Poland, the Balkan 
States and Russia. Pop. (1920) 94,270. 
GEoRGE E. Rix, 
Secretary of Lawrence Chamber of Commerce. 


LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY, Appleton, 
Wis., a Methodist Episcopal institution founded 
in 1847 and named in honor of its: principal 
donor, Amos A. Lawrence, of Boston. In 1916 
it had 47 professors and instructors, 721 stu- 
dents, 34,129 volumes in the library, and pro- 
ductive funds, $905,876; grounds and buildings 
valued at $531,000; benefactions during 1915, 
$23,000; income, $112,280. 


_ LAWRENCEBURG, §la’réns-bérg, Ind., 
city and county-seat of Dearborn County, on 
the Ohio River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio 
and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and 
Saint Louis railroads, 22 miles west of Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio. It was settled in 1817 and was 
The government is 
administered by a mayor, elected every four 
years, and by a city council, elected every two 
years. It has manufactures of flour, edge- 


tools, burial caskets, tube-well supplies, wagons, 
barrels, etc. Pop. (1920) 3,464. 


LAWRENCEVILLE, Ill, town and 
county-seat of Lawrence County, 141 miles east 
of Saint Louis, on the Baltimore and Ohio 
Southwestern and on the Cleveland, Cincin- 
nati, Chicago and Saint Louis railroads. The 
surrounding country is rich in oil deposits and 
agriculture is likewise important. The town 
has modern improvements and industrially is 
chiefly occupied in refining crude oil. Pop. 
(1920) 5,080. 


LAWRENCEVILLE SCHOOL, The, an 
American college preparatory school at Law- 
renceville, N. J., originally founded in 1810, 
but refounded in 1882 as an endowed school 
known as the “Lawrenceville School on the 
John C. Green Foundation,” at which time the 
English “house system” was adopted. In scope 
it corresponds to such English schools as Har- 
row or Rugby and now contains about 400 
pupils with some 36 masters. There are 13 
mastets’ houses, with an Upper House and the 
Hamill House for the boys of the upper form, 
managed by boards of directors appointed by 
the boys themselves. ~ There are five forms, 
each corresponding’ to one year’s work. In 
addition to the buildings already named there 
are a large stone chapel, a spacious building 
for classroom exercises called Memorial Hall, 
and an immense gymnasium with swimming 
pool, erected in 1902. Lawrenceville itself is a 
small village six miles northeast from Trenton 
and five miles from Princeton, southwest. 


LAWS, Direct Enactment of. See InitTIA- 
TIVE; LEGISLATION, DirREcT; REFERENDUM. 


LAWS, Execution of. See EXECUTIVE. 


LAWS OF NATURE IN MYTHS. See 
MyTHOLOGY. 


LAWS AND USAGES OF WAR, a 
branch of public, international law covering 
the body of rules and principles instituted and 
observed by civilized nations in the conduct of 
a public war. The code covers the relations of 
neutrals and belligerents, blockades, captures, 
prizes, truces, armistices, capitulation, prisoners, 


LAWS OF WAR 


declarations of war and peace, and all matters 
in any way connected with the prosecution of 
war. Custom and the demands of advancing 
civilization form the basis of many. of the 
statutes, while others have been formulated and 
agreed to by international. conventions. Con- 
sult ‘Rules of Land Warfare? (Washington, 
Government Printing Office, 1914). 


LAWS OF WAR, The. A comparison of 
the laws of war as they exist to-day with those 
which governed the conduct of belligerents 100 
years ago will reveal one striking difference, 
namely, whereas, the law to-day is in large 
part written, a century ago it was for the most 
part unwritten. Aside from occasional stipula- 


tions in treaties dealing with such matters as . 


the treatment of enemy subjects at the out- 
break of war, the exercise of the right of 
search and capture, what goods should be 
treated as contraband and the like, the law of 
war consisted mainly of custom and usage, the 
evidence of which was found in the treatises 
of text writers and in the decisions of prize 
courts. Naturally, the text writers and jurists 
were not always in agreement as to what cus- 
tom and usage permitted and what it forbade 
and even where there was agreement the recog- 
nized rules were not always known to military 
or naval commanders. 

During the past 50 years out of this mass 
of custom and tradition a large body of written 
law has developed, the greater part of which 
is now embodied in the texts of international 
conventions and declarations which have re- 
ceived the formal assent of the great body of 
states, and in ‘official manuals’ or ordinances 
issued by states for the information and ‘guid- 
ance of their military and naval commanders. 
What may be regarded as the starting point 
in the process by which the law of war has 
thus far been reduced to written form was 
the promulgation by Presiden Lincoln in 1863 
of General Orders No. 100 entitled, “Instruc- 
tions for the Government of the Armies of 
the United States in the Field” In the main, 
these “instructions” were prepared by Dr. 
Francis Lieber, a distinguished publicist of 
German origin, who in early life emigrated to 
the United States and was for many years 
a professor in South Carolina College. The 
code prepared by him consisted of 157 articles 
which defined the limits of military authority 
and presented in more or less detail the rights 
and duties of military commanders in time of 
war. The effect was to limit ‘the arbitrary 
powers of commanders and to remove the ex- 
cuse for violations of the law of nations on 
account of their ignorance as to what custom 
and usage required or uncertainty as to its 
meaning. The promulgation of these “instruc- 
tions» represented the first attempt ever made 
by a government to define and embody in a 
written code the laws of land warfare. They 
received high praise from the great jurists of 
the time, they formed the basis of the regula- 
tions adopted by the Brussels Conference in 
1874 and they unquestionably exerted great in- 
fluence upon the subsequent development of 
the laws of war. They remained in force 
until 1914 when they were superseded by a 
new manual entitled the ‘Rules of Land War- 
fare,» which are largely a revision of Lieber’s 
code. What was vital and important in Lie- 


161 


ber’s code was retained, what was obsolete was 
omitted and the provisions of the new manual 
were brought into harmony with the great in- 
ternational conventions adopted at Geneva and 
The Hague. | 

A few.other governments followed the ex- 
ample of the United States, and in 1899 the 
first Hague Conference impressed by the de- 
sirability of each state having a code of this 
kind inserted in its convention respecting the 
laws and customs of war on land an article 
making it the duty of the contracting parties . 
to issue instructions to their armed forces, 
which instructions should be in conformity with 
the regulations annexed to the Convention. 
The British government had already as early 
as 1884 issued a manual of military law and 
this manual was now reissued and brought into 
harmony with the rules of the Hague Conven- 
tion. The governments of most othe coun- 
tries have done likewise. In 1902 the German 
government issued a manual of the laws of 
war entitled, ‘Kriegsbrauch im Landkriege? 
prepared by the Great General Staff. This 
manual has been much criticized not only. be- 
cause of the extreme views set forth by its 
authors in regard to the rights of belligerents, 
military necessity, the means that may be em- 
ployed in the conduct of war, etc., but because 
it ignores many important provisions of the 
Hague Convention, to which such manuals are 
required to conform, repudiates outright some 
of them and dismisses others still with the 
statement that they are good enough in theory 
but that they will never be observed in practice 
by belligerents. In this respect it forms a 
striking contrast to those of the United States, 
Great Britain and France, the provisions of 
which conform in every essential particular to 
the regulations annexed to the Hague Con- 
vention. 

Although the Hague Convention did not 
make it the duty of the contracting parties to 
issue manuals for the guidance and informa- 
tion of their naval commanders in the conduct 
of maritime warfare a number of govern- 
ments have in fact done so. Thus Great Bri- 
tain has her manual of Naval Prize Law, 
Germany her prize code (promulgated 3 Aug. 
1914), which it may be added is not open to 
the criticism which has been so frequently 
directed against the German manual of land 
warfare, and France her “instructions® to the 
commanders of the naval forces, first issued 
19 Dec. 1912, and reissued in revised form 
30 Jan. 1916. In 1900 a naval code prepared 
by Admiral Stockton was promulgated by the 
Navy Department of the‘ United States but it 
was withdrawn by President Roosevelt in 1905 
and has not been reissued or replaced by an- 
other. 

The practice of governments of issuing 
manuals for the information and guidance of 
their military and naval commanders marked 
an important step in the development of. the 
laws of war. The effect was to define and 
reduce to written form many of the customs 
and usages governing the conduct of war on 
sea and land and thereby remove or reduce 
the possibility of harm which might result from 
ignorance or uncertainty on the part of com- 
manders as to what was permissible and what 
was forbidden by them. 

The capital defect of these manuals, how- 


152 


ever, lay in the fact that being unilateral acts 
they were binding only upon the commanders 
ad troops of the government which issued 
them and might be altered or revoked at any 
time. In short, they had no international bind- 
ing effect. What was needed to complete the 
process of development of which they were the 
starting point was an international code con- 
taining an authoritative definition and_ state- 
ment of the laws’ of war formulated and 
adopted by the whole body of states, which 
therefore would be binding upon all of them 
and which could not be altered at the will 
of any single state. . 

So far as the law of land warfare is con- 
cerned this need has now been met in a large 
degree and to a less extent it may also be 
said of the law of maritime warfare. This 
change has been brought about by the adoption 
of a number of international conventions and 
declarations, through the agency of conferences 
representing in some cases practically the whole 
body of states. These acts are the Declarations 
of Paris of 1856 and of Saint Petersburg of 
1868, the Geneva Conventions of 1864 and 
1906 and the Declarations and Conventions of 
the two Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907. 

The Declaration of Paris of 1856 represented 
the first attempt to embody in an international 
act certain rules regarding maritime warfare. 
It declared privateering to be abolished, estab- 
lished the immunity of private property, except 
contraband, from capture at sea, when found 
under a neutral flag and proclaimed that a 
blockade to be legal must be effective, that is, 
it must be maintained by a sufficient number 
of vessels to make the violation of the blockade 
hazardous to any ship which should undertake 
to pass. the blockading cordon. 

The declaration was framed by representa- 
tives of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, 
Russia, Sardinia and Turkey. At the outbreak 
of the War of 1914 the only maritime powers 
which had not formally ratified or adhered to 
the declaration were the United States, Spain, 
Mexico, Venezuela, Bolivia and Uruguay. In 
practice the United States and Spain acted in 
accord with its rules during the Spanish- 
American War of 1898 and at the second 
Hague Conference in 1907 the delegations of 
Mexico and Spain declared that their govern- 
ments accepted the declaration in entirety. 
Its rules may therefore be now regarded as 
a part of the body of international law govern- 
ing the conduct of maritime warfare. 

Fight years after the adoption of the Dec- 
laration of Paris, that is, 1864, a conference 
representing 16 states met at Geneva and 
framed the first Red Cross Convention, the 
general purpose of which was to create certain 
immunities for the persons who are charged 
with the care of sick and wounded soldiers 
in war and for the hospitals, ambulances and 
material employed in such service. Within a 
period of four years nearly all the governments 
of Europe and America had become parties to 
the convention. In 1906 it was revised and 
improved by a second conference which also 
met at Geneva. ; 

In the meantime, 1868, the Declaration of 
Saint Petersburg was framed by a conference 
representing most of the governments of Eu- 
rope. The parties te the declaration engaged 


LAWS OF WAR 


to refrain from using a certain type of bullet 
which by reason of character inflicted super- 
fluous injury upon those against whom it. was 
employed. The declaration also affirmed the 
humanitarian principle that there are limits at 
which war ought to yield to the requirements 
of humanity, asserted that the only legitimate 
object which states should endeavor to accom- 
plish during war is to weaken the military 
forces of the enemy and declared that this 
object would be exceeded by the employment 
of arms which needlessly aggravate the suffer- 
ings of disabled men or render their death 
inevitable. The principle thus laid down, al- 
though criticized by some militarists like yon 
Moltke, has been affirmed by the military 
manuals of many countries, and was incorpo- 
rated by reference in article 23 of the Hague 
Convention respecting the laws and customs of 
war. yar 

The success of these efforts to reach an 
agreement as to certain rules and principles 
governing the objects and methods of war 
paved the way for further international legis- 
lation. In 1874 a conference representing most 
of the European powers met. at Brussels and 
framed a body of rules governing the conduct 
of war on land but unfortunately it was not 
ratified by the powers and therefore remained 
without international force. Nevertheless its 
rules exerted a strong moral influence upon the 
conduct of the wars which followed, and many 
of them found their way into the military 
manuals issued by various governments for the 
guidance of commanders and troops in the 
field. Moreover it became the basis of the 
Hague Convention of 1899 respecting the laws 
and customs of war on land. 

The high water mark in the movement to 
define and codify the laws and customs of war 
was reached in the work of the two Hague 
Conferences of 1899 and 1907. The first con- 
ference formulated and adopted three conven- 
tions and three declarations, five of which 
deal with the conduct of war, the most im- 
portant of them being the convention respecting 
the laws and customs of war on land. The 
latter convention was ratified by the govern- 
ments of all the states represented at the con- 
ference and was later adhered to by the goy- 
ernments of 19 other states not represented 
at the conference. The conference of 1907 
went much further and adopted 13 conven- 
tions and one declaration, 10 of which relate 
directly or indirectly to the conduct of war. 
(See Hacue Conventions). The most import- 
ant of them was the convention respecting the 
laws and customs of war on land, which was 
mainly a revision of the corresponding con- 
vention of 1899, 

In consequence of a clause which declared 
that the convention should be applicable .only 
between the contracting parties, and then only 
if all the belligerents were ‘parties, this con- 
vention as well as most of the others of 1907 
was not legally binding during the recent 
European War, because several of the bellig- 
erents have never ratified it. Nevertheless, the 
Convention of 1899 respecting the laws of war 
on land is binding upon all because all the 
belligerents were parties to it. Moreover, it is 
well to remember that many of the provisions 
of the conventions of 1907 were not new rules 


LAWS OF WAR 


but were merely declaratory of the existing cus- 
tomary law and as such they were binding inde- 
pendently of the status of the conventions in 
which they are incorporated—as much so as 
any other well-established customary rule of 
the law of: nations. In some cases belligerent 
governments during the recent war took ad- 
vantage of the circumstances that the conven- 
tions of 1907 were not technically binding, 
in order to avoid the obligations which the 
conventions. created, but for the most part they 
proceeded on the theory that they were in fact 
binding and the governments of several 
of them announced at the outbreak of the war 
that they would observe their provisions pro- 
vided their adversaries would do likewise. 
The Hague Conventions, so far as they 
relate to the conduct of war, deal mainly with 
war on land; nevertheless several conventions 
were adopted relating to maritime war. Thus 
there was a convention relative to the conver- 
sion of merchant vessels into warships, a con- 
vention relative to the laying of -submarine 
mines, a convention governing naval bombard- 
ments and a convention relative to certain 
restrictions upon the right of capture in naval 
warfare: The questions of blockade, contra- 
band, visit and search, transfers of flag, de- 
struction of prizes and others, however, were 
not dealt with by the Hague conventions. It 
thus happened, therefore, that a large part of 
the law of maritime warfare remained unwrit- 
ten and in the form of custom. As there were 
wide divergencies of opinion and practice in 
regard to some of these matters it was of 
the highest importance that a general agreement 
should be reached in these points and the 
results embodied in an international conven- 
tion. In consequence of the action of the Sec- 
ond Hague Conference in providing for the 
creation of an international prize court which 
should apply the “rules of international law” 
in the decision of the cases brought before it, 
the necessity for agreement among the mari- 
time powers as to what the rules of interna- 
tional law were, so far as they related to 
naval warfare, was evident. Upon the initia- 
tive of the British government, therefore, a 
conference representing the principal maritime 
powers was called to meet at London in Decem- 
ber 1909 and it agreed upon a body of rules 
relating to the unsettled questions of mari- 
time warfare mentioned above and embodied 
them in an act known as the Declaration of 
London. ~ Unfortunately, however, when the 
great war broke out in Europe in 1914 none 
of the signatory powers had ratified the dec- 
laration. The American government there- 
upon proposed to the several belligerents that 
they agree to accept the declaration as a tem- 
porary code and conduct their naval operations 
in accordance with its rules, notwithstanding 
that it had not been formally ratified by any 
of them. The governments of Germany and 
Austria-Hungary signified their willingness to 
do this provided their adversaries would do so. 
In consequence, however, of the action of the 
British and French governments in putting the 
declaration into effect with important modifi- 
cations, this on the face of the terms of the 
declaration that it should be ratified as a whole 
and not by piecemeal, the American govern- 
ment withdrew its proposal and announced 


153 


that in upholding its own rights it would rely 
upon the existing law of nations rather than 
upon the declaration. 

In July 1916 the British and French govern- 
ments, partly in consequence of Germany’s 
methods of submarine warfare and partly in 
consequence of changed conditions, revoked the 
earlier proclamations by which they had _ put 
the declaration into force with certain modifi- 
cations and promulgated a series of new rules 
which they would apply in respect to contra- 
band, continuous voyage, etc. While the. dec- 
laration as such was thus thrown overboard, it 
may be said of it what has been said above of 
the Hague conventions, of, 1907, namely, that 
many of its rules were not new but were 
merely declaratory of the existing customary 
laws and as such were binding upon the bellig- 
erents as much so as if the declaration had 
been formally ratified. ) 

At the present time, therefore, only a com- 
paratively small part of the law of maritime 
warfare is to be found in the texts of inter- 
national conventions; like the law of land war- 
fare a century ago, it still consists largely of 
custom and of judicial precedent. Owing to 
the fact, however, that it -has been the object 
of interpretation by prize courts for more than 
a century, it is now fairly well defined although 
as stated above there are still divergencies of. 
opinion and of practice in regard to some im- 
portant questions. While the larger part of 
the law of land warfare is now written and 
may be found in the texts of the great inter- 
national conventions, there are still many ques- 
tions, reprisals, for example, that are unregu- 
lated, except by custom and usage. Both of 
the Hague conferences admitted that it had 
not been possible to agree upon regulations 
concerning all cases which might arise in prac- 
tice and they took the precaution to declare 
expressly in the preamble to the convention 
respecting the laws and customs. of. war on 
land that the high contracting parties did not 
intend that unforeseen cases should, in the ab- 
sence of a written undertaking, be left to the 
arbitrary judgment of military commanders and 
in “cases not included in the regulations adopted 
by them, the inhabitants and the belligerents 
remain under the protection and the rule of the 
principles of the law of nations as they result 
from the usages established among civilized 
peoples, from the laws of humanity and the 
dictates of the public conscience.” 

The European War has shown that some 
of the established. rules of war law, those re- 
lating to blockade and contraband, for example, 
are not in harmony with present day conditions 
and will need to be revised; others are obsolete 
and many new rules will be necessary in con- 
sequence of the invention of new instrumental- 
ities for carrying on war. As to the exact 
changes that will be made in the new rules 
adopted it would, of course, be idle to speculate. 
See INTERNATIONAL LAw. 

Bibliography.— Bentwich, ‘The Declara- 
tion of London?; Holland, T. E., ‘Laws of 
War on Land? (Introductory chapter); Speight, 
“War Rights on Land? (Chap. I); Renault, 
“War and the Law of Nations» (American 
Journal of International Law. Vol. IX, p. 1); 
“Rules of Land Warfare? (Washington, Gov- 
ernment Printing Office, 1914); ‘British Man- 


154 


ual of Military Law?; Morgan, J. H., ‘The 
War Book of the German General Staff? (New 
York and London 1915). 
James W. GARNER, 
Professor of Political Science, University of 
Illinots. 

LAWSON, Andrew Cowper, American 
geologist: b. Ansruther, Scotland, 25 July 1861. 
He was graduated at the University of Toronto 
in 1883, took his A.M. there in 1885 and his 


Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins in 1888. He served 


on the Geological Survey of Canada in 1882- 
90, afterward becoming professor of mineralogy 
and geology at the University of California, 
where he is now dean of the College of Min- 
ing. He was a delegate to the Geological con- 
gresses at London 1888, Saint Petersburg 1897 
and Toronto 1913; and served as chairman of 
the California Earthquake Investigation Com- 
mittee in 1906. He is a member of various 
scientific societies and in 1909-10 he was presi- 
dent of the Seismological Society of America. 
Author of numerous papers on geology. 


LAWSON, Cecil Gordon, English painter: 


b. Wellington, Shropshire, 3 Dec. 1851; d. Lon- 
don, 10 June 1882. He exhibited at the Acad- 
emy in 1870, but many of his pictures were 
rejected by the hanging committee till’ 1878, 
when his ‘Minister’s Garden? and a ‘Pastoral? 
at the Grosvenor made him famous. He was 
highly esteemed by the poet-painter, Rossetti, 
and his works are now much valued. Consult 
Gosse, ‘Cecil Lawson: A Memoir.» 


LAWSON, Ernest, American landscape 
painter: b. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1873. He 
studied art at the Art Students’ League in 
New York under Twachtman and James Alden 
Weir and spent 1903-04 in study in France. 
He is of the Impressionist school in its best 
development and is especially happy in his 
rendering of both urban and rural scenes, con- 
fining his work ‘chiefly to American subjects 
until. 1916 when he spent a season painting in 
Spain. He was awarded the silver medal at 
the Saint Louis Exposition in 1904, the Ses- 
nan medal of the Pennsylvania Academy in 
1907, the first Halgarten prize in 1908, the 
Altman prize in 1916, the gold medal at the 
San Francisco Exposition in 1915, the Corcoran 
silver medal in 1916 and the Inness gold medal 
in 1917. He was elected an associate of the 
National Academy in 1908. Among his paint- 
ings are ‘Near High Bridge? ; ‘The Abandoned 
Farm? (National Gallery, Washington) ; ‘Road 
Down the Palisades»? (1911); ‘Hillside at In- 
wood? (1912); ‘Evening, Palisades? (1913). 


LAWSON, Henry Archibald, Australian - 


writer: b. Grenfell, New South Wales, 1867; d. 
Sydney, N. S. W., 2 Sept. 1922. He worked on 
his father’s farm, with the exception of some 
tirne spent in Sydney learning carriage-paint- 
ing, until he was 20 years of age, when he 
went to Melbourne and two years later to 
Albany, Western Australia. There he worked 
as a house painter. While in Sydney he began 
contributing poems and stories to the Bulletin 
and this he continued long after he had left 
the city. So successful were these efforts that 
he secured a position on the literary staff of 
The Boomerang, Brisbane (1890-91). For the 
next five years he wandered about Australia, 
sometimes working at this trade, at others 
doing any kind of work that came to hand. 


LAWSON 


In ‘1897 he was a government teacher in New 
Zealand. Three years later he was in London. 
After three years’ residence in England he re- 
turned to ‘Sydney in 1902. There he continued 
at his trade and began working up more of his 
experiences into poems, sketches and_ short 
stories, which have about them a freedom, 
naturalness, boldness’ and sureness of touch 
that often suggests Kipling. Among his pub- 
lished works which are all provincial, and for 
that reason the more interesting, are ‘Short 
Stories in Prose and Verse? (1895); ‘In the 
Days When the World was Wide? (1896) ; 
‘While the Billy Boils? (1896) ; ‘Verses Popu- 
lar and Humorous? (1900); ‘The Country I 
Came from? (1901); ‘Joe Wilson and his 
Mates? (1901) ; ‘Children of the Bush? (1902) ; 
(On the Track and over the Sliprails? (1905) ; 
‘When I was King and Other Stories? ; ‘Star 
of Australia. 


LAWSON, John, American colonial sur- 
veyor-general: d. 1712. He was of Scotch 
birth; began his surveys in 1700, and was an 
intelligent observer, enterprising and circum- 
spect, but fell a victim to the jealousy of the 
natives, who confounded the surveyor of their 
territory with those who despoiled them of it. 
He was captured by them during one of his 
explorations when in company with De Graffen- 
ried, a Swiss baron who contemplated coloniza- 
tion. The latter was permitted to buy himself 
free, but Lawson failed to propitiate their hos- 
tility and perished by the fire torture. He left 
one of the most valuable of the early histories 
of the Carolinas, of their feeble condition, their 
resources and aspects and their principal abo- 
riginal tribes. It is entitled ‘A New Voyage to 
Carolina, containing the Exact Description and 
Natural History of that Country, together with 
the Present State thereof; and a Journal of a 
Thousand Miles Traveled through Several Na- 
tions of Indians, giving a Particular Account 
of their Customs, Manners, etc.? (1709). The 
volume is a quarto of 258 pages, well illus- 
trated with one of the best maps of the time, 
and with various other engravings, chiefly in 
natural history. It is now rare. 


LAWSON, Thomas. William, American 
banker and author: -b..Charlestown, Mass., 26 
Feb.. 1857... He. was educated in. the public 
schools and in 1870 established himself as a 
banker and broker in Boston. He operated 
extensively in. copper properties and was known 
as a particularly daring speculator, He became 
senior member of the firm Lawson, Arnold 
and Company, president of the Bay State Gas 
Company of Delaware, The Thomas W. Law- 
son Company, the Trinity Copper Company and 
the First National Copper Company. He is a 
prominent. yachtsman and in 1904-05 he at- 
tracted wide attention by his contribution to 
Everybody's Magazine of a series of articles, 
‘Frenzied Finance,» supposed to be an exposé 
of the evils of speculation in copper, oil and 
stocks generally. Lawson’s high financial 
standing and his reputation for daring on the 
exchanges enhanced the sensational qualities of 
the attacks. Author of ‘The Krank? (1887); 
“History of the Republican Party? (1888); 
‘Secrets of Success? (1888); ‘Collection of 
Poems and Short Stories from Magazines? 
(1888); ‘Lawson’s History of the American 
Cup? (for private distribution, 1902); ‘Fren- 


LAWSON — LAXATIVE 


zied Finance? (1905); ‘Friday the Thirteenth» 
(1907) ; ‘The High Cost of Living? (1913). 


LAWSON, Victor Fremont, American 
newspaper publisher: b. Chicago, 9 Sept. 1850. 
He was educated at Phillips Academy, An- 
dover, Mass. He inherited from his father an 
interest in a printing establishment, and in 1876 
bought the Chicago Daily News, which, with 
his partner, Melville E. Stone, he developed 
successfully, starting a morning edition in 1881 
under the name of the Record. In 1888 he 
bought out his partner and became sole pro- 
prietor; in 1901 the Recond was merged with 
the Times-Herald under the name of the 
Record-Herald and with the Inter-Ocean under 
the name of the Chicago Herald in 1914. He 
has been president of the Associated Press; 
has also been active in philanthropic work, and 
was active in support of the movement for 
a United States Postal Savings. Bank, and 
started the Daily News Fresh Air Fund, which 
supports a sanitarium for sick children of the 
poor. 


LAWSON, Sir Wilfrid, English states- 
man; b. Cumberland, England, 4 Sept. 1829; 
d. London, 1 July 1906. He early came into 
notice as a temperance advocate. In 1859 he 
was elected to Parliament for ‘Carlisle, in 
which, with brief intervals, he sat for 47 years. 
In 1863 he introduced his first permissive or 
local option resolution for the regulation of 
the liquor traffic, and in 1864 brought in a bill 
on similar lines. From 1868-85 he again repre- 
sented Carlisle; from 1886-1900 the Cocker- 
mouth Division of Cumberland, and from 1903 
till 1906 the Camborne division of Cornwall, 
and was again returned for his old constitu- 
ency in 1906. He may be said to have devoted 
his life to the temperance cause, and was presi- 
dent of the United Kingdom Alliance. His 
local option resolution was an annual event in 
the House of Commons, and passed in 1880, 
- 1881 and 1883. A strong Radical in politics, 
a devout churchman and a keen sportsman,— 
he was master of the Cumberland hunt — he 
was a brilliant platform speaker, whose humor 
was only the mask of a consuming earnestness 
of purpose. He was exceedingly popular in the 
_House, and used to while away the tedium of 
the lobbies by snatches of impromptu verse. 
Three volumes of his speeches have been pub- 
lished and he is joint author with Sir F. C. 
Gould of ‘Cartoons in Rhyme and Line? (Lon- 
don -1905). 


LAWSON’S CYPRESS. See Cypress. 


LAWTON, Henry Ware, American. sol- 
dier: b. Manhattan, Ohio, 17 March 1843; d. 
San Mateo, Luzon, 19 Dec. 1899. He entered 
the military service as a private 16 April 1861; 
became captain 17 May 1862. He was mus- 
tered out 25 Nov. 1865, but entered the regular 
army as second lieutenant the next year; was 
transferred to the Fourth cavalry in 1871; and 
promoted to captain 20 March 1879. In 1876 
he was conspicuous in the expedition against 
the hostile Sioux, took part against the Ute 
Indians in Colorado, in October 1879, and in 
the spring of 1886 was selected by General 
Miles to lead a picked body of troops into 
Mexico in pursuit of Geronimo. At the end 
of three months Geronimo and his band were 
captured. At the beginning of the Spanish- 
American War Lawton was a lieutenant- 


155 


colonel, and was made a major-general of vol- 
unteers 8 July 1898. He was in command of 
the Second Division of the Fifth army corps 
before Santiago, and at the close of the war 
was transferred to the Philippines where he 
began active operations against the insurgents 
and after capturing Santa Cruz; a Filipino 
stronghold, 10 April 1899, and San Isidro, 15 
May, was placed in command of Manila, 1 June. 
In the autumn he began an offensive campaign 
looking toward the capture of Aguinaldo, and - 
was killed in the battle of San Mateo. 


LAWTON, William Cranston, American 
educator and author: b. New Bedford, Mass., 
22 May 1853. He was graduated from Harvard 
in 1873 and later studied at the University of 
Berlin. He was a member of the Assos ex- 
pedition in 1881; in 1895-1907 he was professor 
of Greek language and literature at Adelphi 
College, Brooklyn, and he was afterward pro- 
fessor of literature at Hobart College, Geneva, 
N. Y. He was secretary of the Archeological 
Institute of America in 1890-94. He has con- 
tributed extensively to magazines and was 


- classical editor and contributor to ‘Warner’s 


Library of the World’s Best Literature’; au- 
thor of ‘Three Dramas of Euripides? (1889); 
‘Folia Dispersa» (verse); ‘Art and Humanity 
in Homer? (1896); ‘New England Poets? 
(1898); ‘Successors of Homer? (1898) ;- 
“Pope’s Homer? (1900); ‘Histories of Greek 
and Latin Literature» (1903); ‘Ideals in Greek 
Literature? (1905), etc. 


LAWTON, Okla., city and county-seat of 
Comanche County, one of the three counties 
formed from the Comanche reservation and 
added to. Oklahoma Territory 6 Aug. 1901. 
It is situated on the Chicago, Rock Island and 
Pacific and the Saint Louis and San Francisco 
railroads, about 90 miles southwest of Okla- 
homa City. Its principal industries are agricul- 
tural (especially cotton-growing) and the manu- 
facture of cottonseed-oil. The local water stup- 
ply is owned by the city; an extensive irriga- 
tion system in the neighborhood has been-in- 
stituted by the gavernment. Among the inter- 
esting features are Fort Sill, United States 
military post, the Wichita National Forest and 
Game Preserve, “Medicine Park” and the Fort 
Sill Indian School. The city was named in 
honor of Gen. Henry W. Lawton (q.v.), a very 
able American officer who lost his life in the 
war in the Philippines. Pop. (1920) 8,930. 


LAWYER. See AtTTorNEY; COUNSELLOR 
AT Law. 


LAWYER, common name given locally to 
certain fishes of different parts of the United 
States. They are the burbot, sometimes called 
also “ake lawyer”; the mudfish or bowfin; the 
stilt sandpiper and the mangrove snapper. 


LAWYER, Rights and Duties of. 
COUNSELLOR AT LAW. 


LAXATIVE, a term applied to medicines 
and articles of food which without causing 
irritation evacuate the contents of the intestines. 
The terms aperients, lenitives and eccoproctics 
are also employed to cover the same meaning. 
Laxative articles of food, the use of which 
causes daily intestinal evacuations, contain con- 
siderable quantities of indigestible matter; 
some of them salts and acids which act in 
much the same way as the saline laxatives, and 


See 


156 


others, notably fruits and vegetables containing 
quantities of cellulose, which is indigestible in 
the main, by increasing the bulk of the feces 
distends the intestines and induces easy evacu- 
ation. Among the laxative fruits are prunes, 
figs, pears, apples, oranges, peaches and berries. 
The laxative foods consist of the unboiled 
meal of cereal grains, such as graham or whole 
wheat flour, cracked wheat, oatmeal and Indian 
meal and pure bran. Honey, molasses and 
brown sugar are likewise usually effective in 
promoting a daily intestinal evacuation, and in 
some cases a glass or two of cool water taken 
immediately after arising will produce the same 
result. Laxative foods generally increase the 
appetite, due to the incomplete digestion of 
considerable nutritive matter caused ‘by its 
mixture with cellulose or woody fibre. As a 
rule, the articles of food most easily assimilable 
result in constipation unless mixed with the 
bulky foods which are never wholly digested. 
Laxative medicines are called into use when a 
laxative diet has failed to produce the desired 
result, or when its use is inadvisable and when 
other ‘hygienic measures are ineffective or can- 
not be employed. They include manna, tama- 
rindus, magnesia, salts, sulphur, castor-oil, 
rhubarb, senna, cascara sagrada, phenolphtha- 
lein and the preparations of liquid paraffine. 
The use of liquid paraffine, promoted by Sir 
Arbuthnot Lane, has the effect of softening and 
rendering more bulky the contents of the in- 

testines, thereby producing gentle evacuation 
~ without the paraffine’s exerting other medicinal 
effect. The liquid paraffine is variously known 
as liquid albolene, liquid vaseline, Russian 
mineral oil, and there are many variations of 
the product under proprietary control. 


LAXENBURG, Lower Austria, village 
nine miles south of Vienna, on the Schwechat 
River. Its palace is one of the summer homes 
of the Austrian imperial family. The Imperial 
Park, which is open to the public, consists of 
1,000 acres, covers 17 islands in the Schwechat 
River and was laid out in 1782-98, following 
the English style. The Altes Schloss is used 
as a hunting lodge and was rebuilt in 1693 
after its destruction by the Turks. The Neues 
Schloss dates from 1752 in the reign of Maria 
Theresa and Joseph II. The Franzenburg dates 
from 1799 and is noted for its art collections. 
Pop. about 1,000. 


LAY, Benjamin, British-American philan- 
thropist: b. Colchester, England, 1677; d, Ab- 
ington, Pa. 3 Feb. 1759. His parents were 
Quakers, and he illustrated in his life the hu- 
mane principles which the Society of Friends 
has so long conspicuously represented. At 18 
he adopted a sailor’s life, and for some years 
followed the sea. In 1710 he was married and 
lived again for a while at Colchester; after- 
ward went to Barbadoes, where he became a 
merchant; but having aroused hostility by his 
denunciation of slavery, removed from. the 
island (1718) to Philadelphia, where his anti- 
slavery agitation was continued. Of numer- 
ous tracts which he wrote on slavery one was 
published by Franklin, entitled ‘All Slave 
Keepers, that Keep the Innocent in Bondage, 
Apostates? (1737). He was influential. in 
bringing the Friends in this country to take a 
more decided stand against slave-holding, and 
just before his death a resolution was passed 


LAXENBURG—: _ LAY READER 


condemning those who still held slaves. He 
did not, however, confine his reforming 
endeavors to one direction, but labored 


for a more humane treatment of criminals, 
and discouraged the use of animal products 
whether. for food or clothing, the use of 
tea and tobacco, and on one occasion tried 
to fast for 40 days in imitation of Christ. 
He is described as a singular figure, dwarfish 
and hunchbacked, and’ presenting an appear- 
ance of poverty. He was buried in the Friends’ 
burying-ground at Abington. 


LAY, Henry Champlin, American Prot- 
estant Episcopal bishop: b. Richmond, Va., 6 
Dec. 1823; d. Easton, Md., 17 Sept. 1885. He 
was graduated at the University of Virginia, 
ordained deacon (1846) and priest. (1848). He 
was consecrated missionary bishop of the 
Southwest (1859) and translated to the 
diocese of Easton (1869). During the Civil 
War the episcopal charge of Kansas was as- 
signed to him, that State being then erected 
into a diocese. The revision of the lectionary 
was largely due to Bishop Lay; while he was 
engaged on the Standard Prayer Book up to 
his death. He was the author of ‘Studies in 
the Church? (1872) and ‘The Church and the 
Nation? (1885). 


LAY, John Louis, American inventor: b. 
Buffalo, N. Y.,. 14 Jan. [832° qd) Newaewece 
April 1899. In July 1862 he was appointed sec- 
ond assistant engineer in the United States 
navy, and in 1864 invented a new torpedo. By 
means of this apparatus Cushing destroyed the 
Albemarle, a Confederate ram. When Admiral 
Porter advanced up the James River after the 
evacuation of Richmond, Lay was employed io 
clear away the submarine obstructions. He was 
engaged by the Peruvians government to mine 
the harbor of Callao, in view of a Spanish at-. 
tack, but his main work as an engineer and in- 
ventor was the construction of the dirigible 
torpedo, which bears his name, and was pur- 
chased by the United States government. 


LAY DAYS, maritime law term designat- 
ing the stipulated number of days granted to 
the charterer of a vessel for shipping or un- 
loading cargo, during which time no charge 
may be made ‘for wharfage. The sum charged 
for days in excess of the number allowed in 
the charter is called demurrage and its amount 
is usually fixed in the charter. The period of 
lay days begins at the arrival of the vessel in 
port, and, in the absence of custom or agree- 
ment to the contrary, includes Sundays. In 
maritime insurance lay days also designate a 
period, commonly limited to 30 days, for which 
rebate of insurance may be demanded while a 
pee has remained idle and without fires at a 

Oc 


LAY READER, a ‘layman authorized by 
the bishop in Anglican and Episcopal churches 
to read certain portions of the service, certain 
approved sermons and to conduct funeral serv- 
ices. Lay readers were first appointed under 
Edward VI in 1560, and the order continued in 
England until the 18th century. It was revived 
in the United States because the limited num- 
bers of the clergy made it impossible to com- 
pass the expansion of the missions, and in many 
places services were for years conducted solely 
by lay readers. These are appointed by the 


LAYA—LAYMAN’S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT 


bishop and receive a license for one year, their 
powers being very particularly defined by the 
canons.- In England the office was revived in 
1866, and in 1905 the regulations concerning its 
scope were revised. Consult Hotchkin, S. F., 
‘Importance and Usefulness of Lay Reading? 
(1892) 'SeeRéstarich)' “H! |B.” “Bay Readers? 
(1894). 


LAYA, la’ya, Jean Louis, French dram- 
atist: b. Paris, 4 Dec. 1761; d. there, 25 Aug. 
1833. He had written several comedies and 
tragedies before the production in 1793 of his 
‘L’Ami des lois? at the Theatre Francois. The 
play embodied a highly courageous protest 
against mob rule, daring to characterize Robes- 
pierre and Murat with scarcely a pretense of 
disguise only 19 days before the execution of 
Louis XVI. Prohibited by the Commune, but 
demanded by the populace, the play was pro- 
duced after an appeal to the Convention, 30,000 
Parisians guarding the theatre. Laya escaped 
from Paris and remained away until the end of 
the Terror, but a number of persons convicted 
of having copies of the play in their possession 
were guillotined. He was appointed to the 
Paris chair of literary history and French 
poetry in 1813, and in 1817 was elected to the 
Academy. His work is notable chiefly for its 
unusual influence at the time of its production. 
Author of ‘Essai de deux amis? (1786); ‘Vol- 
taire aux Francais? (1789); ‘Les Dangers de 
l’opinion» (1790) ; ‘Jean Calas? (1790); ‘L’Ami 
des lois» (1793); ‘Critique litteraire et poli- 
tique? (1793); ‘Les deux Stuarts»? (1797) ; 
‘Falkland? (1799), etc. 


LAYAMON, la’ya-mén, or LAWEMAN, 
la’man, British chronicler, He lived early in 
the 13th century, and was a priest ministering 
at Radstone, now known as Areley Regis, on 
the Severn, in Worcestershire. He is the au- 
thor of a metrical romance, ‘The Brut,’ which 
is mainly an amplified version of the French 
‘Roman de Brut? (q.v.), the latter being itself 
a compilation with additions from Geoffrey of 
Monmouth’s ‘Historia Britonum.? As history 
or literature its value is slight, but it is of high 
philological importance, and exhibits the Eng- 
lish language in its period of transition and be- 
fore it had become Gallicized. as in the ‘Can- 
terbury Tales’? of Chaucer. In fact, there are 
not more than 90 words derived from the 
French in the whole poem of 56,000 lines. Con- 
sult the London Society of Antiquaries edition 
of ‘Brut, edited by Sir Frederick Madden 
(1847) ; Ten Brink, ‘Early English Literature? 
(Vol. L, trans. New York 1883). 


LAYARD, 14’ard, Str Austen Henry, Eng- 
lish traveler and archeologist : b. Paris, 5 
March 1817; d. London, 5 July 1894. He was 
of a family “originally French; was partly edu- 
cated in Italy; began to study. law, but gave up 
this work and entered upon a course of travels 
in the East. Before he was 23 he had traveled 
in most of the larger European countries; in 
1840 he was on the banks of the Tigris, and be- 
fore the end of his career had “won distinc- 
tion as a traveler, archeologist, politician, diplo- 
matist and student of the fine arts” In 1845 
he began the excavations in Assyria (q.v.) for 
which he first became celebrated. The results 
of his discoveries on the site of Nineveh (q.v.) 
were published in 1849-53. In 1849 he was ap- 
pointed attaché to the British embassy at Con- 


157 


stantinople. At first he paid his own expenses 
in his researches, but afterward received gen- 
erous assistance from Lord Stratford de Red- 
cliffe, then English Ambassador in Constanti- 
nople, and still later £3,000 voted by the House 
of Commons was used by the trustees of the 
British Museum for continuing Layard’s ex- 
cavations. In 1852 he entered Parliament as a 
Liberal, and became Under-Secretary of State 
for Foreign Affairs 1860-66. He was lord rec- 
tor of the University of Aberdeen, 1855-56. In 
1868 he was appointed chief commissioner of © 
works and privy councillor; went to Spain in 
1869 as British Ambassador, and 1877-80 was 
Ambassador to the Ottoman Porte. In 1878 he 
was created K.C.B., and was made a_ foreign 
member of the Institute of France in 1890. He 
wrote much on the history of painting, was a 
leading spirit in the Arundel Society and a 
trustee of the National Gallery. His writings 
include ‘Nineveh and Its Remains? (1849); 
“Nineveh and Babylon? (1853); ‘Monuments 
of Nineveh? (1849-53); ‘Inscriptions in the 
Cuneiform Character from the Assyrian Monu- 
ments? (1851); ‘Early Adventures in Persia, 
Susiana and Babylonia? (1887, 1894). Consult 
his ‘Autobiography (1902). 


LAYCOCK, 1a’k6k, Thomas, English phys- 
iologist:. b. Wetherby, Yorkshire, England, 10 
Aug. 1812; d. Edinburgh, Scotland, 21 Sept. 
1876. He was the earliest to put forth the 
theory of the reflex action of the brain. This 
was in 1844, and in 1855 he became professor of 
the practice of physic and of clinical medicine 
at Edinburgh University. He published ‘Mind 
and Brain. (1860); ‘Methods of Medical Ob- 
servation? (1856), etc. and wrote many pro- 
fessional. papers on sanitary science, insanity, 
etc. 


LAYERING, in horticulture, is a mode of 
propagating plants by bending down a young 
branch and covering part of it with earth, thus 
causing it to shoot forth roots before it is sepa- 
rated from the parent stalk. The portion cov- 
ered with soil has often a notch cut in it below, 
or a tight ligature is applied. The free return 
of the sap is thus prevented, and the formation 
of roots from buds is promoted. The time 
which must elapse between the cutting or bind- 
ing of the shoot and its separation from the 
parent plant varies greatly, a few months suffic- 
ing in some cases, while two years are requisite 
in others. This mode of propagation is em- 
ployed for pinks, hortensias, heaths, gooseber- 
ries, etc. 


LAYMAN’S MISSIONARY MOVE- 
MENT, a movement which grew out of a mis- 
sionary prayer meeting held in the chapel of 
the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New 
York 15 Nov. 1906, planned to commemorate 
the centennial of the famous Haystack Prayer- 
meeting held at Williamstown, Mass., frorn 
which the modern missionary movement re- 
ceived its impetus. The movement is not a 
society for missionary work, but is an inter- 
denominational movement designed to aid the 
denominational boards already in| existence. 
The object is two-fold: the education of the 
people so that there shall be a general under- 
standing of missionary methods, plans and 
needs, and second, the examination of the for- 
eign mission work in the field by commissions 


158 


of laymen who pay their own traveling ex- 
penses. The movement has been recognized by 
most of the churches. In the first stages of its 
work banquets and get-together meetings were 
held in all the large cities of the United States 
and Canada. Later great conventions of lay- 
men have been held within denominational 
lines, notably by the Presbyterian Church, the 
Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South. The proceedings cf 
most of these conventions have been published 
in full. These conventions have discussed more 
than the missionary movement. They have in- 
cluded in their programs many things per- 
taining to a general forward movement of the 
Church. The movement spread to England and 
Scotland in 1907. By invitation six American 
laymen. represented the movement to the 
people of Great Britain. Within 30 days Eng- 
land and Scotland each had an organization at 
work. The movement employs a general secre- 
tary with headquarters at 1 Madison Square, 
New York. There is no membership and no 
organization apart from a series of com- 
mittees. There is a general committee of ap- 
proximately 100 laymen, which meets annually, 
giving general direction to the movement. An 
executive committee of 25 members meets 
each month in New York city, giving closer 
supervision to the work. Division committees 
are developed in different sections of the 
United States to give immediate, direction to the 
work in their own territory. In each separate 
city, community or county where work is un- 
dertaken a co-operating committee of the move- 
ment is organized to give it direction and 
assistance. Detailed suggestions are printed for 
the guidance and help of such committees. 
The chief features of a standard missionary 
church, as emphasized by the Laymen’s Mis- 
sionary Movement, are the following: 1. 
missionary pastor. 2. A missionary committee. 
3. A missionary Sunday school. 4. System- 
atic missionary education, including: a. Regu- 
lar missionary meetings. b. The use.of mis- 
sionary literature. c. Organized mission study 
classes, 5. A program of prayer for missions. 
6. An annual every-member canvass for mis- 
sions. 7. The weekly offering for missions. 
By the use of these methods whole cities 
have already more than doubled their entire 
previous missionary offerings. It is the purpose 
and hope of the movement to assist in enlisting 
the men of all churches in the steady support of 
a missionary policy adequate to the presenta- 
tion of the gospel of Christ to every creature. 
When the Laymen’s Movement began its 
work very few churches had discovered the 
value of the missionary committee. The rea- 
sons for having such a committee in every con- 
gregation may be summarized as follows: 
he missionary committee 1. Divides and 
locates responsibility. .2. Enlists lay activity. 
3. Reinforces the pastor’s efforts. 4. Chal- 
lenges to the study of missions. 5. Provides 
a great opportunity for Christian service. 
6. Reaches the membership individually. 7. 
Stimulates the spiritual life of its members. 
8. Greatly increases intelligence, intercession 
and offerings. ; 


Many thousands of these committees have’ 


been appointed as the result of the agitation 
conducted by the Laymen’s Movement. It is 
estimated that some hundreds of thousands of 


LAYNEZ — LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 


laymen are now serving as members of such 
committees. 

Missionary offerings have increased largely 
as a result of the movement. In 1905, the 
year before the movement was organized, the 
churches of the United States and Canada 
were giving $8,120,725 for foreign missions. In 
1915 they gave $18,793,000, a cumulative gain 
of a million dollars .a year. In other words, 
the churches were now giving $10,000,000 a 
year more than they gave in 1906. 

From its inception in 1906 to 1916 the 
Movement organized fully 3,000 conferences 
and conventions, attended by at least a million 
men. ‘Two national campaigns have been con- 
ducted in which there was a paid registration 
of 175,000 delegates. The first national cam- 
paign, in 1909-10, closed with a congress in 
Chicago, the second, in 1915-16, culminated in 
: Neue national congress in Washington, 

The periodical of the movement, Men and 
Missions, has been published regularly since 
1909, millions of pieces of printed matter have 
been distributed and a vast amount of publicity 
has been given the missionary enterprise in the 
press and in connection with the conventions 
of the Movement. 


LAYNEZ, linath, or LAINEZ, Diego, 
dé-a'g6, second general of the Jesuits : b. Al- 
mancario, near Siguenza, Castile, 1512; 4. 
Rome, 19 Jan. 1565. He studied in Alcala and 
Paris, in which latter town he joined with Ig- 
natius Loyola in founding the order of Jesuits. 
His especial work was to travel over Europe to 
gather new members and spread the influence 
of the order, when its constitution had been 
confirmed and approved by Pope Paul III 
(1540). He was very successful in extending 
the Society of Jesus. He was a man of marked 
ability and as a consulting theologian took a 
conspicuous part in the Council of Trent. He 
had succeeded Loyola as general of the Jesuits 
in 1556. On the death of Paul IV he avoided 
the chance of election to the tiara, and refused 
a cardinal’s hat. Consult Boero, ‘Vie du P. 
Jacques Lainez? (1894). 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME. Macau- 
lay’s purpose in the ‘Lays of Ancient Rome? 
(published 1817) was to recreate some of the 


‘old folk poems which he suspected to have been 


the sources of some of the most striking inci- 
dents recorded by the historians of early Rome. 
For models he took Homer and the English 
popular ballads. The Lays sound neither like 
Homer nor any ballad, but like Macaulay. He 
adapted the ballad stanza almost out of all 
recognition to fit his own ringing rhetorical 
style, and he used his classical learning to sup- 
ply abundant concrete details for that vivid 
description of men and places and for that 
vigorous narrative for which he was famous. 
This is particularly true of ‘Horatius,? where 
the subject, with its contrasted personalities 
and stirring action, was especially congenial. 
It is almost as true of ‘The Battle of Lake 
Regillus,» though the incident there is neither 
so striking nor coherent. It is not so true of 
Virginia? which demanded more restraint 
and more subtle feeling than Macaulay could 
bestow, nor ‘The Prophecy of Capys,? which 
demanded more epic splendor. The popularit 

of the ‘Lays? has been great and well- Aeeephe: 


LAZARETTO — LAZARUS 


Up to 1875 a hundred thousand copies had 
been sold. They are not great poetry, but 
Macaulay himself, who used to recite ‘Horatius? 
to a boy, would have been satisfied to know that 
that poem at least would continue to be enjoyed 
by all boys who love to declaim stirring rhetoric 
and swinging verse. 
WiLitiAM HALLER. 


LAZARETTO, a name given in Italy and 
other parts of southern Europe and also in 
Hawaii and in California to isolated hospitals 
for such as are afflicted with contagious dis- 
orders. The name is derived from Saint Laz- 
arus, who (from the unauthorized idea that he 
was a leper) is the patron saint of lepers; and 
during the Middle Ages, when leprosy was 
common in Italy and other parts, the hospitals 
in which the lepers were confined received 
that name, and the lepers themselves were 
called lazzari. Howard wrote ‘An Account of 
the Principal Lazarettos in Europe? (1789). 
Those buildings and enclosures attaching to 
seaport towns chiefly on the Mediterranean, 
where the crews and passengers of ships from 
places where contagious disease is known to 
prevail, are also called lazarettos.. These laz- 
arettos consist generally of various detached 
buildings, with courts between, the whole being 
surrounded by a wall and placed in an airy 
situation outside the town or sometimes on a 
small island near the coast. See also 
QUARANTINE. 


LAZARILLO DE TORMES, 1a’tha-ré’- 
ly6 da tor’mas, the first of the picaresque or 
rogue novels and the most complete early ex- 
ample of modern realistic fiction, takes im- 
portant rank in the history of literature as a 
satiric picture of Spanish life during the Re- 
naissance, of vividness, directness and power. 
The story, although a sequence of episodes 
or adventures presented from the point of view 
of below stairs, possesses exceptional unity of 
characterization in which the satire is wholly 
fused, the progress of the action developing 
through the pursuit of various forms of false 
pretense as the anti-hero, or picaro, passes 
through the service of masters unprincipled 
as himself, who are differentiated from him by 
superior experience and social position, and 
by the hypocrisy which the support of their 
position entails. In style the book is simple 
and vigorous, with the bluntness of common 
speech, antedating the affectations of the Golden 
Age; surpassing in force and restraint the later 
productions of the picaresque school, all of the 
characteristics of which are to be found clearly 
marked in its pages. The prototypes of La- 
zarillo must be sought among the fabliaux and 
later kindred Spanish developments at the hands 
of the archpriest of Hita and others; to these 
tne ‘Celestina» and the precept of classical 
writers, Apuleius and Petronius, may be added. 
A number of traditional medieval tales are 
also incorporated. The influence of the story 
was continuously active during the 17th and 
18th centuries, especially in the novel, of Field- 
ing and Smollett, while the ‘Gil Blas» of Le 
Sage is a direct descendant. Of the. seven 
episodes, or treatises, of the original work, the 
first, in which the boy Lazarillo enters the 
service of the blind beggar, is the most mordant 
and real, the apparent fruit of direct observa- 
tion. 


159 


The earliest known editions are those of 
Alcala and Burgos, 1554, based probably upon 
an original issued during the preceding year. 
Both were published anonymously, but in 1607 
the authorship was attributed to the poet di- 
plomatist, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, whose 
claim has since been rejected by competent 
scholars. Previous to publication, ‘Lazarillo? 
circulated in manuscript, to which fact variants 
in the versions current may be ascribed. An 
anonymous continuation appeared at Antwerp 
in 1555, but the most familiar of the second 
parts is that by Juan de Luna, a Spaniard 
resident at Paris (1620). All these second 
parts are fantastic and in large measure alle- 
gorical, missing both the spirit and force of 
the original. ‘Lazarillo? was prohibited in the 
Index Expurgatorius of 1559, ‘since which 
date it has circulated in Spain chiefly in mod- 
ified form as the ‘Lazarillo Castigado.» David 
Rowland completed an English translation 
(London 1576), probably through the French. 
Subsequent renderings are by Thomas Roscoe, 
(1832), and Louis How (New York 1917); 
upon scholarly and literary grounds, How’s 
version is the most satisfactory. For history 


‘ and bibliography of ‘Lazarillo,? consult Chand- 


ler, F. W., “Romances of Roguery> (New. York 
1899) ; Fonger de Haan, ‘An Outline of the 
History of the Novela Picaresca in Spain? 
(The Hague and New York 1903); Menéndez . 
y Pelayo, M., ‘Origenes de la Novela Espafiola? 
(Madrid, in the ‘Nueva Biblioteca de Autores 
Espafioles?) ; also C. P. Wagner’s introduction 
to How’s translation. 
JoHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. 


LAZARISTS, or FATHERS OF SAINT 
LAZARUS, a congregation of the Roman 
Catholic Church, originally known as “Priests 
of the Mission,” founded at Paris by Saint 
Vincent de Paul in 1625 for the purpose of 
supporting missions and ministering to the 
spiritual wants of the poor at home, and in 
foreign parts, especially Barbary. The founda- 
tion was confirmed by letters patent of Louis 
XIII, May 1627, and the missionaries were 
erected into a congregation by Pope Urban 
VIII in 1631. At the time of the Revolution 
they included 1,195 members and 63 houses. 
In 1817 they established themselves in the 
United States. See Orpers, RELIGIOUS. 


LAZARUS (abridged form of the He- 
brew name Eleazar, “God has helped”), name 
of two persons in the New Testament. § 1. 
Lazarus of Bethany, brother of Martha and 
Mary, and a friend of Jesus. John xi, xii, 
narrates the miracle of Jesus raising Lazarus 
from the dead after he had lain four days in 
the tomb. Beyond the mention of Lazarus’ 
presence at the banquet which Simon the Leper 
gave Jesus (Matthew xxvi, 6-16; Mark xiv, 
3-11; Luke x, 40; John xii, 1-11) there is no 
further reference to him or the miracle of his 
raising from the dead. The miracle is stated: 
in John xii, 1-11, to have produced a great 
effect upon the Jews, converting many to a 
belief in Jesus and thereby caused the high 
priests to seek the death of Lazarus as well as 
of Jesus. There has been a wide controversy 
concerning the authenticity of the miracle, 
grounded in part upon the failure of the other 
Synoptists to mention it despite its significance. 
Supporters of the actuality of the miracle are 


160 


inclined to consider doubts cast upon it as evi- 
dences of enmity to Christianity. (2) The beg- 
te in the parable “Lazarus and Dives” (Luke 

20), this constituting the only occurrence 
of a proper name in a parable, and used prob- 
ably merely as characterization, and not with 
any thought of connecting the beggar with 
Lazarus of Bethany. The description of the 
beggar at the gate of the wealthy Dives, 
covered with sores and longing vainly for the 
crumbs from the table, doubtless gave rise to 
the assumption that he was a leper, an un- 
founded belief which nevertheless became 
widespread and the name passed into many 
languages as identified with leprosy. The 
story appears only in the gospel of Luke. 


LAZARUS, Emma, American poet; b. 
New York, 22 July 1849; d. there, 19 Nov. 1887. 
Trained at home under the personal direction of 
her father, Moses Lazarus, a New York mer- 
chant of prominence in the social and busi- 
ness world, she early displayed intellectual 
promise. From her childhood books were her 
most precious possession and her mind was 
turned to poetry for its utterance—the Civil 
War inspiring her first lyric outbursts. Her 
earliest productions, ‘Poems and Translations? 
(1867), were marked by a seriousness if not 
sombreness, incomprehensible in one so young, 
whose life, too, was full of happy anticipations. 
In her second volume, four years later, there 
was more artistic completeness, and a certain 
consciousness of power gave more strength to 
her verse. Her ‘Admetus and Other Poems’ 
(1871) was favorably received, and its classic 
atmosphere showed distinct talent, while, side 
by side with its imaginings in “Admetus? and 
“Tannhauser? were its flashes of personal ex- 
perience in ‘Epochs? and the musical rhapsodies 
in ‘Phantasies.» In 1874 her love for German 
literature was evidenced in her ‘Alide,” a story 
of Goethe’s Sesenheim period, so far as its 
background is concerned, wherein she has ad- 
mirably incorporated whole passages from the 
“Autobiography” to give naturalness to the epi- 
sode. It is a charming romance, which won 
high praise from Tourgeneffs as ‘the work of 
one who “is not a pupil in art any more” and 
“s not far from being a master.” Her next 
book printed for private circulation, ‘The Spag- 
noletto”? (1876), a five-act tragedy of the 17th 
century, was remarkable at least for the new 
note in treatment, its stormy sweep of passion, 
so unlike the calm, reflective emotion of her 
poems. It was in 1878, when she was giving 
the finishing touches ‘to translations from 
Heine, that a new theme was suggested to her 
—the translation into English of representative 
Jewish poets of the Spanish school: With en- 
thusiasm she responded to the appeal, and, de- 
siring to reproduce the spirit of the original, 
studied Hebrew with rare diligence and soon 
grew independent of German paraphrase. The 
ease with which she mastered the medizval 
Jewish poets and the interest she displayed in 
Jewish history were preparations for a more 
important work. A little volume was shown 
her — ‘Der Tanz zum Tode? by Reinhard, 
based on historical data furnished by Franz 
Delitzsch, as a more elaborate treatment. Her 
“The Dance to Death? was the result, for 
which she was unable to find a publisher until 
it was issued as a serial in a Jewish weekly, 


LAZARUS — LAZULI FINCH 


and appeared about the time of the Russian 
Jewish persecution of 1882, although it was 
written without any reference to those out- 
breaks. In the American movement to aid; the 
refugees, she took a helpful part. She wrote 
for The Century (May 1882) an impassioned 
article, ‘Russian Christianity. versus Modern 
Judaism, » wherein she championed her brethren 
and refuted their critics and assailants. In 
prose and verse she further strove to vindicate 
her ancestral creed and inspire its followers 
to brotherhood and useful activity. In The 
Century for February 1883 she pleaded for “ 
restored and independent nationality and re- 
patriation in Palestine.” After her father’s 
death in March 1885 her own health failed 
slowly and the end came in November 1887, 
just at the time when her powers) were ripest 
and her opportunities seemed at their greatest. 
In addition to the volumes already named she 
published “Poems of Heinrich Heine? (1881) ; 
‘Songs of a Semite?; ‘The Dance to Death, 
and Other Poems? (1882). Her collected 
poems were issued in two volumes in 1889. 
ABRAM. §.- Isaacs, 
Late Professor of Semitic Language, New York 
University. 


LAZARUS, satestactite Motite.2 German 
philosopher: b. Filehne, Posen, 15 Sept. 1824; 
d. Meran, Tyrol, 13 April 1903. He was the 
son of a Jewish scholar, was educated in 
Hebrew literature and history, and studied 
law and philosophy at the University of Ber- 
lin. He was professor in the University of 
Berne in 1860-66, professor of philosophy at 
the Military Academy at Berlin in 1868-73, 
and in 1873 was appointed professor at the 
University of Berlin. His philosophy was. a 
development of the Herbartian theory and he 
became a leader in that school... With H. 
Steinthal he founded the Zeitschrift fir 
V olkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft in 
1859, and made numerous contributions to it. 
He was president of the first and second Jew- 
ish Synods at Leipzig, 1869, and Augsburg, 
1871. ‘He received the title Geheimrath on his 
70th birthday. Author of ‘Das Leben der 
seele? (1855-57; 3d ed., 1883); ‘Ueber den 
Ersprung der Sitten? (1860; 2d ed., 1867) ; 
“Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte? (1865; 
2d ed. 1872); ‘Zur Lehre von den_ Sinne- 
tauschungen? (1867) ; ‘Ideale Fragen? (1875; 2d 
ed., 1885) ; ‘Erziehung und Geschichte? (1881) ; 
“Unser Standpunkt? (1881); ‘Ueber die Reize 
des Spiels?> (1883); ‘Der Prophet Jeremias? 
(1894); ‘Die Ethik des Judentums? (1898; 
new ed., 1911); ‘Die Erneuerung des Juden- 
tums?’ (1909). 


LAZETCHNIKOV, la-zéch'nyé-kot, or 
LAZHECHNIKOV, or LAZJETJNIKOV, 
Ivan Ivanovitch, Russian novelist and dram- 
atist: b. 1794; d. 1869. He was engaged in 
teaching after his retirement from the army 
in 1819 and gained considerable success as a 
writer of historical romances and of dramas. 
Author of ‘Poslednii Novik? (1833) ; ‘Ledi- 
anyi Dom? (1835); ‘Basurman? (1838). His 
collected works were published at Petrograd 
(1858; new ed., 1884). 


LAZULI FINCH, a small brilliantly blue 
finch (Cyanospiza amena) of the Western 
States. frequently kept as a cage-bird. It is 


LAZULITE — LE BON 


much like its relative, the eastern indigo-bird 
(q.v.). | 


LAZULITE, a “pihevah which is not to be 
confused with lapis lazuli (q.v.),’is found in 
Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Brazil and ‘in 
North Carolina and Georgia. It occurs mas- 
sive and also well crystallized in monoclinic 
crystals. of .steep-pyramidal ‘habit. It has a 
fine blue color and vitreous lustre and is semi- 
translucent. It is moderately hard, but brittle; 
specific gravity, 3.1.. It is a hydrated phosphate 
of aluminum, iron and magnesium, but it also 
contains lime, and sometimes silica. 


LAZZARONI, 1ad’zq-ro’né, Italian name 
for the poorest class in Naples, people who are 
homeless and live chiefly by begging, although 
intermittently they may fish and perform odd 
jobs. There was a rising among them in 
French. Revolutionary times and during the 
Napoleonic era, their sympathies being with the 
Bourbons, . At that time they attacked and pil- 
laged people of wealth and of the nobility 
whom. .they suspected of sympathy with the 
new era. 


LE BAS, Philippe, fé-lép lé-ba, French his- 
torian and archeologist: b. Paris, 17 June 1794; 
d. there, 1861: At 16 he entered the navy, 
which he left three years later for the army 
and ‘he shared in the campaigns of 1813-14. In 
1820 he was chosen by Queen Hortense to act 
as tutor to Prince Louis Napoleon, later Napo- 
leon III, with whom he remained until Octo- 
ber; 1827. After holding professorships at 
Paris’ successively of history and of the Greek 
language’ and literature, he was commissioned 
in 1842 by the French government to under- 
take a:tour of archeological investigation in 
Greece and Asia Minor, during which he made 
many valuable discoveries. He published books 
on very varied subjects, embracing essays on 
classical inscriptions, editions of ancient au- 
thors, travels, ancient and medieval history, 
politics, instruction in German and translations 
from German and English. His best-known 
works are’ his ‘Explication des inscriptions 
grecques. ‘et. latines recueillées en  Gréce 
(1835-37) - and ‘Voyage archéologique en 
Gréce et en Asie Mineure? (1847 et seq.). 


__. LE BLANT, 1é blan’, Edmond Frédéric, 
French archeologist : b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1818; 
d. there, 3. July 1897. He began his archzo- 
logical investigations while. on a journey to 
‘Rome in 1847 and thereafter made the *study 
‘his lifework, specializing in Christian epig- 
raphy and the history of early Christian in- 
stitutions in France. His investigations in these 
fields are of -acknowledged importance. He 
was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions in 
1867, and in 1883-89 he was director of the 
Ecole Francais at Rome. Besides numerous 
scientific papers he was author of “Inscriptions 
chrétiennes de la Gaule antérieures au Viii éme 


siecle? (1856-65): . ‘Manuel  d’épigraphie 
chrétienne? (1869); ‘Les sarcophages_ chré- 
tiens de. la Gaule> (1886); ‘L’Epigraphie 


chrétienne en Gaule et dans VA frique romaine? 
(1888) ; ‘Les. persécuteurs et les martyrs aux 
premiers siécles de notre ére? (1893), etc. He 
collaborated with Jacquemart in the preparation 
of ‘Histoire . artistique de la Porcelain? 
(1861-62). 


vot 17—11 | 


-eering in, the. Land of the 


161 


LE BLOND, le’blond’, Elizabeth Alice 
Frances (Mrs. Auprey), British author and 
Alpinist: b. Wicklow County, Ireland, about 
1860. She was the only child of Sir St. 
Vincent Bentinck Hawkins-Whitshed, Bart., 
and succeeded to the title of a- Hanover baron- 
ess. She was. married to, Col. Frederick 
Burnaby in 1879, widowed in 1885; married to 
John Frederick Main in 1886 and widowed in 
1892; and in 1900 she was married to Aubrey 
LeBlond. Sheis famous as a mountain climber 
making the most difficult ascents in the Swiss 
and Dauphiné Alps and in Arctic Norway. She 
was elected first president of the Ladies’ Alpine 
Club in 1907. She has been an extensive con- 
tributor to periodicals, makes the photographs 
used to illustrate her travel books and. has 
lectured on mountain climbing, using her own 
slides as illustrations. Author of ‘The High 
Alps in Winter? (1883); ‘High Life and 
Towers of Silence? (1886); ‘Adventures on 
the Roof of the World? (1904); ‘Mountain- 
Midnight Sum 
(1908); ‘A Guide to Old Gardens in. Italy” 
(1912); “The Life and Times (1715-1800) of 
Charlotte Sophie, Countess Bentinck? (2 °vols., 
1912), etc. 


LE BOEUF, lé’béf’, Randall James, Amer- 
ican lawyer: b. Cohoes, N. Y., 10: March 1870. 
He received his education at Cornell. Univer- 
sity and was admitted to the bar in 1893. After 
practising in New York city he returned to 
Albany and became a member of the firm of 
Burlingame and Le Boeuf. Since 1898 he. has 
practised alone. From 1897-1901 LeBoeuf 
was corporation counsel of the city of Rens- 
selaer, and in 1909 was appointed justice of 
the Supreme Court of New York, retiring in 
1911. He was a member of the New York 
State Banking Commission which revised: the 
banking laws in 1913. Judge Le Boeuf has 
traveled extensively in Alaska, West ‘Indies 
and on the Continent. 


LE BON, lé bon’, Gustave, Fpbilch physi- 
cian, ethnologist and ‘psychologist : b. Nogent- 
le- rotrou, 1841. He received his M:D. in 1876 
but abandoned the practice of medicine for 
ethnological and psychological research. He 
was appointed chief of the government expedi- 
tion to India for the study of the architecture 
of the Buddhist monuments in 1884. Author 


of ‘L’Homme et les. sociétés? (2 vols., 1877) ; 
‘Les monuments de L’Inde (1894); ‘Lois 
pyschologiques de l’évoluticn des  peuples? 


(1895; English translation, ‘The Psychologies 
of the Peoples,’ 1898; 71 ed., 1912); ‘L’Evolu- 
tion des forces” (1099; Enelish translation, 
1908) ; “Psychologie de l’cducation? (1904; 13th 
ed:, 1909); ‘L’Evolution ce la. matiére? (1905; 
English translat on, 1907) ; ‘La révolution fran- 
caise et la psychologie des révolutions? (49425 
English translation, ‘The Psychology of Revo- 
lution,’ 1913), etc. 


LE BON, Joseph, French politician: b. 
Arras, 29 Sept. 1765; d. Amiens, 10 Oct. 1795. 
He entered the priesthood, was professor: of 
rhetoric at Beaune and later joined the revo- 
lutionists. He served as mayor of Arras anc 
administrator of Pas-de-Calais, and in. 179; 
took his seat in the Convention. Under < 
commission by the Convention he succeeded in 
preventing Cambrai from being taken ah the 


162 
Austrians, displaying marked courage and 
ability. ' Later) however, the severity of° his 


dealings with the opponents of the Revolution | 


in the departments of the Somme and Pas-de- 
Calais, coupled with the enmity of his political 
adversary, Armand Cuffroy, caused his trial 
before the tribunal of the Somme and his sub- 
sequent condemnation and execution. » Consult 
Emile Je Bon, ‘Histoire de Joseph le Bon et 
des tribunaux: révolutionnaires d’Arras et de 
Cambrai? (2d:ed., 2 vols., 1864). 


LE BOULENGE, 1é boo’lan’zha, or LE- 
BOULANGE, Paul Emil, Belgian soldier: b. 
Mesnil-Fglise, 11 March 1832; d. Ostend, 30 
May 1901. He early entered the artillery ser- 
vice and reached the rank of lieutenant-general 
upon his retirement in 1897. He was an expert 
in ballistics and invented the Le Boulenge 
chromograph. Author of ‘Etudes de balistique 
expérimentale? (1868); ‘Description et emploi 
‘du chronographe Le Boulenge? (1869; 2d ed., 
1877); “Télémeétre de fusil? (1875); “Déter- 
mination des vitesses velocipediques, Volo- 
graphes? (1894), etc. 


LE BRAZ, lé bras’, Anatole, dices novel- 
ist: b. Duault, 2 April 1859. He was educated 
in Paris and engaged in teaching, becoming 
professor of French literature at the University 
of Rennes in 1905. In his literary work he has 
specialized in the legends and customs of old 
Brittany and he has lectured extensively on the 
subject. He made several lecture tours of the 
United States under the auspices of the French 
Alliance. Besides numerous contributions to 
“magazines he is author of ‘Tryphina Keran- 


glas’ (1892); ‘La chauson de Bretagne? 
(1892) ;: ‘Au. pays des Pardons? (1895; Eng- 
lish» translation, 1906); ‘Paques d’Islande? 


and ‘Vieilles histoires du pays breton? (1897) ; 
“La terre du passé? (1902); ‘Les coutes du 
soleil et de la brume? (1905); ‘Au pays d’exit 
de Chateaubriand? (1909); ‘Ames d’occident? 
(1912), .etc. 


LE BRUN, lé briin’, Napoleon Eugene 
Charles Henry, American. architect: b. of 
I‘rench parents, Philadelphia, 2 Jan. 1821; d. 
Tew. York,.% July 1901. He was,a pupil of 
Thomas-U. Walter, the architect, and from 1842 
to 1861 practised his profession in Philadelphia 
where his. most notable work is the Roman 
Catholic cathedral in Logan Square. He re- 
moved to New York in 1861 and among struc- 
tures there which were designed by him with 
his son are the Foundling Asylum and the 
Metropolitan Life Insurance building in Madi- 
son Square. 


LE CARON, lé ka’ron’, Henri (real name 
THOMAS MILLER "BEACH), British secret service 
agent: b. Colchester, 26 Sept. 1841; d. London, 
1 April 1894. He assumed the name Le Caron 
when he came to America in 1861 to join the 
Union forces in the Civil War. He served 
through the war, rising to the rank of major. 
In 1865 he learned of the Fenian plot against 
Canada and communicated with the authorities 
in England. He was thereupon engaged by the 
Rritish government as a military spy and until 
1889 was in closest communication with the 
Fenian organization. His reports enabled the 
British government to defeat the Canadian 
invasion of 1870 and led to the surrender of 
Riel in 1871. He lived for 25 years in America, 
chiefly in Detroit, gathering information for 


LE BOULENGE — LE CHATELIER 


his government and making occasional trips to 
Europe. In 1889 he was summoned by the 
London Times to give his testimony before the 
Parnell Commission, a proceeding which auto- 
matically ended his career as a/secret. service 
agent. Author of ‘Twenty-five: Years in the 
Secret, Service? (6th ed., 1892)... : 


LE CARON, Joseph, French missionary: 
d. 1632. He was a» Franciscan, belonging to 
the congregation. of -Récollets. His work in 
Canada (he landed at Tadoussac, 25 May 1615) 
was chiefly among the Huron tribe, and he was 
the first European to explore the lake of that 
name. His indefatigable labors among the In- 
dians met with scant success, though” he left 
some valuable information concerning ‘their lan- 
guage, which was of great value, ‘to his suc- 
cessors. The name of Le Caron is of special 
interest in connection with the origin of the 
Christian religion in Canada: the first mass 
in what is now the province of Quebec was cele- 
brated by him (and Father Jamay) on the 
Riviére des Prairies, near the western extremity 
of the island of Montreal, 24 June 1615; on 
12 August of the same year the first mass in 
Ontario was sung by him near’ Thunder Bay; 
and in 1617 at:Quebec he officiated at the first 
marriage in Canada. After Kirke’s capture of 
Quebec (1629) he was, deported to England 
with others of the French population and ‘never 
returned. to the monastery which he had built 
in that.city. 


LE CHAPELIER, 1&! sha'p’lya’, Teaddc 
René Guy, French revolutionist: b. "Rennes, 
12 June 1754; d. Paris,:22 April 1794. He was 
a lawyer by profession and: in 11789: he was 
elected to the States-General. He was one of 
the founders of the Breton Club:and on 3 
Aug. 1789 he was chosen president of the Con- 
stituent Assembly. He was one of ‘the prin- 
cipals on the committee which drafted the new 
constitution and he opposed Robespierre’s pro- 
posal that members of the Constituent Assem- 
bly should be barred from election to the new 
assembly. The extreme measures adopted by 
the revolutionists gradually moderated, Le 
Chapelier’s opinions and on 29 Sept. 1792 he 
introduced a measure for the restriction of the 
clubs. A visit to England on professional. busi- 
ness made a pretext for the extremists to 
charge him with conspiring with foreign na- 
tions and he was brought before the Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal, condemned. and executed. 


LE CHATELIER, 1é sha’té’lya’, Henri 
Louis, French chemist: b.- Paris, 8 Oct: 1850. 
He studied at. the Collége Rollin, the Ecole 
Polytechnique and the Ecole des Mines. He 
was appointed professor of chemistry at the 
Ecole des Mines in 1877, and in 1882 became 
professor of mineralogical chemistry there. He 
was called to the chair of mineralogical chem- 
istry at the Collége de France in 1898. He has 
made extensive researches, and is. the inventor 
of appliances for use in experiments in chem- 
istry and physics. He is a chevalier in the 
Legion of Honor, was president of the Société 
Minéralogie in 1898 and of the Société de 
Physique in 1907. He is an extensive con- 
tributor to scientific journals and is author of 
‘Cours de chimie industrielle? (1896; 2d ed.. 
1902); ‘High Temperature Measurements 
translated by G. Burgess (1901); 
‘Recherches expérimentals sur la constitution 


LE CLEAR 


des. mortiers. hydrauliques? | (1904; English 
translation 1905); “Introduction a l’étude de la 
metallurgie? (1912), “La silice et les silicates? 
(1914); ‘Les explosifs® (1915), etc.. 


LE CLEAR, le klér, Thomas, American 
painter: b. Owego, Ne Y2 71818 34d. New York, 
1882. He painted portraits in London, Canada, 
before he had received any instruction in art, 
and left that place about 1832 for New York, 
where he made his principal residence. He 
was elected a National Academician in 1863. 
Besides his portraits, which are clever in char- 
acterization and full of life and expression, he 
has painted many genres, such as ‘Marble 
Players”; ‘The Itinerant? (1862) and ‘Young 
America.” Among his portraits are those of 
‘William Page? in the Corcoran Gallery at 
Washington; and ‘George Bancroft? in the 
Century Club, New York. 


LE CLERC, 1é-klar, John, or Johannes 
Cler’icus, Swiss theologian: b. Geneva, Swit- 
zerland, 19 March 1657; d. Amsterdam, Nether- 
lands, 8 Jan. 1736. He ‘began to study’ theology 
and philosophy in his native town, and con- 
tinued his studies at Grenoble, Saumur, Paris 
and London. He gradually adopted the views 
of the Remonstrants, as the adherents of 
Arminius (q.v.) were then called. In 1684 he 
was appointed to the faculty of the Remon- 
strant College at Amsterdam. In 1728 a stroke 
of apoplexy deprived him of his power of 
speech, which he never recovered. His in- 
fluence has been most widely felt through his 
writings, which are voluminous. He edited 
the ‘Apostolic Fathers of Cotelerius? (1698), 
and the views he held about Mosaic authorship, 
inspiration and kindred topics seemed to 
anticipate. some recent deductions from the 
Higher Criticism. Besides a Bible commentary 
he published ‘Bibliothéque universelle et his- 


torique? (25 vols. 1686-93); ‘Bibliothéque 
choisie? (28 vols., 1703-13) ; and ‘Bibliothéque 
ancienne et moderne? (29 vols., 1714-26). 


LE CLERC, Sébastien, French designer 
and engraver: b. Metz, Lorraine, 20 Sept. 
1637; d. Paris, 25 Oct. 1714. He acquired the 
elements of design from his father, a gold- 
smith, and by the advice of Le Brun devoted 
himself to engraving, in which he became so 
distinguished that at the suggestion of Colbert 
he was appointed engraver in ordinary to Louis 
XIV. Pope Clement XI also conferred upon 
him the honor of knighthood. He formed his 
style on that of Le Brun, improving it, how- 
ever, by a careful study of Raphael ; and in his 
published works, which number between 3,000 
and 4,000, and embrace every variety of sub- 
ject he has exhibited a singularly correct and 
elegant execution. He also published treatises 
on geometry, architecture and perspective. 
Consult De Vallemont, ‘Elogue historique de 
Sebastien Le Clerc? (Paris 1715); Jombert, 
eeajstoRue de l’ceuvre de S. Le Clerc? (Paris 
1774 


._. LE CLERQ, Chrétien, kri-té-dn 1é klar, 
French missionary: b. Artois, France, about 
1630; d. Lens, France, about 1695. He labored 
as. a. Récollet missionary in the peninsula of 
Gaspe, Canada, with intervals,- from 1675-87, 
and invented.a system of hieroglyphics which 
he taught the Micmacs. His works are inter- 
esting as throwing a side light. upon early 
Canadian history, but are tinged with ecclesias- 


—LE CONTE 


163 


tical partiality for Frontenac, who favored the 
Récollets at the expense of the Jesuits. These 
works are, ‘Nouvelle relation de la Gaspésie? 
(1691), and. ‘Establishment of the Faith in 
New France? (English translation by John G. 
Shea 1881). 


LE CONTE, le ként, John, American 
physicist: b. Liberty County, Ga., 4 Dec. 1818; 
d. Berkeley, Cal., 29 April 1891. He was.a 
son of Lewis Le Conte. He was. gradu- 
ated from Franklin College in 1838, from the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, New 
York, in 1841; in 1846-55 was professor of 
natural philosophy and chemistry in Franklin 
College; in 1856-69 was protessor of natural 
and mechanical philosophy in South Carolina 
College; in 1869 became professor of physics 
and industrial mechanics in the University of 
California; was president of the university in 
1876-81; and in 1881 again assumed his profes- 
sional duties. Among his publications were 
‘The, Philosophy of. Medicine? (1849), and 
‘The Study of the Physicat Sciences? (1858). 


LE CONTE, John Eaton, American nat- 
uralist: -b. near Shrewsbury, N. Y., 22. Feb. 
1784; d. Philadelphia, 21 Nov. 1860. He was 
a brother of Lewis Le Conte. In » 1813 
he entered the army as a topographical engi- 
neer, and in 1831 was retired with the grade 
of major. He published ‘Monographs. of 
North American Species of Utricularia, 
Gratiola and Ruellia,» and other studies in 
natural history. 


LE CONTE, John Lawrence, American 
entomologist: b. New York, 13 May 1825; d. 
Philadelphia, 15 Nov. 1883. He was a nephew 
of Lewis Le Conte. He. was graduated 
from Mount Saint Mary’s College (Emmits- 
burg, Md.) in 1842, from the College of Physi- 
cians and Surgeons in 1846, became a surgeon 
of volunteers in the Federal army in 1862 and 
was later made medical inspector United 
States army, with rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
In 1873 he was chosen to the presidency of the 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. He was generally recognized as an 
important authority on entomology; and pub- 
lished: on that subject ‘Classification of the 
Coleoptera of North America? (1862-73) ; 
‘List of the Coleoptera of North America? 
(1866); and ‘New Species of North Ameri- 
can Coleoptera? (1866-73). 


LE CONTE, Joseph, American geologist: 
b. Liberty County, Ga. 20° Ped. 1823.5" d. Y¥o- 
semite Valley, Cal., 6 July 1901. He wasason of 
Lewis. Le Conte. He was _ graduated 
from Franklin College, Georgia, in 1841, from 
the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New 
York, in 1845; practised medicine at Macon, 
Ga.; in 1850 became a pupil of Louis Agassiz, 
whom he accompanied on an expedition to 
Florida;. and later was professor of natural 
science in Oglethorpe University, Georgia, and 
of natural history in Franklin College. In 
1856-69 he was professor of chemistry and 
geology in the University of South Carolina, 
and from 1869 until his death held the. chair 
of geology in the University of California. 
During the Civil, War he was chemist in the 
Confederate medicine laboratory and later in 
the nitre and mining bureau at Columbia, S. C. 
He was president of the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science in 1892. His 


164 


contributions to geology include the determina- 
tion of. the character and age of the Cascade 
Range; the description of the ancient giacters 
of the Sierra Nevada: ‘the development of 
what is called the “contractional theory” in 
mountain building; and researches in © vein 
formation. He wrote also .on optics, .philos- 
ophy, biology and other subjects. .He was san 
editor of the Journal of Geology»:and of 
Science, and published ‘Religion and Science? 
(1873), a collection of lectures; ‘Elements of 
Geology? (1878), his best-known book; a 
‘Compend of Geology? (1884) 3 ‘Evolution: 
Its Nature, its Evidences, and its Relation to 
Religious Thought? (1887); and other writ- 
ings. Consult his ‘Autobiography, edited by 
Armes (1903). 


LE CREUSOT, France. See Creusor, LE. 


LE CRIME DE SYLVESTRE BON- 
NARD. In general, modern’ French writers of 
fictions are models of conciseness and direct- 
ness: they follow the tale to its conclusion 
without turning from the road to wander in 
meadows, however tempting. The ability. to 
say “No to their fancy is not the least of 
their merits. It was. inevitable that there 
should be writers who attained their purpose by 
the opposite method— that of digressions, and 
detours, of an apparent neglect oe continuity 
and sequence. 4 These authors rely, on. the 
effects of surprise of whimsical fancy. Among 
them is Anatole France. Thousands. of 
readers, who. had grown tired of the: logical 
severity and directness of the ordinary French 
novel, found themselves under the spell of, his 
wandering fancy. 

None of France’s stories is more delightful 
in this regard than ‘The Crime of Sylvestre 
Bonnard,’ Here is a book to charm sensitive 
and generous souls who, are weary of the more 
sordid and vulgar aspects of life. It is the love 
story of an aged academician and_ bibliophile — 
but without a dull page. It mentions; to be 
sure, books, tomes and parchment, but. it also 
mentions cats, a tyrannical and. devoted. old 
family maid, an extravagant voyage to. Sicily, 
an irresistible Russian princess, children, youth, 
bonbons and yiolets. The portraits of Sylvestre 
Bonnard, Mme. De Gabry, Jeanne are , thor- 
oughly and exquisitely French. ;The. style: is 
that for which the author is celebrated :— sub- 
tle, suggestive, polished to the last degree of 
delicacy and grace. 

RayMonp WEEKS. 


LE DENTU, 1é dan’ti, Jean Francois 
Auguste, French surgeon and writer: b. Basse- 
Terre, Guadeloupe, 21 June 1841. He took his 
M.D. at Paris in 1867, became a member of 
the faculty in 1869, professor of pathological 
surgery there in 1888, and of clinical surgery 
in 1891. He acted as surgeon at the ‘Hotel 
Dieu from 1872, and in 1889: he was elected to 
the Academy of Medicine. He collaborated 
with Pierre Delbet in the preparation “of 
‘Traité de chirurgie clinique et opératoire 


(1895-1901), and “Nouveau traité de chirurgie? © 


(1908-09). Author of ‘Maladies de la  pros- 
trate et de la vessie? (1881) ; ©Traité ‘des 
affections chirurgicales des reins, des uretéres 


et des capsules surrénales? (1889) : ‘Le cancer 
du sein? (1902); ‘Visions d’Esypte (1911), 
etc. : VOR < 


LE CREUSOT— LE FLO 


LE. DIABLE BOITEUX, lé d’yabl’ bwa'té, 
“The Limping Devil” (1707), by Le Sage, 
seems from its title a translation or adaptation 
of ‘El diablo cojuelo”» of the Spaniard Que- 
vara, from which, however, it took only the 
general idea and some two and a half chapters 
out, of 21. This idea was. that Asmodeus, a 
devil, removing the roofs from the houses of 
Madrid, “as one takes the top-crust from a 
pasty,» should reveal. to his companion the 
intimate life of typical personages when re- 
moved from the restraints of publicity. Lesage 
adapted this scheme to a satire on the social 
life of contemporary Paris. His book is thus, 
if: we look beneath the surface, more akin to 
the ‘Characters? of La Bruyére*than to Que- 
vara’s tale, which merely supplied Lesage with 
the connecting links that were lacking in La 
Bruyére’s studies. Much in the work is neces- 
sarily local and. transitory.,Many, of the 
witty sketches had lost their point. even in 
Lesage’s own time, with the disappearance of 
the personages they satirized. These were 
omitted. in a second edition..The author’s 
declaration in the preface that he meant no 
one in particular could put off the track only 
the very. innocent, and aroused the others to 
elaborate “keys” which added much to. the 
great vogue of the book. There are hits at 
Fontanelle and La Motte, at Ninon de l’Enclos 
andthe noted actor, Baron. In a later edition 
Voltaire is quipped in terms which the author 
of the ‘Henriade? never forgot nor forgave. 
But in, spite of the ingenuity with which the 
shifting: scenes are connected and the wit with 
which human foibles. are portrayed, . ‘The 
Limping Devil? inevitably lacks the unity of 
structure that alone can produce great. artistic 
effect in a work of fiction. It has been trans- 


lated under the title ‘Asmodeus.? 
BENJAMIN W. WELLS. 
LE FANU, leé-fa’nii or léf’a-ni, Joseph 


Sheridan, Irish journalist and novelist: b. 
Dublin, 28 Aug. 1814; d&there, 7 Feb. 1873. 
Having graduated from Trinity College, Dub- 
lin, he joined (1837) the staff of the Dublin 
Umversity, Magazine, at first. as contributor, 
and afterward as editor and proprietor. Among 
modern. Irish novelists. he stands next in 
popularity to Charles Lever.. ‘The House by 
the Churchyard? appeared in 1863, and was 
succeeded by ‘Uncle Silas? (1864), his most 
powerful work; ‘Guy Deverell (1865) : “The 
Tenants of Malory> (1867); ‘The Wyv ern 
Mystery? (1869); In a Glass Darkly? (1872), 
etc. 


LE FLO, 1é f16, Adolphe Charles fetish 
uel, French general and  diplomatist:  b. 
Lesnevin, 2 Nov. 1804; d. Néchoat, 16 Nov. 
1887. He studied at the Ecole Militaire de 
Saint Cyr in 1823-25, entered the army and 
served in the African campaigns of 1831 and 
1848, rising to the rank of, brigadier-general. 
He was appointed Ambassador to Russia, 23 
Aug. 1848, but’ in the following year he re- 
turned to take his seat in the National Assem- 
bly. His opposition to the plans of Louis 
Napoleon’ caused his exile from’ France, 9 
Jan. 1852, and it was not until 1857 that he 

was permitted to return: He took no further 
xavt in politics during the reign of Napoleon 
rif, but served as Minister of War for a time 
during the Franco-Prussian War and at ‘the 


, BSEnys 


LE GALLIENNE— LE/LOUTRE 


end of the war was reappointed to that office. 
He was again Ambassador to Russia in 1871- 
79. He published (1887) the documents rela- 
tive to the Franco-German crisis of 1875, which, 
with the aid of Alexander II, he guided toa 
peaceful. termination. 


LE GALLIENNE, 1é gal’li-én, ‘Richard, 
English author: b. Liverpool, England, 20 Jan. 
1866. He ‘was educated at Liverpool College 
and after several years spent in business 
served as literary critic for the Star and settled 
in London: Since’ 1902 he has lived in New 
York: Among his numerots published works 
are “My Ladies’ Sonnets? (1887) ;' “Volumes 
in’ Folio? (1888) ; ‘George Meredith? (1890) ; 
‘The Book-Bills of Narcissus? (1891) ; ‘Eng: 
lish, Poems? - (1892); ‘The Religion pica 
Literary Mar (1893) ; ‘Prose  Fancies? 
(1894-96) ;. “Robert Louis. Stevenson... and 
Other Poems? . (1895); ‘Retrospective. Re- 
views” (1896); ‘The Quest of the Golden Girl 
(1896); “If I were God? (1897) ; ‘The. Ro- 
mance, of Zion | Chapel, a movel (1898); 
‘Travels in England, (1900) ; ‘Odes from the 
Divan. of Hafiz? (1903) ; ‘Painted Shadows? 


(1907); ‘Little Dinners with. the Sphinx? 
(1909); “Vanishing Roads. and other Essays? 
(1915). 


LE GENDRE DE MONSIEUR POI- 
RIER, 1é zhandr’ dé mé’zyér pwa’ryér (<Mr. 
Poirier’s Son-in- law), is regarded as a model 
of the modern French comedy of manners 
and by some as supreme’ in this class 
since ‘The Marriage of Figaro.» Jules 
Sandeau’ (1811-82) furnished the general 
schéme for it; Emile’ Augier (1820-89), 
clear from comparison with — his 
other dramas—it was the 12th of 28— 
gave to its social satire the distinctive touch 
of genius. It appeared in 1854, two years after 
the French had made Napoleon III emperor 
by popular election. The iplay’s subject is the 
conflict.in ideals and ethics between the new 
plutocracy, shalf-deceived by its. own -demo- 
cratic catch-words, and the old ‘aristocracy, 
proud of its, aloofness from the.'spirit of the 
times. The immediate mark of satire is the 
new aristocracy of wealth, which had first 
gained. social recognition in the reign of. the 
“bourgeois king,” Louis . Philippe (1830-48). 
The millionaire Poirier, a retired cloth: mer- 
chant, is an aspirant to the peerage. To aid 
his political and social ambitions he has mar- 
ried abe daughter Antoinette to Gaston, a noble, 
whose debts. he has paid and whose idleness ‘he 
would like to reform. . The finer aristocratic 
qualities. are represented in Gaston’s. friend, 
Hector, the sturdy’ virtues of the capitalist class 
in Verdelet:; There is no ‘hero/in the play and 
no villain. Each of the five: characters has:a 
winning side, The play develops into a contest 
in magnanimity, each acting after his kind, 
Antoinette wins Gaston to active life and to 
her love. Hector and Verdelet find ground 
for mutual respect and esteem... The weakness 
of Poirier’s confidence in the power of money 
to. work a change of heart or, mind is. ex- 
hibited with lambent irony, yet he never. for- 
feits a sympathetic interest.. Each actor in the 
ea drama has gained by contact with 
every other, has thelped and grown in the help- 
ing. That is the social moral. The plot is 
developed with great rapidity and ‘dramatic 


» 


165 


skill, but the great distinction of the comedy 
is in its unfolding of character. There are fotr 
editions of this drama with English introduc- 
tions and notes, and a translation by B. H. 
Clark in ‘Four. Plays by E. Augier? “(New 


York, to), 
BENJAMIN W., WELLS. 
LE GOFFIC, 1é gof'fék, Charles Henri, 


French poet, novelist and literary critic: ‘b. 
Lannion, 1863. He made an especial study of 
the traditions and customs of Brittany, around 
which most of his’ work is written. He is a 
Chevalier of -the Legion of Honor and was 
several times a laureate of the French Academy. 
He collaborated with Gabriel ‘Vicaire in the 
writing of the drama ‘Le Sortilége (1896) ; 

and’ with E, Thieulin he published the critical 
writings ‘Nouveau traité ‘de versification fran- 
caise? (1890; 5th ed.,:1910). His first volume 
of verse was Armour breton” (1889) + “Le 
pardon de la reine Anne? (1898) ;'and the first 
of his’ collected verse appeared (Poésiés com- 
pletas> (1913). He contributed extensively to 
the literature’ of the European War. Besides 
the works already’ mentioned he is author of 
‘Le crucefié de Keralis? (1892); “Sur la céte? 


(1897) 5) “L’Erreur . de Florence? © (1904); 
‘L’Ame Bretonne? (1902-08)* “La double con- 
fession? (1909); ‘Fétes et! coutumes popu- 
laires> (1911); “Dixmude; the Epic of the 
French Marines? (Eng. trans., Simmonds, F., 
1916);  “Bourguinottes et pompoms rougeés? 
(1916) ;. “Sans Nouvelles,» drama (produced 


1916; pub.'1917).; ‘Steenstraete? (1917) ; 
eral Foch ‘at the ‘Marne? (1918), etc. 


LE JEUNE, lé zhén’, Paul, French Jesuit 
missionary: b. in the diocese of Chalons, 1592; 
d...Paris, 7 Aug. 1664, He joined the Jesuits 
in, 1614, "taught ines a time in various colleges 
and in: 1632 was sent to Canada.by Richelieu 
where he became superior of the missions. He 
founded ;the Christian Indian village, Sillery, 
four miles above Quebec, in 1637. He ceased 
to be superior of the Canadian missions .in 
1639, returned to France.in. 1649 and was ap- 
pointed procurator of foreign missions. He 
was chosen in 1658 by Anne.of, Austria for the 
post of bishop of Canada, but the Jesuits’ rules 
did not permit acceptance of the dignity. Au- 
thor of ‘Briéve relation du voyage de la Nou- 
velle. France? (1632), the first. of a series of 
‘Relations> edited yearly by. Le Jeune until 
1640 and continued by the Jesuits until 1672: 
he also wrote many devotional books. 


LE LOUTRE, lootr, Louis Joseph, French 
missionary: b. about 1692: d. about 1775. He 
was -vicar-general of Acadia, and from about 
1740,' when he. was» sent to Nova Scotia, he 
labored: for years'among the Micmac Indians 
of that: region: with great success, ‘obtaining 
practical control of all their affairs, spiritual 
and: otherwise.: He-led them against the Eng- 
lish, and‘when the country fell into the hands 
of Great» Britain succeeded in compelling the 
Acadians to» show their allegiance’ to King 
Louis, although for» years they had been sub- 
jects ‘of King George. The consequence was 
terrible suffering for.the simple people, whose 
miseries became historic through their deporta- 
tion in 1755.. Le Loutre fled to Quebec, sailed 
for France, was taken by the English and kept 
prisoner in the Isle of Jersey for eight years, 


“Gen- 


166 


vas released, he returned to France, where he 
ie 

LE MENTEUR, lé mon’tér (‘The Liar, 
1642), by Pierre Corneille, is the first good 
French comedy, the first to emancipate this 
form of drama from medizval or misunder- 
stood classical tradition. The liberation came, 
with the comedy itself, from Spain. This is 
in part translated from ‘La Verdad Sospe- 
chosa,? by Juan de J’Alarcon, though .some- 
times attributed to Lope de Vega. In part, 
and especially in the conclusion, it is adapted 
from it, altered to-suit the more refined taste 
of the France of the aging Richelieu. The 
hardly less amusing and clever sequel, ‘La 
Suite du Menteur? (1643), is taken. similarly 
from Lope. ‘The Liar? inaugurates in French 
comedy a class of plays of which Moliére’s 
‘Misanthrope? is the most notable member, in 
which interest is centred on the exhibition of 
some particular social type. The action passes 
at Paris, opening in the Tuileries and soon 
passing to the Place Royale, where it closes. 
The time is contemporary. Dorante, the Liar, 
having played with the study of law at Poic- 
tiers, has just returned to Paris, “abandoning 
the gown for the sword,” and relying on his 
tongue and ready fancy to make himself king 
of hearts. Cliton, his valet, with no greater 
scruples, has the alert shrewdness and caution 
of his experience and station and is a worthy 
predecessor of Moliére’s Scapin, as Sabine is of 
the whole tribe of soubrettes. Géronte, the 
Liar’s father, is his easy dupe. Clarice, whom 
he would have liked to beguile, as well.as her 
friend, Lucréce, with lying tales of adventures, 
extravagances and devotion, but whose heart 
is already given to Alcippe, so turns the tables 
upon him that he finds himself at last, after a 
series of scenes hilarious for the auditors, con- 
strained to accept the betrothal with Lucréce 
which his father has arranged, as he supposes, 
at his son’s behest. ‘La Suite du Menteur? 
tells how Dorante “leaves the lady and takes 
the money,” but “exchanging fetters of the 
law for those of marriage” finds his mate and 
match in Mélisse, while Lucréce is united, 
briefly, with the tich and moribund Géronte. 
“Le Menteur? is edited with English notes by 
J. B. Segall (New York 1902). 

BENJAMIN W. WELLs. 


LE MOINE, 1é moin’, Sr James Mac- 
Pherson, Canadian historian: b. Quebec, 24 
Jan. 1825; d. Quebec, 5 Feb. 1912. He was 
educated in his native city and in 1850 was 
called to the bar. He was inspector of: the in- 
land revenue district of Quebec 1869-99. He 
was knighted in 1897. Among his works are 
‘L’Ornithologie du Canada» (1860); ‘Etude 
sur les Navigateurs Arctiques Franklin, Mc- 
Clure, Kane, McClintock? (1862); ‘The Tour- 
ists Note-Book? (1870); ‘Quebec: 
Present? (1876); ‘The Scot in New France? 
(1880) ; ‘Picturesque Quebec? (1882); ‘The 
Land We Live In? (1891); ‘Legends of the 
Saint Lawrence? (1898); ‘Annals of the Port 
of Quebec? (1900); ‘The Avi-Fauna of the 
Province of Quebec? (1902). 


LE MOYNE, Antoine, 4n-twan le-mwan, 
SreuR DE CHATEAUGUAY, French soldier and 
colonist in America: b. Montreal, 17 July 1683; 
d. Rochefort, France, 21 March 1747. He was 
a son of Charles Le Moyne (1626-85) (q.v.). 


Pastt-and.: 


LE MENTEUR— LE MOYNE 


He entered the French army and in 1704 came 
to Louisiana with a company of settlers. In 
1705-06 he fought under D’Iberville against the 
English, in 1717 was appointed commandant of 
the French forces in Louisiana and in 1718 
king’s lieutenant of that colony. With the aid 
of Indians he captured Pensacola from the 
Spanish 14 May 1719; but he surrendered. it 
7 August. Having been held as a prisoner of 
war until July 1720, he took command at Mo- 
bile upon the conclusion of the peace of that 
year, but returned to France in 1726. He was 
governor of Martinique in 1727-44, and in 1745 
was appointed governor of Ile. Royale (Cape 
Breton), but illness prevented ey, from taking 
up office. 


LE MOYNE, Charles, Sas DE Lon- 
GUEUIL, French settler, soldier and proprietor 
in America: b. Dieppe, France, 1626; d. Ville- 
marie, Canada, 1685. He > came to Canada in 
1641, settled at Villemarie and was interpreter 
between the Hurons and the colonists. In 1651 
he successfully defended the fort from an 
attack by the Iroquois, whom he routed with 
great slaughter; and in 1653 he concluded a 
peace with the Five Nations. These Indians, 
however, in 1655 again made an attack upon the 
colony, which was saved from. destruction 
largely by Le Moyne’s exertions. In 1657 Le 
Moyne received from Francois de Lauzon, who 
held 60 leagues of land under royal grant, full 
seignorial rights; and in 1664 his possessions 
were largely increased by the cession of Isle 
Saint Héléne and other tracts. He partici- 
pated in the expedition led by Tracy and 
Courcelles in. 1666-67, and in several cam- 
paigns against the Iroquois; and for many 
years was captain of Montreal. He was made 
Sieur de Longueuil in 1668 and to this title 
that of Chateauguay was later added. — 


LE MOYNE, Charles, 1st Baron DE Lon- 
GUEUIL, French soldier in America: b. Ville- 
marie, Canada, 10 Dec. 1656; d. 8 June 1729. 
He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (q.v.). 
He entered the French army, with which he 
served in Flanders, but returned in 1683 to 
Canada. He promoted colonization in Canada 
and built a stone fort on his estates at Lon- 
gueuil. In the campaign of 1687 against the 
Iroquois he was commander of a division of 
militia; and in 1690 he was wounded at the 
repulse of Phipps’ attack on Quebec. He was 
made baron 1700 for services to the colony; 
commanded the Canadian forces. at Chambly, 
when the English made an unsuccessful at- 
tempt to take Montreal; and in 1711 became 
commander-in-chief of the colonial troops. He 
was governor of Three Rivers 1720-24 and 
governor of Montreal 1724-29. In 1726 he 
rebuilt Fort Niagara. 


LE MOYNE, Jacques, Sirur DE SAINTE 
HE£LENE, French soldier in America: b. Ville- 
marie, Canada, 16 April 1659; d. Quebec, Oc- 
tober 1690. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne 
(q.v.). In March 1686 he accompanied the 
expedition led by the Chevalier de Troyes 
against the English on Hudson Bay, and in the 
capture of Forts Rupert, Monsipi and Quit- 
chitchonen, and the seizure of the English 
governor, took a prominent part. He was 
second in command of the expedition that 
captured, plundered and burned Fort Corlear 
(now Schenectady), 9 Feb. 1690, In October 


LE MOYNE—LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE 167 


Phipps laid siege to Quebec and Le Moyne was 
selected to direct the defense. He was mortally 
wounded while leading about 200 troops in the 
repulse of 1,300 British at the passage of the 
Saint Charles. 


LE MOYNE, Jean Baptiste, Sreur DE 
BIENVILLE, French administrator in: America: 
b. Villemarie, Canada, 23 Feb. 1680; d. Paris, 
1768. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne 
(q.v.). In 1729, upon the death of his brother, 
Charles, Baron de Longueuil (q.v.), he suc- 
ceeded to the title; but he was known as De 
Bienville. In 1697 he served in the expedi- 
tion of the Chevalier de Troyes against. the 
English settlers in Hudson. Bay. »He.-after- 
ward went. with his brother, D’Iberville (see 
IBERVLLE), to France, and °24 Oct. 1698, sailed 
from, Brest in the expedition led by D’Iberville 
to take possession of the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi: Bienville was appointed lieutenant of 
the king, explored the surrounding region, and 
in 1700 became commander of a fort on the 
river 44 miles above its mouth. He succeeded 
Sauvolle in the direction of the colony and 
assumed command. of the camp of Biloxi, 22 
Aug...1701. In December he transferred the 
settlement to Mobile, which prospered through 


the arrival.of recruits from.France with sup- 


plies (1703-04) and of 50 Canadians (1706). 
In February 1/08 he was ordered to France_as 
a. prisoner, but.he was later reinstated in his 
position... The attempt to cultivate the soil by 
Indian labor having-been unsuccessful, he sug- 
gested to the: king in 1708 the importation of 
negroes from the Antilles, to: be exchanged for 
Indians at the rate. of three Indians for two 
negroes. In 1713-Cadillac arrived as governor, 
and Bienville was commissioned lieutenant- 
governor. Bienville led an, expedition to the 
territory of the Natchez Indians in 1716, built 
a fort and concluded a treaty, In 1718 he be- 
came governor. of Louisiana, in the.same. year 
founded New Orleans, which was made the 
seat of government in 1723; in 1724 he went to 
France to answer charges preferred against 
him, but in 1733 returned as governor and 
holding ‘the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After 
unsuccessful campaigns against the Chickasaws 
1736, 1739 and 1740 he sailed for France in 
1743. 


LE MOYNE, Joseph, Sieur pE Séricny, 
French soldier in America: b.. Villemarie, 
Canada, 22 July 1668; d. Rochefort, France, 
“1734. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne 
(q.v.). .He entered the French navy and in 
1604 and 1697 commanded the flotilla which 
co-operated with his brother D’Iberville (see 
IBERVILLE) in the expedition to seize Hudson 
Bay. Later he received command of a squad- 
ron, took to Louisiana Canadian settlers and 
surveyed (1718-19) the coast of that colony. 
He drove the Spaniards from their fortifica- 
tions at Pensacola (15 June 1719), and re- 
pulsed ‘them at Dauphin Island, near Mobile 
(19 August) ; became a captain in 1720 and in 
1723 rear-admiral. From 1723 he was governor 
of Rochefort. 


LE MOYNE, Paul, Sieur pe Maricourt, 
French :soldier in America: b. Villemarie, Can- 
ada, 15 Dec. 1663; d. there, 21 March 1704. He 
was a son of Charles Le Moyne \(q.v.). He 
participated in Troyes’ expedition against the 
English at Hudson Bay, was wounded in the 


attack on Fort Monsipi (20 June 1686): and 


‘remained with his brother D’Iberville (see 


IBERVILLE) in command of the captured district 
until 1690. In 1690 he distinguished himself in 
the defense of Quebec against: Phipps, later 
took part in Frontenac’s expedition against the 
Iroquois and in 1701 concluded peace with them. 


LE MOYNE, Paul Joseph, CHEVALIER DE 
LoNGUEUIL, French soldier in America: b. 
Canada, 17 Sept. 1701;.d. France, 12 May 1778. 
He was the son of Charles. Le Moyne (q.v.).- 
He entered the French army in 1718. He com- 
manded at Fort Frontenac, and also served as 
governor of Detroit’ and Three Rivers. He 
fought with distinction in various campaigns, 
and in 1747 marched 180 miles in the depth 
of a severe northern winter to reinforce Vau- 
dreuil at the siege of Fort George. 


LE MOYNE, Pierre: Sce 
PIERRE LE Moyne Steur:d’, 


LE MOYNE, Simon, Jesuit’ missionary: 
b. Beauvais, 1604; d.-Cap de la’ Madeleine, 
Canada, 1665. In 1622 he entered the Society 
of Jesus: and was sent to Canada in 1638. He 
was on the Huron mission with Bressani, 
Chaumonot and the future martyrs. He was a 
perfect master of the Huron-Iroquois language 
and was unequalled in his knowledge of Indian 
customs and traditions. This ability was recog- 
nized and he was employed on delicate and 
arduous embassies. He was the first European 
to go'among the Onondagas and his eloquence 
and knowledge of their traditions) won their 
admiration. He next was sent to the Mohawks 
and was well received by them, visited New 
Amsterdam and -pacified the Mohawks during 
several critical periods. At these times he was 
often in danger of death. In 1661 he returned 
to the Mchawks for the fifth time, was: tor- 
tured and condemned to death, but was saved 
by the chief, Garakontié. He died on the way 
to return to the Onondagas. Consult Campbell, 
‘Pionecer Priests. of North America? (New 
York 1908). 


LE NOTRE, or LE NOSTRE, 1é né’'tr’. 
André, French landscape gardener: b. Paris, 
1613; d. there, 1700. He was the son of the 
superintendent of the gardens at the Tuileries. 
He studied painting under Simon Vouet and 
frequented the studio of Le Brun, later studied 
architecture and eventually adopted landscape 
gardening as a profession. The position of his 
father enabled him to put into effect in the 
Tuileries gardens some of his ideas and he 
was later commissioned to plan the gardens of 
the Chateau de Vaux. _He was the originator 
of. the formal French garden with its stately 
co-ordination of grounds and buildings: He 
was commissioned director of the royal gardens 
by Louis XIV in 1657. The park of Versailles 
is tegarded as his masterpiece and he also laid 
out the gardens of Saint-Cloud, Fontainebleau, 
Chantilly and many others in France. He was 
ennobled by Louis XIV in 1675. His ‘influence 
was felt in many countries and he planned 
many gardens and parks in both England and 
Italy. The gardens of the Vatican are his 
work as is Saint James’ Park in London. 


LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE, 1é pa ’shér 
diz’land’, ‘The Iceland Fisherman; is the 
most admired novel:)of:;Pierre:. Loti.: -The 
author passed most of his life on the ocean, 


IBERVILLE, 


168 


becoming: finally and remaining to the close 


of his: active ‘career a commandant in the © 


French navy. He thus came to know the 
sea invall its: aspects and moods. His books 
describe life on the ocean and in distant coun- 
tries. The Pécheur d’Islande? alone would 
suffice :to _prove that Loti knows not only the 
ocean, but the human heart as well. The views 
of Breton life are pictured by the hand of a 
master with just enough local color to create an 
“atmosphere” and to explain the characters as 
far as they are the product of environment. 
Even if we have never known those who go 
down to the sea in ships, we come rapidly to 
know and respect them as we read these 
pages of beautiful yet solemn description and 
narrative. -We feel the dumb anguish of the 
bereaved widows and the astonished grief of 
the orphans. Few love stories of greater 
delicacy have ever been told than that of Gaud, 
the heorine, and Yann, her. sweetheart. After 
six, days of marriage, he has to go away to the 
fishing grounds of Iceland, and ‘never returns. 
RayMmonp WEEKS. 


LE PLAY, 1é pla; Pierre Guillaume 
Frédéric, French engineer and economist: b. 
La Riviere Saint-Sauveur (Calvados), 11 April 
1806; d. Paris, 5 April 1882. He was educated 
at the Ecole Polytechnique and was later ap- 
pointed to a position in the State Department 
of: Mines. He became head of the permanent 
committee of mining statistics in 1834, and 
engineer-in-chief and professor of metallurgy 
‘at the Ecole des Mines in 1840, receiving the 
appointment. as inspector in 1848. He was 
designated as organizer of the exhibition of 
1855 by Napoleon III, and was later counsellor 
of state and commissioner-general of the Ex- 
‘hibition’of 1867. He was also a senator of the 
empire. He received the Montyon prize of the 
Academy of Sciences and was elected grand 
officer of the Legion of Honor.- He was deeply 
interested in living conditions among the work- 
ing classes and for: many years devoted his 
vacations to travel in European countries for 
the purpose of making observations on the sub- 
ject. He founded the Société internationale 
des études pratiques. d'Economie sociale® in 
1856. and edited its journal, La Réforme Sociale, 
which he founded in 1881. Author of, ‘Les 
QOuvriers européens? (1855); ‘La Réforme 
sociale? (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887) ; 
‘L’Organisation de la familie? (1871); ‘La 
Constitution de LAngleterre) (in collaboration 
with: Delaire, 1875). 

LE chon cae Be lé plon’zhou’, Augustus, 
French archeologist: b. Jersey, Channel Islands, 
1826; d. 13 Dec. 1908. ‘He was a descendant of 
De Tocqueville, was educated in France and 
engaged in the practice of medicine in Central 
America, “where he became interested in. the 


history of: the Peruvians and conducted in- 


vestigations: which are of recognized value. 
Author of ‘Sacred Mysteries among the Mayas 
and the::Quiches, 11,500 Years: Ago? (1886) ; 
“Queen. Moo and the Egyptian Sphinx? (1896). 


LE QUEUX, 1é ki, William, English 
novelist: b. London, England, 2 July 1264. He 
studied art in Paris. In 1888 was a Parlia- 
mentary reporter for the London Globe, and 
its sub-editor 1891-93. In 1900 he was appointed 
English consul to San Marino. He has trav- 
eled widely in Europe and the Near East, and 


LE PLAY —LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR 


is recognized as an authority on the spy systems 
of Continental Europe. Among his numerous 
fictions are ‘Guilty Bonds? (1890); “Sinned 
Against? (1891) ; ‘The Great War.in England? 
(1892) ; ‘Stolen "Souls? (1894) ; “Whoso Find- 
eth a Wife. .(1897) ;..SThe Day? of Tempta- 
tion (1897); ‘Scribes and Pharisees? (1898); 
‘Wiles of the Wicked? (1900) ;.: “In. White 
Raiment? (1900); ‘The Tickencote Treasure? 


(1902); ‘The Invasion? (1908);: “The Hand 
of Allah? (1914); ‘German Spies in| England? 
(1915) ; ‘Britain’s Deadly, Peril; “The Way to 


Win? and ‘The Zeppelin Destroyers? (1916). 


LE ROSSIGNOL, 1é rés‘i-nyol, James 
Edward, American educator: b. Quebec, Can- 
ada, 24 Oct. 1866. He was graduated ‘at 
McGill University, Montreal; in 1888 and also 
studied at Leipzig, where he obtained the degree 
of D.Ph. in 1892. ° He was ‘professor of psy- 
chology and ethics at Ohio University 1892-94, 
and professor of economics at Denver 1894- 
1911. In 1908-09, while on leave of absence 
from Denver, he was professor of economics 
at the University of Nebraska. In 1911’ he was 
appointed head of the department of economics 
at the latter institution, and became director of 
the School of Commerce ‘there in 1913.’ He was 
special lecturer at McGill University in 1900 
and at the University of Wisconsin ‘in 1903. 
From August to December 1906 he was in New 
Zealand investigating economic conditions there. 
He is a member of the American Academy of 
Political and Social Science and other societies 
and has published ‘The Ethical: Philosophy of 
Samuel Clarke? (1892) ; “Monopolies Past and 
Present? (1901); ‘Taxation in Colorado? 
(1902) ; “History of Higher Education in Colo- 


rado? ( 1903) ; “Orthodox Socialism” (1907) ; 
‘Little Stories of Quebec” (1907); ° ‘State 
Socialism in New Zealand? _ (1910); ‘Jean 


Baptiste, A Story of French Canada (1915) 
and numerous articles on economic “subjects. - 


LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR, 1& roog’ 4 1é 
nwar (‘Red and Black?) is, with the ‘Char- 
treuse de Parme,? written at the same time 
(1830) but published. eight, years. later, the 
chief title to fame. of. that. original . French. 
gentleman of letters,. Henri Beyle, who pre- 
ferred to call himself Stendhal and pass for an 
Italian. The somewhat enigmatical title of the 
novel symbolizes the’ contrasted caréers of the 
army and the Church, between which the coolly. 
and selfishly calculating ambition of the hero 
chooses. This hero, Julien Sorel, was an early 
superman, wholly unmoral, recognizing , no 
other measure of the value of conduct than its 
success in attaining its immediate ends. . Le 
appealed strongly to the thoughts and imagina- 
tions of a later generation, and we discover 
expressions of admiration for him in ‘Nitzsche 
and. frequent traces of. resemblance to him in 
the novel. In a romantic age, passionately in 
love with the color and costume and: wonder, 
of far lands and unfamiliar periods of. history, 
Stendhal in ‘Le Rouge et le Noir focussed 
the attention of the novel upon. life: under. 
present conditions. The novelist, he said, should . 
hold a mirror up to life as it passes on~the 
street. In his attitude and his method he thus 
anticipated the realism that was to dominate the 
novel, and ‘Le Rouge et le Noir is a kind of 
landmark in the history of the novel in France. 
Consult English translations by E. P, Robins 


LE SUEUR— LEA 


> 
(London 1896);-and°H.-B. Samuel (London 
1914).’ A useful source of information is 
Adolphe Paupe, ‘Histoire des ceuvres de Stend- 
hal? (Paris 1903). iq 
ARTHUR G. CANFIELD. 


LE. SUEUR, Jean Francois, lé swér, zhon 
fran-swa, French composer; b. Drucat-Ples- 
siel, near.Abbeville, 15 Jan. 1760; d. Paris, 6 
Oct. 1837. At six he was placed at the musical 
school of the cathedral of Amiens and after 
completing his. studies was made director of 
music.in the cathedrals at Séez, Dijon, etc., and 
in 1784. in the. church of the Innocents, Paris. 
In 1786. he. became master in the church of 
Notre Dame. He was afterward induced to 
compose for..the theatre, ‘Telemachus,?’ his 
first opera, being. given with great success in 
the Théatre, Feydeau. .From 1788 he devoted 
his time altogether to theatrical music. His 
opera. ‘La, Caverne? was produced in 1793; 
‘Paul et; Virginie®.in 1794; ‘Télémaque? in 
1796; ‘Les, bardes? in 1804, and. ‘La Mort 
d’Adam> in 1809. He was made professor of 
music in the National Institute. In 1813. he 
became a member ‘of the fourth class of the 
Institute ; in 1814 composer to the king; and in 
1817 professor of composition to the Conserva- 
toire. His sacred music consists of 33 masses, 
and of oratorios ‘and motets: He also wrote 
several” works on’ musical subjects. 


LEA, lé, Henry Charles, American author: 
b.. Philadelphia, 19 Sept. 1825 ; d;- 1909. He 
was.a son of Isaac Lea, grandson of Mathew 
Carey, and was named for his uncle, Henry 
Charles Carey. He entered his father’s pub- 
lishing house in 1843; became, its head in 1865; 
and retired from: business..in 1880. He was 
actively .engaged in public undertakings for 
civil and social advancement, and during the 
Civil War, rendered conspicuous services in 
support of the Federal government. Between 
1840 and 1860 he wrote. many. papers on chemis- 
try and conchology, and after 1857 devoted his 
attention to. European medieval history. He 
had. taken.up,this study as an avocation,. but 
in later years he devoted himself increasingly 
to the mastery , of medieval church. history. He 
employed copyists to duplicate for him docu- 
ments, dealing with the, Inquisition. He be- 
queathed. his books and manuscripts to the 
University of. ‘Pennsylvania. He was a mem- 
ber of the American..Academy of Arts and 
Letters and a Fellow of the British Academy. 
He received honorary degrees from Harvard, 
Princeton, Pennsylvania and. Giessen. His 
chief works are ‘Superstition and Force? 
(1866) ; ‘An Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal 
Celibacy in the Christian Church? (1867; 3d 
ed., 2 vols., 1907); ‘A History of the Inquisi- 
tion of the Middle Ages?’ (1888; new ed., 3 
vols., 1906; French trans. by Solomon Reinach, 
1899; German trans., 1905-06) ; ‘Chapters from 
the Religious: History of Spain? (1890) ; 
‘Formulary of, the Papal Penitentiary in the 
Thirteenth Century? (1892); ‘A History of 
Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the 
Latin Church? (1896),;. ‘The. Moriscos_ of 
Spain: . Their ‘Conversion and Expulsion? 
(1901); “History of the Inquisition of Spain? 
(4 vols., 1906-07) ; ‘The Inquisition in the 
Spanish Dependencies? (1908). Consult 
Baumgarten, P. M., “Henry Charles Lea’s His- 
torical Writings? (New York 1909); Cheyney, 


special distinction. 


169 


E. P., “On the Life and Works of Henry 
Charles Lea,” in ‘Proceedings? of the Ameri- 
can Philosophical Society (Philadelphia 1911). 


LEA, Homer, American soldier and author: 
b. Denver, 17 Nov. 1876; d. Los Angeles, 1 
Nov. 1912. He came of a Virginian colonial 
family and was educated at the University of 
the Pacific and at the Leland Stanford, Jr., 
University. He became interested in Chinese 
military affairs and in 1900-01 he attempted 
the relief of the Chinese emperor Kwang Hsu. - 
He raised and commanded the second army 
division in China in 1904, receiving rank as 
lieutenant-general. He was associated with the 
Chinese reformer, K’ang Yu-wei; and with 
Dr. Sun Yatsen in the Chinese revolution, 
1911-12. He caused wide comment by the 
publication of his book ‘The Valor of Igno- 
rance? (2 vols., 1909) in which he set forth the 
possibilities of a Japanese invasion’ of the 
United States. He was also author of a novel 
‘The Vermilion Pencil? (1908); >a. drama 
“Crimson Spider? (1909), and ‘The Day of the 
Saxon? (1912), the latter second of a trilogy 
of which ‘The Valor of Ignorance” was) .the 
first volume, and embodying a warning. of 
supposed dangers besetting the British Empire. 
Lea was also engaged in the preparation of.a 
‘History of the Political Development of the 
Chinese? at the time of his death. 


LEA, Isaac, American ‘naturalist: b. Wil- 
mington, Del., 4 March 1792; d.. Philadelphia, 
7 Dec. 1886.. In early life he engaged in com- 
mercial pursuits, and from 1821 to 1851..was 
partner in a large publishing business; but from 
boyhood he was devoted to the study ‘of natural 
history, and his various collections of minerals 
and fossils, and especially of shells, were, valu- 
able contributions to science. He was'a mem- 
ber of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, and of the Philosophical Society 
of the same city, in whose ‘Transactions? 
many of his observations were published; he 
was also elected to membership in learned. so- 
cieties abroad. His work in the. study . of 
fresh-water and land mollusks. brought .him 
His principal publications 
ane “Observations on the Genus. Unio? (18275 

33); ‘Synopsis of the Family of Naiads? 
(1852-70). In the National Museum at Wash- 
ington his vast collection of Unionide.and his 
gem collections are deposited. Consult .Scud- 
der, ‘Bulletin U. S. National Museum, No. 23? 
(Washington 1885). An account of Lea’s work 
in conchology was published at Hbsadelphip in 
1861 by G. W. Tryon, Jr. 


LEA, Luke, American journalist ak legis- 
lator: b. Nashville, Tenn., 12 April 1879. He 
was graduated from the University of the South 
in 1899 and from Columbia University in 1903. 
He established himself in the practice of law 
at Nashville in 1903, and later became publisher 
and editor of the Nashville Tennesseean. He 
served in the United States Senate in 1911-17. 


LEA, Matthew Carey, American chemist: 
b. Philadelphia, 1823; d. there, 15 March 1897. 
His work in developing the chemistry of 
photography has served important purposes. 
Besides many articles treating. of the chemical 
action of light, his publications include an 
authoritative ‘Manual of Photography? (2d 
ed., 1871). He was the eldest son of Isaac 
Lea (q.v.). 


170 


LEACH, lééch, Arthur Francis, English 
historian and educator: b. London, 1851; d. 
28 Sept. 1915. He was educated at New Col- 
lege, Oxford, and was a Fellow of All Souls 
College in 1874-81. He became a barrister at 
Middle Temple in 1874 and assistant charity 
commissioner in the Endowed Schools De- 
partment in 1884. He was commissioner from 
1906 until his death. He was appointed ad- 
ministrative examiner of the Board of Educa- 
tion in 1901 and became assistant secretary of 
the board in 1903. He was an authority on 
the history of education in England. He con- 
tributed the articles on the history of. educa- 
tion and English public schools to the ‘Amer- 
ican Cyclopedia» of . Education? (1912-13). 
Author of ‘English Schools at the Reforma- 
tion (1546-48) (1896); ‘History of Wainches- 
ter College’? (1899) ; ‘Early Yorkshire Schools? 
(1899-1903) ; ‘Schools .of Medieval England? 
(1914), etc. 


“LEACH, William Elford, English natural- 
ist: b. Plymouth, 1790; d. Palazzo, Saint Sebas- 
tiano, near Tortona, 25 Aug. 1836.. He studied 
medicine at Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital, Lon- 
don, and’ took his’ M.D. at Edinburgh Univer- 
sity in 1812. His interest in natural ‘history 
induced him to abandon medicine and in 1813 
he was ‘appointed assistant librarian at the 
British Museum. He introduced and developed 
there the natural’ system of arrangement in 
conchology and entomology devised by Latrielle 
- and Cuvier, and when his arrangement ‘was 
superseded by that of the French naturalist, 
Henri Milne-Edwards, Teach was ‘acknowl- 
edged as an investigator to whom science owed 
great obligations.’ In the field of crustacea he 
was considered the greatest naturalist of his 
time: Ill health compelled his’ retirement in 
1821 after his becoming assistant keeper of the 
natural history department in ‘the British 
Museum. He was elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society in 1817. Besides numerous con- 
tributions’ to scientific journals and to the 
‘Encyclopedia ‘Britannica? and ‘Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia? he was author of ‘Zoological 
Miscellany? (3 vols., 1814-17); ‘Systematic 
Catalogue of the Specimens of the Indigenous 
Mammalia and Birds that.are preserved in the 
British Museum? . (1816); ‘Synopsis of the 
Mollusca of Great. Britain,» published post- 
humously (1852). 


LEACOCK, 1é’kék, Hamble James, Amer- 
ican missionary: b. Cluff’s Bay, Barbados, 14 
Feb. 1795; d. Sierra Leone; Africa,-20 Aug. 
1856. _He was educated at Codrington College, 
Barbados, took deacon’s orders in 1826, and 
became assistant priest of Saint John’s parish, 
where he aroused great opposition by freeing 
his own slaves and offering to all slaves within 
the parish the privileges of the church. Subse- 
quently he was stationed at Saint Vincent, and 
was pastor of Saint George’s, Charlestown, 
and at Nevis: He removed in 1835 to Lexing- 
- ton, Ky. From 1836 he held various pastorates, 

in 1848-55 was again in Barbados, and in 1855 
went to Africa as the first volunteer of the 
West Indian Church Association for the 
furtherance of the Gospel in West Africa. He 
developed a large mission field at Rio Pongas, 
Sierra Leone. Consult the biography by, Cas- 
wall (1857). 


LEACH — LEAD 


LEACOCK, ~ Stephen Butler, Canadian 
author and educator: b. Swanmoor, Hants, 
England, 30 Dec. 1869.. He came to Canada in 
1876, was educated at Upper Canada College 
and the University. of Toronto, where he was 
graduated in 1891. After spending several 
years in school teaching he took a graduate 
course in political economy at the University of 
Chicago and was appointed to the staff of Mc- 
Gill University in 1901. Under an appoint- 
ment by the Rhodes Trust (1907-08) Professor 
Leacock made a lecture tour round the British 
Empire. In 1900 he married Beatrix, daughter 
of Col. R. B. Hamilton of Toronto, and has 
one son, Stephen Lushington Leacock, b. 19 
Aug. 1915. .Professor Leacock is the author. 
of ‘Elements of Political Science? (1906) ; 
‘Essays and Literary Studies, and of several 
works of a lighter character, such as ‘Non- 
sense Novels? (1911); ‘Sunshine Sketches of 
a Little Town? (1912); ‘Behind the Beyond? 
(1913); ‘Adventures with the Idle Rich 
(1914); ‘Further Foolishness» (1916); ‘The 
Hohenzollerns in America? (1919).° 


LEAD, léd, or.. LEADE, Mrs. . Jane 
(Ward), English mystic: b. County of. Nor- 
folk, 1623; d..Stepney, 19 Aug: 1704. She came 
of an excellent family and at 16 is said:to have 
heard a. miraculous voice during the Christ- 
mas festivities in. her .father’s house, . after 
which time she devoted herself seriously to 
religion. She was married in 1654, widowed in 
1670, and thereafter lived in seclusion in Lon- 
don with her only daughter. Her inclination 
toward mysticism was accentuated by her study 
of the works of Jacob’ Boehme, and in April 
1670 she began her spiritual diary in which she 
recorded her frequent prophetic visions. The 
diary was published in two volumes, ‘The 
Heavenly Cloud? (1681) and ‘The Revelation 
of Revelations» (1683). In 1693 one of the 
books was translated into Dutch and German 
by Fischer of Rotterdam and. attracted con- 
siderable attention. Francis Lee, a young 
Oxonian traveling in Holland, was induced 
upon his return to. England’ to make Mrs. 
Lead’s acquaintance and urge her to further 
writing. Lee was deeply influenced by her 
sincere piety, became her secretary and after 
being adopted as her son married her daughter. 
Lee wrote many of Mrs. Lead’s works at her 
dictation, and was instrumental in the organiza- 
tion of a society of theosophists called the 
“Philadelphians,»> of whom Mrs. Lead was 
the head, and whose membership included 
many. followers throughout England, Holland 
and Germany. Mrs.. Lead’s closing years were 
clouded by poverty and jealousies among her 
followers, one of whom, however, granted her 
a small annuity. She died in one of the alms- 
houses of Lady Mico at Stepney. Lee, who 
remained faithful to her, wrote a descrip- 
tion of her death, ‘The Last Hours of Jane 
Lead,» which was translated into German. 
During Mrs. Lead’s lifetime her voluminous 
writings enjoyed a wide yogue but they are 
now rare. She wrote also ‘Enochian Walks 
with God? (1694); ‘The Laws of Paradise? 
(1695); ‘A Fountain of Gardens? (4 vols., 
1696-1701) ; ‘A Living Funeral Testimony? 
(1702), etc. . 


LEAD, led, S. D.; city in Lawrence Count i. 
on the Chicago and Northwestern and the 


LEAD 171 
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads, a slight action on lead, carbonate being formed 
about 18 miles from the western boundary of and dissolved, but this action is apparently 
the State. It was settled in 1876 and incorpo- hindered by the presence of some salts and 
rated in 1877. It is situated in the Black accelerated by others. When lead is heated to 


Hills in a gold mining region. The chief in- 
dustries are connected with mining, the manu- 
facturing of mining tools and. the outfits for 
mining camps. Modern methods of mining 
have made the Black Hills one of. the largest 
gold producing regions in the world, and Lead 
receives its share of the industrial plants con- 
nected with preparing the ore for market. The 
educational institutions are the public and par- 
ish schools, Black Hills Business College, the 
Hearst Free Kindergarten, and the Hearst Free 
Library. The Lead. Coliseum and_ several 
churches are among the prominent buildings. 
The value of the business transacted annually 
is about $17,000,000. The government is now 
managed on the commission plan: Pop. 5,013. 

LEAD, one of the most useful metallic 
elements, well known in chemistry and in the 
arts: From early times references to it are 
found in literature. It is mentioned in Exodus 


xv, 10; Numbers xxxi, 22; Job xix, 24; and. 


Ezekiel xxvii, 12, and is supposed to have been 
imported into Palestine from Tyre, although it 
should be remembered that there are lead mines 
in Sinai-and the Lebanon, as well as in Egypt. 
Articles made of lead by the ancient Romans, 
such as. water-pipes, water-tanks, weights. 
rings and small ornamental cylinders, are still 
preserved. Examples in the grounds of old 
churches show that the Roman method of mak- 
ing pipes from sheet-lead continued. in use. till 
late in the Middle’ Ages. Small lead-weights 
of curious forms. have been found among Vi- 
king remains dating as early as the 10th cen- 
tury. Many of the European countries are 
known to have produced lead as early as from 
the 10th to the 14th century. ) 

Physical Properties.— Lead (chemical sym- 
bol Pb, from the Latin name of the element, 
plumbum, atomic weight about 207), is a soft 
metal of a bluish-white color, tending to gray, 
with a bright metallic lustre when newly cut 
or melted. It is tasteless but has ,a distinctive 
odor when rubbed. It soon tarnishes when ex- 
posed to the air, taking on a thin film. sup- 
posed to’ be suboxide. But lead suffers less 
‘than. most metals either from atmospheric 
agencies, or damp soils. It can be scratched 
with the nail, and easily cut and makes a 
mark upon paper. Its specific gravity varies 
from 11.352 in the ingot to 11.365 when rolled 
into Sheets. It begins to melt at 619° F., and 
is completely liquid at 638°. Its boiling point 
is about 2,700°. In cooling from a. molten 
condition lead crystallizes into regular octa- 
hedrons from which the still liquid lead may 
be poured away. It may also be obtained. in 
a crystalline. tree-like formation. known. as 
arborescent lead by decomposing a solution of 
lead acetate by the electric current. Its hard- 
ness is increased by repeated meltings. It is 
highly malleable and in a less degree ductile, 
but its tenacity is small—a wire I-12th of 
an inch being unable to carry a load of 20 
pounds. Lead is not a good conductor of 
heat.or electricity. It can be welded at ordi- 
nary temperatures by pressing two freshly cut 
surfaces together; and when gently heated it 
can be forced by pressure through perforations 
and pipes. Water containing carbonic acid has 


redness in air it is oxidized, litharge (PbO) 
being formed. Lead is attacked by nitric acid 
and by hot strong sulphuric acid, but dilute 
sulphuric or hydrochloric acids have but little 
action. It is, therefore, largely used for the 
construction of sulphuric acid chambers and 
for chemical works, plants. It alloys readily 
with many metals. 

Lead Ores.— Native lead occurs sparsely in 
some: localities in Mexico, India and Wales. 
Its ores are found extensively, more or less 
pure or associated with other ores, in various 
parts of the United States, in Great Britain, 
Germany, Spain and other European countries. 
The most common form is the sulphite (PbS), 
known as galena. It occurs usually in veins, 
and is often associated with zinc and. fre- 
quently with silver.. Ores of lead are found 
most plentifully in rocks belonging to the 
Silurian Age, chiefly in. the mountain .lime- 
stones. Some occurrences are true veins, others 
beds or pockets. In the United States the most 
common occurrence is as a “sheet” filling a 
vertical crevice, and is in such cases generally 
a very pure galena. The lead-silver ores of 
the Coeur d’Alene district in Idaho are in the 
form of veins, while those of the Leadville 
district. in Colorado occur largely as irregular 
replacement deposits of great size in lime- 
stones. In both the above districts, the ores" 
are believed by some authorities to have. been 
introduced by heated waters connected with 
igneous activity. Others argue that the ab- 
sence of other hot water sedimentary sub- 
stances make this theory untenable. In the 
Flat River district of southeastern Missouri, 
the ores carry little silver, and occur as irregular 
disseminations in Cambrian dolomites. They 
are believed to have been introduced by cold 
waters which leached the ores from adjacent 
rocks where they occurred in minute quan- 
tities. In the; Joplin district of Missouri and 
in southwestern Wisconsin, considerable lead 
is associated with the zinc ores (q.v.). Cerus- 
site, the lead carbonate, is common in the 
upper parts of certain lead deposits, where it 
is supposed to have resulted from the weather- 
ing of the galena of the original ore. 

In the United States the richest ores are 
found chiefly in the Western States, the car- 
boniferous limestone bearing both hard and 
soft ores, which contain silver chloride and 
cerussite. The output of smelting works in 
Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, Utah, etc., 
figures largely in the industrial statistics of the 
country. (See LEAp INpustTRY, AMERICAN). At 
the present time the main supply of lead is 
obtained from the Rocky Mountain regions, 
where the ores are argentiferous — as to some 
extent all galena is—and the lead-silver mines 
in some of ‘the States mentioned have produced 
much wealth for their owners. Conde lead is 
imported into the United States “from British 
Columbia and Mexico. Other minerals associ- 
ated with galena are anglesite or sulphate of 
lead, lanarkite, which is a basic sulphate, pyro- 
morphite, or phosphato-chloride of lead, and 
hournonite, consisting of the sulphides of lead, 
copper and antimony. Galena is very heavy and 
usually can be easily separated from most of 


172 


the lighter minerals with which it is associated. 
The heavier minerals, such as barytes, ‘pyrites 
and blende, are not so easily or completely sepa- 
rated. In Great Britain the ore is crushed to 
pass through about a half-inch sieve and is 
dressed to contain over 76 per cent of lead. In 
other countries the concentration is not so high 
and sometimes no dressing is resorted to.. This 
is specially the case in districts where the ‘blast 
furnace is used for smelting, since finely divided 
material is unsuited for the blast-furnace. 

Metallurgy. Galena is the principal lead 
ore employed for the purposes which metallurgy 
(q.v.) now so widely subserves. The next im- 
portant ores, the sulphate and the carbonate, are 
seldom treated except in combination with ‘oth- 
ers. The three main processes are the air-re- 
duction, the roasting and carbon reduction ‘and 
the iron’ or precipitation reduction processes. 
Galena when taken from the mine is broken ‘up 
into small pieces or redticed to powder, and the 
impurities, in so far as these’ can be removed 
mechanically, separated by machines. If ‘the 
dressed galena is nearly ‘pure, as it often is; 
the smelting operation is simple. The processes 
of lead-smelting — galena being “the ’ ore 
which have grown up in various’ parts’ of the 
world, are strikingly similar in principle, though 
differing much'in detail. Since 1913° flotation 
has been extensively resorted to: for ‘the-’con- 
centration of lead ores. It is estimated that in 
1915 its process recovered not less than’ 50,000 
tons of metal formerly lost in fines and’ slimes. 
In the United States lead is smelted in réver- 
beratory furnaces made of brick, or in’ water- 
jacketed blast-furnaces. ‘The blast-furnace’: is 
always preferable to the reverberatory where it 
can be used, and has now become almost uni- 
versal for lead- smelting. - 

Production:— The latest ‘complete Rene 
available for the’ world’s production ‘of’ lead 
are those of 1913; the outbreak of the Euro- 
pean War in 1914 demoralized the mining in- 
dustries of all European countries. The 
world’s total of lead produced in 1913 was 
1,270,458 ‘tons. Of ‘this, the. United States 
produced 411,878 tons—32.4 per cent of the 
whole. The output of “the other Jéead-mining 
countries was as follows: Spain, 223,767 tons; 
Germany, 199,627 tons; Australia, 127,867 tons; 
Mexico, 68,343 tons; Belgium, 55,997 tons; 
Great Britain, 33,620 tons; France, 30,864 tons; 
Austria-Hungary, 26,565 tons; Italy, 23,920 tons; 
Greece, 20,282 tons; Canada, 18,849 tons; Tur- 
key in Asia, 15,322 tons. 

The output of lead in the United States for 
1921-22 was 464,000 short tons, valued. at $75,- 
579,347. Of the whole, Missouri produced 184,- 


000 tons: Idaho, 98,000 tons; Utah, 67,000 tons; 
Colorado, 31,500 tons; Nevada, 8,000. tons; 
Arizona, 9,000 tons; California, 1,500 tons; 


Oklahoma, 53,000 tons; 
Wisconsin, 4,200: tons; and Kansas, 11,000 tons. 
The lead produced. by Missouri, Montana, 
Oklahoma, Wisconsin and. Kansas is. non-argen- 
tiferous, or what. is..known. as. “soft. lead. 
In 1921 the United’ States imported 42,984, tons 
of lead of which the bulkcame from Mexico, 
from South America and from Canada. In the 
year 1923 the lead exports of the United States 
totaled 1,502 short tons, valued at $188,427, as 
compared with 360 tons, valued at $29,805 
in 1922. The output of lead in the United 


Montana, 16,000 tons; 


* evaporating the solution. 


LEAD 


States in 1919 is placed at 424,433 short tons; 
in 1920, 476,849 short tons. 

Lead Oxides.— Five oxides of lead are 
known, namely, the suboxide (Pb:O), the 
monoxide (PbO), the sesquioxide (Pb.O;), the 
red oxide (Pb:Os), and the peroxide or dioxide 
(PbO:). Of these, however, only three + the 
monoxide, the red oxide and the dioxide — are 
of any importance. Lead monoxide (PbO), lith- 
arge, or massicot, is largely used in the arts, 
and is made by heating molten lead in a shal- 
low reverberatory furnace with free access of 
air, the litharge as it forms being pushed to 
one side so as to expose a fresh surface of the 
metal. The mass thus obtained is ground and 
separated from intermixed lead. It is then the 
buff-colored powder known as ground litharge 
or massicot. When the oxidation’ takes place 
above the mélting point of the oxide, as in 
cupellation, the litharge'on solidification breaks 
up into orange-colored scales and is then known 
as “lake litharge.»' Litharge*melts at: about 
600° C. to a clear liquid; and: at higher tem- 
peratures volatilizes.. Lead oxide is a powerful 
base and dissolves in acids forming ‘salts. At 
high temperatures it «combines readily with 
silica,. forming fusible silicates, and therefore 
has a very corrosive ‘action on crucibles: or 
firebricks which» contain ‘silica. An electrolytic 
process of:making red lead and litharge from 
galena is used at Niagara’ Falls... When lith- 
arge is heated to dull redness with free access 
of air, oxygen-is taken up and the red oxide 
(Pb:Ox) red -lead“is formed. It is manufac- 
tured by roasting ground litharge with free 
access of air for about 24 hours; “the opera- 
tion being: carried ‘on till the’ required tint is 
obtained on cooling. It is’ used asa pigment 
and in the manufacture of flint: glass and 
enamels. 

Compounds of Lead.— One of the most im- 
portant lead compounds is pltuimbie carbonate 
(carbonate of lead, white lead), PbCO;— the 
cerussite of mineralogists, and now largely 
mined in the United States as an ore of lead. 
White lead is manufactured on a large scalé, 
and ‘is extensively used in the arts asa white 
pigment and as a body for other colors’ in 
paints.’ ‘(See Paints). Another leading com- 


pound ‘is plumbic chloride (chloride of lead), — 


PbCl..'° The minerals matlockite and mendipite 
are both oxychlorides of lead. A basic chloride 
of lead is made for use as a white pigment, 
which is, however, not so serviceable as ordi- 
nary white lead. Lead acetate (stigar’of lead), 
Pb(C:HsO:2)2, 3H2O, is prepared by dissolving 
massicot in dilute acetic acid. It’ can be ob- 
tained in transparent crystals or in scales by 
It is soluble in one and 
one-half parts of cold water, and in eight parts 
of alcohol. Like litharge, itis usedin the manu- | 
facture of oil-varnishes. Minium or red lead 
is much used in the manufacture of flint- 
glass, as a cement and'as a pigment. For glass- 
making it requires to be made of very pure 
lead as a slight trace of copper would impart 
a color. to the glass. Minium is prepared by 
heating massicot or monoxide of lead to a 
temperature of 600° F. in iron trays, in an 
oven, carefilly avoiding fusion. More oxygen 
is thus gradually absorbed; and a bright-red 
compound is formed which is the red lead of 
commerce. Orange lead, made from white 
lead instead of from massicot, is a very pure 


LEAD — LEAD PENCILS 


kind of red lead: Yellow lead, so called some- 
times by manufacturers,’ is a mixture of the 
oxides of lead and antimony, which is to some 
extent used to give a yellow color to earthen- 
ware, and as a pigment. The so-called black 
lead (see GRAPHITE), Of which pencils, etc., are 
made, contains no lead. 

Lead in Medicine.— Most of the lead com- 
pounds used in medical practice are made into 
external applications for disorders of the sys- 
tem which manifest themselves upon the skin, 
although some are employed as sedatives, as- 
tringents, etc. Lead acetate is an approved 
internal remedy in typhoid fever, diarrhoea 
and other diseases. Of plasters, ointments and 
the like, lead. carbonate, lead iodide and lead 
oleate are familiar constituents. 

Lead Poisoning.— Under the influence of 
moist air, or of water in which air is held 
in suspension, the hydroxide of lead is formed, 
and this is soluble in water. To this condition 
is to be attributed many cases of poisoning 
by drinking water which has been standing 
for some time in lead pipes or vessels. The 
use of soluble salts of lead. in the arts is a 
frequent cause of painful and sometimes fatal 
poisoning, from the metal finding its way into 
the system. The effects often are not immedi- 
ate aS minute doses are apparently harmless, 
but these being oft repeated have a cumula- 
tive effect. and the seizure is sudden. The 
glazing of culinary vessels with lead; the color- 
ing of confectionery with the chromate,. chlo- 
ride or carbonate of lead; the sweetening. of 
sour wine by. litharge or "oxide of lead; the 
drinking of water which has passed through 
new. lead-pipes; and. living much in rooms 
newly painted with lead- colors, all these things 
may cause exposure to this peril, and often 
produce lead or saturnine poisoning. But the 
most frequent and virulent cases occur among 
painters and persons engaged in white-lead fac- 
tories. In lead-poisoning the countenance as- 
sumes a sallow, earthy hue, the skin becomes 
dry and harsh, the digestion is deranged and 
the bowels constipated, and a sweetish metallic 
taste is felt in the mouth. A specially import- 
ant sign is the appearance of a blue or violet 
line along the margin of the gums and teeth, 
due to the formation of sulphide of lead. 
There is sometimes kidney derangement, mus- 
cular palsy, severe disturbance of the brain, and 
even epilepsy and some form of insanity. The 
most commonly occurring result of lead-poison- 
ing’ is ‘lead-colic, or painters’ ‘colic. See 
EQECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES; Ore Deposits. 


LEAD, Refining of.. See ELECTROCHEMICAL 
INDUSTRIES, 


LEAD PENCILS. The earliest mention 
of what are known to-day as lead pencils ap- 
pears in records dating back to 1565 — not long 
after the discovery of the noted graphite mine 
at. Borrowdale, England, in 1554, This mine 
furnished the material for the first lead pencils, 
The graphite was sawed into strips and fas- 
tened. into wooden casings. In 1795 . the 
Frenchman Conté. improved the process by 
grinding the graphite and mixing it with clay, 
in order to; produce grades of hardness and 
blackness, and this is the method. of; manu- 
facture, at the present day. Not. all. graphite 
is available in making pencils. The variety 
known as “flake graphite” is quite useless, the 


173 


flaky texture allowing the pencil to slip over the 
paper without leaving a mark. The variety 
which is,.used isa, form in fine. scales ap- 
proaching the amorphous form and is found in 
localities in Siberia, Bohemia and Bavaria in 
Europe, and in Mexico. 

The graphite as it. comes from the mine is 
ground in a mill together with a special kind 
of clay mined.in Germany. This grinding is 
continued until the mass is perfectly homo- 
geneous.. The proportion of clay added is 
determined by the degree of hardness required: 
in the finished pencil,ithe very hard (marked 
HHHHHH),: having the most clay and the 
very soft (BBBBBB) having hardly any. The 
soft leads have to be made larger in diameter 
to stand the strain put upon them when in use. 
After the grinding, the putty-like mass is put 
into the cylinder. of a hydraulic. press which 
has a pierced plate for the bottom and a 
movable plunger is driven down upon the mass, 
forcing it through the perforations in the plate. 
This operation.is repeated as many times as 
it appears necessary to get the paste into a 
perfectly smooth condition. It is then put into 
another similar press which has only one per- 
foration in the plate. This may be square, 
round or oval, depending upon the shape of 
the ;lead required. As the, “string” of lead 
comes slowly through the plate an operator 
guides it into a groove cut in a tray and nips 
it off into lengths of seven inches. When 
filled, the trays of leads are covered with carbon 
dust and placed in an oven where they are 
baked at a temperature ranging from 2,200° 
to 2,300° F., to secure just the right degree of 
hardness. 

The wood in which the lead is encased is 
red cedar from the Southern forests — pref- 
erably in Florida, Georgia and Alabama, where 
the cedar grows with a smooth cheesy texture. 
This material is milled until it is in “slats” 
seven inches long, two inches wide and one- 
fourth inch thick, sufficient for the lower halves 
of six’ pencils. In these slats are cut six 
grooves deep enough to hold a string of lead. 
The slats are given a coat of glue and _ the 
leads are put in place, and a cover slat, slightly 
thinner, is glued on. The “blocks,” as they 
are now called, are placed in clamps where 
they remain until thoroughly dry and hard. 
Then they go into a shaping machine which 
mills them into six perfectly shaped pencils, - 
round, hexagonal, oval or any other form for 
which the knives are set and leaving them per- 
fectly smooth. Then they are fed into a ma- 
chine which gives them one or two ‘coats of 
varnish of such a color as desired. The ends 
are then trimmed, a strip of gold leaf laid on 
one end which receives the title from another 
press, the tin tips and rubbers are put on in 
an automatic machine and the pencils are ready 
for boxing and labeling for the market. 

The supply of cedar has been so rapidly dis- 
appearing that an attempt has been made to 
grow it under cultivation. In 1906 the number 
of lead_pencils made in the United States was 
about: 320,000,000, . requiring 110,000 tons of 
cedar, which was. then seHing at $20 per ton. 
Since. then cedar buyers in the South have 
bought up old cabins built of cedar logs, and 
even. replaced old rail fences with wire, in 
order to get the coveted wood, no other sub- 


174 


stance having been proved a satisfactory sub- 
stitute. 

The pencils with colored leads go through 
the same process, except that “China clay” is 
used as the binder, and colored pigments take 
the place of the graphite. For these, with their 
larger “leads,” it has been found feasible to 
~ construct a casing of paper wound spirally 
around ithe centre. This is glued at one point 
on each turn, and the pencils are sharpened by 
unwinding as many turns as are necessary. 
The glued spots hold the strip from unrolling 
all the way down. Copying pencils are made 
with a coal-tar dye mixed with a gum soluble 
in water. Carpenters’ and markers’ pencils 
have a proportion of wax or tallow incorpo~ 
rated with the graphite. 


LEAD SOUNDINGS. See Sounpuincs. 


LEADER, Benjamin Williams, English 
landscape painter: b. Worcester, 12 March 1831. 
He studied art at.the Worcester School of De- 
sign and at the Royal Academy of Arts, Lon- 
don. He early gained recognition as an able 
follower of the great English landscape paint- 
ers and has specialized in the landscapes of 
western Britain. He has been an exhibitor at 
the Royal Academy since 1854. He was elected 
a chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1889, 
and won the gold medal at the Paris Exhibi- 
tion in that year. He was awarded a medal 
at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 
1893, and was made a Royal Academician in 
1898. Among his paintings are ‘The Valley of 
‘the. Llugwy? (Tate Gallery, London); ‘A 
Quiet Valley Among Welsh Hills? (Worcester 
Gallery); ‘The Weald of Surrey? (1901). 
Consult Lusk, L., ‘Life and Work of B. W. 
Leader? in Art Annual, December 1901. 


LEADER, the player who takes the prin- 
cipal part in a musical organization, as the first 
violin in an orchestra, the first cornetist in a 
brass band and the first soprano in a chorus. 
Formerly the leader in bands and orchestras 
was also the conductor, but the duties are now 
separated in large organizations. In an orches- 
tra the leader is stationed at the conductor’s 
right, directs the uniform bowing of the 
violins, and upon him in a large measure rests 
the animation and precision of “attack” He 
also plays all solo violin passages except in 
concertos. Except in orchestras that are or- 
ganized institutions he usually makes the en- 
gagements with the different members. 


LEADHILLITE, a lead ore consisting of 
sulphate and carbonate with probable formula, 
4PbO SO: 2CO2H:O. Found in small 
amounts in Pinal County, Ariz., and Tintic 
district, Utah. 


LEADING STAR. See Lonestar. 
LEADING TONE OR NOTE, in musi- 


cal compositions the note immediately below 
the keynote, separated from it by a semitone, 
the shortest interval in the system. It takes 
its name from the fact that it leads up to the 
most important note in the scale, but has no 
status of its own and is incapable of standing 
as a root note. In the Greek scales and in the 
ecclesiastical scales derived from them the note 
- immediately below the keynote was separated 
by a full tone and was in no sense a leading 
note. A growing sense of harmony among 
musicians demanded the use of the leading 


LEAD SOUNDINGS — LEAF 


note, but ecclesiastics were disinclined to per- 
mit any change in the scales and Pope John 
XXII passed an edict against it in 1322: How- 
ever, musicians usually sang it, and as it was 
not written the ecclesiastical authorities ignored 
it. By the time of Bach and Handel lines of 
difference between the antique and modern 
scales had become fused and the leading note 
has since had its recognized place. 


LEADING OF VOICES, musical term 
covering the correct progression of individual 
voices or parts in a musical)composition. See 
HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT. ~~ 


LEADVILLE, 1éd’vil, Colo., a city and 
the county-seat of Lake County, 80 miles by 
rail southwest of Denver, the State capital, on 
the Colorado Midland, Colorado and Southern 
and the Denver and Rio Grande railroads. It 
is situated 10,200 feet above the sea amid pic- 
turesque scenery, near the headwaters of the 
Arkansas River in central Colorado, between 
the Mosquito and Sawatch ranges of the Rocky 
Mountains. Leadville was first settled in 1869 
by miners and prospectors, but after a period 
of comparative prosperity as a gold-mining 
centre declined with the exhaustion of the first 
discovered deposits. It revived with the dis- 
covery in 1877 of rich lead and silver deposits, 
followed by the discovery of other gold, zinc, 
copper, bismuth and manganese deposits, and 
the mineral output during the period 1879- 
1905 amounted to $328,487,146. It is the mining, 
farming and grazing trade centre of an ex- 
tensive region, has fine buildings, including a 
Carnegie library, opera house, theatre, court- 
house, jail, hospital and almshouse, has a pa- 
rochial school, a high school and four grade 
schools and several churches.. The city is 
lighted by gas and electricity, has an excel- 
lent water supply and well-organized fire and 
police departments. Besides its large sampling, 
refining and reduction works, smelting fur- 
naces, etc., it has also iron foundries, manu- 
factures of machinery, ice, jewelry and novel- 
ties and a government fish-hatchery. The city 
is administered by a mayor and common coun- 
cil of six members elected biennially. Pop. 


(1920) 4,959. 


LEAF, Walter, English classical scholar 
and financier: Norwood, 1852. He was 
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where 
he was a Fellow in 1875. He entered the 
banking firm of Leaf, Sons and Company in 
1877 and was its chairman after its reorganiza- 
tion as Leaf and Company, Ltd.,. in 1888-92. 
He was one of the founders of the London 
Chamber of Commerce, serving successively as 
its vice-president, deputy chairman and in 1887 
chairman. He was president of the Hellenic 
Society in 1914, and his researches in classical 
literature gained for him additional degrees 
from Cambridge and the D. Litt. from Oxford. 
He was chairman of the London County and 
Westminster Bank in 1914 and was appointed 
to the committee of finance for the European 
War. Author of numerous contributions to 
periodical literature of the classics and of ‘The 
Story of Achilles» (1880) with J. H. Pratt; 
‘The Iliad, Edited with Introduction and 
Notes? (2 vols., 1886-88; 2d ed., 1900-02) ; 
‘Companion to the Iliad? (1902); ‘Troy: a 
Study in Homeric Geography? (1912) ; ‘Homer 


LEAF — LEAF-MINER 


and History? (1915). He also translated from 
the Russian ©A Modern Priestess of Isis? 
(1894), and published ‘Versions from Hafiz: 
An Essay in Persian Metre? (1898). 


LEAF. See LEAvEs. 


LEAF-BEETLE, a popular name for 
many members of the family Chrysomelide 
(q.v.), which embraces about 18,000 widely dis- 
tributed species, about 600 of which are found 
in North America. The larve, which feed 
upon the succulent parts, either fully exposed, 
in protective cases, beneath the epidermis as 
leaf-miners or stalk-borers, are all soft-bodied 
six-footed creatures with great appetites. Some 
larve feed on roots, some are aquatic and many 
cover themselves with excrement as a protec- 
tion against their enemies. 
eral tropical species are of such brilliant colors 
as to be used for jewelry when mounted in 
gold settings. The family includes many species 
considered serious pests of cultivated plants. 
Some of the most noted of these are the flea- 
beetles, tortoise-beetles, potato and asparagus 
beetles, elm-leaf beetle and the diabroticas, rep- 
resented by the striped and the spotted cucum- 
ber-beetle. These are treated under their food- 
plant titles. 

LEAF-BUG, or PLANT-BUG, bugs of 
the family Capsid@, which suck the juices of 
plants. Two hundred and fifty of the thousand 
or more species described occur in the United 
States, and all except the predaceous species 
are vegetable feeders, a few being considered 
pests. They are generally oval. or elongated, 
yellowish or greenish, sometimes with lines or 
dots of red or, black. All have a decidedly 
“buggy” odor. Among the best-known species 
are the red-bug or cotton-stainer (Dysdercus 
suturellus), so called. because its excrement 
stains the cotton in the opening boll, thus re- 
ducing the grade.. It is less troublesome. than 
formerly because the piles’ of cottonseed in 
which it used to breed are now used for oil 
instead of being thrown in heaps to decay. The 
insect also attacks oranges in Florida. 
seed will attract them away from the trees. 
Another species troublesome on currants, goose- 
berries, dahlias, etc., is the four-lined leaf-bug 
(Pecilocapsus lineatus). Its eggs are laid in 
the young twigs which may be cut in autumn 
or winter and burned. .The insects may also be 
jarred off the plants into receptacles. while 
sluggish in the early morning. 


LEAF-CUTTER BEE, one of the large 
bees of the genus Megachile, of which a com- 
mon species in the United States is M. cetun- 
cularis. It is a “thick-bodied bee with a large 
square head, stout scissors-like jaws and with 
a thick mass of dense hairs on the under side 
of the tail for the purpose of carrying pollen.” 
These bees make their nests in the hollow stems 
of elder-bushes, or, nowadays, often in crevices 
about buildings, and form their cells of round 
pieces which they cut out of tender leaves of 
many sorts of trees and bushes, especially the 
rose. Many cells.are made, each containing an 
egg and store of pollen, and the whole economy 
of the group is very interesting. There are 
many species in various parts. of the world. 


LEAF-CUTTING ANTS. > See Ants. 


LEAF-FROG, a small American frog of 
the family Cystignathide and the genus Hy- 


The adults of sev- - 


Cotton-. 


175 


lodes, common in the tropics. They are similar 
to the tree-toad, are usually prettily colored 
and in size are rarely quite two inches long, 
The fingers as well as the toes have effective 
sucking discs enabling them to climb trees and 
perch securely upon their branches. The vocal 
sac of the male is similar to that of the tree- 
toads. The most common species is the Hy- 
lodes martiniensis, the coqui of. the West 
Indies, noteworthy because of its being the first 
established instance of the complete metamor- 
phosis of the young frog before leaving the- 
egg. 

LEAF-HOPPER, any member of the 
family Jassid@, which includes a very large 
number of small bugs greatly varying in form 
and often grotesque. They are especially nu- 
merous in grass and grain, which they are be- 
lieved to injure to a'greater extent than .is usually 
supposed. Among the best-known species is the 
grape-vine leaf-hopper (Erythroneura vitis), 
which is often so abundant in vineyards that 
the leaves may~turn brown from the insects’ 
punctures. They have been effectively caught 
by tapping the vines to make the insects jump 
against a screen smeared with tar or a fan 
similarly covered and kept in constant motion 
close to the vines. This species is: sometimes 
erroneously. called. “thrips. (q.v.). . Among the 
best known of the grass-feeding host of species 
is the destructive leaf-hopper (Cicadula or Li- 
motettix exitosa). This is sometimes caught in 
wide pans covered with tar and dragged across 
the field. 


LEAF-INSECT, or WALKING LEAF, 
tropical species of. the family Phasmide, which 
is represented in, temperate climates by the 
walking-stick (q.v.).. They are so called be- 
cause of the remarkable resemblance of. their 
wings to leaves, not only in color but also in 
the arrangement of the veins, etc. so that the 
natives believe that the insects are really leaves 
which have acquired organs of locomotion, di- 
gestion, etc. Their legs also look more or less - 
like twigs, and their eggs, which are dropped 
upon the ground from the foliage where the 
insects feed, look very much like seeds. When 
leaf. food fails these insects eat one another’s 
wings. This likeness is of. use asa protection 
from enemies. See Mimicry IN ANIMALS. 


LEAF-MINER, any insect of the super- 
family Tineoidea, which comprises several fam- 
ilies of very small moths, most of whose larve 
feed upon the soft tissues (parenchyma) of 
leaves and green stems beneath the epidermis, 
sometimes eating away rounded passages and 
sometimes long serpentine paths. More than 
4,000 species have been described, of- which 
fully 1,000 are American. The adults are often 
remarkably beautiful, exhibiting under the mi- 
croscope a covering of lustrous scales. Among 
the plants that these insects attack injuriously 
are oaks, pines, maples and palmettos. Some 
of the leaf-feeding species have developed the 
habit of feeding during their later larval days 
upon the outside of the leaf, either fully ex- 
posed or in a protective case. Others have as- 
sumed root- and seed-feeding habits; still 
others have become twig-borers and gall-form- 
ers. Some of the related species live’ upon ani- 
mal skins, fur, wool, etc. (See CLoTHEs- 
MorH). A few flies of the families An- 
thomytide and Oscinide are leaf-miners, as 


176 


are also some leaf-beetles of the family His- 
pim and some sawflies of the family Ten- 
thredimde@.. Consult. Comstock, J. H. and A. 
B.,, “Manual for the Study of Insects? (8th ed., 
Ithaca, N. Y., 1909); Sharp, ‘Cambridge Nat- 
ural History? (Vol. VI, London 1901). 
LEAF-MONKEY, an Anglo-Indian name 
for a langur (q.v.). 
LEAF-NOSED BATS, a general term 
for such bats as have on the snout upright leaf- 
like growths of highly sensitive membrane 
which is presumably of great assistance to 
them in making their way about-in darkness 
and in finding and ‘taking their insect-prey. 
(See BAT). These folds of skin are, naturally 
enough, called the nose-leaf, and may be com- 
paratively small’and simple, or so large as to 
forma grotesque mask, such as gives so ex- 
traordinary appéarance to the horse-shoe and 
other leaf-nosed bats of the family Rhino- 
lophide, and to the “false vampires” of the 
family Nycteride. North American bats show 
very little of this peculiarity. These compli- 
cated membranes are always fringed with long 
fine hairs, which serve the purpose of the tactile 
whiskers of cats, and the bats possessing this 
feature are more thoroughly nocturnal than 
those in which it is lacking or little developed. 


LEAF-ROLLER, LEAF-TYER, or 
LEAF-SEWER, a small moth, in most cases 
one of the family Toriricide, whose caterpillar 
rolls a leaf or a part of a leaf into a case, ty- 
ing it into a cylindrical case with silken bands 
‘and lining this case with silk, so as to form a 
sort.of cocoon in which it may transform safely 
into the pupa stage. In some cases the nest is 
formed by fastening together several leaves. 
“In most cases,” says Comstock, “the building 
of the nest is the work of a single larva, but in 
very many instances several larve work to build 
a common nest.” Each species makes its nest 
of a particular form, and infests some special 
kind of plant or tree, and many do considerable 
“gnjury, especially among -greenhouse plants and 
orchard trees. 


LEAF-TYER. See LEAF-ROLLER. 


LEAGUE, lég, a measure of length vary- 
ing in different countries. The word is sup- 
posed to be of Celtic origin, but it has been in- 
troduced into the modern languages of Latin 
origin through the Latin leuca. The Romans 
derived it from the Gauls. It was brought to 
England by the Normans and at that time 
(1066) equalled 2.9 modern English miles. The 
Roman league was. equal to 1,500 paces, each of 
5. feet, or 1.376 modern English miles, The 
English land league is 3 statute miles and 
the nautical league 3. equatorial miles, or 
. 3.457875 statute miles. The Italian league is 
reckoned as equal to 4 miles, each of 5,000 
feet. The Spanish league varies very much 
according to the locality. On the modern 
Spanish, roads the league is estimated at 8,000 
varas, or 7,416 English yards. The Portuguese 
league ‘was. equal to 3.84 English miles. In the 
old French measures the length of the league 
was different in every district, but the three 
principal leagues were the.legal or posting 
league; equal to rather less than 2% English 
miles, the marine league somewhat more than 
314. English miles: and the astronomical league 
equal to about 234. English miles. The metric 


LEAF-MONKEY — LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL 


league is reckoned as equal to 4 kilometres 
(2.49 miles). At present the league’‘is- a 
nautical measure equal to the 20th part of a 
degree, that is, 3 geographical. miles, or 3.657 
statute miles. 


LEAGUE, | political connections | arniek 
have been called alliances since the French lan- 
guage has become the diplomatic language of 
Europe. Among these are the League of Cam- 
brai, formed in 1508 between Louis XII, king 
of France, the German Emperor Maximilian 
and Ferdinand of Spain, for the purpose of 
humbling the republic of Venice, and which 
was joined in 1509 by Pope Julius id pager 0° 
league was dissolved in 1510, as many similar 
ones have been, in consequence of mutual dis- 
trust, and was succeeded in 1511 by the liga 
santa, or holy league, between the Pope, Maxi- 
milian, Ferdinand and Venice. The object of 
this was to compel Louis XII, whose allies had 
now become his enemies, to renounce his con- 
quests in Italy; which object. was. gained, 
Thirty years afterward a holy league was 
formed in Germany. When the principal Prot- 
estant princes in Germany united in 1530, and 
again in greater numbers in 1536, to form the 
union of Schmalkalden, in order to protect 
their common faith and withstand the Emperor 
Charles V, the Roman Catholic princes assem- 
bled at Nuremberg, in 1538, to take measures 
for the support of their own faith and to op- 
pose the designs of the Protestant princes; and 
as their league had the protection of the Roman 
Catholic Church for its object, they termed it 
the holy league.° A fourth league ‘was headed 
by Henry, Duke of Guise, in 1576, against Henry 
III of France. Its ostensible object was the sup- 
port of the Roman Catholic religion, whence it 
was called the Catholic League: There was a 
fifth league in Germany in’ the 17th century 
known as the Holy League. 


See | 


LEAGUE AND COVENANT. 
CovENANTERS: te 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS. See Wak; 


EUROPEAN — PEACE TREATIES. 


LEAGUE OF THE PRINCES, a lediave 
formed under the leadership of Frederick the 
Great, 12 July 1785, between. Prussia, Han- 
over and the electorate of Saxony against 
Emperor Joseph II of Austria, for the purpose 
of defeating Austria’s project ‘of annexing Ba- 
varia, giving in exchange Belgium.’ The league 
was afterward joined by ‘Brunswick, Mainz. 
Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Mecklenburg, Anhalt and 
the Thuringian Lands. — It accomplished its 
purpose and continued its existence until the 
death of Frederick the Great, when it was dis- 
solved as no longer necessary. 


LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL, a 
union of powerful French nobles under the 
leadership of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
gundy, against Louis XI for the purpose of re 
gaining their old feudal rights which had been 
largely usurped by the king. The league’s vic- 
tory at Montlhéry, 16 July 1465, resulted in’ the 
signing of the Treaty of’ Conflans, in’ which 
Louis was forced to concede the demands of 
the nobles. Subsequently, however, ‘Louis suc- 
ceeded in dealing individually with the mem- 
bers of the league with the result of re-estab- 
lishing the power of the throne over that of 
the feudal chiefs. 


LEAHY — LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE 177 


LEAHY, lé’hi, William Augustine, Amer- 
ican author: b. Boston, 18 July 1867. He was 
graduated from Harvard in 1888, was literary 
editor of the Boston Traveller in 1893-94, then 
entered general. literary work and contributed 
verse and, short stories to magazines: From 
1902 he was secretary to the music department 
of the city of Boston, until 1910, when he be- 
came secretary to the mayor of Boston 1910-12. 
His works are ‘The Siege of Syracuse? (1889); 
- “The Incendiary? (1896), which obtained a 
prize offered. by the Chicago Record; and a 
‘History of the Catholic Church in. New Eng- 
land? (1899). 


_. LEAKE, Sim John, English admiral: b. 
Rotherhithe, 1656; d. Greenwich, 21 Aug. 1720. 
He entered the navy and in 1673 was serving 
under his father on board the Royal Prince. 
He became commander of the Firedrake in 
1688. and served under Admiral Herbert 
inthe action. off Bantry Bay, 1 May 1689. 
His achievement of setting fire to the French 
ship Diamant in that action secured his pro- 
motion to the command of the Dartmouth with 
40 guns. He convoyed supply ships to London- 


derry with the Dartmouth and succeeded in_ 


raising the siege.. He commanded the 70-gun 
Eagle in the battle of Balfour, 19 May, 1692, 
and in 1701 he was appointed governor and 
commander-in-chief at Newfoundland. He 
achieved the purpose for which he was sent 
out, the destruction of the French fishing 
fleets and settlements on that coast, and upon 
his return to England was promoted rear-ad- 
miral. of the fleet. In 1702 he was knighted 
and promoted vice-admiral. He _ relieved 
Gibraltar in 1704 and again in 1705. He was 
made vice-admiral of the white in 1704. In 
1706: he«risked disobedience to orders and suc- 
ceeded in relieving Barcelona, but the wisdom 
of his action was so'clear that he received no 
reprimand. Later in the year he secured the 
surrender of Cartagena, Alicante, Majorca and 
Iviza and upon his’ return to Portsmouth he 
was presented by the queen with a present of 


£1,000. » He became admiral of the white and’ 


commander-in-chief. of. the Mediterranean -in 
1707 and captured a large fleet of the enemy’s 
victualers' with which he averted the famine 
which threatened Barcelona as a result of the 
French victory at Almanza. He later partici- 
pated. in the reduction of Sardinia and Minorca 
and.in 1709 he became rear-admiral of Great 
Britain.. He was appointed one of the lords 
of the admiralty in 1709, acting as chairman 
of the board... He was member of Parliament 
from Rochester in 1708-14.. Upon the. death 
of Queen Anne his appointments and patents 
expired and he, was retired. on a pension of 
£600. Consult Leake, S. M., ‘Life of Sir John 
Leake? (1750) ;, Campbell, ‘Lives of the Ad- 
-mirals? (Vol. TIT). 


LEAKE, 1ék, William Martin, English 
archeologist and topographer: be London, 14 
Jan:.1777;' d., Brighton, 6, Jan. 1860. An officer 
in the West Indian: service (1794-98) and ar- 
tillery instructor! at ‘Constantinople in early life, 
he, later traveled in the East and. was engaged 
in; surveys,.and. diplomatic, business: for the 
British... government, in. Greece (1805-09). 
Among. his. publications are ‘Researches. in 
Greece’, (1814); ‘Topography of Athens? 
(1821), a learned and still valuable work; 


VOL. 17 —12 


*® 


‘Historical Outline of the Greek Revolution? 
(1826) ; ‘Travels in Northern Greece? (1835) ; 
“Peloponnesia» . (1846). Consult Marsden, 
‘Brief Memoir of the Life and Writings of 
W. M. Leake? (1864). 

LEAMINGTON, Canada, village in Essex 
County, ‘Ontario, on Lake Erie and on the 
Michigan Central and Pére Marquette | rail- 
roads, 30 miles southeast of Windsor.’ The vil- 
lage has connection with Windsor by electric 


railroad and there is steamship connection with: 


Pelee Island. It has trade in country produce, 
lumber and tobacco and its industries include 
canning, sash and blinds and tobacco factories. 
Pop. (1921) 3,675. 

LEAMINGTON, or LEAMINGTON 
PRIORS, England, fashionable health resort 
in Warwickshire, on the river Leam near its 
junction with the Avon, 98 miles northwest of 
London, on the Great Western and London and 
Northwestern railroads. The town owes its 
importance to its springs of mineral waters, 
saline, sulphurous ‘and chalybeate. There are 
baths and a fine building houses the pump- 
rooms. The town is modern, dating its growth 
from the erection of the. baths about 1786. | Its 
population in 1811 was only 543 and it was not 
incorporated until 1875. In 1838 it received a 
royal license to call itself Royal Leamington 
Spa, but the name never became popular. There 
are several important schools, a college, a 
handsome town-hall which houses an art. gal- 
lery and public library, the South Warwick- 
shire Hospital and Midland Counties Home 
for Incurables. and extensive public. gardens 
and parks. Leamington and Warwick, two 
miles distant, have from 1885 formed a con- 
stituency sending one member to Parliament. 
Aside from its business as a health resort the 
town has iron foundries and brickworks. Pop. 
26,713. 4 

LEANDER, Saint, bishop of Seville: b. 
Cartagena, 534 or 550; d. Seville, 13.. March 
600 or 601. He early entered a Benedictine 
monastery and afterward founded. a_ school 
which became famous. He converted Prince 
Hermenegild, eldest son. of the Gothic King 
Leovigild, to Catholicism and was exiled. He 
spent the years 579-82 in Byzantine where he 
gained the friendship of the future Pope 
Gregory the Great, with whom he afterward 
maintained a correspondence. He returned to 
Seville and about 584 was created bishop... He 
converted Reccared, second son and successor 
of Leovigild, and succeeded in securing Visi- 
gothic’s Spain’s rejection of Arianism ‘for the 
Roman Catholic faith. Pope Gregory dedicated 
to ‘him his ‘Moralia in Jobum” and in 599 sent 
him the pallium. 

LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE, before 
1906 known as WESTERN COLLEGE, is located 
at Toledo, Iowa. It was founded by the Iowa 
Conference of the United Brethren in Christ; 
was incorporated in 1856; and was opened to 
students in 1857. It was first located at West- 
ern, Linn County, but was moved to Toledo in 
1881. In 1889 the main building was destroyed 
by fire, but was immediately rebuilt. The 
board of trustees consists of representatives 
of the alumni and of five conferences of the 
United Brethren and three members-at-large. 
The college is open to men and. women on 
equal terms, Two regular college courses are 


178 LEANDER AND 


offered, the classical and the scientific, and the 
degrees of A.B. and B.S. are conferred: Both 
courses are almost entirely elective in the last 
two years, the list of electives differing in the 
two courses. In addition to the collegiate de- 
partment, there are the Academic or Prepara- 
tory School, the Conservatory of Music, the 
College of Commerce, the School of Elocu- 
tion and Oratory and the Department of Art. 
Graduates from the collegiate courses are ad- 
mitted to the senior year of Yale, Chicago and 
Smith without examination. The buildings in- 
clude the main building, the Bright Conserva- 
tory of Music, Mary Beatly Hall (the dormi- 
tory for young women), Drury Hall (the 
young men’ss dormitory) and the College 
Church. The faculty. number 16 instructors; 
the average annual attendance of students is 
240; tuition fees amount to $65; living ex- 
penses, board, etc., $162% productive funds are 
$203,000; income,. including tuition and_ inci- 
dental charges, $21,663; the graduates since or- 
ganization number 617. The library contains 
7,900. volumes. 


LEANDER AND HERO. See Hero. 


LEANDER McCORMICK OBSERVA- 
TORY. The Leander McCormick Observa- 
tory of the University of Virginia owes its 
origin to the generosity of the late Leander J. 
McCormick of Chicago. The chief instrument 
is the 26-inch refractor, both lens and mount- 
ing the work of Alvan Clark and Sons. The 
lens when finished was the largest in the world 
and it was regarded by Alvan G. Clark to be 
his masterpiece. While testing it, before its 
erection at the University of Virgina, the star 
tT Cygni was discovered to be a double. The 
observatory was opened in 1882. The first di- 
rector was Ormond Stone. The work under 
his direction was entirely visual and investiga- 
tions were carried out along the following 
lines: A study of the Orion nebula, ‘a search 
for southern nebule, micrometer measures of 
double stars, satellites and comets, photometric 
work by means of a wedge and observations 
of long period variables by the Argelander 
method. S. A. Mitchell succeeded Professor 
Stone in 1913. A double-slide plate holder was 
attached to the eye end of the telescope and 
photographic work was undertaken, using a 
color filter and isochromatic plates. The chief 
work at present is the determination of the 
parallaxes of the fixed stars by means of pho- 
tography. The parallaxes of 125 stars were 
found as the result of two and a half years’ 
work. Photographic work is also done_ by 
placing a wire grating in front of the objec- 
tive. This work is for the purpose of deter- 
mining the photovisual magnitudes of the Har- 


vard standard regions and is being carried onin 
co-operation with Harvard College Observa- 
tory. The McCormick Observatory is the head- 
quarters of the American Meteor Society. In 
1916 more than 10,000 observations on meteors 
or shooting stars were made in the United 
States and Canada, and largely by amateur as- 
tronomers. These observations are sent to the 
McCormick Observatory. and are discussed by 
Dr. Charles P. Olivier and the results pub- 
lished.. The work on long period variables has 
been continued. On account of the large aper- 
ture (26-inch) stars are visible near their min- 
ima and when they are invisible to the tele- 


HERO — LEAR 


scope at Harvard and to the smaller telescopes 
used by the American Association of’ Variable 
Star Observers. Micrometer work on doubles, 
etc., has likewise been continued. There are 
three fellowships available for graduate ‘stu- 
dents who wish to continue work for the de- 
gree of: doctor of philosophy. The income of 
the observatory is derived from appropriations 
by the University of Virginia, by gifts from 
the Leander’ McCormick éstate and from Mr. 
Edward D. Adams of New York and by small 
grants from the National Academy of Sci- 
ences for meteor research. ~ ~ 


LEANDRE, 18‘an’dr’, Charles Lucien, 
French caricaturist and painter: b. Champse- 
cret, Orne, 1862. He studied under Bin and 
Cabanel and made his first exhibition at the 
Salon tn 1887. He specialized in portraits and 
genre painting and was also a teacher of draw- 
ing until 1894 when he began the publication in 
La Rire of the drawings and’ caricatures 
which made him famous. He was also con- 
nected with Le Figaro and other journals. His 


portraits in pastels constitute a considerable 


success in another branch of art and his litho- 
graphic work is ranked as exceptional. He il- 
lustrated Rostand’s' ‘Cyrano. de Bergerac? 
(1900); and Murger’s ‘Vie de Bohéme? 
(1903). Among his posters may be mentioned 
“Yvette Guilbert?; ‘Les nouveaux mariés?; 
‘Joseph Prudhomme’; ‘Les Lutteurs? ;\ and 
‘La Femme au chien. He published a series 
of albums; ‘Nocturnes?: ‘Le Musée des 
souverains? ; ‘Paris et la province. _ He was 
eee a chevalier in the Legion of ease in 
190 


LEANING TOWER. See Pisa. 


LEAP YEAR, the name given in Great 
Britain to every year of 366 days: The length 
of the year is a little less than 365% days. Ju- 
lius Cesar, in reforming the calendar, ar- 
ranged that in every fourth year: February 
should have 29 days instead of 28, and that two 
days should be called by the same name. The 
day whose name was repeated was, according 
to the Roman method of reckoning, the sixth 
before the calends of March, that is, the 24th 
February, and the year in which this name: was 
given to two successive days was named bissex- 
tile (bis, twice; sextus; sixth). The name leap 
year is perhaps due to the notion that the cal- 
endar takes a leap of one day every fourth 
year to make up for its ordinary year being 
one-fourth day too short.. Every year is a leap © 
year which is divisible by four without re- 
mainder, except the concluding years of cen- 
turies, every fourth only of which is a leap 
year; thus the years 1800 and 1900 are not 
leap years, but 2000 and 2400 are. 


LEAR, lér, Edward, English author and 
artist: b. London, 12 May 1812; d. San Remo, 
29 Jan. 1888. In 1831 he became draftsman to 
the London Yoological Society. His illustra- 
tions of the ‘Family of the Psittacide?. (1832) 
was followed by ‘many other illustrations for 


zoological works by Gould, Bell, Swainson, Jar- 


dine and Gray. In 1837 he visited Italy and the 
East and in those parts spent most of his 
remaining days, chiefly occupied with land- 
scape painting. He exhibited ‘Dead Birds? in 
1836 and in 1850 was represented at the Royal 
Academy exhibition by ‘Claude Lorraine’s 


LEAR — LEARNED LADIES 


House on the Tiber.» As an author he is best 
known by his ‘Book of Nonsense? (1846) ; 
‘Nonsense Songs and Stories” (1871); ‘More 
Nonsense Songs, etc. (1872); and ‘Laugh- 
able Lyrics? (1877). He also wrote ‘Views in 
Rome and its Environs»? (1841); ‘Illustrated 
Excursions in Italy? (1846); ‘Journal of a 
Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania’ 
(1851); ‘Journal of a Landscape Painter in 


Southern Calabria? (1852); ‘Views in the 
Seven Ionian Islands? (1863); and ‘Journal 
of a Landscape Painter in Corsica? (18/0). 


Tennyson’s verses ‘To E. L. on his Travels in 
Greece? were addressed to Lear. 


LEAR, Tobias, American diplomatist: b. 
Portsmouth, N. H., 1762; d. Washington, 
D. C., 11 Oct. 1816. He was graduated at Har- 
vard in 1783 and in 1785 became private sec- 
retary to General Washington, to whose domes- 
tic affairs he attended for several years, and by 
whom, in his will, Lear was most liberally re- 
membered. In 1802 he was consul-general at 
San Domingo and afterward consul-general at 
Algiers and commissioner to conclude a peace 
with Tripoli. He discharged this last duty in 
1805 in a manner which gave offense in certain 
quarters, but his conduct was approved by the 
Federal government. He returned shortly after 
to the United States. 


LEAR OF THE STEPPES, A (‘Stepnoy 
Korol’ Lir’). A number of Turgenev’s friends. 
in 1870, were giving reminiscences of Shake- 
spearean characters whom they had met in life. 
Turgenev gave his story of the Russian King 
Lear, in which he meant to depict the elemental 
passions, as found in the rude Russian sur- 
roundings. Tall, awkward, harsh Kharlov, a 
landed proprietor, who in reality possesses the 
soul of a simple-minded child, has two daugh- 
ters, who slavishly execute his will, but are 
waiting for his death. Having had an ominous 
dream about death, he makes his property over 
to his daughters. Immediately they turn him 
out of his home, and when a street urchin 
taunts him with his homelessness, he is seized 
with the passion for revenge. He ascends the 
roof of his house, and with his gigantic strength 
pulls it to pieces, until he falls dead among the 
ruins. The younger daughter is seized with 
_ remorse and joins the dissenters, among whom, 
through her imperious manner, she assumes a 
leading position. The elder sister grows pros- 
perous as a landlady. Where, then, is the po- 
etic justice? Has she deserved her good luck? 
To this question Turgenev gives the significant 
answer that everything in the world, both the 
good and the bad, takes place according to a 
logical law, which man cannot comprehend, 
but which he (Turgenev) seems dimly to grasp. 

Leo WIENER. 


LEARNED, ar’néd, Marion Dexter, 
American educator: b. near Dover, Del., 10 July 
1857; d. 1 Aug. 1917. Graduated from Dickin- 
son College, 1880, he studied in Germany in 1885 
and received his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity in 1887. He was instructor in lan- 
guages at Dickinson Seminary in 1880-84 and 
in 1886-95 he was first instructor, then associ- 
ate professor and professor of German at 
Johns Hopkins. In 1895 he became pro- 
fessor of German in the University of Penn- 
sylvania. He edited Americana Germama, 
later German.American Annals, from 1897 and 


179 


was organizer and director of the American 
Ethnographic Survey. Besides numerous con- 
tributions to periodicals he wrote ‘The 
Pennsylvania German Dialect? (1889); ‘Ger- 
man. Diaries of the American Revolution 
(1902-05) ; ‘The Family of Abraham Lincoln? 
(1909) ; “Guide to the MS. Sources of Amer- 
ape in the German State Archives? 


LEARNED LADIES, The (‘Les Femmes 
Savantes? ), one of the most readable, vivacious 
and often acted comedies of Moliére, was first 
produced 11 March 1672 and published in 1673. 
The theme is related to that of ‘Les Pré- 
cieuses Ridicules,? but is not the same. The at- 
tack there was on literary pretense in a pass- 
ing vagary of fashionable speech; here it deals 
with perennial springs of affectation and ped- 
antry. The play has a close modern counter- 
part in Pailleron’s ‘Le monde ou 1’on s’ennuie.? 
Its lively raillery at abiding social foibles, 
ebullient good humor and savory common- 
sense gave it lasting hold on the stage. It owed 
immediate success; however, in part to its 
hardly disguised portraiture of Abbé Cotin, a 
dilettant literateur, in the character of Trisso- 
tin, “Thrice-fool,Y>. as a contemporary inter- 
prets the name, which Moliére had altered 
from the too-recognizable Tri-cotin. Whether 
Vadius, the pretentious pedant of the play, is 
meant for Boileau’s aversion Ménage is dis- 
puted. Ménage had at least the wit to recog- 
nize no resemblance. Around Trissotin the 
whole action revolves. Indeed, Madame de 
Sévigné called the play by his name. The 
question is whether he shall receive the hand 
of the very engaging Henriette or whether it 
shall. go with her heart to Clitandre, a fine 
young fellow with less affectation to learning. 
But, throughout, the interest is almost wholly 
in portrayal of character and in the satire of 
the literary pedantry and affectation which are 
developed in that contest. Henriette knows 
her own mind and heart, she lacks neither tact 
nor resource, but she is a dutiful daughter of 
her time, country and station. For Trissotin 
is her mother, Philaminte, masterful in the 
home and bent on forming a circle of arbiters 
of taste so that “none shall have wit but our- 
selves and our friends.” With her is Henri- 
ette’s aunt Bélise, a sentimental pedant bor- 
rowed with little change from .Desmaret’s 
€Visionnaires,? and her elder sister Armande, 
an acidulated pedant with a personal grudge 
against Clitandre. On the other side is her 


father, Chrysale, acted by Moliére, an exceed- 
ingly acute study of a man of good sense, good 
nature but weak character, starting with right 
impulses, but soon thinking to compromise, and 
discovering that he has surrendered. Ariste 
supports Chrysale’s better judgment with 
commonsense, and Martine, the cook, with de- 
licious peasant shrewdness and wit. Legend 
says the part was studied from Moliére’s own 
cook who acted herself in it. Trissotin is at 
last tricked into revealing that he cares more 
for Henriette’s dowry tn for herself, and 
Clitandre wins the prize. The best remem- 
bered scenes of the play are concerned with a 
sonnet ‘To the Princess Urania on her Fever? 
and an epigram, both taken bodily from Abbé 
Cotin’s ‘G£uvres galantes,” published in 1663. 
Cotin had fatuously called himself Father of 


180 LEARNING IN ANIMALS — LEAST ACTION 


the French Enigma and had described his 
monogram, two C’s facing one another, as 
“forming a circle that, in a sense hardly mys- 
tic, indicates the circumference of the world 
to be filled by my works» These two pieces, 
at least, have come near to fulfilling the proph- 
ecy.. Abbé Cotin is remembered for them 
alone. “Les Femmes Savantes» is best edited 
with pertinent comment by Mesnard in Vol. IX, 
and by Moland in Vol. XI of their editions of 
Moliére. There are editions with English 
notes by Alcée Fortier (Boston 1902) and 
others, and translations by H. Van,Laun (Ed- 
inburgh 1875) and C. H. Page (New York 
1908). ; 
BENJAMIN W. WELLS. 


LEARNING IN ANIMALS. See ANI- 
MAL PsycHOoLoGy; EYESIGHT. IN THE LOWER 
ANIMALS. ; 


LEARY, Richard Phillips, American na- 
val officer: b. Baltimore, 3 Nov. 1842; d. Bos- 
ton, 27 Dec. 1901. He was graduated at the 
United States Naval Academy in 1860; served 
during the blockade of Charleston 1863-65; 
promoted commander in 1882. During the 
Samoan revolution in 1888 he was the senior 
naval officer present at the critical moment. 
He was promoted captain in April 1897; com- 
manded the cruiser San Francisco in 1897-98 ; 
and when the New Orleans was purchased 
from Brazil convoyed that vessel to the United 
States. At the close of the Spanish-American 


.-War he was appointed the first American gov- 


ernor of Guam and. served there till relieved, 
on his own request, in April 1900. 


LEASE, a species of contract granting the 
possession of lands, tenements, or incorporeal 
hereditaments, for life or a limited term of 
years, or during the pleasure of the contracting 
parties. The grantor is called the lessor and 
the grantee the lessee. A’ lease may be in writ- 
ing or by parol, but the former is more satis- 
factory, as it usually sets out in regular form 
and binding terms the respective rights of the 
contracting parties. In many of the states of the 
Union the statutes require that leases for more 
than one year be in writing. A lease contract 
establishes the relation of landlord and tenant 
between the lessor and lessee, unless its terms 
limit the relation of the parties. A lessor who 
holds an estate for years only may under-lease 
in such a manner as to establish a technical re- 
lation of landlord’ and tenant between the 
owner of the fee and the lessee. One of the 
essential requisites of a lease is that its dura- 
tion must be: for a shorter period than the 
duration of the interest of the lessor in the 
property leased; for if the holder of an interest 
less than that of a fee leases his interest for 
the full term of its-continuance it would be in 
effect an assignment or sale of his interest and 
in no sense a lease. In a lease proper, the 
lessor reserves to himself a reversionary inter- 
est in the property included in the lease. The 
beginning and termination of which are to be 
determined. by the: agreement of the parties. 
This agreement mustilso include a designation 
of, the premises, estate: or interest intended to 
pass to the lessee... A. term, however, is per- 
fected only by the entry of the lessee: Even 
after the, making of a lease the estate remains 
in the lessor up to such time as the lessee actu- 
ally enters into possession, and the only right 


fit) 


the lessee has in the estate is that of making 
an entry, which must be exercised to give him 
the additional rights provided for in the lease. 
All persons possessed of lands or tenements, or 
interest therein, competent to do business and 
under no legal disability, as of unsound mind, 
immature age or the like, may enter into a 
lease contract. (See Estate; LANDLORD’ AND 
TENANT; REAL PROPERTY) ; and consult the au- 
thorities referred to under those heads. 


LEASE AND RELEASE, a form of con- 
veyance used in England forthe transfer of 
ownership of a freehold and reversion. It is 
said to have been devised by Sergeant Moore 
after the enactment of the statute of uses. The 
instrument is of a compound nature, consisting 
of a lease, covering the bargain and’ sale, and 
providing for a release enacted in separate 
deeds. The lease provides for the use of the 
property in question for one year upon pay- 
ment of a pecuniary consideration by the ten- 
ant; at the end of the year the tenant, being in 
possession, is capable of receiving a release of 
the freehold and its reversion, which release 
may be made the following day. This method 
of conveyance was in use in various parts of 
the United States until after the Revolution, 
when it was superseded by conveyance by bar- 
gain and sale, and it has since been replaced by 
similar conveyances in England. | 


LEASEHOLD. A leasehold is ak estate 


held under or by virtue of a lease. An estate 


for years usually commences by means of a 
written lease. It is important to distinguish 
between a lease and an agreement to lease, the 
former being a completed. contract and the 
latter only a stipulation for the formation of a 
contract at some future time. It is often diffi- 
cult to determine to which of the two classes 
an insirument belongs, without-resorting to an 
interpretation based upon the intentions of the © 
contracting parties. If a lessee fails or re- 
fuses to enter into possession under and in ac- . 
cordance with the terms of a lease, the pos- 
session remains undisturbed in the lessor, and 
the remedy of the latter would be by an action 
for not entering into possession and for conse- 
quent damages, rather than for a breach of the 
conditions of the terms of the lease, the rela- 
tion of landlord and tenant not having been 
established before an entry under the lease. A 
person can convey by lease no greater interest 
than he possesses in an estate. If the lessor 
has only a life estate it terminates with his 
death, although he may have executed a_lease 
for a term of years not completed at the time 
of his death. The ordinary powers, duties and 
obligations of the contracting parties may be 
increased, diminished or modified by special 
provisions in a lease. Many lease contracts 
provide for all of the contingencies which can 
ordinarily happen. It is not infrequent that a 
clause in the instrument provides that the 
lessee may build upon land leased to him, and 
that he shall have the right to remove his build- 
ings at. the expiration of his term, or purchase 
the. fee. Any. provision not illegal or incon- 
sistent with public policy may be an incident of 
a leasehold. : 

LEAST ACTION, Principle of, the prin- 
ciple,’ due to Maupertuis and first definitely 
enunciated by Lagrange, that the sum for all 
the particles in a given dynamical; system of — 


LEAST SQUARES 


the space-integrals of the momenta of these 
particles as they move from a position P; to a 
position P: is in general smaller iby the actual 
route which the particles traverse than by any 
slightly different route. The sum of the in- 
tegrals, or & Smvds is called the action of the 
system, and is represented by the letter JA. 
Even when 4 is not less than any of its neigh- 
boring values, what is known as its first varia- 
tion is 0. See CaLcuLus oF VARIATIONS; MeE- 
CHANICS. 


LEAST SQUARES, Method of. <A 
mathematical process for treating the results of 
scientific observation so as to free them as far 
as possible from the effect of error. 

The familiar idea of measurements either 
regards them all as perfectly exact when made, 
or at least sufficiently near perfect exactness. 
For instance, a carpenter wishing to know the 
width of.a room simply measures with his two- 
foot rule, and notes the size Just as it) came 
from the measurement. But in scientific work, 
where the highest degree of accuracy is neces- 
sary, we must do much more than this. The 
carpenter's measurement will doubtless be cor- 
rect within an inch, and if he is a particularly 
careful workman, it will be correct within a 
fraction of an inch. But if it were necessary 
to know the width of that room within a hun- 
dredth of an inch very different processes of 
measurement and very much more. accurate 
tools would be essential. If it. were required 
to attain a degree of exactness within one 
thousandth of an inch, it might perhaps happen 
that no tools or method of measurement could 
be devised which would accomplish the desired 
result. 

It is obvious on reflection that since human 
measurements must always depend ultimately 
upon fallible human senses, ‘so there must al- 
Ways exist a_limit of. precision beyond which 
it is not possible to go. It happens almost 
always that the degree of precision required in 
scientific measurements is somewhere near this 
unattainable limit; so that it is especially in 
scientific work that we have to resort to’ some 
method adapted.to diminish as far as possible 
the harmful effects of those small errors which 
thus always result from the fallibility of human 
senses. The Method of Least Squares ‘was 
perfected for this purpose. 

It is clear from the above that this method 
is pre-eminently a practical process; it can per- 
haps be understood best by approaching it from 
the point of view. of a concrete practical exam- 
ple. For instance, it is well known that a bar 

of iron changes its length with every change of 
temperature. If the bar is heated it becomes 
longer; when cooled it becomes shorter. Now 
suppose an experimenter in a physical labora- 
tory desires to determine the effect of tempera- 
ture changes upon the length of such an iron 
bar. .What he does is extremely simple. Ap- 
paratus is provided for varying the temperature 
of the bar by alternate heating and cooling, 
and additional apparatus for measuring its 
length very accurately at various temperatures. 
At the same time some form of thermometer 
is used to make certain that we know the exact 
temperature of the bar at the various stages of 
the experiment, 

Let us introduce the following notation: 

k= length of the bar at some assumed tem- 
perature fo, 


181 


1 length of the bar at some other tempera- 
ture f¢. 

Now if we are willing to assume that the 
length varies uniformly with changes of tem- 
perature we may write, 

4 = increase in length of bar per degree of 
heating. 

We shall then have the equation, 

(1) 1I=h“4 (fh) 

The quantities appearing in this equation 
are of three kinds with respect to our knowl-- 
edge of their numerical values: 

1. Unknown quantities; viz.: x and h. 

2. A quantity known from observation, and 
therefore subject to errors _brought about by 
the fallible human senses; viz.: 1. 

3. A coefficient which we may safely assume 
to be known, with practically complete accuracy 
from the thermometer: readings; viz.: t — to. 

Let us now rewrite equation (1) in a slightly 
different form, and repeat it several times with 
subscript numbers,’ so as to distinguish equa- 
tions depending-on the successive observations 
at: various, temperatures.. We have: 


lb (= to) « —h= 0 


(2) lo (te-— to) x — how 0, 
lb+ (t— te) + —1 = 0, 
ete: $122 ete 


It is at once evident that as we have only 
two unknown quantities (Jo and +) we can com- 
pute their’numerical values from any two equa- 
tions of the group (2) by the ordinary processes 
of elimination given in elementary algebras. 
But which two ‘equations shall we sélect for 
this purpose? We might use the first two, for 
instance, or the last two, or the first equation 
and ‘the last! -If-we try the actual process 
numerically upon-a real example we generally 
find that the values of the unknowns come out 
different from the various’ combinations of | 
equations. It was not until the Method of 
Least Squares was introduced that scientific 
men had a better way of computing their ob- 


servations than the crude one of solving a great 


many different combinations and taking the 
average of the results so obtained. 

The reason for the differences thus arising 
from different combinations of equations is easy 
to find. We-+have seen that the quantities / in 
equations (1) and’ (2) are known from observa- 
tion, and therefore subject to the usual small 
unavoidable ‘observational errors. If the lI’s 
were absolutely correct, all combinations: of 
equations would give precisely the same results 
for the three unknowns. But the /’s are not 
thus absolutely correct; and, in a vety strict 
sense, the several equations numbered (2). are 
therefore inconsistent amongst themselves. Ad- 
mitting fallible numerical values of the I’s as 
actually observed, all equations of the form (2) 
cannot be exactly true simultaneously: indeed, 
it follows from the very nature of observational 
errors such as‘affect the /’s that in all probabil- 
ity no one of the equations (2) is really ab- 
solutely correct and true. 

The right-hand’ members of equations (2), 
then, should not really be zeros. It will be more 
correct to represent them by a/series of small 
quantities v, and to write equations (2) thus: 


La (t:— ty) cth= V1, 


3 ‘ Ise te ie V2, 
\ ) . I+ (ts—to) PLES Us, 
etc. etc. 


182 


Formation of Normal Equations.— It will 
be convenient at this point to introduce a change 
of notation, so as to secure greater generality, 
and at the same time avoid our somewhat 
cumbersome form, which has been employed 
simply to visualize our conceptions by fixing 
attention upon an example derived from actual 
‘practice. We shall now increase the number 
of unknown quantities from two to three, and 
designate them by the lettetrs x, y, 2; and the 
known coefficients of x, y, 2 we ‘shall designate 
by the letters a, D, c. The quantities J, observa- 
tionally known, will now be designated by n’s 
This will bring our notation into conformity 
with the usual practice of writers on Least 
Squares. Our general equation intended for 
solution thus become, from (3) 

(4) 
axtbhytoastm= v1, 
ax t bey +coe +n V2, 
asx t bey cee ns Us, 
mrt bay test ne Us; 
ete, ; etc. 


The v’s are-here simply the errors of the | 


equations, if we may be permitted the use of 
such an expression. -More accurately, they are 
the amounts by which the equations fail of sat- 
isfaction when we: substitute in them any as- 
sumed system of numerical values for the un- 
knowns +, y, 2. lf, by any process whatever, 
we obtain a system of numerical values for 
x, y, 2,and substitute those values in the left- 
hand members of equations (4), we shall ob- 
tain a series. of residual errors represented by 
the u's. The name “residual” has therefore 
been given to the w’s, for brevity. 

It is evident that if we consider two differ- 
ent. systems of numerical values for the un- 
knowns +, y, 2, and substitute both systems in 
equations (4), we shall get two different. sets 
of values for the residuals v. In fact, and in 
general, for every different system of values 
belonging to x, y, ¢ there will be a different set 
of v's: it is the province of the Method of 
Least Squares to determine which system of 
x, y, 8, and corresponding v’s is preferable. 
To do this, we make use of the following prin- 
ciple, due to Legendre: 

Of all. possible systems of values for the 
unknowns 4, y, 2, that one possesses the highest 
probability of being correct which makes the 
sum of the squares of the residuals v a mini- 
mum. 

This principle probably does not admit of 
rigorous demonstration, but it is so highly 
plausible that we are justified in adopting it 
without hesitation. This plausibility becomes 
evident when we consider that the best system 
of values. for x, y, 2 must certainly make all 
the individual residuals small. Yet it would not 
do to adopt as our principle that the sum or 
mean of the residuals should be a minimum. 
For some being ‘positive, and some negative, it 
might happen that the sum or mean would be 
made very small, while the individual v’s re- 
mained in part very large. But the squares are 
not subject to this criticism, since they are all 
positive, and are at the same time the simplest 
functions that are thus positive. 

Adopting, then, Legendre’s principle of 
Least Squares, it remains to show how we can 
use it to solve equations (4). Again following 
the notation usual with writers on this subject, 


LEAST SQUARES 


we shall employ square brackets as a symbol of 
summation, so that, for instance, the quantity 

[vv] | 
will designate the sum of the squares of all the 
v's. Then, according to Legendre’s principle, 


we must have: 
[vv] =a minimum. 


(5) 

But, according to equations (4), [vv] is a 
function of x, y, 2; and as these latter quanti- 
ties are independent, the principles of maxima 
and minima in the calculus tell us that we can 
satisfy the condition (5) by equating separately 
to zero the first partial differential coefficients 
of [vv] with respect to x, y, z. In other words, 


we have: 
d[v]  , 9 [vv 4 [wi 
(6) ox | 0, Oy. eesti 0g us 


~ Now: since: 


[vv] = vivir + ve + vss + vive + etc. 
equations (6) become: 


U1 oe + we + v3 os + etc. =0, 

(7) a ts + iar 7 ee = 0, 
es + ns tin 2 + ete. = 0. 
Now, differentiating equations (4), we hheeh 

Ov; On, Ov; 
FP ieas fF sie Oz ae 
Ove Ove Os 
10% = da, by = be, 60 C2, 
vs Ovs vs 
Fa Oh fi ed eee ‘ao == (3; 


et¢., 
so that (7) become: 


iti + Ave + as + etc.— 0, 
(8) biv1 + deve + bs + etc.—= 0, 
Ci + C22 ++ Cas + etc. 0. 


It will be noticed that the number of equa- 
tions of the form (8) is the same as the number 
of unknown quantities x, y, z, no matter how 
large may have been the number of. original 
equations of the form (4). We shall therefore 
simply substitute in equations (8) values of the 
v's from equations (4), rememberaas that, ac- 
cording to our notation: 


[aa] == aia: + a2d2 + asds + etc., 

fab] = arbi + aeb2 + asbs + efc., 

[ac] = aici + Gece + aacs + etc., 
8tc,; etc. 


and thus obtain the following equations: 


[aa]x + [ably + [ac]z + [an] = 0, 
(9) [ad]x + [bb]y + [bc]z + [bn} —0, 
[ac]x + [bc]y + [cc]lz + [cn] = 0. 


Equations (9) are called “Normal Equa- 
tions.» As we have just seen, their number is 
always equal to the number of unknown quan- 
tities, and their solution by elimination offers 
no ambiguity. Furthermore, owing to_ the 
method by which they have been deduced, it is 
clear that they will furnish for the unknowns 
x, y, 2 a system of numerical values, which, 
when substituted in the original equations, (4), 
will make the sum of the squares of the re- 
sidual errors less than would be the case with 
any other possible system of numerical values 


LEAST SQUARES 


for the unknowns, no matter how much other 
system might have been. obtained. 

If. we now.compare the above normal equa- 
tions (9) with the original equations (4), which 
are usually called “observation. equations,» we 
see at once the law of formation of (9) from 
(4). It is evident that to form the normal 
equations we may use the following simple rule, 
first writing zeros instead of v's for the right- 
hand members of equations (4). 

Rule for Normal Equations.— To form 
the first normal equation, multiply each obser- 
vation equation throughout by the coefficient 
of its x, and then add the resulting equations. 
To form the next normal, use in the same way 
the coefficients of y; and for the third nor- 
mal, use the coefficients of 2. 

The normal equations once formed, they 
can be solved by any method of algebraic elimi- 
nation; but it is generally most convenient to 
use the following special form of computation, 
due to Gauss. 

From, the first equation (9) we have: 

[ab] [ac] [an] 
— —=g— —., 
[aa] [aa] 

If we substitute this value of x in the other 
two normal equations (9) we shall eliminate +x. 
This substitution. canbe systematized by the 
ifitroduction of auxiliary quantities ‘[bb. 1]; 
[bc. 1],-etc., defined by the following equations: 


[bb. 1] — [08] ae (ab) 
foe. 1) = t6q — a, 
fad} 


(10) lon. 1] = [on] — “"fanl, 


[ec. 1] = [cc] — 5 [ac], 


[on. 1) = [cn] — ech n). 


Using these auxiliaries, the substitution of 
the above value of 4 gives: 

[bb. 1]y.+ [bc. 1]z + [dn. 1] = 0, 
(11) [bc. 1]y + [cc. 1]z + [cn. 1] = 0. 

These equations, while precisely similar in 
form to the original normal equations. (9), now 
involve one less unknown quantity, and their 
number has been reduced. from three to two. 
A second application of the same method of 
elimination gives the following “second” auxil- 


iaries: 1 

ices FS pes mt ao Ibe. 1}. 
(12) ) 

[cn.. 2) = [cn J — 7 Te i [bn. 1], 


and the equation: 


(13) [cc. 2]2+[cn,.2] =0. ) 
From this equation. (13), we have for: the 
value of z ee 
cn. 
(14) (ee. 2) 


We now find the value of y by substituting 
this value of.z in either of the equations (11) ; 
and x by substituting the values of y and g in 
any one of the normal equations (9). 

Case of a Single Unknown.— It is of spe- 
cial interest to consider the application of the 
Method of Least Squares when there is only a 


183 


single unknown quantity, directly observed. An 
example of this, for instance, would be our 
measurement; of a room, where the only un- 
known is the width of the room, and several 
independent direct observations have been 
made. 

Denoting the single. unknown quantity by +x, 
the observation equations of the form (4) will 


be: 

Tn 
i N2— V2, 
x + ns = v2, 
eth ni = th, 


cree. 


and if we suppose there are in all m such ob- 
servation equations, the “rule for normal equa- 
tions” gives a single normal equation of the 
form: 

(16) MX eee 

and this will be the only normal equation. | 
solution is: 


(17) os 


or, in other words, the most probable value of 
x is the arithmetical mean of the several ob- 
served values represented by the n’s. This is a 
further strong addition to the evidence of plau- 
sibility attaching to Legendre’s theorem of Least 
Squares. Possibly no other simple admissible 
theorem as to the residuals would give this re- 
sult for a single unknown, observed directly ; 
yet this result is the only one consistent with 
common sense. 

Actual, Mean and “Probable” Errors.— 
The values obtained for. the unknowns by the 
Method of Least Squares are not the true 
values, but only the most probable values ob- 
tainable under the circumstances. They -are 
subject to error; and we shall here consider 
three different quantities technically known as 
errors» 

1. The actual error, defined as the diver- 
gence from the truth, and designated’ by the 
symbol A, 

2. The mean error, defined as an error of 
such magnitude that its square is the mean of - 
the squares of all the actual errors A. belong- 


(15) 


The 


nN 


bt 


ing to the several, observations. It is desig- 
nated by the symbol «. If there are m A\’s, 
(18) fe LAA], 

m 


3. The probable error, whose magnitude is 
such, that it is an even chance. whether any 
random actual error A belonging to any ob- 
servation is bigger or smaller than the prob- 
able .error... It is designated by .r. 

To determine the value of © for the case of 
a single unknown x, observed m times, we pro- 
ceed as follows. Let: 

xo== the arithmetical mean of the observed 
yalnes of 'the unknown 4x, equation (17). 
ao-+q:ithe unknown and. unknowable true 
value ofex. 

Then, as we have seen, +o is the most prob- 
able value of x, according to the Method of 
Least Squares, and [vv] will be a minimum if 
we substitute that value of + in equations (15). 
This substitution gives: 

Xo + Mm = U1, 

Xo + Ne == V2, 

Xo + Ns == Us, 
etc. 


184 


But if, instead of ro, we substituted the true 
quantity xo+ q, we should get a series of true 


errors “A, instead of the residuals v. This 
would give: 
cot gtn = Ai 
xotgqtm= Az, 
xotqtns= As, 
etc. 


A subtraction between these last two sets of 
equations gives: 


Nos wtq, 
(19) A2= vt, 
As ustq, 


and there will be m such equations. Squaring 


and adding them gives: 
[AA] = {vv] +mq’+2[v] q 


But, from the principle of the arithmetical 


mean, 
[v]=0, 
so that: 
(20) [AA] = [vv] ma’. 
From the equation of definition (18) : 

[AA] =mee; 

so: that, roa 
vv 

(21) . bo cag + q?. 


Now, the value of g*® can never be known; 
but we can get an approximation to it easily 
enough. It can be shown by the theory of 
probabilities that if we continue observing any 
quantity, the mean error of the arithmetical 
mean of the observed values will decrease in 
proportion to. the square root of the number 
of observations. 

To demonstrate this principle, hy us con- 
sider : 


Two observed quantities, N1, Ne, 
affected with actual errors, A, Az, 


and mean errors, 1 €2, 
Now let N be the sum of m and ms or: 
N>=m + nz, 


idk designate by A’ and ¢’ the actual and mean 
errors of N. We shall have: 


Seo a A23 
and squaring this 2quation: 


A’ A’ =n Anh L2 Aatt 2 As noe 


If k observations have been made to deter- 
mine m; and nz the above becomes by summa- 


tion: 
[A’ A= bas Aa] =h [Az Az] “2 ik Lo]. 


In this equation, the last term, 2 [Ai Az] 
may be considered zero, because it) will dis- 
appear, or nearly disappear, in’ the general 
average, on account of ‘positive and negative 
errors being equally probable, a priori. But 
the squared terms remain, being always posi- 
tive, and we have: 


FA’ A] a [As Ai] a [Az Ao}. 
Consequently, by our equation, of definition 
(18), this becomes: 

e! e/a &; &) + &o Eo, 
This equation brings out the important prin- 


ciple that the square of the mean error of the 
sum of two quantities is equal to the sum of 


LEAST SQUARES 


the squares of their respective tnean €rrofs. 
The principle can of course be extended ‘so as 
tp include three, or any greater number, | ‘say 
1, of observed quantities, 
Now let'us suppose the n’s to avd! teen 3b 
served with equal accuracy, so that oF and & 
will be equal; and we have: 


Et Of berneeitetas 
or for mn’s: 
gf fc M. f4,€53 


—_— Vm &} 7 


This last equation shows that the mean error 
e’ cof the sum of m equally precise quantities is 


\/m times the mean error of one quantity. 
But the arithmetical mean of m observations is 
1/m times their sum, and its mean error there- 
fore. e’/ mi, of, according to the above: 


or 


Mean error of arithmetical mean a= irae 
m 
which -establishes the ‘principle © enenoilted 
above, that the mean error of the arithmetical 
mean ‘decreases i in proportion.as the square root 
of the number of observations; increases. 
In accordance with this principle; +o.will be 
more accurate than any individual average, + 


in the proportion of Vm to-1. Consequently, 
since q isthe error of, 7. and € a/sort of aver- 
age value for the error of any +, we may take 
as a good approximation for q’: 

E2 


Pare: 


Substituting this value of ¢ in equation 
(21), we get: 
(m ree 1) o6 [vz], 

or: “ye 


(22) ey pl ea 
m—1 


and equation. (22) will enable us. to calculate 
approximately the mean. error, ¢. frorn the 
known residuals .v. 

It would carry us too far afield in the theory, 
of probabilities to demonstrate the relations 
existing between the mean error ¢ and the 
robable error r. But we may remark in pass- 
ing that it is shown in works on the theory of 
errors, that, approximately: 


i = 2/o€ 
or: 
(23) Guo a SOU ye ee 
ate * | 
Furthermore, een that; &.cand 


have reference to, the precision attainable from 
a single observation, we can get the correspond- 
ing errors belonging to the arithmetical mean 
from m observations by the aid of the principle 
already used, viz.: that the diminution of error 
is proportional to the square root of the num- 
ber of observations. Denoting the mean and 
probable errors of the arithmetical mean from 
m observations by & and ro; equations (22) 
and. (23) give: 3 


prides [vv] 
(24) — 0 “ pe ae eA tilt 


: } fool 
(25) . Bh jotile (m —A) - 


LEAST SQUARES 


Mean and Probable Error for Several Un- 
knowns.— Equation (22), so far as we have yet 
considered it, applies only to. the case of a 
single unknown # observed directly m times. 
Buta similar expression can also be found for 
the case of ‘observation: equations of the form 
(4), when solved by means of normal sequa- 
tions of, the form (9)... Having found values 
of the unknowns +, y, z, from the solution of 
normal equations, we substitute these values in 
the original observation equations, and thus 
obtain numerical values of the residuals uv, by 
which amounts the original observation equa- 
tions fail of being | exactly satisfied. With 
these values of the w’s we compute [vv]. If 
we Reith let: 

=the number of unknown a, ), etc, .ap- 
a ee in the original observation equations, it 
may be shown that we hau have for the mean 
and Brahe ls errors : | 


oe: Nite a 
m,— 
— 2 Fi = 
™m — 


For he complete. demonstration of these 
equations: we must refer to works. on . the 
Method of Least Squares. ‘The equations fur- 
nish average approximate values for the mean 
and probable .errors. of any average observed 
quantity nm, as it appears in any observation 
equation of the form (4). .The unknowns x, 
y, z, are of course determined from the whole 
group of equations with much greater precision, 
and therefore with smaller mean and probable 
errors. In the case of zg, for instance, it is 
shown in -works on Least Squares that its 
mean and probable errors are smaller than 
those given by (26) and (27) in. the proportion 
of: | 


a Tee, 2) to 4, 


where, [cc. 2] is. the final coefficient. of z ap- 
pearing in the last reduced equation (13) re- 
sulting from the Gaussian elimination of the 
normal. equations (9). ..Consequently, denoting 
by & and rz the mean and probable errors of 2, 


(26) 


(27) 


we have: 
! [vv] 
28), figitts eee [cc. 2] (m — u)’ 
jE OF [vv] 
(29) ae peemonentt [cc. 2} (m — u) 


The corresponding mean and probable er- 
rors of x and y can be found by rearranging 
the observation equations in such a way that 
each unknown in turn: will come out last in 
the. Gaussian elimination. 

Weights.— It happens sometimes that the 
quantities nN, _heneene in the observation equa- 
tions (4), have been determined by the ob- 
servers with unequal precision. For instance, a 
certain # may have been observed: twice, while 


all the others depend upon a single observation 


only. In such a case, that particular n is said 
to have “double weight,” or the weight 2, while 
all;others have the weight 1 only. Obviously, 
we can treat this case in our reductions by 
simply writing the doubly weighted equation 
twice, with all its coefficients and unknowns, 


@ 
185 


among the observation equations, and then 
proceeding-as usual. There is, however, a bet- 
ter way of dealing with this matter of varying 
weights; and we can derive it from a consid- 
eration of the rule for the formation of normal 
equations from observation equations. We may 
use the following: 

Rule for Weighting Observation Equa- 
tions.— Multiply each observation equation 
throughout by the square root of its weight 
a then form normal equations by the usual - 
rule. 

It may be seen readily, in the simple case of 
one equation only having double weight, that 
this rule will produce precisely the same effect 
on the normal equations as would result from 
merely writing that particular observation equa- 
tion twice among the other observation equa- 
tions, in the manner just explained. But it is 
also shown in works. on Least Squares that 
the above rule for weights holds good when all 
the observation equations have different weights, 
and even when these weights are fractional. 

To illustrate the foregoing, we shall give the 
complete solution of a set of observation equa- 
tions resulting from a precise determination of 
clock érror made with the transit instrument 
of Columbia University Observatory in New 
York. The observation equations were as fol- 
lows, the numerical terms ” being expressed 
in seconds of time. 


x + 0.04y.+ 1.292— 08.27 
x + 0.08) + 1.262 — 0.02 
x + 1.36y + 2.842 — 6.52 
x —0.23y + 1.542 — 1.32 = 
Top neh arial 
— 0.07) — 1.302 — 0.02 
«+ 0.14) —1 212 +084 
48 

31 


(2°) 


x +0.03y — 1.302 + 0. 
x — 0.01y — 1.332 + 0.31 
x — 1.28y — 2.752 — 4.68 = 0. 


Each of these equations depends on the 
observation of a different star; the unknown + 
is the clock error, and the other two unknowns 
y and zg relate to certain errors of adjustment: 
in the transit instrument. 

The solution now proceeds as follows: 

_ Applying the “Rule for Normal Equations” 
gives: 


+ 0.34r — 0.63y + 20.432 — 95.78 = 0, 
— 2.63% + 3.59y — 0.632 + 15.30 =0, 
+ 10.00% — 2.63y + 0.342 — 11.220. 


The method of. equations (10) and (11) 


0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 


I d & dl i é J d 


(9) 


.. transforms these into the following: 


tae en’ 0.542 + 128.35 =0, 
54y +.20.422 —9.40=0. 


A PF : application of (12) gives: 
(13’) — + 29.322 — 78.10 =0. 
From this we obtain: 
(14’) = + 08,24, 
If we now substitute this value of zg in either 
of equations (11’) we obtain: 
y =— 48.25. 
These values of y and zg can now be substi- 
tuted in either of equations (9’), and we get: 
x = —.08.005. 


We now substitute the numerical values 


(11’) 


186 


thus cbtained for'%, y and-z in equations (2’), 
and obtain the following residuals, v: 


V | VV 
05.125 - 0.015625 
055 2 *°* "003025 

Apia eae Nieves 

025 006250 

125 015625 

‘005 (000025 

045 ar? F003025 

045 002025 

025 000625 

125 018625 

[vv] .060850 


Applying equation (27), remembering that 
m is the number of residuals, in this’ case’ 10, 


we have: 

2 --10s.060850 
27")... = 2, ae 08.061. 
(27') Nis frorite + 


This is the “probable erro of:a single whe 
servation. To obtatn the corresponding quan- 
tity for the value of 2 given by equation (14’) 
we must use equation (29). We have from 


(13’) : 
[edi 2 |==2982: 
Consequently, from (29): 
2 
(29) re oq |__ 0000830 + 08.011. 


3.N 29.32 (10 — 3) 


This result signifies that it isan even chance 
whether the actual error of our numerical value 
of zg is greater or less. than 08.011, so that-the 
probable error becomes.a sort of test of the 
precision of our result. 

To obtain the probable error of another un- 
known, as +, we rearrange the equations (2’) 
so as to make # the last-unknown, instead of 2. 
Written in this way, the equations are: 


(2) +0049. 1.29 +3" 08.27 = 0, 
: : etc., etc. 
The normal equations are: 


: + 3.59) — 0.632 — 2.634 + 158.300, 
(9°") 063) 1 29:432 + 0.344 — 9.78 = 0, 
~~ 2.63y +0.342 + 10.007 — 11.220. 


The method of equations (10) and (11) 


gives: 
+29, 322 ='0.12x7'— 78.10 = 0, 
(uy 0.122 + 80776010. 
* The application of (12): 
(13 + 8.074 — 0201 = 0. 
And, consequently : 
(14’) x= + 08,00, 


This is practically the same as the value. al- 
ready obtained, and thus affords incidentally a 
very complete check on arithmetical: accuracy. 
Values of y and z can of course be obtained as 
before by substitution. 

Applying equations \(29)' again, we have the 
probable error of x: 


0.060850 
29” Ne —— S,022.: 
Redes Se 8.07 (103) ate ss 
Equation (14”) shows that the clock was 


exactly right; and (29”) that the precision of 
this clock-error determination is very high. 


LEATHER 


Bibliography.—Wright and Hayford, ‘SAd- 
Senet of Observations”; Chauvenet, ‘Spher- 
ical and Practical Astronomy? (Vol. I, Appen- 
dix) ; eres, ‘Vermessungskunde? (Vol: iD). 

HAROLD. Jacosy, | 
Rutherford: Professor of Astronomy, Columbia 
University. 


LEATHER, Artificial. 
STITUTES. 


LEATHER, Chamois. What is ‘known in 
the market as chamois skin is really an. oil- 
tanned sheep or lamb skin lining. The supply 
of skins from the chamois animal is very 
limited; enough could not be obtained in a 
year to supply the United States for more 
than a single day. In Switzerland about 5,000 
to 6,000 skins would bea fair average yearly 
crop. This skin is heavier than the skin of the 
sheep or lamb, also much coarser. _ For 
strength and durability this skin is preferable, 
but for ordinary use jand appearance the oil- 
tanned sheep-skin lining would, in most in- 
stances, be preferred. 

To manufacture sheep or lamb skins into 
chamois leather the first step necessary is to 
remove the wool, which is accomplished either 
by painting the~ skin ‘on the inside with a 
solution of sodium sulphide or by immersion in 
milk of lime. By the former method the: wool 
is loosened in a few-hours; by the latter method 
it will require several days: When the wool is 
loose it is pulled off either by hand.or scraped 
off with'a dull instrument). The skin ‘is now 
again immersed in milk of lime, to swell its It 
is then cleaned’ (beamed, ‘as the trade calls’ it); 
to remove all fleshy particles that may adhere 
to it. -It is' now ready °for splitting... The 
chamois skin is really only the half of a skin. 
The outside, that is, that part of the skin next 
to’ the’ wool, known. as the ‘grain side, is not 
suitable for chamois leather, and is used for — 
other purposes, mostly for ‘hat linings, book 
covers, etc. In former times, when skins were 
prepared for oil tannage, this part of the skin 
was cut away with a suitable knife» and thus 
lost.. In our days the skin is cut through the 
centre (split), thus producing two skins from 


See LEATHER Sunt 


‘ one — the outside, called. grain or skiver, and 


the inside, called ‘lining or flesher. The ‘splits 
ting is accomplished on machines spectally con- 
structed for this purpose. It consists of an 
endless knife, the edge of which is constantly 
grinding to keep it sharp, the skin being passed 
through rollers against the sharp edge of the 
knife. These machines require very delicate 
adjustment to produce good results. 

The lining or flesher is now ‘ready for tan- 
ning! This is accomplished by sprinkling it 
with oil, codfish ‘oil of good quality. It is im- 
portant that this oil should be thoroughly in- 
corporated into the skin. For this: purpose’'a 
quantity of the skins are placed into’ what are 
known as fulling stocks, which twist and turn 
the skins in every direction and distribute the 
oilevenly. » After sufficient milling the ‘skins 
are partly dried ‘andthe process of sprinkling 
and drying is repeated again and again ‘until 
they are full of oil and all the moisture is 
dried out. They are now allowed to hang 
sufficiently long to thoroughly tan’ them’ at a 
temperature of about 100°. The process after 
this is very simple... The oil is removed by 
pressure and the balance washed out by saponi- 


LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF 


fication; after this they are dried and they are 
then ready for finishing. The oil, by the way, 
is recovered, by decomposing the soap solution 
with an acid and separating. It is sold to 
manufacturers of other leathers, it being useful 
to make them pliable, etc. The finishing is 
done mostly by pressing the skin against re- 
volving wheels, covered with emery or flint to 
remove all adhering substances and to present 
a finished surface. We now have the finished 
chamois leather ready for the trimming and 
sorting’ room, where it is cut into suitable 
sizes and packed for the market. Of late years 
a trimmed skin, that is, skins of even sizes, are 
preferred by the trade. For this reason most 
manufacturers, at least most American manu- 
facturers, cut their skins over patterns so as to 
produce uniform sizes. In former years, when 
.England and France supplied the United States 
market, the skins in the same package would 
vary in size and shape, thus lacking uniform- 
ity. See also Hives AND LEATHER. 


LEATHER, Manufacture and Uses of. 
Of all the ancient industries that of the manu- 
facture of leather is one of the most interesting 
on account of the convertibility of an easily de- 
composed substance into one which resists pu- 
trefaction. The manufacture of leather is as old 
as history itself. In China the manufacture and 
use of leather was known before the Christian 
era, and in Egypt leather has been found in 
mausoleums of the ancients, showing us that 
nations in the remote ages of the past were 
practised in the art and left slight traces of 


their high civilization to be admired to-day.. 


The Persians and Babylonians passed the art 
over to the Greeks and Romans and so down 
through the different medizval nations to us. 
The American Indians were also well versed in 
the art of making leather, although their method 
of tanning was entirely different to that of the 
ancient races, yet the fact remains that they 
also discovered a way of treating the skins of 
animals in such a way as to prevent the putre- 
faction of animal tissues. 

Composition of Hides and Skins.— The 
skin of an animal consists of three layers — the 
outerskin, middle and underskin. The outer- 
skin which cannot be tanned is removed with 
the hair, leaving the middle skin or grain and 
the underskin or flesh. The upper part of the 
skin in. which the coat of hair, wool or fur is 
rooted is a thin layer termed the epidermis or 
cuticle. Next beneath this is the much thicker 
A ces or true skin, and next to:this the under 
skin. 

The epidermis does not combine with tannin 
or other substances to produce leather. It is 
therefore useless to the tanner and is removed 
at the same time as the hair. The portion of 
the skin thereby exposed is technically termed 
the “grain” side« The corium or true skin is 
the actual leather skin and is made up of inter- 
laced bundles of gelatinous fibres. It is more 
or less filled with fluid matter that serves to 
renew the cuticle and maintain the skin in a 
pliant and moist condition. In the tanning 
process these matters are removed, reducing 
the weight of the skin considerably, and there 
remains nothing but the fibrous portion to be 
acted on by the tanning materials. The quality 
of leather which can be produced from a skin 
depends upon. the thickness, flexibility and 


187 


strength of the corium, which exceeds the com- 
bined thickness of all the other layers of the 
skin. The under skin consists of a loose con- 
nective tissue, in which the sweat and fat 
glands, the blood vessels and the muscular fibres 
are embedded. The side upon which the con- 
nective tissue of the under side is located is 
technically designated as the “flesh” side. The 
under skin or flesh is composed of- interlaced 
fibres which give the strength to the tanned 
stock and is therefore a most important factor - 
for the tanner while the middle skin gives the 
fine smooth appearance to the finished product. 
The skin, being organic, is composed of carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur, which 
go to make up the middle and under skin. 

Source and Uses of Hides and Skins.— 
Most of the leather in common use is made 
from the hides and skins of domestic animals, 
those of cattle being by far the most important, 
followed by goatskins, sheepskins, horsehides, 
pigskins and in a small measure dogskins. 
Many skins of wild animals, principally those of 
the kangaroo, deer, peccary, alligator, seal, wal- 
rus and buffalo are in fairly general use. Cattle 
hides are used chiefly for shoe upper and sole 
leathers, harness, belting, upholstery, bag and 
case leathers, and to some degree in bookbind- 
ing. Goatskins are used for shoes, gloves, 
bookbinding and fancy leathers. Sheepskins: 
are used for shoe linings, gloves and the greater 
part of the fancy leathers. Horsehides are 
used for shoes and utility gloves. Pigskins are 
used for the inner parts of shoes, utility gloves, 
bookbinding, fancy leathers and saddle seats. 
Dogskins find limited application in glove 
leathers. Kangaroo is used for fine shoe 
leathers. Deerskins, known as buckskins, are 
used for both shoes and gloves, peccary for 
utility gloves, alligator for bag and fancy 
leathers, seal for bags, bookbinding and fancy 
leathers, walrus for jewelers’ polishing wheels 
and buffalo for heavy soles. 

Preliminary Processes.— The skin, as re- 
ceived by the tanner, is either green, green 
salted, dry and dry salted, and in whatever 
state received, the first process is to trim the 
hides to remove all useless pieces and adhering 
fat, but the dry salted skins are first softened. 
When thoroughly trimmed, so as to pass inspec- 
tion of the foreman, the skins are placed in the 
soaks. The soaks are large tanks filled with 
as pure cold water as can be obtained to which 
salt has been added in order to open the pores 
of the skin, and the skins are allowed to remain 
there for 24 to 48 hours, with periodic agita- 
tion or stirring, due care being taken not to 
heat the stock. The object of the soak is to 
soften the skin and to remove all foreign matter 
such as dirt, salt and blood. Great care must 
be used to remove all blood and salt, as these 
materials, if left on the skin, will cause stains 
which will show dark spots in the finished 
leather if colored into tan, and dull if made 
into blacks. Another object of the soak is to 
add water to the skin to bring it back again as 
near to the condition in which it was when taken 
off the animal. The water of the soak must be 
cold, not above 65° F., so as to prevent 
all bacterial action and thereby prevent the loss 
of what tanners call hide substance. The soak- 


ing is controlled by the chemist, whose duty it 


is to examine the .water for dissolved “hide 


188 


substance,” that is, to analyze the water of the 
soak for ammonia. As mentioned, the hide 
contains. nitrogen... This organic’ nitrogen “is 
converted either by bacteriological or chemical 
action into ammonia, due to over warm water 
or too long in the soaks or both. The skims are 
then taken from the soaks and placed in a re- 
volving drum and washed thoroughly with clean 
cold water in order to. remove all adhering 
foreign matter... They then go to the fleshing 
machine, a machine which consists of. spiral 
blunt knives, set into a revolving cylinder, to 
remove all superfluous fat on, the flesh side. of 
the skin. From the fleshing machine they go 
to the lime vats for loosening the hair, plump- 
ing the stock and.spreading the fibres apart. 
Depilation.— Inthe more modern.. process 
of liming, the skins are treated with a mixture 
of lime and sodium sulphide,. a. chemical. ob- 
tained, in the manufacture of washing soda or 
by other processes.- If itis not desired to save 
the hair, which is valuable, the skins maybe 
dehaired by the use of sulphide of soda alone. 
Hair can also be loosened. by “sweating,” that 
is, to hang the stock in chambers where the tem- 
perature and humidity can be controlled. This 
process is simply a partial putrefaction which 
affects the base of the hair roots, so as to allow 
them to be. easily removed. The sweating 
process. is used, now very seldom, in the manu- 
facture of sole leather, and formerly to remove 
the wool from sheep skins. The depilation now 
in. use is accomplished:by. lime. or the above 
former mentioned combination of lime and sul- 
phide. The lime vats are similar to the soaks. 
The skins are placed.in a saturated solution of 
slacked lime, in which there is always an excess 
of lime, so that the calcium hydrate, which is 
slacked lime, is absorbed by the skin, the lime 
liquor remains at the same strength by the 
water dissolving some of the excess of lime 
always present. Lime is used on account of 
its being a weak alkali and only acts upon the 
softer parts of the skin, such.as the hair bulbs, 
etc., while it hardly acts upon the harder parts 
of the skin; yet, by leaving the skin too long 
in contact with lime, the harder parts are also 
affected. Bacterial action of the limes must 
also be taken into consideration for depilating, 
as new limes are very slow in removing the 
hair, and the action of the lime is increased as 
it grows older. The liming takes from two to 
three days, and sometimes longer, according to 
the raw material placed in the vat and the kind 
of stock required. Here the chemist is called 
again to control the time and the action, so that 
the skins do not become too soft or lose too 
much substance, thereby making the skins flabby 
and loose. From the lime vat the skins are 
either dehaired by hand or machine. Although 
machine dehairing is quite satisfactory, the 
skins must be worked by hand in order to re- 
move the’ fine hairs which were left by the 
machine. The skins are then placed upon the 
~ beam, a semi-circular board placed on end, simi- 
lar to-a barrel cut in half’ in length with the 
convex side up, with the flesh side of the skin 
toward the workman, who cuts off the remain- 
ing flesh, fat and tissue.’ From this operation 
the skins are washed thoroughly in clean, cold 
water to remove all adhering lime and as)much 
of the dissolved lime as possible. In order to 
get all the absorbed lime out of the skins, they 
are again placed in a vat of water in which fer- 


LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF 


mented hen manure, dog dung or pigeon manure 
is dissolved, and allowed to remain in this solu- 
tion until by chemical reaction all alkali is 
shown to be removed. ‘The lime is sometimes © 
removed by chemical means in the use of lactic 
acid, the acid of sour milk; and in the newest 
processes: the material used is an extract made 
from the various organs of the animal such as 
the spleen, pancreas, etc. This process is known 
as bating. The fermented animal excrements 
used produce lactic acid by bacterial action, 

but also has the advantage of containing bac- 
teria which are very essential in this process of 

bating. The:idea -of ‘bating is first to. render 
soluble the insoluble salts of lime, which the 
skins take up, and then to bring the skin, which 
swells in the alkaline lime liquor, back to the 
state desired by the tanner to produce. leather 
according to his needs. The~skins are again | 
washed and are ready for the tan, if vegetable 
leather ‘is required, or for pickling in case 
chrome tanned stock is to be made. 

Tanning Materials In vegetable Damned 
stock the skins are hung on sticks and placed 
in vats and treated with a dilute water extract 
of bark, hemlock, oak, quebracho, a South 
American wood, sumac, myrobalans, mimosa 
or Australian willow, valonia or oak acorns 
from. Greece and Turkey, and many other 
materials too numerous to mention or com- 
bination of the different vegetable tannins. 
The liquor in the vats is strengthened daily 
with the extracts until the skin is thoroughly 
tanned or as the tanner would say “struck 
through» The vegetable tannages are limited 
only by the number of plants, barks and other. 
vegetable substances which yield ‘tannins in 
sufficient quantities for commercial use. In 
practice only a few tannins offering the advan- 
tages of cheapness, large supply and greater 
suitability are used. Hemlock and oak bark 
liquors and extracts separately or in combina- 
tion are used more than any other vegetable 
tannins. Most sole and belting leather, prac- 
tically all upholstery, harness, bag, strap and 
case leathers and some shoe and ‘bookbinding 
leathers are tanned with hemlock or’ ‘oak or 
both. Sumac is the principal tanning material 
for bookbinding leathers, on account of its 
giving a light-colored leather that is resistant 
to light and decay. Gall-nuts, myrobalans, 
divi-divi and oakwood are also used in book- 
binding leathers. Valonia and. chestnut ‘oak 
extract are used for sole leather in’ connection 
with oak and hemlock. Quebracho is used in 
various leathers, often with hemlock'and oak. — 
Gambier and palmetto are (used, in many 
of the softer leathers“for shoes, gloves, etc. 
Some leathers are tanned with a mixture of 
three or four different vegetable materials as 
may be necessary to give the color, firmness 
and other properties desired. A distinct ‘tan- 
nage of limited use is the oil ‘tannage used’ for 
making some glove © leathers, particularly 
chamois and buckskin. Cod oil is the oil com- 
monly used. Its oxidation tans the leather: 
The leather is then washed, oiled or placed in. 
a revolving drum with a’ combination of oils 
and greases which is called: “Fat Liquoring” 
and hung up ‘to drv. The skins are now ready 
for coloring and finishing which will “be ‘ex- 
plained further on under chrome or chemical 
tanning. 

Chrome or Chemical Tanning.— The vege- 


LEATHER MANUFACTURE 


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LEATHER MANUFACTURE 


‘Copyright, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y, 


1 Softening raw hides with rolling machines, in a big American tannery 
2 Trimming untanned hides — sulphide, lining, and washing paddles at the left ; 


: LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF 


table method of tanning light leathers is being 
replaced by chemical tanning or combination 
of vegetable and:chrome now considered chemi- 
cal or chrome tanning. In order to prepare 
the stock for chrome tannage, it is first pickled 
after being washed out of the’ bate; that is, 
placed in a vat, fitted with a revolving paddle 
similar to a water wheel, in which is dissolved 
salt and sulphuric acid’ mixed in different 
proportions, according to the ideas of the fore- 
man. When the skins have absorbed enough 
of the chemicals, they are taken out of the 
paddle, allowed to drain and then pressed in an 
hydraulic press to squeeze out the water. 
They are then split on a machine, which con- 
sists of a fast running horizontal ‘belt knife or 
drawn over a Stationary knife being pressed on 


to the edge of the knife by a roll placed above | 


the knife. The thickness of the skin is regu- 
lated by the distance between the belt knife or 
stationary knife and the roll. Light stock such 
as calf, kip, goat or sheep are not split but 
shaved on the flesh. The chemicals used in the 
manufacture of chrome leather are mostly im- 
ported and before we enter the realm of 
modern chemistry as applied to tanning it -will 
be of interest to know where the raw materials 
are obtained and what they are. The raw 
materials are sulphuric acids, glucose, sodium 
thiosulphate, soda ash and chrome salts. Sul- 
phuric acid or oil of vitriol as generally known 
is obtained by burning sulphur or brimstone. 
Glucose or grape sugar is obtained from corn 
starch. Sodium thiosulphate, commonly known 
as “Hypo,” a salt with which every photographer 
is familiar, is also obtained from sulphur or 
brimstone by heating it with caustic soda, 
known as soda lye. As a by-product sodium 
sulphide is also obtained, which as already said 
is used in the dehairing process. Soda ash or 
calcined. soda is obtained. from salt. The 
chromium salts used in the tanning are made 
from chrome iron ore, a very hard mineral 
composed of the oxides of chromium and iron 
and mined mostly in New Caledonia, although 
some is mined in Canada, Turkey in Asia and 
California, but the quantity is so small as to be 
no factor in the manufacture. The chrome 
jron ore is mixed with lime and soda or 
potash, placed in a furnace with free access to 
the air and roasted at a ‘thigh temperature. 
When finished, the mass is treated with water 
to extract the sodium or potassium chromate 
formed. Sulphuric acid is then added and the 
liquor evaporated and allowed to crystalize, and 
the resulting crystals are sodium or potassium 
bichromate, the mother substance for ~ the 
manufacture of the compounds used in the tan- 
nery. This bichromate.is used in the tannery, 
as such, for the so-called two-bath tannage or 
converted into its salts, to be used in the one- 
bath process. The one-bath and two-bath 
“processes are chemically similar. The two-bath 
produces the chrome salt desired in the skin, 
while the one-bath process consists of forming 
the chrome salt desired and when so made to 
mill or drum it into the skin. 

It is interesting to note that the first prac- 
tical chemical or chrome tanning was invented 
in the United States by an American, August 
Schultz, in 1884. Since that time great advance- 
ment has been made in chrome tanning in 
America and Europe but the theory has re- 
mained the same, yet the fact remains that it 


189 


was discovered in the United States and due to 
the research of an American. Schultz’s patent 
was for a two-bath, while Professor Knapp of 
Germany published in 1858 a process for the 
one-bath process, though he did not recognize 
its value. In 1893, Martin Dennis, of Newark, 
N. J., recognized its value and was granted 
patents on this procéss. For the two-bath 
process, the pickled stock is taken and placed 
in a revolving drum with water in which com- 
mon salt is dissolved, the drum closed and set 
in motion. Then bichromate, i.e., either sodium 
bichromate or potassium bichromate, is dis- 
solved in water, a certain amount of sulphuric 
acid added for the purpose of changing the 
bichromate into another chrome salt which 
will be absorbed by the skin. Bichro-nate 


without the use of an acid (and sulphuric is 


used in preference) will not penetrate the skin, 
and this mixture is put gradually in the drum. 
When all bichromate thas been added ‘and the 
skins are “struck through,” that is, the yellow 
color of the bichromate has thoroughly pene- 
trated the skin to its fullest extent, a solution 
of thiosulphate of soda, “Hypo,” is added. 
These materials, when in contact with the 
yellow colored stock, will turn them blue by 
precipitating an insoluble chrome compound 
between the fibres of the skin and chrome- 


tanned leather, is the result of this stage. A 


solution of soda ash or calcined ‘soda is now 
added to the stock in the revolving drum to 
neutralize the acid present and also to convert 
any soluble chrome compound present to an 
insoluble. The stock is now thoroughly 
washed, pressed and sent to the machines to be 
split down to the required thickness and to be 
shaved smoothly on the flesh. The next 
process of tanning is probably the most im- 
portant to the tanner of to-day, namely, the 
one-bath process. The one-bath process, in 
which the liquor used is ‘blue, is the same with 
the exception, as above explained, the liquor 
is already made and simply milled into the 
skin. The tanner tests his stock from time to 
time in order to know when it is thoroughly 
tanned. This test is simply taking a piece of 
the heaviest. part of the skin and boiling in 
water for five minutes. If the stock remains 
soft and does. not curl after the expiration of 
the time, the stock is considered tanned. After 
tanning is finished, the stock is again washed 
and pressed, and is ready for the fat liquoring, 
coloring, drying, resoftening, tacking on boards 
to dry, staking and finishing. The fat-liquoring 
process is to mill oils, soaps and greases into 
the stock in order to keep them soft and pliable 
and at the same time render them semi-water 
proof. Staking is stretching the skins by 
machine in order to get a smooth surface. 
The coloring of the skins is done by the ap- 
plication of wood dyes:or coal tar colors. 
The coloring of the stock is of great import- 
ance. In order to prevent the dye-stuffs 
from going on unevenly, great care must be 
exercised. Blacks are made either by the use 
of logwood or aniline colors. 

Finishing Processes.—Those leathers which 
are not shined and which always have a dull 
appearance such as used in work shoes may 
be sponged with oils, measured and_ sorted 
into grades to be sold. A good many leathers 
are boarded in order to give them a_distinc- 
tive pattern. The grain side is folded on itself 


190 


and rolled under pressure. with a cork surface 
board attached tothe arm. This.makes a 
square pattern on the surface when done up 
and down.and from side to side of the skin. 
Leather for dress shoes on which a bright or 
semi-bright lustre is desired must be seasoned 
and glazed. Seasoning consists in. sponging 
the surface of the leather with a liauid dress- 
ing consisting of albumen or some _ similar 
preparation which will coagulate with the heat 
of friction. After seasoning and drying 
leather is glazed. The glazing process brings 
up the polish in about the same way that a 
brush does on shoes. The skins are glazed or 
rubbed over with a glass cylinder under great . 
pressure. This glass cylinder is placed horizon-~ 
tally in a pocket at the end of a long wooden 
arm, which is brought down over the skin by a 
connecting rod from the fly-wheel of the 
machine.. The skin is laid over a slanting 
board and held there by the operator who shifts 
its position so that all parts of the skin come 
beneath the glazing cylinder which moves up 
and down in a straight line, continually bear- 
ing on the skin with a heavy pressure. Some 
skins on which a dull polish is wanted are 
brushed over the surface with a _ revolving 
roller brush. Leathers on which a high polish 
is desired are sponged with finish, dried and 
glazed several times in succession. If an es- 
pecially smooth surface is desired the leather 
is embossed after the first glazing. This is 
done by placing the skin beneath the hot steel 
plates of a heavy hydraulic press. The last 
operation is sponging a light coating of oil 
over the skin. 

Shoe upper leather is sold by the square foot 
and is measured by power driven measuring 
machines. Each skin is passed through the 
machine and a dial on the machine indicates the 
measurement to one-fourth of a square foot. 
Patent leather is chrome tanned, dried, fat- 
liquored and dyed black as previously described 
up to the finishing process. Some of the 
grease given in fat-liquoring and some of the 
oil applied to the grain are not combined with 
the fibres, and unless removed will cause the 
varnish to slip over the leather so that finish- 
ing becomes impossible. Degreasing is best 
done by soaking the leather in naphtha, and 
then pressing out the naphtha and drying the 
leather. When ready for finishing the skin is 
spread out and tacked on a frame, and the 
varnish, which is mainly oxidized linseed oil, 
is applied with a brush similar to a paint 
brush. The skins on these frames are then 
placed in ovens so that the varnish: may be 
baked on. Generally several coats of varnish 
are baked on the skin. 

Bibliography,—‘Bibliograph Modern Amer- 
ican Tanning? (2 vols., Chicago) ; Allen, Fred- 
erick J., ‘The Shoe Industry? (Boston, Mass.) ; 
Burt, E. W., ‘Shoe Craft—Its Organization” 
(Boston); Fleming, Louis A., ‘Practical Tan- 
ning? (Hillsdale, Mich.); Hill, Herbert and 
Yeoman, Henry, ‘Manual of Boot and Shoe 
Manufacturers? (London, Eng.); Pfister and 
Vogel, ‘Leather Specimen Book? (Milwaukee, 
Wis.); Pratt Institute of Tanning, ‘Lecture 
Courses» (Brooklyn, N. Y.); and files of the 
Boot and Shoe Recorder (Boston, Mass.). 


LEATHER-BACK, or LEATHER- 
JACKET. See LEATHER-TURTLE. 


LEATHER-BACK — LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TERMS 


LEATHER-BEETLE, one of the der- 
mestid beetles (see DERMESTES), which in the 
grub state, damages leather in storehouses and 
after it is made up into articles, such as shoes, 
harness, etc. The species is Dermestes vul- 
pinus ; and it is also a pest in silk manufacture, 
eating the cocoons. Infested places should be 
thoroughly fumigated with bisulphide of car- . 
bon, or some other powerful gas. 


LEATHER-FISH. See FILE-FISHES. 


LEATHER-HEAD, an Australian bird, 
the friar-bird (q.v.). 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECH- 
NICAL TERMS. The following is a list of 
the more important terms used in the shoe and 
leather trade: 


AciD TANNED.—- Fanned by the use of a mineral acid, instead 
of the usual vegetable tanning substances, derived from 
the bark or wood of certain trees and plants. (See 
Tanning.) 

ADJUSTMENT.— A. general term applied to the fastening of a 
shoe, whether button, buckle or lace, etc., by means of 
which the shoe is adjusted to the foot, or more definitely 
used in referring to the amount of play of such fastening 
available in conforming the shoe to the foot. The lace is 
the easiest of all adjustments, as it is flexible and self- 
conforming. The strap and buckle has less adaptability. 
Buttons are adjustable by re-setting, effective machines 
having been devised for that purpose. 

ALAsKA.— An overshoe, having a cloth upper and rubber 
vulcanized sole, usually with high front and back. 

ALoFtT.— (Said of sole stitching.) A sole “‘stitched aloft’ is 
stitched without a channel on the under side, the thread 
showing on the bottom of the shoe. 

AtumM TANNED.— Subjected to a ee err or tawing with 
salt and powdered alum. (See T 

ANKLE BRACE.— A steel brace built nbs the top of a shoe to 
support a weak ankle or other defect. Also may be made 
of sole leather, molded to conform to the shape of the foot, 
usually built ‘into children’s shoes for the protection of 
weak ankles. 

ArRcH.— The bony framework of the foot, extending from 
the heel forward to the toes, which is sustained by the 
muscles and ligaments in the form of an irregular arch. 
(There is a secondary transverse arch of the foot also at 
the ball, the bones being slightly arched crosswise.) This 
part of the foot is subject to various ailments, due prin- 
cipally to relaxation of the muscles, ligaments and tendons, 
which permit the turning of the main arch inward, the 
‘broken arch’’ or ‘“‘flat foot,’’ so called, being more an 
eversion than anything else, although its action does flatten 
the foot. The term ‘‘arch’” is applied also to the under 
portion of the shoe, curving from the heel forward toward 
the ball, and to the corresponding portion of a last. 

ArctTic.— A high, thick cloth and rubber overshoe fastened 
with one or more buckles. 

Bacxkstay.— A strip of leather covering and strengthening 
the back seam of a shoe; ‘‘California’’ or “‘accordeon back- 
stay,’ a term sometimes applied to piping, caught in the 
back seam of a shoe; “‘English backstay,’’ or “jockey 
backstay,’’ a broad backstay extending forward and meet- 
ing the quarter on each side. 

BaL.— (An abbreviation of the word ‘‘Balmoral,’’ from the 
original English name of the shoe.) A front-laced shoe of 
medium height, as distinguished from shoes that are 
adjusted by buttons, buckles, etc., also as distinguished 
in pattern from the ‘“‘Blucher.”’ 

Bat_.— The fleshy part of the foot back of the toes, or the 
corresponding part of a last or shoe. The girth here is an 
important point in the measurement of shoes and lasts. 

BALLET SLIPPER.— A specially constructed slipper for pro- 
fessional women dancers, with reinforced soles and no heels, 
made of leather, usually light kid. 

BAREFOOT SANDAL.— A name given to heelless low-cut shoes 
for children, having deeply slashed vamp and quarter and 
fastened by means of straps and buckles. 

BASEBALL SHOE.— A shoe built of canvas or leather for the 
sport indicated, having triangular shaped plates on both 
ball and heel to prevent slipping. Usually made on modi- 
fied gypsy or scout pattern — laced well to the toe. 

eral A heavy bark tanned sheepskin, used for lining or 
insoles. 

BATHING SHOE.— A heelless canvas shoe, usually fastened 
with laces or thongs about the ankle, and used at the shore 
in outdoor bathing: 

Batu SirpPperR.— A light, loose slipper, usually heelless and 
often made of cloth, fibre or even paper, and used about 
the house or bath. 

BEADED.— Having edges of upper leather skived thin and 
folded in, instead of being left raw. Another meaning is, 
trimmed with beads, as the vamps of women’s slippers. 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


BEAVER-TOP.— A name applied to warm cloth shoes: 

BEDROOM. SLIPPER.— A soft, comfortable slipper, made of 
wool felt, soft cotton fabric, or soft leather, with flexible 
sole — either? of sole leatner, or light chrome-stock with 
very low heels, or spring heels; sometimes. knitted or cro- 

_cheted and attached to a lamb’s wool sole. 

BELLows TONGUE.— A broad, folding tongue,. stitched at 

each side to the top of a Blucher shoe or boot, for the pur- 
se of ma “it water-tight. . Used in work shoes, also 
unting boots, etc. 

BELTING.— The best. portion of a bark-tanned cowhide, used 
for the making of leather belts for machinery. 

BENCH-MADE.— Applied to shoes which are made at “the 
bench”’ —i. e., the cobblers’ bench. Shoes made entirely 
by hand are rare in these days, although some fine lines of 
factory shoes are claimed to be “‘hand-welted’’; that is, 
_ to have the welt, upper and insole sewed together by hand, 
- thus promoting fle ility. 

BEND.— The best and strongest part of a side of leather. 

BicycLe Bat.— A shoe originally designed for bicycle riders, 
but later adopted for use in other outdoor sports. It is 
usually laced well down towards the toe and has a protect- 
ing toe cap. 

BLACKING.— A general name for paste shoe dressing. 

BLInp EYELET.— An eyelet which is concealed on the inner 
side of the lace stay, the lace hole being left raw-edged on 
the outer side. 

BLooM.— A slight appearance of mildew or mold which some- 
times appears on shoes in stock. (See Spewing.). It may 
be wiped off readily. 

BLUCHER.— A shoe or mid-leg boot, named for its inventor, 
General Blucher of the Prussian Army of the time of the 
first Napoleon. A distinguishing feature of the Blucher is 
the extension forward of the quarters to the throat of the 
‘circular vamp, the quarter being loose at the inner edge, 
and made to lace across the tongue which was originally a 
bellows tongue. After its adoption in the Prussian Army 
in form somewhat similar to the present hunting or sporting 
boot, it became very popular... The feature of the extended 

- quarter was later adopted in shoes of ordinary height and 
with ‘the ordinary type of tongue, as well as in Oxfords, 
and this form of cut is still much used in ‘all classes of shoes, 

‘men’s, women’s and children’s. It is a curious fact that 
all three of the great generals engaged at the battle of 
Waterloo invented a form of, military footwear. 

BLUCHER BaL.— A pattern combining both the features of 
the Balmoral. and the Blucher, having a whole quarter 
vamp and top, as in the Bal with an over-lapping front as 
in the Blucher. — 

BoarpDED.— Finished with a lined surface faintly indented or 

_ stamped into the leather. 

Boot.— This term is used in England only to designate high- 
‘cut shoes for men, women or children as distinguished from 

‘slipper, pump or Oxford (which last only is called a ‘‘shoe’’). 

It is largely, although not universally, so used in this 

country, although the term ‘‘shoe’’ is often used here to 

designate a high-cut; the term “‘boot’’ is sometimes 

etches to the men’s solid leg boot, or laced hunting 
oot 

Booree.— <A boot with short leg, sometimes made with 
rubber goring over the ankle, and sometimes made with 
lace front extending from the throat of the vamp over 
the instep to the ankle. Thus’ made, for men, it imitates 
in wearing the appearance of an ordinary boot or Bal. 
The-term also refers to a half-leg ‘length boot; usually 
knitted for infants. 

Boot Jack.— A V-shaped board or frame, in which to catch 
the heel of a leg boot to pull it from the foot. Re 
turning to use because of military and riding boot wearing. 

Borrom FinitsH.— The final polishing, painting, buffing, or, 
other process applied to the bottom of. a completed shoe. 
The simplest form is the plain ‘‘grain finish,” in which the 
outer soleis left almost. untouched, as in cheap shoes. | The 

acid finish’ consists of light buffing off. of the grain and 
S atinehd with an acid polish, which gives the bottom a 
hard, waxy surface: Different colors are produced. by 
stains applied immediately after buffing. “Velvet Bot- 
tom,’ a bottom buffed, then chalked and buffed again 
producing a velvety nap. ; ‘‘Painted Bottom,” a: stained 
bottom with wax coating. Fancy designs, or trade marks 
and names, are sometimes stamped on bottoms. ‘Black 
bottoms,’’ are painted with edge blacking, rubbed down 
and polished. Viscolized soles have a gray color of their 
own. Another gray sole is produced by applying blacking 

__ and then buffing. 

Box Catr,— A proprietary name for calf leather finished 
with the grain side boarded or stamped with irregular rec- 
tangularly crossed lines. 

Boxinc.— A stiffening of leather or other material used in 
the toes of shoes to preserve their shape. This is often 
made of canvas stiffened with glue or similar material, 
sometimes of thin. metal, in cheap shoes. 

BRACELET Tiz.— An Oxford pattern with an Getanded tack 
cut from same piece of material, including at its top, ankle 
high, a strap around the leg — total height of shoe five 
or six inches. 

Break.— To crack through or crack the surface finish as in 

tent leather. _‘‘Break of -the shoe,” the creasing and 
e cracks which form over the ball, in wear. 


191 


BREAST OF HEEL.— The forward face of a heel, under the 
shank, which is not. usually finished otherwise than by 
trimming smooth; in French or other wooden covered 
heels the breast is built to extend forward sloping into the 
shank, and covered by leather cemented. to it. 

Brocan.— A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe of ankle 

eight. 

BROGUE.— A name originally applied to rough, heavy shoes, 
originally made of untanned calfskin with the hair left on; 
the word is sometimes used incorrectly for “‘brogan.”’ 

BROGUED Vamp.— A vamp overlaid with long, extension 
wing tip. 

BRONZE Kip oR CALFSKIN.— Leather finished with a form of 

“cochineal dye. ‘This dye (made from the bodies of small ° 
insects), which stains cloth a vivid red, when applied to 
leather gives it a peculiar bronze-colored, metallic semi- 
iridescence. This method of finishing leather has long been 
known and the leather for many years has been used in 
women’s fancy slippers, principally in kid, with an occa- 
sional period of favor as a material for street wear, such as 
that of a few years ago. The delicate character of the 
finish, and the tendency of the cochineal dye to rub off 
when wet, has led:to the development of aniline dyes. 

Buck OR BUCKSKIN.— Strictly speaking, tanned or tawed 
deerskin. This term is loosely used, and a great deal of 
so-called buckskin is suede-finished calfskin or side leather 
or suede kid. Buckskin is nearly always used white or in 
a light shade of champagne, but is used also in black. By 
recent common usage, the term ‘“‘buck’’ has come to be 
fully understood to mean the suede-finished cowhide. 

BuckraM.— A stiff, strong canvas, stiffened with glue and 
used as a foundation for the tips of shoes or as a cemented 
backing for fabrics used in shoemaking, etc. 

Burr.— A split side leather, coarser than “glove grain,’’ but 
otherwise similar, used for medium or cheap grades of shoes, 
principally men’s. ©(See Split. )» As a verb, the terms mean 
to scour off the outer or ‘‘grain’’ side of leather. 

BUFFALO SOLE.— The hide comes from. the true buffalo of 
Asia and: the East Indies. . Hemlock tannage. Coarser 
end more porous than cowhide. Used for heavy nailed 
shoes. 

BuRNISH.— To polish, as the edge of the sole. 

Buskin.— A woman’s low cut house shoe of either py or 
leather, having small, triangular-shaped goring on top of 
front at instep. 

BuTTON-FLY.— The lapped over and strengthened strip of 
leather in the front of a button shoe in which are the 
buttonholes. 

CABARETTA.— This trade term is applied to a leather the 
origin of which is often disputed. It has appearance of 
being either a superior sheepskin or a rather inferior goat- 
skin. The Cabaretta is a cross between a sheep and a 
goat and its leather pattakes of the character of both. It 
comes from South America chiefly. Very common in a 
gy or ‘‘mat’’ finish for tops of patent leather and other 
shoes. 

Cacx.— An infants’ smallest hard-soled shoe with no heei, 
sizes 1 to 5. 

CALFSKIN.— For trade convenience, skins of neat cattle of 
all kinds are classified as follows: Weighing’ up to 15 
pounds, green, ‘“‘calfskins’’; 15 to 25° pounds, “‘kips’’; all 
above 25 pounds, “‘hides.”’. This is, of course, merely an 
arbitrary distinction for trade convenience, and the quali- 
ties of the extremes in each grade merge into those of the 
next grade. There is also a great deal of variation in the 
qualities of skins of the same weight, which is true of all 
kinds of skins, and is a fact which makes leather grading a 
difficult task, requiring long experience, and which also 
complicates the practical work of the shoe manufacturer. 
No two skins are precisely alike, and different parts of the 
same skin vary. 

CALKING MACHINE.— An appliance to depress or shape the 
inner sole of a shoe, to make it conform to the shape of 
the bottom of the foot. é 

CaLLous.— A spot of thickened and toughened skin on the 
palm of the hand: or’sole’ of the foot. The latter under 
continued pressure develops into a corn. 

CARRIAGE Boot.— A loosely made boot for women, usually 
of fabric, often fur-trimmed, and intended to be worn in 
winter, being slipped over the ordinary. shoes or slippers. 
Commonly used over dancing slippers. 

CarTon.— The pasteboard box in: which each pair of fine 
shoes is usually packed. The carton is a comparatively 
late development in the trade. The first approach was to 
wrap each pair in ordinary paper. Pairs were formerly 
kept together by a string knotted through holes in the heel, 
as “bargain shoes’? are sometimes handled now. The 
National Shoe Retailers’ Association, 14 Jan., 1914, 
endorsed standard sizes of cartons and the following meas- 


urements in inches, : 
Length Width Depth 


Dien see! ai ee fo ee 12 2-4 64 At 
WVisses 1 SESE Oy Lees SE 103 4? 3 
Women Sacre SOT) ee, ee eee Si 3 
Boys less, Peas 


eeoev eeseseeoee tot 6 3 
VWouths sre eae) ey CPR, 16 
Children’s... ....... Wo Obs, SN BE 4} 2% 


“Stock cartons” are special cartons which are kept on the 


192 


shelves permanently, instead of being used to deliver shoes 
to°the customer. Sometimes these are made of double 
length, for double depth shelving. 

CasE.— The variable-sized box’ in ‘which shoes are packed 
for shipment; men’s usually 12 pairs in a case, women’s 
24 to 36 pairs, etc. Cases for foreign shipments are often 
much larger. (See Show Case.) 

Castor.— Suede-finished kid, for gloves, usually in lighter 
weight than is used in the making of shoes. 

CEMENT.— A general term applied to adhesive materials. 
Various kinds of cement are used in the manufacture of 
shoes as. between the heel lifts, between soles, fastening 
beaded edges, etc. ‘‘Rubber cement”’ is a solution of India 
rubber which is useful in shoe repairing as well as in 
manufacturing. 

Cuamors.— The alum-tanned skin of a variety of deer. The 
leather is very pliable and may be washed. It. is used 
more often for gloves than for footwear, being very soft 
and pliable. Much imitation chamois is on the market, 
this being alum-tanned sheepskin. 

CHANNEL.— A slanting cut made around the edge of a sole 
or insole where stitching is to be done. Such a cut is made 
on the outside of welt and McKay shoes, the lip of the 
channeling being cemented down after the stitching is 
done, so as to present a smooth bottom and to keep the 
bight of the stitch from being exposed to immediate wear. 
(See illustration under Welt.) 

CHILDREN’S SizEs.—A series of sizes running in two 
divisions from 5 to 8 and from 8} to 11. Children’s shoes 
form a larger proportion of. the total than is usually 
realized. _Tables of population show that one-third of ail 
the inhabitants of the United States are below the ages of 
15 years. (See Sizes.) 

CHROME SOLE.— In sole leather the full thickness of cattle 
hides is used. Chrome-tanned sole is the strongest and 
lightest sole leather. It is slippery and porous and has a 
rough. edge. . Sometimes. stuffed with grease to make 
waterproof. Used chiefly in outing and athletic shoes. 

CHROME-TANNED.— Tanned with bichromate of potash and 
dilute muriatic acid. (See Tanning.) 

CircLeTt.— A proprietary name given to a small horseshoe- 
shaped tubelet’ of steel, to be driven into the heels of shoes 
for the purpose of preventing undue wear. 

CIRCULAR Vamp.— A vamp so cut as to join the quarter ina 
seam on each side of the shoe running down to the shank, 
instead of being continued straight back to the heel on one 
side as in a three-quarter vamp shoe, or on both sides as 
in a whole vamp shoe. (See Vamp.) 

CLoc.— A heavy soled, very low cut shoe, sometimes with 
wooden soles. 

CoBBLER’S SEAM.— A seam made by stitching through and 
through, the pieces being laid so that the edges are even 
instead of being lapped. 

CoLiar.— A narrow stitched-on strip of leather, around the 
outside of the top of the shoe, usually for ornamental effect. 

CoLLEGE Boot.—A boot for girls, cut lower than the 
“Polish,’’ to about ankle height. 

CoLonrAL. —A-low shoe made principally (although not 
exclusively in the past) for women’s wear, having a flaring 
tongue outside with a large ornamental buckle across over 
the waist. The buckle and tongue are distinctive features, 
whether the shoe fastens with tie or strap. This shoe is 
supposed to date from. Colonial days in this country, 
although examination of old-time prints will show that a 

‘shoe oftener worn (at least by men) had only a broad 
silver. buckle: without the. flaring tongue. In the strict 
‘Colonial’ :the flaring tongue extends above the instep, 
instead. of lying flat to: the foot, below the instep, as in the 
case of most of the ‘‘tongue pumps, 
sort of variation. of the Colonial, evolved by the addition 
of a tongue to the pump. 

CoLTSKIN.— This term is applied to split leather made from 
horsehide,' as _ well. as that made from what would be 
strictly considered a colt. Colts are used for food in 
certain parts of Russia, just as veal calves are used in this 
country, and the hides are a staple article in Russian com- 
merce. ‘The leather is of firm, solid texture, and has been 
much used in recent years for patent leather. 

CoMBINATION LaAst.— A last some part of which varies from 
the usual standard measurement; for example, being wider 
or narrower at the ball or heel than the regular standard. 
(See Last.) 

CoMFoRT SHOES.— Soft, flexible shoes with low heels, made 
for invalids or elderly "people. 

ConGcreEss GAITER.— An ankle-high shoe with leather or 
cloth top, adjusted to the ankle by a gusset of rubber 
goring in the sides instead of by laces, buttons, etc. 

CoprER Tor.— A copper boxing or lip, used to protect the 
toe, in children’s shoes. 

CorDovAN.— The adjective is derived from the name of the 
Spanish city, Cordova, wnich had an ancient repute for 
the making of fine leather, either from goatskin or horse- 
hide, the Spaniards. having ‘been for some centuries the 
world’s best tanners. Cordovan. leather from horse butt 
(rear part of horsehide) tanned with gambier and other 
vegetable tannings. Colored in black, tan, etc., and fin- 
ished on the flesh side. A very close waterproof leather 


’’ which seem to be a. 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


because of the impermeable shell i in this part of'the horse- 
‘ hide. Used in high grade men’s shoes. Tt is’ “expensive 
and is imitated in calf and sides. 

Corpuroy.— A ribbed velvet-like fabric. One ‘objection to 
it as a shoe material is that it is thicker than some fabrics 
in common use, tending. to give toes and ankles ‘ a clumsy 
appearance. — _ 

CoTHuRNE.— An ancient type of Roman oie shoe, ‘laced 
about the ankle, recently revived by French shoemakers. 

CounTER.— A piece of. stiffening material» which passes 
around the heel of the shoe to support the outer leather and 
prevent the shoes from running over. Counters are made 
of sole leather, split leather, pasted (thin splits and skiv- 
ings) canvas backs, cemented (two thin leather pieces with 
leather board between) fibre board jand leather board. 
Counters are shaved thin at the edges and shaped by 
machinery. In women’s pumps the counter is sometimes 
extended forward in the inner side, almost to the ball of 
the foot. In heavy shoes for miners, furnace men and iron 
workers, metal counters are sometimes used on ‘the outside 
of the shoe. 

Court Tir.— A men’s low, straight-topped Oxford usually 
in patent leather, with black silk tie, and ofa type which 
is- prescribed by court ceremonial dress requirements in 
England and other countries, whence the name. Also 
applied to women’s two or three eyelet ties usually on 
Blucher pattern. It is often used as a dancing shoe by 
men who find pumps uncomfortable - aia, lacking - 
adjustment. 

Cowsoy Boots.— A peculiar type of leg boot ‘with high, 
fancy tops, with very high heels, of approximately Cuban 
contour. These boots were and are worn by Western 
cowboys, who are seldom on foot. One purpose of the 
high heel is to prevent the foot slipping forward in the 
stirrup, in riding horseback. 

CowHIDE.— Used to refer to cattle hides weighing. from 25 
pounds upward, green salted, also the leather.made from 
such. hides. (See Hides, also ’Calfskin.) : 

CREASER.— An implement for |making parallel creases or 
straight wrinkles in the vamp of the shoe across the ball, 
causing the shoe to break evenly. 

CREEDMORE.— A cheap, heavy shoe for mien; ‘Blucher cut, 
with bellows tongue. 

CREOLE.— A heavy workshoe of the “Congress” type; that 
is, having rubber goring in the sides... ~ 

Crimp.— To shape to the front of the foot thie one-piece 
vamp and leg of a highside-seam boot, or riding 

CrimpeD Vamp.— A vamp which runs in one piece to the 
ankle or higher, as in the ‘“‘nullifier,"’ or in. side-seam leg 
boots. for farm use, etc. 

Curr.— A strip. of leather, wider ‘fine a “collar,” “sewed 
around the top of a shoe. Both_“collar’”” and “cufk” are 
used principally for ornamental effect. 

CuprED SOLE.— Applied to the depressions i ina sole caused 
by the ball of the foot in wearing. Shoes the soles of 
which are much “‘cupped”’ sometimes present. a difficult 


itself. 

CusHION SOLE.-— A padded innersole. 

Custom Mapr.— Made by hand to the customer’s special 
order and measurement. The term is also used to apply to 
factory-made shoes which are designed upon conservative 
models which have been in common use ‘in. ‘custom 
shoemaking, 

Custom Tor.— This designation was intended to celc toa 
toe of standard and unchangeable type, but in late years 
the type itself has been modified. The modern * ‘recede”’ 
toe is of similar design. 

CuT-oFF VamMp.— A vamp which is cut off at the tip and 
stitched to the tip, instead of continuing forward under 
the tip and being lasted in with it. It is claimed by makers 
of medium and cheap: grade shoes that this offers aa 
economy in leather which does not detract from the general 
cost-balance of the cheap shoe: 

Dom PeprRo.— A heavy one-buckle shoe with bellows tongue. 
This name was originally proprietary. The shoe was intro- _ 
duced at the time of the visit to this country of Emperor 
Dom Pedro, of Brazil, and was made in high grades.- The 
jack of adjustment was against it, and it eventually took | 
its place among styles of working shoes. 

DonGoLa.— Heavy plump goatskin, tanned with a combina- 
tion of vegetable and mineral acids, and having a semi- 
bright finish. The terms ‘‘Dongola,” “kid” and ‘‘Mor- 
occo”’ are sometimes loosely used interchangeably. The 
terms ‘‘Dongola’’ and ‘‘Morocco” are geographical’ and 
indicate the origin of the leathers thus named. (See also 
Cordovan.) The name was used a number of years’ ago 
as a proprietary name applied to antelope leather, 

Dress SHOES.— Shoes appropriate for use with formal 
attire, and for social occasions. The requirements of 
fashion’ are more exact there than in any other class of 
shoes, and’ the salesman should have dependable knowledge 
of what is deemed correct style. Men are perhaps in more 
need of guidance in this matter than are women 

DuLL CALF oR Kip.— Leather having’ a smooth but dull and 
unglazed finish. 


~ 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


Eciiese Tie.— Proprietary name of a one-eyelet tie for 
women, stitched close at the throat and having a small, 
pointed tongue. 

EDGE SETTING.— Finishing the edges of the soles with polish, 
applied under heavy pressure or by rubbing. 

Epce Trim.— This term refers to the method of finishing 
the edge of the sole. ‘‘Beveled edge,’ “round edge,” 

“square edge,” etc., are self-explanatory; “fudge edge,” 
having the welt seam hidden, close to the upper; ‘‘extension 
edge,”’ an extra wide edge. Fancy edge include a great 
variety of stamping and knurling. “Square-edged turns”’ 
are sometimes called “English welts” or “‘mock welts.” 
“Feather edge,’’ the thin edge often seen in ‘‘turned”’ soles. 

ELKSKIN.— A term applied usually to soft tanned calfskin, 
used in sporting and outing shoes. 

EmMBossED LEATHER.— Leather stamped or carved with 
various figures, geometrical and ornamental. A recent 
method of producing consists of cutting away a background, 
leaving the pattern in relief. 

ENAMEL.— Leather with a shiny finish on the grain side as 
distinguished from “patent’’ leather, which is usually 
finished on the flesh side, or the surface of a split leather. 

(See Patent.) 

Enc.iisu Last.— A term applied to a last the principal char- 
ate Sac of which are an extra long recede toe and low 


BNcLish WELT. — A Mock Welt. 

EveretTtT.— A type of men’s slipper low in the back, but 
coming up over the waist in front to the instep. 

EXTENSION.— The addition of a size or sizes to the standard 
measurement of a last, to allow for the forward curve of 
the toe, or the addition of a fraction of a size for each 
additional width above the sample width, in grading lasts. 
(See Last.) Also applied to extra width in edges of sole, 
or to the edge itself. 


EyYELetT.— An annular ring of metal, etc., inserted through | 


and clinched in the lace holes of shoes; “blind eyelet,”’ 
top invisible and bottom clinched; “worked eyelet,”’ a 
lace hole finished with stitching like a buttonhole. 

Fasrics.— A general term designating woven or knit cloths 
of any kind, made from animal or vegetable fibres, such as 
‘wool, silk, flax, cotton, etc. Fabrics of various kinds have 
been used in shoes for many years. 

Farr STITCHING.— Stitching applied around the sole, showing 
on the upper side; usually applied to a ‘“McKay”’ shoe to 
imitate a ‘‘welt.”’ 

FANcY SLIPPERS.— A general term applied to light slippers 
made for women’s indoor evening dress wear, and made of 
silk, satin or the finer leathers, usually with French heel or 
Spanish heel, and variously ornamented, with beading, 
embroidery, plain or jeweled buckles, etc. 

Faust SLIPPER.— A high cut house shoe similar to a “Romeo” 
with V-shaped cuts at the sides, instead of U-shaped 

and no goring. 

Fe.t.— A sheet made of fibres of wool, hair, fur, etc., matted 
together and ‘rolled flat, usually with sizing to give it con- 
sistency. It differs from a fabric, inasmuch as the fibres 
‘are not spun into threads and then cross-woven, but are 
merely allowed to drift intoaloose layer in a current of air, 
then flattened into a sheet under pressure. 

FILLer.— A light form of wood or other material placed in a 
shoe used as a sample, for display or in stock, to distend it 
to the appearance it would have when worn. A New York 
store introduced a plan of placing fillers in each shoe as it 
was put in stock, these being sold to the customer at a 
cheap rate to use as shoetrees. Light, hollow wood fillers 
are made by last makers, following the exact conformation 
of the different lasts they produce and therefore filling 

. = fitting perfectly the shoes which are made from such 
asts. 

Finprncs.— A general term applied to articles which are 
incidental or accessory to the manufacture, the trimming 
or the care of shoes. ‘The list includes practically every- 
thing in shoes except leather. As applied to the shoe store, 
it includes such articles as laces, polishes and dressings, 
shoe trees, foot powders, rubber heels, arch supports, heel 
‘plates, shoe horns, shoe brushes; insoles, fancy buckles and 
numerous other incidental articles. 

FINGER FoxEp.— Having a pieced Blucher quarter so cut 
that the heel foxing extends forward to the throat in a 
natrow strip below the upper part of the quarter, the lower 
piece looking a little like a hand with the fore finger 
extended. 

FINGER: STITCHING.— Stitching which reinforces the lapped 
quarter of a Blucher shoe. 

FinisH.— The final methods and processes of preparing the 
leather for use, or of polishing, buffing or otherwise treatin 
the soles of shoes upon completion. (See Bottom Finis 
and ‘Leather.) 

FittING.— The selection and adjustment of ready-made 
shoes, with reference to their adaptation to the foot of the 
intended wearer. 

Full information’ is given under the subject Lasts as to 
the scale of measurements, especially with reference to the 
additional Sree 

FITTING STOOL; 


low, slanting-topped stool upon which 
the shoe sa! i % 


sits when trying on a shoe, it having a 


ing t 


\ 


ledge on, esta the foot of the customer while adjust- 
oO. 


193 


FrixTuRE.— Any stand, bracket, hook, support or other 
device for displaying samples of the merchant’s shoe stock, 
in window or other parts of the store. 

FLANGE Hret.— A heel made with a flare toward the “top 
lift,’’ or bottom of the heel as the shoe stands when worn. 

FLat Foot.— A term applied to “broken arch.” 

Fiat Last.— A last with comparatively little arch or toe 
spring. 

FOLDED Epce.— An edge skived thin and cemented down 
in fold, as distinguished from an edge which is left as it is 
cut. Applied to the parts of an upper. 

Foot, Form.— A proprietary name for last or shoe made in 
close conformity to the natural outline of the foot. 

FootHotp.— A low rubber overshoe, having no heel, but 
adjusted by a light heel-strap; sometimes called ‘“‘Sunny 
South”’ rubbers or “‘sandals.’’ 

Foot Murr.— A fur or woolen: bag in which to place the foot 
for warmth while riding or driving. 

Foot PowpER.— One of various preparations, some proprie- 
tary, dusted on the foot for sanitary or strengthening 
purposes. 

Foxi1nc.— A piece of leather.forming (or covering) the lower 
part of the quarter of a shoe. In earlier days, when.shoe 
patterns were very simple, this term was loosely used as 
applying to the vamp also, and this use has not altogether 
disappeared. For example, “slipper foxed’’ (or. ‘“‘whole 
foxed’’) is a term applied to whole vamp shoes for. women. 
“Three-quarter foxed,’’ having a three-quarter vamp. 

FREAK SHOES.— Term most often applied to a wide, almost 
straight across toe, same. width,as at ball of foot,, usually 
used in conjunction with term * ‘freak last.”’ Also shoes. of 
style that might be classed as “‘insane novelties’’; shoes of 
style marked by bizarre, startling, unusual features, outside 
the limits of good taste. 

FRENCH CaLr.— Genuine French Calf was formerly imported 
to this country in considerable quantity.. It, was a wax 
finished calf leather of firm quality and high grade. 

FRENCH CHALK.— A soft steatitic chalk orjtalcum used to 
dust in shoes to facilitate their slipping on.the foot. 

FreNncH Foot.— Made with. a single seam in. the center.of 
the sole; applied to hosiery... 

FRENCH $1zES.— The French sizes for shoes run on a.scale of 
measurements, as well. as numbering, entirely . different 
from those used inthis country. (This. refers tothe 
explicit. meaning, of this term, notto. what is known. as 
“French Size Marking,’’ which see.) The size is about 
one-fourth of an inch. 


English French . 
: Sizes , Inches Sizes 8 
2 9 
21 35 
3 36 
33 ———_ 
4 37 
43 
5 38 
53 39 
6 : 
olen. 40 
Frodhabo sot def 
Ft 
8 11 42 
1 
: 43 
44 
45 
12-46 


French and English Sizes actual 
‘measurement in inches 


FRENCH S1zE MaRKING.— This term applies toa. system 
fe which probably did not originate in France). of marking 
merican or English size and widths. It is applied, 
fact, to.a variety of systems, the principal feature oe 
that it is a cipher or secret method, which does not reveal 
to the customer the actual size of the shoe. A great variety 
are in use — too many, in fact, as it makes trouble for the 


194 


manufacturer. In marking the widths, instead of using 

’ the ordinary lettering, arbitrary numbers are used. For 
example, if you put down the number 10 to indicate AA 
widths, then 11 would represent A, 12 would represent B, 
etc. Your key sheet for widths would stand thus: — 
Widths tate ae cic cart AA AB D £E EE 
Your width markings..... 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

In marking the Sizes, start in the same way with some 
arbitrary number. For example, use 20 for size 1, 20- for 
sizes 14, etc. Your key to size marks would stand thus: 
Sizes. es ee 17S Te eo et oes 4 42 ete. 
Your marks ere 20: 20= *21°? 215 22 22-23. 23-, €tes 

In using such a system, the width number would be set 
down first, with the size number following. For example, 
the mark for a 4B shoe would be simply the figures 1223. 
The ‘‘12,” as shown above, would stand for B width and 
*23"’ for 4 in size. 

Stock being once marked in this way, all that would be 
necessary for the sales force would be to keep in mind the 
key and translate backward. For example, a shoe is 
marked’ 1521-; the ‘'5’’ of the 15 indicates the fifth letter 
of the alphabet or E, which gives the width; add one to 
the “1,” which gives you size 2, the dash indicating the 
half size; the shoe is therefore a No. 24, E width. The 
second and fourth figures are the principal ones. This is 
only an example of many such keys. The principal pur- 
pose of all such markings is to avoid all controversy with 
customers over sizes. Many strong firms, however, have 
discarded them and have educated their customers to 
depend upon the store’s expert knowledge of fitting, with- 
out regard to the marked size. (See Size.) 

Fupce Iepce.— An edge stitched very close to the upper and 
trimmed close. 

FuL_t DousBLe SoL_re.— Having two thicknesses of outsole 
through to the heel. 

FuLit SERGE.— A fabric shoe made with a one-piece upper 
laced to the toe. 

FuLL, Vamp.— A vamp that extends forward full size and is 
lasted under, instead of being cut off and sewed to the tip, 
on the under side. 

GAITER.— A separate ankle covering, or ‘‘over-gaiter.” An 
over-covering for the foot, of cloth, adjusted with buttons 
and attached with a buckle and strap, or a band beneath 
the shank of the shoe. ‘‘Gaiter boot,’’ one designed in 
imitation of a boot with over-gaiter. Gaiter —a term also 
applied to a Congress shoe. (See Spat.) 

Giazep Kip.— The principal form in which tanned goatskin 
(kid) is finished for use as shoe leather, either black or tan 
colored. The skins are tanned usuaily ‘by the chromic acid 
process (see Tanning), from which they come out almost 
white. ‘Blacking (or other color) is then brushed on 
thickly, and the skins are put through a machine which 
practically pounds the coloring matter into the texture of 
the skin, at the same time smoothing and polishing it. 

Glazed kid lends itself to dyeing in a great variety of 
delicate and beautiful colors for ladies’ shoes. The white 
are tanned with alum in addition as alum is necessary to 
give a white leather. ‘Goatskins for glazed kid are imported 
from all over the world. 

GLovE GrRaAIn.— A light, soft-finished ‘“‘split’’ leather, gener- 
ally used for women’s or children’s shoes. (See Split.) 

G.LucosE.— A variety of sugar chemically produced from 
starch. Certain grades of it have been used in tanning 
sole leather, in connection with extracts, and an abuse 
developed in leaving too much of it in the leather, thus 
adding to the weight by the introduction of a cheap mater- 
ial, which added nothing to the strength or value of the 
leather, but was charged for by tne pound at leather prices. 

GOATSKIN.— See Kid. 

GoL¥F DisKs.— Small rubber inserts placed in the bottom of 
golf shoes to prevent slipping. 

Go.tF HosE.— Heavy woolen stockings in fancy colors and 
plaids used in golf and other outdoor sports. 

GoL¥r SHOE.— Calf or cloth shoe, with or without hob nails, 
usually with ball straps —a.specialty for outdoor sports 
and golf. 

GorinG.— A strong knit fabric in which strands of India 
rubber are used, rendering it elastic to a large degree. This 
material is used in “Congress”’ shoes, also in other patterns. 
Congress shoes are often used by railroad track men, as the 
foot may be instantly pulled out in case of catching fast in 
frogs or tracks, with cars or engines approaching. 

GRAIN.— The outer side of a hide or skin, as distinguished 


from the ‘‘flesh” side. The term is also applied to leather 
made from or finished on the grain side of the skin. (See 
Leather.) 


Gun MeErTAL.— A proprietary name for a fine grade, well 


finished calfskin leather, chrome-tanned with dul! or semi- 


bright surface. 

GussEtt.— A side piece or insert of rubber webbing in the 
side of a Congress shoe. Sometimes applied to a full 
Blucher or bellows tongue. 

Gypsy SEAM.— A ‘seam running from the throat straight 
down the front of a shoe to the toe, making a ‘‘split vamp. 
HALF DouBLe SoL_r.— An outsole composed of one full sole 

to heel, with a slip sole above it. 

Har SoLe.— A tap sole; an extra outsole extending only to 
the shank of the shoe; 'to apply such a sole in repairing a 
partly worn shoe. 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


HARNESS LEATHER.— Leather similar to belting, and made 
from hides of cattle, bark-tanned and oil finished. 

HEEL.— The principal varieties of heels are named for their 
style or shape. The height of the heel is a leading con- 
sideration, and is usually expressed in eighths of an inch. 
“Cuban,” a high, rather straight heel, without the curve 
of the “French” or “Louis XV” heel, Which usually meas- 
ures an inch and a half or more in height, and is pitched 
well forward under the foot with a graceful curved outline; 
the French heel is most often made of wood, covered with 
leather, with a thickness of sole leather or “‘top lift”’ at the 

. bottom, sometimes made entirely of sole leather; “mili- 
tary”’ heel, a heel straighter than the ‘‘Cuban”’ and not so 
high; “Spanish” heel, a covered “Cuban”. heel; ‘‘common 
sense”’ heel, a low heel — which may or may not indicate 
teal common sense in the wearer or fitter, - The foregoing 
are all used in women’s shoes. The ‘ ‘military”’ heel is 
often used in men’s shoes. In children’s shoes, the 

“spring’”’ heel is a low heel formed by extending the outsole 
of the shoe back to the heel with a ‘‘slip’’ inserted between 
outsole and heel seat; ‘‘wedge’’ heel, one somewhat similar 
to a “‘spring’’ heel, but with a wedge-shaped “lift’’ nailed 
on the outside, instead of a “slip’”’ on the inside of the. out- 
sole. In the use of fabrics for women’s shoes, heels are 
often covered with the same material that the upper is 
made from. ‘‘Anatomic” heel, a heel made principally in 
men’s shoes, with the inner side extended forward to the 
extent of a half or three-quatters of an inch, the idea being 
to better support the arch of the foot. Aluminum hee!s 
are being experimented with, these being made of sheets cf 
aluminum, lacquered black to correspond with patent 
leather. ‘‘Breast’’ of the heel, the forward face of it. The 
height of a heel is measured ‘vertically, at the side, just 
back of the breast, and is taken ‘‘overall.’”’ That is, meas- 
uring from the top lift to the upper edge of the sole 
“Pitch”’ of a heel, its inclination forward under the foot. 

HEEL BraAce.— A metal brace or frame attached to the out- 
side of a shoe to keep the heel straight. 

HEEL Pap.— A pad of felt, leather, etc., placed in the heel of 
the shoe inside, and covering the insole at the point where 
the heel of the foot rests. 

HEEL Priate.— A plate of metal attached to the bottom of 
heels to resist wear. 

HEEL SEAT.— The rounded top of the heel of a shoe, including 
the ‘‘rand.”’ 

HEEL-stay.— A pasted lining of rough surfaced leather, such 
as suede, placed in the heels of Oxfords or other low-cut, 
shoes, to prevent the shoe slipping at the heel. 

HEMLOCK SOLE.— Tanned with hemlock bark liquor. A 
firmer leather than oak or union. Used for medium 
price men’s shoes and work shoes, chiefly nailed work. 
Used also by repairers, especially for heel top lifts... Cheaper 
than oak or union. See also Tanning. 

Hipes.— In its trade significance, this term is distinguished 
in meaning from the word ‘‘skins,’’ which applies to the 
skin of goats, calves, sheep and other small animals, the 
term “‘hides’’ referring only to those skins which are above 
25 pounds in weight, from cattle, horses, etc.; ‘packer 
hides,’’ those taken off in the large slaughter houses, which 
usually bring higher prices because greater care is used in 
taking them off. 

Hip Boots.— Extra high rubber boots used in fishing. or other 
outside work. 

HosnatL.— A heavy, large headed nail, used i in the soles of 
shoes to resist wear, or a shoe thus made. 

Horn.— The ‘‘shoe horn,” used especially to facilitate slip- 
ping on low-cut shoes, was originally made from a thin 
strip of cow’s horn, scraped smooth. 

Horn Fisre.— A proprietary name for a strong, resilient, . 
waterproof composition used in making counters. 

Huntinc Boot.— A laced boot, usually made with “bellows: 
tongue’’ and Blucher-cut, with waterproof sole, and used 
for hunting and other rough outdoor use. 

INLAY.— A contrasting piece of leather inserted under an 
opening in a shoe top and stitched fast thereto, for orna- 
mental effect. 

INSEAM.— The seam which ina welt shoe fastens together the 
welt, the upper and the insole. (See W 

INSOLE.-- The inner sole of a “welt” ae  eteKay* sewed 
shoe, to which the “‘upper’’ is stitched and the “outsole” is 
either stitched, nailed or pegged. This is an important 
part of the shoe, and requires good material. 

Tron.~—-A measure indicating the thickness of soles. It is 
one forty-eighth of an inch; a ‘‘twelve iron”’ sole is therefore | 
one fourth of an inch thick, etc. 

IroniNG OuT.—A finishing process for tops of shoes, by 
placing the shoes on _ trees and using a smooth, curve 
usually electric-heated iron. 

J —; Boot.— A heavy, all-leather fishing boot with crimped 
ront. 

Jockey Boor.—A high, straight top boot for children, 
usually with cuff or collar of different leather, and a tassel. 

JuLIET.— A negligee or house slipper for women, loose fittinz 
and with high front and back, having rubber goring at the 
sides. 

KanGARoo.— A fine, tough, cet ~ wer, made from 
imported kangaroo skins. pttch 2a ee: calfskin fin- 


ished in imitation of ger” og t 
KANGAROO S1DES.— Cr iste smooth boa other 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


‘buffed’’ 


vegetable tannings. Part of the grain has been ‘ 
Hand 


off or removed by hand with a special sharp blade. 

boarded. Used for work shoes. 

Kip.— Shoe leather made from the skins of mature goats. 
The skin of the young goat or “‘kid’’ is made into the thin, 
flexible leather used 1 in the making of kid gloves, being too 
delicate for use in shoes. The goats from which come the 
supply of kid leather are either wild goats or allied species 
partially domesticated, and are found in the hill regions of 
India, the mountains of Europe, portions of South Amer- 
1ca, etc. 

Kid is rightly regarded as the shoe material par excellence 
for women’s and children’s wear, as well as for light wear 
in men’s shoes. 

Kip.— A bovine hide or skin, weighing from 15 to 25 pounds 
(see Calfskin), or the leather made from such a skin. 

KNurRL.— To decorate by use of a wheel or tool, as the edge 
of soles, etc. 

Knur_Lep Bottrom.— Having the bottom of the sole finished 
with ornamental wheeling or tooling, running round the 
edge and parallel with it. 

Lace.— Laces are made of leather or fabrics, and of various 
lengths, according to the use intended. The standard 
lengths run by quarter yards, although there are some pop- 
ular intermediate lengths, such as thirty-inch, forty-inch, 
etc. Some ribbon laces, especially for women’s or chil- 
dren’s shoes, are sometimes furnished in continuous rolls 
or bolts, to be cut off by the dealer in desired lengths. 

Lace Hoox.— A metal hook used principally in men’s and 
children’s boots, above the instep, as a convenience in 
lacing, taking the place of eyelets. - 

Lace Stay.— A strin of leather applied up the front of a lace 
shoe to strengthen and reinforce the eyelets or eyelet holes. 

LapsTONE.— An iron plate which the cobbler holds in his 
lap and upon which he beats soles in order to give them a 
rounded shape or to solidify them, or on which he pounds 
down seams or folded edges with his flat-faced hammer. 

LARRIGAN.— A knee-high leg moccasin, or boot made with 
moccasin sole, sometimes having a wedge-heeled sole on 
the outside, and used by lumbermen in the snow of our 
northern forests and Canada, where the name originated. 
The moccasin foot is the distinguishing feature. 

Last.— The wooden or metal form or mold over which a 
leather or rubber shoe is constructed and which gives the 

shoe its shape. Lasts are turned to very exact measure- 
ments and proportions by the use of machinery. In the 
process of manufacturing welt shoes the insole is lightly 
tacked to the bottom of the last, then the upper is placed 
over the top of the last, pulled down firmly and tacked, 
the tacks being driven only part way in, the counter and 
toe boxing first being placed. This operation of pulling 
over and tacking is now usually done by 1 ingenious machin- 

Then follow the various processes of ‘‘welt inseam- 

ing,” ‘beating out,’’ etc., which prepare the shoe for the 

applying of the outsole, prior to which all the loosely 
driven tacks are carefully pulled out. 

Lasts are made from seasoned maple wood, are graded 
in an exact scale of standard sizes, each size, half size and 
width requiring its proper scale of measurements. The 
standard scale of last measurements for ball, waist and 
instep, as adopted in this country, is as shown in the sub- 
joined table. 


195— 


Last1inG Tacks.— Tacks which are used in thelasting of 
shoes. As the upper is pulled over the insole, tacks are 
driven about half-way in to hold the upper in place until 
it sets and molds itself to the shape of the last. These 
tacks are to be taken out before the out-sole is put on. ~ 

LEATHER.— An outer animal integument, tanned, tawed or 
otherwise chemically preserved, shrunk and toughened. 
Any skin or hide of beast, bird, fish or reptile may be made 
into leather. (See Tanning and special article on Leather.) 

LEATHER BoArD.— An imitation sole leather made from 
scraps of leather pasted and pressed together into sheets. 

Lrepce.— A shelf projecting out about a foot from the rest 
of the shelving, some three and a half feet from the floor, 
and used as a convenient place to lay a shoe or carton 
while selecting shoes for a customer. Some modern stores 
have discarded this feature. 

Lec Boort.— As distinguished from what is termed a ‘‘shoe” 
in America, a boot which extends some distance above the 
ankle without lacing. 

LxreGGInG.— A strapped or laced covering for the leg, extend- 
ing from the ankle to the knee. A ‘‘Puttee’’ legging is 
formed from a spirally wrapped strip of cloth. 

LEvANT.— A general term indicating certain processes ‘of 
tanning. 

LirTt.— One of the separate pieces of sole leather used in 
making a leather heel. ‘‘Top lift,’’ the last piece applied 
in making the shoe. 

Linincs.— Are cut and fitted with the top of the shoe and 
are made from drilling or other fabric, sheepskin, calf or 
kid. Leather lined shoes are by many considered too 
warm for indoor use. The lining is sometimes found to be 
a weak point in shoes, and, as with other portions of the 
shoes, good quality is necessary in order to withstand wear. 

Louis Hrrt.— The French heel; a covered wooden heel 
which pitches well forward under the foot with a gracefully 
curved outline, usually built with a leather top lift. 

Low-cuT.— The principal varieties of low-cut shoes are slip- 
fer, pump, tie, Oxford, sandal and Colonial. The pump 
is essentially a slipper, there being no fastening. Other 
varieties of slipper are mules, opera slippers, house slippers, 
Everetts, etc. Oxfords may be adjusted with lace: or 
button, and may be Blucher cut or straight lace, etc: 
Shoes with three eyelets and upward are usually classed as 

“Oxfords”; two eyelets, as “‘sailor ties’; one eyelet, as 
“court ties,’’ ‘‘Eclipse ties,’’ etc., the latter a proprietary 
name for a style of low-cut shoes. In these, as with all 
other forms of footwear, varieties once quite distinct have 
been merged into each other by modern shoe designers. 

LUMBERMEN’S OVERS.— A combination piece of footwear 
consisting of a felt boot over which is worn a heavy rubber 
Arctic; used by lumbermen and farmers in winter. 


Mat.— Dull finished, with an unglazed surface. 


Mar Kip.— A thin calfskin used for shoe uppers, having a 
dull mat surface and used principally in contrast with 
bright-finished calfskin, or with patent leather. 


McKay SEweEp (or simply ‘““McKay’’).— A method of shoe- 
making named for the inventor. The upper is lasted over 
an innersole, the last is then removed, and the outsole is 
sewed on by a thread which goes straight through from the 
outside, catching the upper and innersole, with the seam 
showing on the inside. The outsole, is usually channeled 


AMERICAN STANDARD LAstT MEASUREMENTS. 


Sizes 1 Lae ese Ze Oo! tte oe 

(SFA bet SA 9 Sika RRL ea 6% OF Ges OF tle wl de nals 

Pett VEL BAS Goes co Sicy- ged bysta ont 63 6§ 63 68 67 7 7 
[ADStEDa vee o- yersed ps5 Tonntk eel Rcaehed Geadd waialS 
NEE terete rad once caigh aha OS Of. Bile Me ohh asle 
ANY IST erat cc shh ance «os 63,; 68,008. oda: ashtuache walt 
eels adr tencat suet s: cory 1B, Heit £8 fStudares! eS, 

| LES Aree i Saal ea e Like FR dase Bac ke ah ged So 

CAV AIS ticeten cca tin: Gat fe Ghee le PY al Boned =U taal t 
IRIDISLOD ee aa kaa ne 1 pit laos Lad he cOc Ot ube 
TST 1 an tales 5 dialed Tel toe Ukaonhs nhGaadt 1.0 

Toa Wastin setts Seuayys cll, dor OR ed See Lh woe, Ue AE oho rait 5 
LIGSUE oe eatench: tun 1 uewer de 78 7% 8 82 8% 82 8% 
(il en aa aS 7% 75 78 7% 8 8 82 

ath A UVAISE Helen. Atk Aone osaiy « 7% 7$0.7% 78 7% 8.84 
Instep 8 (8k 88 8% 8% 8§ 88 


AF 5 aah 7 Gas Obds ee 1S Bs eke FO Ob, 10 10d Tt 
72) 74 7% 78 7% 8 8b 82 8% 8% 88 8§ 82 .9 
Taha a kS heen he 73 8 a 88 8§ 8%. 83% 8§ 8} 
7; 8 8h 88 8% 8§ 8§ 88 8; 9 9b 98 93 Of 
70 7e° Ty 8 ORE) 88 ORE Re ge 8g) BT 9 OR OR 
74 7h 78 7h 8 Bh 88 8) 8% 8) 88 87 9 Of 
BE 88 8 8h 8§ 8 8f 9 OF 9% 92 Of 98 98 
7i 8 8h 82 8% 8§ 8§ 8g 81 9 94 92 98 9% 
78. 7} 8 8h 88 8% 8h 8} 88 8f 9 Of 9% 98 
83. 8§ 8 88 8f 9 OF 98 9% 9% 9§ 98 9% 10 
Si 88 8f 8 BF 88 8] 9 9f 9% OF 94 OF 98 
8 8% 8§ 8% 8§ 8% 88 8% 9 . 9%..9% + 98 5 
8§ 88 8F 9 9 98 9$ 98 OF 98 9% 10 10§ 103 
83 8§ 8§ 88 8%- 9 9% 9% 93 .9§ 98 98 9% 10 
82 8i 8h 8} BB Bf 9 OF 98 98 94 Of 98 9% 
8%§ 9 OL 9F 9% 9§ 9F 98 OF 10. 10% 102 103 10% 


Graded in Women’s and Men’s Sizes. 


It will be noted that no meaurements are given regarding 
the toes of lasts. It has been said that ‘‘all the fitting is 
done back of the ball of the foot; you can do what you 
please with the toe of a last.” It is true that a great many 
modifications of toe shapes are made, while retaining the 
standard measurements of the other parts of the last. 


as with a welt sole, and pasted back over the seam. A 
sock lining is put in the shoe to cover the inside seam. 
Comparison with-the welt method-will show that this is 
a simpler plan, but it has the disadvantage of being less 
easy to repair. The McKay machine was one of the first 
sole-stitching machines used. Its introduction cheapened 


196 


the making of medium-priced shoes and it is still used to a 

considerable extent. The welt process has been much 

improved and facilitated within the past few years, some- 

nae she the disadvantage of McKays. (See Turn, also 
elt. 


CHANNEL. ~~~.-~LASTING TACK. 


CLINCHING POINT “STITCH gee, SHAY MACHINE 
‘\4 LASTING TACK. UNITING OUTSOLE AND INSOLE, 


Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe. 


MEASUREMENT.— The measuring of the foot for special cus- 
tom orders is an art which requires practical experience. 
Fine custom shoemaking is almost a negligible quantity in 
this country, except in large cities. A considerably greater 
proportion of custom-made shoes is to be found in both 
France and England. The principal points of measure- 
ments are the ball, waist, instep, ankle, and total length. 
Size sticks are constructed which give these details. (See 
illustration under Last.) In some cases special single- 
pair shoes can be secured from the factory which will meet 
the needs of a difficult customer. 

MrninG SHOES.— Heavy, hobnailed, oil-grain working shoes 
for ‘miners. 

Moccasin.— A heelless shoe made with a single piece of ‘soft 
leather turned up at the edges as the sole, this being 
stitched directly to'a low upper with a saddle seam. In 
some there is no upper, the sole being drawn over the foot 
with thongs. A recent innovation is the use of.a low 
wedge heel in connection with the moccasin sole: This 
shoe was invented by the. North American Indians, the 
name being from the Algonquin language. It is the char- 
acteristic Indian shoe. Modified forms, with tops ankle 
high, or higher, are used i in the snows of winter by Northern 


lumbermen. The “‘shoe pack’’ and “‘larrigan’’ are 
modifications. E 
Mock WeEttT.—A name applied to a square-edged, close 


trimmed turned sole. 

Mo.pepD CouNTER.— A counter made from composition 
leather board, etc. 

Morocco.— Originally a sumac-tanned goatskin leather, 
made in Morocco and stained red. It is still made there 
and elsewhere by that process, and used in book binding. 
This was the original significance of the term, but it is now 
applied to leather made in imitation of morocco, also 
applied in general to heavy goatskin of any vegetable 
tannage used for shoes, as well as to goatskin tanned by 
the chrome process. 

MouQuET SLIPPER.— A cheap slipper made of webbing or 
other coarse fabric, for house or rough use. 

Mute.— A slipper for women’s house use having a high heel 
but no counter or quarter. They are of French origin, and 
are usually made of satin, fine kid, etc., and ornamented 
with rosettes and the like. 

NapoL_eon Boot.— A leg boot designed by Napoleon, orig- 
inally used for soldiers, having a high wave top. ‘The 
Napoleon top was quite common in women’s boots a few 
years ago. 

NAPOLEON TAP SOLE.— An extra sole so beveled in from the 
edge as to be invisible from above. This is sometimes 
used for crippled feet in connection with a built-up heel 
the purpose being to sustain a crippled or shortened leg in 
such a manner as to reveal as little as possible the existence 
of a physical defect. 

NEAT LEATHER.— A term applied to bark-tanned cowhide, 
oil finished. 

NEAtT’s Foot O1.—A light oil obtained from hoofs and 
bones of cattle and highly esteemed as a leather dressing, 
especially for the side leathers. It is very commonly used 
by farmers in winter as a dressing for boots. 

NippEers.— Long-necked pliers, used to cut nails or pegs, 
lasting tacks, etc., from the inside of shoes. 

NuBucK.— A proprietary name for a white or cream colored 

_ buck leather. 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


NuLurFier.— A shoe with high vamp and quarter, dropping 
low at the.side and having a ‘‘U’’-shaped rubber goring 
inserted. These are made loose fitting and are generally 
used for house wear. © 

Oak SoLe.— Tanned with liquor or extract of oak bark. 
This is the best bark-tanned sole leather. Used for men’s 
fine shoes and more used by repairers than any other sole 
leather.. Can be sewed or nailed. 

Oax TaANNED.— Tanned with oak bark, the most common of 
vegetable tannings. This kind of tannage requires much 
more time than the newer methods which use mineral 
bie 6 ae but the leather produced is superior for most 
purposes. 

Ort Grain.— A heavy, baglianges side leather, finished in 
oil, with pebbled surface on the grain side of the skin. A 
split i is taken off the flesh side in order to reduce the leather 
to a thickness suitable for use in shoes. It was originally 
made, and is used still, for men’s heavy working shoes. 

OozE CaLtr.— A proprietary name given to velvet or suede- 
finished calfskin. The name has been one of those which 
became almost too popular, inasmuch as it is commonly 
appropriated and applied to everybody’s velvet finished 
calfskin. _As ordinarily used in the trade, the terms “‘ooze” 
and ‘‘suede’’ have much the same meaning. Some pro- 
cesses produce a leather in which the grain is buffed off and 
the velvet finish put on the grain side. Suede strictly is a 
velvet or nap finish of the flesh side of the skin, the grain 
being left on the other side, and thereby adding to the 
strength of the leather. 

OPERA SLIPPER.— The term is applied to any dress slipper 
for women and to a particular cut of house slipper for men. 
The former use is the more common. An opera slipper 
usually has a French heel, may have a whole or. circular 
vamp, and is usually made of satin or other fine fabric, or 
of high-grade kid, calfskin or patent leather, often orna- 
mented with beading, embroidery, | etc. 

ORTHOPEDIC.— This term signifies ‘‘of correct foot form.” 
It is used as.a proprietary name for shoes which make a 
acumen point of conforming to the natural outlines of the 

oot 

OvTSOLE.— The outer or bottom sole of the shoe. So far as 
the public is concerned, it is usually ‘‘the’’ sole, as s they 
know but little of interior construction. 

OVER-GAITER.— A cloth anklet extending down over the 
shoe to the vamp, usually buttoned at the side and fastened 
with a strap extending under the shank of the shoe. Its 
‘original use was with pumps or other evening dress shoes 
for winter wear. It has been at times used by men for 
day dress, especially abroad. 

Oxrorp.— A low-cut shoe, coming to the instep or lower, 
either lace, strap or button. It may be of Blucher or 
straight lace cut, and may have any form of vamp, etc., as 
well as‘fancy inlays, saddle welting, collars and other orna- 
mentation. It is made in men’s, women’s and children’s 
sizes. -The term is usually applied to lace shoes which 
have three or more eyelets, the “‘one-eyelet tie’ and ‘‘two- 
eyelet. tie’ being so distinguished. 

It is said that the shoe was first used in Oxford, Eng., 
more than three hundred years ago, in straight lace. The 
Blucher cut and the use of buttons were much later develop- 
ments. This form of shoe is one of the most popular and 
extensively used of all patterns for summer wear. It is 
low enough for a reasonable degree of coolness and at the 
same time is higa enough to have a complete adjustment 

. to the foot. Other lower forms become at times very 
popular for women, but the Oxford has never been wholly 
displaced at any time within recent years. ‘Plugged 
Oxford,” one with whole vamp and a separate lace stay. 

Pacx.— A name given to a lumberman’s shoe, made moccasin 
fashion, but with the upper extending to the ankle or above. 

Packer H1pEs.— Hides of cattle taken off in the large 
slaughter houses of cities. They bring a slightly higher 
price becaus; of the greater care and skill exercised in 
taking them off. Hides taken off by country butchers or 
by farmers are often nicked up by the skinning knives, 
and any cut in the hide damages the leather produced. 

PANCAKE.— An artificial imitation leather, made from leather 
scraps which are skived thin and cemented together under 
heavy pressure. This material is often used in heels, 
with a sole leather top lift. 

PASTED CoUNTER.— A counter made of more than one piece 
of leather cemented together. Sometimes a center of 
leather board or hard cardboard is used with a thin layer 
of leather on each side. These are, of course, inferior to 
solid sole leather counters, and are used only in cheaper 
and medium grades of shoes. 

PATENT LEATHER.— (Patent kid, patent calf, eet? Leather 
finished with japan or varnish. Any firm, dry-tanned 
leather can be used as the basis of this well-known finish, 
such as kid, calfskin, coltskin, side leather, etc. After 
tanning and drying, the leather is shaved to uniform 
thickness, and successive coats of black varnish are 
applied to the flesh side, the first coats being dried and 
tubbed down so as to work the varnish thoroughly into 
the fibre of the leather and also furnish a smooth coating 
for the last application. The last coat is applied with a 
brush, and the leather is allowed to dry in direct sunlight. 
The direct rays of the sun have a chemical effect, the 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


nature of which is not wnolly understood, but which seems 
to be necessary for the produciug of a firm, glossy coat. 
Various vegetable gums and oils are used in the making of 
the varnish. 

PATTEN.— A. wooden sole shoe or clog, used in Oriental 
countries, elevated upon wooden supports at each end. 

PATTERNS.— Metal or cardboard sheets from the outlines of 
which are cut the various pieces of the upper of a shoe, or 
the upper itself, as modified, by differences i in these outlines 
and shapes. 

PeBBLED. GoaT.— Tanned. goatskin, chet on. the grain 
side with a pebbled surface produced by passing it between 
rollers under pressure. 

Pec CutTer.— An implement for planing down and smooth- 
ing the inside of a wooden-pegged shoe or boot. This was 
formerly a leading item of equipment in all shoe stores. 

PEGGED Boot.—A boot the sole of which is attached. by 
means of wooden pegs. This method was. largely used 
some. years ago in the production of leg boots for men, as 
well. as heavy cheap shoes for men, women and children. 
The perfection of sewing machinery by the McKay, welt 
and turn processes DEPCH RAED) faiminated the peg, except 
in specialties. 


PEG. ; 
“CLINCHING POINT of LASTING TACK. 
Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe. 


Daiiiencadiorr. — The priaciszal us2 of perforation is for orna- 
mental purposes in the uwoper of.a shoe, usually along the 
line of seams, but occasisnally extending wholly or partly 
across the quarter. It is usually done by means of diss, 
and within a few years much variation in pattern has been 
made. Recently, erforations for ventilation have been 
used, with good results. 

PrEceD CouNter.— A counter formed of two or more pieces 
of leather pasted or cemented together. 

PipE.— To pull loose from. the stirface, forming a‘ hollow 
underneath, or to tipple up the surface; applied to the 
loosening of the surface of patent leather, which sometimes 
occurs. When the varnish coat ptlls loose, it usually 
cracks through soon afterward. .Thée same effect is pro- 
duced sometimes without actually pulling loose from the 
leather. 

PrpE Criay.—A clay of steatitic tale used for. polishing 
leather or for cleaning white leather. Material of this 
roe has come into géneral use in connection with white 
shoes. 

Pipinc.— A thin, narrow fold of jeather or other material, 
caught with a seam between larger pieces, or at the edge 
of an upper. 

Pitcu.— Inclination from the vertical; applied to the set of 
heels; more rarely to the inclination of the top of boots. 
PLow: Boots: A men’s solid leg boot} with top’ of eight 

inches or higher, made with side seams. 

PLuGGep Oxrorp.— An Oxford cut. with whole vamp, with 
a separate piece inserted in front and forming the lace stay 
and forward part of the quarter. 

PoLisu.— The making of shoe polishes has greatly extended. 
within the present generation. The old-style shoes made 
of leather: with the split side out required heavy, black 
pastes to coat the rough surface of split leather. For this 
purpose many pastes: containing lampblack, molasses, 
vitriol, etc., were sold. | With the introduction of, chrome- 
tanned dry leathers, with the smooth or hair side out, an 
entire change of formula was necessary. 

Pastes and liquids are in varying demand as the influence 
of habit, the enterprise of manufacturers or convenience 
may dominate. The pastes are easily applied, not liable 

‘to the accidents that affect liquids and are much in favor 
‘as a safe and’ convenient form of polish, The liquids have 


197 


the advantage of restoring faded colors, covering the dust 
in the seams and giving an appearance of newness that 
pastes cannot equal. A combination of a liquid for cleans- 
ing,-restoring the color, etc., and a paste for a burnished. 

. wax finish is superior to either alone and is in steady 
demand wherever fine shoes are worn. 

POLisH Gi. ex} “derived from Poland’’):—A term applied to 
women’s or misses’ front lace boots of the ordinary height 
of five or more inches, measuring from the heel seat to the 
top. This pattern of boot is said to have originated in 
Poland. At any rate, it received that name very early in 
its progress of perfection, and the name has been generally 
used ever since, here as well as abroad. It is distinguished 
from the bal as being of more than ankle height and from 
the Blucher in having the quarters meet. at the throat of 
the vamp, instead: of being stayed at either side and left 
loose at the:inner points. 

Prick-STITCcHED.— Having the stitches which attach the 
sole to the welt separately pinked out and indented on the 
upper side. 

PRINCE ALBERT. A’ men’s house slipper made somewhat 
like a Nullifier, except that it has a low quarter and is ‘cut 
with a split vamp; the seam running down the front. 

PRUNELLA.— A peculiarly woven serge oes formerly much 
used for shoe topping. 

PUEL STRap.— A small strap of tape or leather at the top 
of a men’s bal or lex:boot, used in’ pulling it on the foot. 

Pumice STonE.— A vitreous voleanié froth, sharply abrasive, 
used to produce nap on suede'and similar leather, or to 
clean them. 

Pump.— The lowest cut of all ordinary shoes, originally and 
usually consisting of simply a whole:vamp, sole and heel. 
It was originally designed for a dancing shoe, and: made 
principally for men. Within recent years it has come into 
very general use for women, in a form which is practically 
the same in cut as an opera slipper, except that the modern 
pump. for women is.used for street wear as well-as house 
wear and is made i1 ‘white as well as turns, and that it has 
a Cuban heel.. Beginning in about 1906, its use for this 
purpose became very prominent. 

Pump SOLE. ok light single sole usually with beveled edge; 
used in men’s or women’s shoes. The term was originally 
applied to light turn soles, but later has come to be applied 
to McKays:. 

PoutTtTEE.— A legging used by soldiers, riders, sportsmen, etc., 
which is wound spirally around the leg, from the ankle up 
to the knee. Of later years. all leg coverings detached from 
the shoe have. been termed “puttees.’’ 

QUARTER. — The back portion of the upper-of a shoe, covering 
the heel and attached to the vamp. Quarters may be 
whole or pieced, may be finished with collar or cuff at top, 
and may have a foxing of the same or different leather. In 
a lace shoe, a lace stay is added for additional strength; in 
a. button shoe, the inner and outer quarters are cut dif- 
ferently to allow for the lap over of the button-fly, which 

usually attaches by a seam down the-front, although the 
iiner quarter is sometimes run clear over without a seam. 
‘“Quartered over,” having the quarter stitched on outside 
of the vamp. . This is seen in the so-called .“‘gaiter, boots” 
for women, 

RaAnNov.— A piece of tether curved in the shape of a horseshoe 
aad. fitting around the top of the -heel.. The inner edges 
are shaved thin and this hollowing helps to form a rounded 
heel seat. 

Raw EYELETS.— Eyelets:which are merely holes through the 
lace stay, without the ordinary annular metal ring. .Strictly 
‘speaking, ‘‘raw eyelets”” are not eyelets at all. (See Blind 
Eyelets.) 

RECzDE.— Used as an adjective in the shoe trade, this term 
_applies to .toes. of shoes or-lasts .which are drawn down 
sharply towards the toe, so that the'top of the toe “‘recedes,”’ 
and. is comparatively narrow, and pointed. rather than 
blunt in out:ine. 

RESERVE. Shoes. which duplicate those on the, shelves 
stored conveniently and drawn upon from day. to day, as 
the “forward stock” (goods on the shelves) is sold. 

RETANNED. SipEs.— A side leather in, combination of chrome 
and vegetable tannages to. give it strength, softness. and 
resistance to, barnyard acids. Boarded and brush colored 
on the grain... Stuffed with greases: For’ use in heavy 
work and farm shoes. 

RIVER-DRIVING SHonS.— Shoes for lumbermen, with sharp 
spiked soles, used.in those lumber regions where rafting is 
a common method of getting out logs. All lumbermen’s 
boots. are: spiked; and. river-driving spikes are extra long 
and extra sharp. 

Roititinc LappEr.— A ladder fastened upon rollers. with 
floor track and _ upper frame, used to get at stock in stores 
where high shelving is used. 

RoMAN SANDAL. A shoe or boot for women or children with 
the front composed entirely of straps from the throat of 
the vamp to the top, each strap and space being ‘about 
equal ii width. 

Romeo.— A man’s slipper’ often’ of felt with hich-backed 
quarter and ‘high front and slashed low at the side. 

Roek StTiIrcHED.— Having a heavy corded stitching; as in 
m4 edges of soles or elsewhere, chiefly for ornamental 
effect. 


198 


RuBBER CEMENT.— A quick-drying solution of rubber which 
forms a very useful and powerful cement often used in the 
manufacture of leather shoes. 

RuBBER HEELS.— These are made for use in either men’s or 
women’s shoes, being supplied to stores and attached there. 

RuBBER SHOES.— There is a considerable variety of pattern 
in rubber footwear, from the low “‘footholds” to the fisher- 
man’s hip length boot. The most common use is as an 
overshoe or boot, to be worn over either leather or felt 
footwear. 

Besides regular and ordinary low cut rubber overshoes, 
there are a number of varieties, among which are the 
following: ‘‘Storm slipper’ or ‘‘Romeo,”’ with extra high 
front and heel; ‘‘Alaska,”’ a cloth top rubber storm cut; 
“self-acting overs,”’ so cut as to slip on without the use of 
the hand and with a rubber projection at the heel by which 
each shoe can be pushed off by using the. other foot; ‘‘clog,”’ 
an extra low cut rubber; “‘footholds,” or ‘“‘Sunny South” 
rubbers, rubbers for women which cover the forepart of 
the shoe only with a strap extending from the shank up 
over the heel; ‘‘Arctic,” a heavy cloth-topped, ankle-high 
rubber over, fastened with one or more buckles; ‘ 
excluders,”’ extra high rubbers of the Arctic type; “‘lumber- 
man’s overs,’’ extra heavy, buckled overshoes, intended for 
use over felt boots. 

Among rubber boots, besides the regular height, there is 
the half-high boot, the leather soled boot, the thigh boot 
and: the hip. boot, the latter being tne longest and coming 
up over the hip with a strap to attach it to the belt, and 
used for fishing, hunting, etc. 

“Belt combinations” are rubber overshoes of the Arctic 
type in combination with felt boots. Tennis and gym- 
nasium shoes are also made with rubber soles, usually with 
cloth or canvas tops. 

RUNNING SHOES.— Low, soft leather shoes with spiked soles 
used in. foot racing. 

Russet.— Means “‘tan color,’’ and nothing else, although it 
is often used when the word ‘‘Russia’’ is intended. Bark- 
tanned leather comes out a yellowish brown; that is the 
origin of the word ‘‘tan’’ as applied to shade; and the word 
‘*russet’’ was orignally used to refer to leather which was 
not blackened or otherwise colored, but was left in its 
natural tan color. 

Russta.— A calfskin leather finished by a process which 
originated in Russia whence the name was taken. Birch 
oil or tar forms a component part of the dressing which 
gives the leather:a peculiar fragrance. It was originally 
bark-tanned, although the name is now applied also to 
chrome-tanned calfskin. The Russian ‘‘Russia’’ was usu- 
ally dyed a deep red, and in this color is still often used for 
the binding of fine books. The grades which are made for 
use in shoe manufacturing are heavier and less expensively 
finished. They are usually finished in tan or brown, 
although black Russia has been more used of late years. 

Russtan Boot.—A peculiar cut of high button boot with 
patent leather top or cuff, also a tassel in front, popular 
in recent years for children. 

Sazsot.— A wooden shoe carved in one piece from a block of 
bass-wood or other light wood. It is quite common in 
Western Continental Europe, especially in Germany, 
France, Belgium and Holland. 

SADDLE SEAM.— A seam made by stitching through and 
through, the pieces being laid so that the edges are even, 
instead of being lapped. 

SADDLE WELTING.— A strip of leather stitched across the 
front. of a shoe running from the shank around over the 
throat of the vamp to the other side. 

SAILOR TiE.— A name commonly applied to a two eyelet, 
low-cut shoe, tied with ribbon lace. . 

SANDAL.— Originally an ‘ancient piece of footwear which con- 
sisted of simply a sole of leather fastened to the foot by 
thongs or straps. As used now, it refers either to women’s 
or children’s button and strap shoe or boot, or to a low- 
cut shoe for children, which is made with vamp deeply 
slashed and perforated for ventilation. (See Roman 
Sandal.) 

Satin.— A silk fabric of peculiar weave and glossy finish, 
much used in women’s slippers. It is sometimes made 
with cotton backing. This material, like most other fabrics, 
requires to be backed by a strong canvas-like fabric to 
which it is cemented. 

SATIN CaLF.— A grain-leather split, dressed with oil and 
smooth finished. It is made from the skin of a mature 
animal, not of a calf. 

Scoot SHop.— A shop whose policy is to get out pro- 
duction under simplest construction —once common in 
New England where small gangs of men raced to finish 
shoes quickly. 

ScotcH Epcre.—A wide extension edge, either welt or 
imitation. ‘‘Scotch outside’ and ‘‘Scotch inside” are 
terms which indicate wide extension on one side only, 
with closer trim on the other side. 

Screw FASTENED.— Having the sole attached to the upper 
-with screw nails, as in heavy work shoes. 

ScuFFER.— A light slipper; ‘‘Skuffer,’’ a proprietary name 
for a specialty shoe. 

SEAL GRAIN.— A split leather which has an artificial grain 
stamped upon it by passing it through steel rollers under 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


pressure. Tite strict application of the term is to side 
leather made to imitate the natural grain of a tanned 
sealskin. 

SERGE.— A twilled woolen cloth of firm texture occasionally 
used for shoe topping. Special weaves are always re- 
quired to supply the needed firmness and elasticity. 

SHANK.— A strip of metal used to stiffen the sole of a shoe 
between the heel and the ball. The name also applies 
to that part of the sole of the shoe. 

SHEEPSKIN.— Sheepskin is used largely for shoe linings. 
The skins of most varieties of domestic sheep are not 
strong enough to use for the outer part of the shoe. There 
are varieties, however, including some Asiatics, which 
make fairly tough leather which is sometimes used for the 
cheaper grades of women’s or children’s shoes. It is in- 
ferior to kid in firmness of texture, and tends to scuff 
and tear. 

SHOE.— Generally speaking, a garment for the human foot 
having a somewhat stiff sole and a top of lighter material, 
usually leather, though many other materials are used. 
It differs from the boots as that term is ordinarily used 
in this country, in not extending very far above the ankle 
and in being provided with some form of fastening, such 
as lace, button, strap and button, strap and buckle, or 
goring. It is distinguished from the slipper as well as 
from the boot. As used in America, it includes the Oxford. 
The English use of the term differs, in that it applies to 
Oxfords or low cuts, while those varieties of high. shoes 
known as Blucher, Bal, Polish, etc., are there referred to 
as “boots.” This use of the. term ‘‘boot’” is becoming 
more common in America. 

SHoE Horn.— A curved metal device to aid in slipping the 
heel of the foot past the counter in putting on a shoe. 
SHow CasE.—A glass-fronted or glass-enclosed case or 

box for the display of shoes or other goods. 

SHREWSBURY CALF.— A proprietary name for a fine quality 
of oil-finished upper. leather. 

S1pzE.— One-half of a tanned cowhide of any tannage or 
finish, the hide being cut down the back. 

SmE Lacep Boot.— A boot laced down over the ankle on 
either the inner or outer side, instead of in front. This 
is not esteemed as a very practical method of making 
shoes, but is usually to be found among novelty boots 
for women’s wear. .One form of the side-laced boot which 
is of practical usefulness is a specialty boot for extra- 
stout women, laced on the inner side. 

SipE LEATHER.— Cowhide, split. to thickness adapting it 
for use for uppers of shoes or for other purposes. There 
is a great variety of finish possible, and considerable 
variety in quality. The usuai method of finishing tanned 
cowhides includes cutting the hide in two down the back 
making two ‘‘sides’’ of it. The trade refers to “‘a side of 
sole leather,’’ meaning half a cowhide finished whole, for 
soles or other use; the term “side leather’’ refers to the 
cowhides as split, and includes the leathers more specially 
referred to-as the various kinds of “grains’’ and ‘‘splits.’’ 
Among these varieties are so-called ‘“‘satin calf,” ‘‘seal 
grain,” ‘‘box calf,’”’ “buff,” “glove grain,” etc. (See. Split.) 

$1zE.— The length measure of a last or shoe, taken on a 
certain standard, width and varying slightly as the shoe 
is made wider or narrower. The American and English 
series of size vary 4 of an inch. That is, size 8 is 4 of an 
inch longer than size 7, etc. The series of numbers begin 
with the smallest infants’ shoe, size 0, and run up to 134 
then back to 1 and up to 12, men’s size. 

In tabular form the sizes on shoes run as follows: 


Sizes Inches 
OE SRS 41 
dey Se Ges 43 
INFANTS’ Di Namie. 3s Uae 4 
Oto 5 35, Cae 54 
| Avitaek. BER . 53 
Se HS AS 5 
CHILDREN’S PHO FeO eA Gee 6 
5 to 8 nipiey Ao crag tree a ie 64 
bee res 63 
CHILDREN’S Q ee an yee ee 7 
(24 tun) ‘Bhoto MLO eo Pere et 734) 
143- ORR 72-|. LITTLE GENTS’ 
YOUTHS WANDE SM A074 Me, Pues rk | 10 to 134 
MISSES’ ) ASiceee alae, 00s 83 J 
11} to 24 | Alive Qua BSH 82 
POD ae 9 
3), SFR 94 
Boys’, 24 to 54 4 AE, BORG 93 
5 Sh. Spe 10 WOMEN’S 
GI Fe ARE 10} 2to 8 
Fi FOSS 103 
Bree oe 14°53! 
MEN’S, 6 to 12 GQIrts , POR SLT! 114 
LOSVE RE: SNe I 112 
AE Es ea ee aga 1 
1 na. ie ee 12% 


Size-strcK.— A rule for foot measurement having a fixed 
upright standard at one end and a sliding standard, the 
foot of which marks the sizes which are indicated on the 


LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS 


face of the rule. In use, the customer's foot is placed 
flat on the stick and the sliding standard slid forward to 
adjust. Ordinarily from 2 to 3 sizes above the stick meas- 
urement is allowed as being the proper size of shoe to fit 
the foot. , 

Sxkins.— The leather trade use of this term applies to the 
skins of small animals, such as goats, sheep, calves, etc., 
as distinguished from the term “‘hides,”’ this referring only 
to those skins from cattle, horses, etc., which are above 
25 pounds in weight, green salted. 

SKIVERS.— A term applied to thin slip soles placed in 
the bottom of a shoe as fillers. The word “‘skive’’ as used 
in the manufacturing trade means to shave or pare thin, 
as for example, the edges of upper leather where it is 
the intention to fold them under before stitching. 

SLipE.— A shoe ornament which may be described as ‘a 
buckle minus the tongue.’”’ This class of ornament has 
been.in very common use for a number of years in women’s 
shoes for street wear although it was always used to some 
extent in fancy slippers. 

Strip SOLE or Siip Tap.— A half sole running from toe to 
shank, between the regular outsole and the welt or insole. 
The term ‘‘slip sole’ is applied also to a thin insole, which 
is slipped into the shoe either to add warmth or to adjust 
it in fitting it to the customer’s foot. 

SLIPPER.— This term ‘applies generally to any footwear 
other than rubbers, which has no method of’ fastening, 

ing merely slipped on the foot and remaining there 
by tension of its upper ‘part. General varieties include 
bath slippers, the Everett, the Faust, the Juliet, the Romeo, 
nullifiers, opera slippers, all varieties of pumps, etc. The 
term applies also to strapped footwear for women or 
children, as ‘‘one-strap slipper’ or ‘*two-strap slipper,”’ 
tC , 

SLIPPER-FOXED.— Made with whole vamp. 

SMOKED ELK SipES.—A soft: chrome tanned cow or steer 
hide for work or athletic shoes. Very strong and tough 
and stays soft. Hung in a smoke-house to give it a color, 
imitating the Indian tannage. Called ‘‘Elk’’ because sup- 
posed to resemble Elkskin in appearance. Made in black 
and colors. 

SNEAKERS.— Rubber-soled» canvas shoes used for outing, 
tennis, etc. } > HR, 

SnuFF.— To take“a very thin shaving from the grain side 
of side leather. 

SNUFFED CHROME Kip.— Kips are coarser skins than veals, 
due to an older or poorer fed animal (grass fed). The 
grain if scratched or defective is snuffed. off by holding 
grain side against an abrasive wheel. Sponged over with 
black dye and finished dull. Makes a durable shoe leather. 
Snuffed calf and sides-are also»common. 

Sock LininGc.— The strip of smooth leather cemented inside 
McKay sewed shoes, the purpose being to cover the 

~ stitches, which in a McKay come directly through both 
outsole ‘and insole. 

Sort SoLe.— Infants’ shoes made moccasin fashion with 
soles of soft kid. 

Sort Tor.—A toe made without stiffening or boxing; 
sometimes called the globe toe. This is used in comfort 
shoes as well as in regular lines on men’s and women’s 
kid shoes for tender feet: 

SoLE LEATHER.— Heavy leather, dry finished, for soles of 
shoes. It is tanned and finished with a view to produc- 
ing firm, solid texture rather than extremely pliability. 
Hides of cattle are used, horsehides being usually too thin. 
Sole leathers made from green hides are best. 

SoLEs.— The bottom pieces of any variety of footwear. 
When the word is used without qualification, ‘‘outsole”’ 
is usually meant. 

(ERN TIE.— A two eyelet ribbon tie. 

potest HEEL.— A covered wooden heel, shaped like the 

uban. 

SPARABLE.— A heavy, chilled iron nail, spike-shaped, with 
a rough ‘head, commonly used around the heels of heavy 
work shoes. 

Spats.— Short for: ‘“‘Spatterdashes,” an English’ term ‘for 
cloth gaiters, buttoned or buckled around the ankle and 
fastened under the instep. 

SPEwinG.— A term applied’ to the formation of a substance 

— on the surface of leather, which is called bloom and which 
resembles mold or mildew. It is supposed to be caused 
‘by the exuding of some of the materials used in tanning 
or finishing of leather, and it does no damage to the shoes 
in the process of becoming thoroughly seasoned while 
in stock. It is readily wiped off. 

Spticep HEEL.-—A heel of double thickness; applied to 
hosiery. 

SpLit.— To shave leather into two or more thicknesses or 
the leather itself thus treated. ‘This is done to reduce 
heavy leather to a thickness suitablé for use in the uppers 
of shoes, upholstery, etc. The work necessitates the use 
of the splitting machine. 

SPORTING SHOES.— Shoes made for use in various games, 
hunting, etc. 

SPRING.— The amount of variation from a straight or hori- 
zontal line at the toe of a shoe or in the arch. The ‘‘toe- 
spring” of a shoe may be measured by setting it ona 
flat surface and measuring from the surface to the under 


199 


side of the sole at the toe. Shoes with but little toe spring 
are said to have ‘‘a flat forepart.”’ 

STANDARD SCREWED SHOES.—In making this type of shoe 
the tacks used in lasting are driven way in and clinched 
against the steel bottom of tne last. The heavy cutsole 
is tacked in place and fastened by meansof screws. The 
metal which forms this fastening is in the form of wire 
with continuous screw thread. . The machine, immedi- 
ately the screw reaches the inside of the. shoe, automat- 
ically cuts it off and feeds it to the next fastening. It 
makes a strong but stiff shoe.. 


LASTING TACK. 
\ STANDARD SCREW - 
CUNCHING POINT of LASTING TACK. 


Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe. 


STAPLE.— A general term applied to shoes embodying such 
features of style and make-up as render them subject to 
repeated demand. from: customers, as distinguished from 
the “novelty,” the “freak,’’ or the “ specialty’’ (which 
see); shoe which with minor variations in style or orna- 
mentation may be expected’ to sell in future seasons. 

STITCHED Down.— A simple form of shoe in which the upper 
is turned outward on the sole and stitched straight through. 
It was often used by soldiers in the Civil War. 

Stocie.— A heavy-pegged work shoe of the brogan type. 
It-may ‘be Blucher or straight lace. 

Storm Boot.— An extra high cut shoe, for women, coming 
well above the ankle, made of heavy leather and intended 
to meet bad weather conditions. 

Storm RuBBER.— A rubber overshoe having an extra high 
front and. back. : 

STRAIGHT Last.—’A last with comparatively little swing an 
of simple outlines. 

STREET SHOES.— Boots or low-cuts~of ‘solid construction, 
suitable for street use, especially in women’s’ wear, as 
distinguished from more delicate varieties of boot, or 
from most slippers. 

STYLE.— The material, cut, or. model, or combination of 
all, which is deemed to be in‘accord with favored stand- 
ards, or in fashion. 

SUEDE.— A method of finishing leather; or the leather 
itself. The word is French for ‘“Swedish;’’ the velvet finish 
is supposed: to have originated in Sweden, and it was 
applied originally to kid and not to calfskin. The process 
of making it involves buffing (which is a process 'of scour- 
ing or grinding) on ‘an emery wheel the flesh side of the 
leather, so as to produce a sort of ‘nap or velvety surface. 
Some makers of leather adopt a different process, buffing 
or scouring off the grain side of the leather to: produce 
the nap. 

SUEDE CaLr.— Skin of a very young calf finished on the 
flesh side by holding ‘this side against an abrasive wheel 
to raise a fine nap. Worn flesh side out for ladies’ shoes. 
Sheepskin is also treated this way. Calf makes the best 
suede leather for fineness and durability. ° 

Swinc.— The curvature of the outer edge of the sole of 
a shoe. 

Tan.— A yellowish brown color, the name of which indicates 
the origin. The color of unfinished oak-tanned leather 
is a tawny, yellowish brown or “‘tan color,’’ which is 
shortened into simply ‘‘tan’’ in ordinary use. 

TANNING.— Converting skins or hides into leather by an 
astringent acid derived either from vegetable sources, such 
as the bark of the oak, hemlock, willow, chestnut, sumac, 
etc., or with a-astringent mineral substances, of which 
Alum may be taken as a characteristic type. In general, 
any acid which has what would be called a ‘“‘puckery” 
effect will act upon a skin to convert it into leather. It 
toughens the skin, condenses it and coagulates all the 
albuminous matter so that it is no longer putrescible. 
That is to say, it preserves it from rotting. 


200 


It is only within comparatively recent years that mineral 
tannages have been in use. German chemists were the 
beginners, but the finishing development of chrome. tan- 
nage took place in this country, and Robert. Foerderer, 
late of Philadelphia, was well known as the originator 
of a successful process as applied to kid skins. His chosen 
trade name, “‘Vici,’’ has become almost a generic name for 
all chrome-tanned kid, although the name was simply 
his own proprietary trade mark. 

Tapr.—A partial sole; a half sole. 
the lifts of a heel. 

Taw.— To convert into leather by a species of dry tannage, 
such as packing of-skins in dry salt and powdered alum. 
This is used when it is desired to tan skins without re- 
moving the fur, hair, or wool for use as furs or floor mats. 

TENNIS SHOE.— A sporting shoe, usually with canvas upper, 
rubber sole and low heel. 

TuHonc.— A strip-or cord made of leather or rawhide. 

THROAT.— As applied to the vamp of a shoe, the central 
part of the opening, where the top joins it in front. The 
term is applied to thecorresponding part of lasts. 

Tiz.— A name for a low laced Oxford, with not over three 

eyelets. They are usually classified according to the num- 
ber of eyelets, as one eyelet ties, two eyelet ties, etc., 
and ribbon laces are generally used. 

Trp.— An extra’ piece covering the toe of the shoe, separate 
from the vamp, and lasted under with it; ‘‘stock tip,”’ a 
tip of the same material as the vamp; “patent tip,’ a 
patent leather tip;»“‘wing tip,” one having a point in the 
center and extending in curved lines’ backward at either 
side of the. Shoe; ‘ ‘straight tip,”’ one’ stitched straight across 
in distinction fromthe wing tip; ‘‘shield tip,” a tip resem- 
bling the wing tip-but not extending so far back; “‘diamond 
tip,’ one ending ina sharp. point. at the back toward the 
throat of -the= vamp; “Gmitation tip,’ stitching across a 
plain vamp to imitate a tip: 

ToncuE.— A strip of leather the end of which is attached 
inside the throat of a laced.shoe, coming up to the top 
of the shoe under the:lacing: «“‘Bellows tongue,” a broad 
folding tongue stitched’to the quarter at each side. 

TONGUE Pap.—A_ small pad fitted to the inner side of the 
tongue or button fly, to fit a shoe to a foot having an extra 
low instep. 

Top.— A. general term-applied to all’ parts of the upper of 

a shoe -usually ‘referring: principally to. the parts above 
the vamp. 

Top Facinc.— A binding or lining which is sewed. around 
the inner, part of the upper of a shoe atthe top. Leather, 
silk and. other materials are used, and the name. of the 
maker or dealer is often stamped, woven or printed thereon. 

Top Lirt.— The outer piece of leather in a heel. 

TREAD.— The floor surface of the sole of a shoe. ’ 

TrREE.— A last-shaped -block or. filler, usually adjustable, 

-» and placed.in shoes to. preserve’ their. shape. . They; have 
come into genéral’ use by wearers of shoes. 

TURNED SHOE.— A woman’s shoe having the upper stitched 
directly to the sole wrong side out, the shoe being then 

“turned” right side out, the process giving it the name. 
-, This method ‘is applied only to the making of ligat dress 
boots or slippers, with thin, flexible soles. 

Two-PIECE, COUNTER.— A counter. made of two: pieces of 
leather pasted. or cemented. together.. The same. method 
is sometimes used in insoles: 

UNION SOLE.— Tanned with a combination. of hemlock and 
oak bark liquors or extracts. . Not quite as firm as'oak sole. 
Used for women’s shoes and the: better grades for. men’s 
shoes. Sews well. Varies in color according to. propor- 
-tions of oak.and. hemlock used. 

UppER, — A.term applied colléctively to the upper parts of a 

» shoe, including vamp; quarter, lace stay or button fly, 
top facing, back stay, collar, etc.,.as stitched together-and 
- assembled. 

Vamp.— The. lower part, of the upper of a shoe, which is 
stitched .or otherwise attached to the sole. 

VEtourS.— A. French word meaning velvet. It-is used as a 
proprietary name for a soft finished calfskin, chrome 
tanned. 

VELVET.— A fabric. of. silk, consisting of a woven backing. 
- with a fine, closely clipped. pile or nap. heen warleties 
are made with foundation of cotton or linen. As used i 
- the -making -of shoes velvet is backed with a firm, shin 
cloth or pach ee which is cemented to it, to.add to its 

strength. 


Sometimes applied to 


VELVET FrIntsHep.— Finished ith a nap, as suede leather. ; 


produced. by grinding or buffing, 

VELVETEEN.— A’ cotton. velvet, or one mixed silk and 
cotton. 

VENTILATED .SHOE.— A shoe with cut. spaces or. perfora- 
tions for ventilation. . The barefoot sandal is a type, as 
used. in children’s shoes. Various patented. devices are 
also used.. One of the simplest forms consists of con- 
‘cealed. perforations in the vamp near the shank of .the 
-shoe, others continuing through the perforations in a per- 
forated tip. The popular increase of hygienic tendencies 
will eventually make. some such method essential in the 
building of summer shoes. 

VestTinc.— A fine silk-figured cloth, originally intended, as 
indicated by the name, for the making of fancy vests. 


LEATHER SUBSTITUTES 


When used for the making of shoes it is backed with a 
cemented layer of buckram to strengthen it. |. 

Vici.— A proprietary trade name for a brand of chrome-_ 
tanned glazed kid. The name has come to be generally 
but incorrectly used for all makes of chrome kid. 

VIENNA CutT.— As applied to a shoe upper, seamless except 
‘for a half circular seam down the outside of the foot. _ 
VISCOLIZE.— To render waterproof, as sole leather, by the 
use of emulsified oils or glycerine. Viscolized soles are 

frequently used in hunting or sporting boots. 

Waist.— The smallest part of that portion of the foot which 
lies between the instep and the ball, the corresponding 
part of a last. In the standard scale “of last measurements, 
the waist girth is five-eighths of an inch smaller than the 
instep and one-eighth of an inch smaller than the ball. 
See Last. 

WALKING Boot.— Any substantially built boot, for outdoor 
dress use. 

Ways Top.— A double curved cut of shoe top, highest in 

ront. 

Wax Catr.—A heavy calfskin leather with a wax finish. 
This is among the earliest and best methods of finishing 
calfskin leather. - 

WELLINGTON Boot.— A high leg boot, originally destened 
by the Duke of Wellington. for use by his cavalry soldiers. 
The high front comes to the knee, or above, ‘3 

WELtT.— A narrow. strip. of leather stitched. to a. shoe; a 
strip of leather stitched, across the upper; as most definitely 
and commonly used, the strip of leather which in welt 
shoes: is stitched fast to both the upper of the shoe and the 
insole at one operation, called inseaming, the edge of the 
strip then being stitched through and through, fastening 
to the outsole, the seam running around the outer edge 
of the sole, concealed on the under side by a channel or 
lip, which is cut in the sole and cemented .down. after 


A SEES eB VN BAS Ye 


bree ore re reared hy 
pp Rmoursoue Na 


\OORK FILLING~---.STITCH UNITING + 
usa : INSOLE UPPER ;: 
, AND WELT. of 


Lie oF INSOLE---” 
Cross Section of a ondreis Welt Shoe, 


finishing the shoe. . The term. ‘‘welt’”’ applies also tel the 
shoe thus made. -It is considered the best'method of ma’ 
shoes, except where extreme lightness is desired, when the 
single ‘ ‘turned” sole is used. The welt method is used 
in men’s, women’s and children’s medium. to high-grade 
shoes, and is the old hand-work method. The process 
of making the welt shoe involves a number of incidental 
machines, but the principal ones are the inseamer and the 

. outseamer. The machines principally used are those of 
the “‘Goodyear ”’ patent, and the term ‘‘Goodyear: welt” 
applies to the product.’ »‘‘Hand welt;"''a welt shoe stitched 
-by hand. . ‘‘Mock welt,”’ a -square-edged. turn. 

WHEELING.— A finish applied to the edge of a:shoe by means 
of..a.corrugated wheel; sometimes used on a McKay to 
imitate stitching. 

WiptH.— This term.as ‘applied to shoes means more strictly 
“girth.” (See Last,-for table of width measurements in 
inches: for: each size.) The variations. in. measurements 
are given in fractions of an inch, as. measured..with a 
tape-line laid round the foot or last. 

WiLLow .CaLr.— A proprietary name for a grained. calf- 
skin. (Willow bark is sometimes used in tanning.) 
WoOoDEN-PEGGED.— Having the sole attached by woodert: 
pegs-extending through the outsole, upper and insole;i as 

in coarse boots and work shoes. 

Work. SHOES.— Coarse, heavy shoes, Pete those for 
men, as the brogan, Creedmore, Creole, Dom Pedro, etc. 


LEATHER SUBSTITUTES. Owing to 
the increasing demand for leather in the manu- 
facture of shoes, belting and harness, the sup- 
ply of thin sections of hides suitable for 


LEATHER-TURTLE — LEAVENWORTH 


upholstery, bookbinding, travel goods, etc., has 
steadily decreased and its cost increased. The 
result has been the introduction of various 
leather substitutes. These are of two chief 
classes: (1) those which imitate the appearance 
of leather, and (2) those which also duplicate 
its general characteristics and durability. Inthe 
first class there are embossed papers, papier 
mache, oilcloth and light weight cloths thinly 
coated with rubber, linseed oil compounds and 
soluble cotton. In the second class there are 
strong, thick fabrics heavily coated and em- 
bossed with rubber or linseed oil, or soluble 
cotton compounds. The latter successfully 
duplicate the coloring, feeling and embossed 
graining of the best hide leather. While none 
has at this writing been made quite the equal 
of real grain leather, the best grades of leather 
substitutes are generally more durable than 
what is known in the trade as “split leather,” 
which is composed of the weaker fleshy por- 
tions of the thick hide, split away from the 
grain or hair side to produce thin upholstery 
leather. 

Split leather, coated with soluble cotton, and 
embossed in various grains, is really a variety 
of leather substitute, its base of tanned fleshy 
substance being about half as strong as the 
better grades of leather , substitutes having 
heavy fabric bases. Split leather, commonly 
sold as “genuine leather,” is the chief cause of 
disappointments in leather upholstery as it 
does not compare in wearing qualities with 
grain leather. The fabric substitutes most 
used are coated with a jelly consisting chiefly 
of soluble cotton in solution which carries the 
pement required to produce the desired color. 
The jelly in a fluid condition is spread on the 
cloth while the latter is moving over rollers. 
It is scraped to a thin coating by a knife set in 
the machine. Each coating is quite thin, suc- 
cessive coatings being applied to build up the 
desired body. The solvent evaporates during 
the coating process, leaving the jelly in the 
form of a tough, flexible film of pyroxylin 
firmly. anchored to the cloth. The plain coated 
cloth is then embossed by hot rolls. or plates 
bearing the desired grain, which is the last 
stage of the process. Two-color effects such 
as Spanish or Moorish finish are obtained as 
in the real leather process by flooding the 


grained surface with a darker coating and . 


wiping it off in spots to give a shaded or toned 
effect and to show a darker color in the “val- 
leys” than on the “hills” Leather substitutes 
are now extensively used for upholstering au- 


tomobiles, furniture, carriages, etc, and in 
various industries formerly dependent on 
leather. — 


LEATHER- TURTLE, or TRUNK- 
BACK, a rare marine turtle of the tropical 
seas (Sphargis coriacea), which has a leathery 
case. instead of a shell. It is the largest of 
existing Chelona, known specimens having a 
case four feet in length, and a live- weight of 
not less, than 1,000 pounds. When young its 
case is thin, soft and flexible, but as age ad- 
vances the jacket becomes stiffened by the 
formation within it of great numbers of little 
adjoining bony plates and the exterior shows 
strong longitudinal ridges. These turtles are 


powerful swimmers and wander throughout 


the oceans, feeding upon jellyfishes, crusta- 


201 


ceans, cuttlefishes and other animal food. Late 
in the summer it seeks some sandy shore or 
islet, where the female buries her eggs after 
the manner of other sea-turtles. These eggs 
are good to eat, but the flesh of the animal’is 
not of good taste, and is said to be unwhole- 
some. Much interesting discourse upon the 
curious structure, relationships and ancestry of 
this declining race may be found in Gadow’s 
‘Amphibia and Reptiles» (London 1901). 


LEATHERJACKET, common name for 
the trigger-fish of the family balistide. They. 
include the Balistes carolinensis of warm: At- 
lantic waters, including the Mediterranean, the 
Monacanthus of Australian waters and the 
Oligolites saurus. They are used as food in 
certain sections but are detested by sleeps 
as clever bait stealers. 


LEATHERSTOCKING TALES, a name 
given'a series of Indian and pioneer romances 
by James Fenimore Cooper (q.v.). The name 
Leatherstocking was given to Natty Bumppo, 
one of Cooper’s heroes. 


LEATHERWOOD. See CyriLia. 


LEATHES, léthz, Stanley, English clergy- 
man. and Oriental scholar: b. Ellesborough, 
Buckingham, 21 March 1830; d. May 1900..He 
was graduated at Jesus College, Cambridge;. in 
1852 and was ordained in 1857. He was ap- 
pointed professor of Hebrew at King’s Col- 
lege, London, in 1863, and in 1868-80 he was 
lecturer there.. He was one of the Old Testa- 
ment Revision Committee in 1870-85. He was 
elected ;prebendary at Saint Paul’s Cathedral 
in 1876,,-was rector of.: Cliff-at-Hoo; . near 
Gravesend, in 1880-89 and at Much Hadham, 
Hertfordshire, from 1889 until his death. He 
received an honorary D:D. from Edinburgh in 
1878, and Cambridge made him an honorary 
Fellow in 1885. In 1873 he was a delegate to 
the Evangelical Alliance in New York. Be- 
sides publishing many sermons and lectures he 
was author of ‘A Short. Practical. Hebrew 


Grammar? (1869); ‘Studies in Genesis? 
(1880.); . ‘The Foundations. of... Morality? 
(1882). 


LEAVE AND LICENSE, in English baie 
the defense to an action in trespass, maintain- 
ing that the consent of the plaintiff had been 
given to the trespass complained of,: thereby 
rendering the action void. 


LEAVEN, lév'én, a substance * producing 
fermentation, especially i in the making of bread, 
consisting of a portion reserved from dough 
already in a state of fermentation and used 
to cause fermentation in freshly mixed dough, 
resulting in a light, porous bread. The use of 
leaven is of great antiquity and has given rise 
to many figurative meanings of the term. 
Leayen is largely supplanted by its more con- 
venient relative, yeast, in modern bread mak- 
ing. 

LEAVENWORTH, | lév’én-wéerth, Elias 
Warner, American lawyer: ’b. Canaan, ey 
1803; d. Syracuse, N. Y., 1887. He*was gradu- 
ated at Yale in 1824; studied law with William 
Cullen Bryant at Great Barrington, Mass., and 
in the Law. School at Litchfield, Conn.; was 
admitted to the bar in 1827, and began practice 
the same year at Syracuse, N. Y. He was twice 
mayor. of Syracuse 1849, 1859; secretary of 
state of New York, 1854-55: president Board 


£ 


202 - 
of Quarantine Commissioners, 1860; 1875 to 
1877, he was .a member of Congress. He was 


a member of the State Constitutional Conven- 


tion of 1872. President Lincoln in 1861 ap-. 


pointed him commissioner under the convention 
with New Granada, He published ‘Genealogy 
of Leavenworth Family? (1873). 


LEAVENWORTH, Kan., the county-seat 
of Leavenworth County and one of the most 
important cities in the State, 26 miles north- 
west of Kansas City, on the west bank of the 
Missouri River, here spanned by two fine iron 
bridges, accommodating railway and ordinary 
traffic. The Missouri Pacific, Union Pacific, 
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Chicago, 
Burlington and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock 
Island) and Pacific, and the Chicago Great 
Western railroads enter the city. It is the 
eastern terminus of the Leavenworth and To- 
peka Railroad and is on the line of the Kansas 
City Northwestern Railroad. Leavenworth 
was founded by the “Sons of the South” in 
1854, and the following year received a city 
charter. It derives its name from Fort Leav- 
enworth north of the city, the oldest and most 
important military post on the Missouri River, 
built in 1827. Prior to the Civil War it was an 
important trading point and it was at Leaven- 
worth that most of the wagon trains across the 
prairies were outfitted. The city is the trade 
centre for a farming and coal-mining region, 
an inexhaustible coal deposit underlying the 
city at a depth of 700 feet, giving employment 
to over 1,000 miners, and yielding 60,000 bushels 
of coal daily. Besides its coal ‘mines, the 
manufacturing industries are correspondingly 
extensive and include flour mills, iron foun- 
dries, refrigerating plants, manufactures of 
mill machinery, mine machinery, stoves, steam 
engines, furniture, brooms, wagons, light. and 
heavy trailers, farming implements, road 
machinery, bridge and structural iron and steel, 
washing machines, soap and chemicals, - paper 
bags and containers, ice, candy and cereal 
foods. 

The city, which is protected from inunda- 
tion by a limestone stratum, is well laid out, 
electrically lighted, has an excellent.. water 
supply, and a complete system of. electric street 
railroads, connecting with Fort Leavenworth 
on the north, and the National Soldiers’ Home 
and Lansing Prison on the south. There are 
32 churches of all denominations, two -hospi- 
tals, Cushing and Saint Johns, three theatres, 
three national banks and three savings and 
State banks. Mount Saint Mary’s Academy 
for Girls is located three miles south of. the 
city and the school system of Leavenworth is 
one of the best in Kansas. It is the seat of a 
Baman Catholic bishop and has a fine cathe- 

ra 

The western branch of the National Home 
for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers is located 
three miles south of Leavenworth... It. com- 
prises 640 acres of beautifully kept grounds, 
equipped with the most modern ‘housing, 
amusement and welfare conditions, for accom- 
modation and entertainment of its 3,000 in- 
mates. The Army. Service Schools of. the 
United States army are located at Fort Leaven- 
worth in a magnificent building with a separate 
library building. The permanent capacity of 
Fort Leavenwoth is approximately 5,000 offi- 


LEAVENWORTH — LEAVES . 


cers and men and temporary cantonments. were 
erected during the Great War to accommodate 
approximately 3,000 more. The Disciplinary 
Barracks or Military Prison is located at Fort 
Leavenworth and in 1918 had approximately 
4,000 inmates with the capacity of nearly twice 
that number. The Farm Colony of the Disci- 
plinary Barracks maintatns a herd of pure-bred 
Holstein Friesian cattle which is one of the 
best herds in the West. It also has a chicken 
ranch which in 1918 produced approximately 
30,000 pure-bred chickens. A pure-bred Duroc 
Jersey swine herd is maintained by the Farm 
Colony on the large farm which is operated by 
them. The Colony also has several large 
greenhouses and the prisoners engage in both 
diversified and intensive farming and while 
learning these useful agricultural. trades are 
earning the right to reinstatement in the army 
and honorable discharge therefrom. ‘The Farm 
Colony established in 1918 an experimental de- 
partment operated in co-operation with the 
Kansas State Agricultural College and the 
Leavenworth County Farm Bureau for the pur- 
pose of experimenting in new crops. This is 
probably the largest development of the Farm 
Colony idea for prisoners in the United States. 
The Federal Prison occupies a corner of the 
Reservation and is the largest Federal Prison 
maintained in the United States and in 1918 
had approximately 2,500. inmates engaged in 
general mechanical work. This prison has the 
most modern equipment and has night schools 
with extension courses from the Kansas Uni- 
versity and the Kansas State Agricultural Col- 
lege. A very large bronze statue of Gen. U. Ss. 
Grant is located just north of the city on the 
military reservation and is said to be one of 
the best statues of Grant in existence. 

During the Great War a Community House 
for the entertainment of soldiers was opened 
in the city of Leavenworth and successfully 
maintained during the period of the war. ‘This 
afforded clean and wholesome amusement for 
the soldiers stationed at Fort Leavenworth and 
gave them an opportunity to meet the better 
element of citizens. In November 1917 the 
city voted bonds for the erection of a perma- 
nent Community House to be used as a Civic 
centre and school. The. management of. this 
building was placed under the Board of Edu- 
cation and the general purpose of it is to pro- 
vide a place for the holding of all sorts of civic 
and public activities and the discussion of 
civic problems and the development of civic 
projects. 

The city government of Leavenworth i is ad- 
ministered on the commission plan since 1909, 
Leavenworth being one of the first cities in the 
State of Kansas to adopt that form of govern- 
ment. Pop. (1910). 19,363; (1920) 16,912. 
Consult Burke and Rock, ‘History of Leaven- 
worth? (Leavenworth 1880). 


LEAVES, in the ordinary sense of ‘the 
word, are the structures on which devolves the 
duty of nourishing the plant. They invariably 
arise as lateral protuberances from the grow- 
ing-points or terminal vegetative cones of the 
shoots, that is, from a part.of the plant which 
is still in an embryonic condition. Im cases 
where a leaf seems to arise from an older part 
of a plant, as from the trunk of a tree, close 
inspection shows that it is. really developed 


LEAVES 


from a shoot perhaps not readily visible. Its 
growth is first at the apex, but this soon ceases, 
and is. followed by continuous enlargement 
throughout the tissues, by which the upper part 
or blade of the leaf is soon distinguished from 
the basal part, and the stalk or petiole (where 
present) is subsequently formed between them. 
The development may result in a variety of 
structures, some of which are far different 
from typical foliage-leaves, yet are strictly 
homologous; such are scale-leaves, bracts and 
the parts of a blossom (floral leaves). The 
higher the rank of the plant in the scale of 
development the more these diversities. are 
manifested; and the observations here to be 
made apply mainly to the phanerogams from 
the ferns (q.v.) upward. 

Leaves collect from the atmosphere the 
great essential of plant-food, carbon, and con- 
duct the processes of its assimilation, or, in 
other words, apply it by chemical conversion to 
the vitality and growth of the plant. In order 
to understand how they perform this function 
it will be necessary to investigate their struc- 
ture and properties. Each leaf is composed of 
three parts, an outside layer on each surface 
of compact, flattened, and usually colorless 
cells, forming a skin or epidermis; an inner 
part (mesophyll) consisting of irregular cellu- 
lar tissue and intercellular spaces. These cells 
of the mesophyll contain minute bodies 
(chloroplasts) of green coloring matter called 
chlorophyll, which also abounds in the bark of 
the stems of herbs and all other green parts 
of plants, and is the working element in their 
composition. Through the spongy mesophyll 
extends the network of veins which form the 
skeletcn of the leaf, and are at once its sup- 
port and its channels of communication with 
the other parts of the plant; these form the 
third part of the leaf. One other important 
feature must be mentioned—the breathing- 
pores, or stomata, These are excessively 
minute openings in the epidermis, which occur 
wherever chlorophyll lies underneath, but are 
most numerous on the under or earthward side 
of the leaves, where, on the average, about 
60,000 may be counted per square inch of sur- 
face, although in some leaves they are six or 
eight times as numerous. Each of these pores 
lies between the “guard-cells? which form an 
automatic valve, opening or closing the pore, 
by their swelling or shrinking, according to 
varying conditions and the requirements of 
plant-health, especially in respect to evapora- 
tion. The chlorophyll grains (chloroplasts) also 
change their positions in the cells so as to take 
all possible advantages of a weak illumination, 
or to guard against a bad effect from excessive 
light. 

Of the 10 essential elements of plant-food 
nine are drawn from the soil by means of the 
roots, but the tenth, which is the most import- 
ant and the largest in amount of all, is ob- 
tained by all green plants solely from the 
carbonic acid of the atmosphere and is taken 
up by the green leaves alone; also a little of the 
oxygen required. The air enters the stomata, 
is seized, as it were, by the chlorophyll, and 
within it is so decomposed (in a manner not yet 
explained) that the carbon is chemically ex- 
tracted and is transformed into plant-food and 
plant-substance, that is, is assimilated; and 
botanists restrict their use of the term “assimi- 


203 


lation” to this physiological absorption of car- 
bon alone. In order to be able to do this work, 
however, the leaves require the aid of sunlight, 
without which the chlorophyll becomes inactive, 
and in total darkness a green plant will speedily 
die of starvation, however rich may be the soil 
in which it is rooted. The “rest” of plants at 
night is thus accounted for; and also the 
greater rapidity of growth in northern plants 
where in summer they enjoy more hours of 
sunlight each day than southern plants get. 

But the service of leaves in the nutrition of - 
the plant does not cease here. They perform 
a most important function in the transpiration 
of water.. Plants must always draw from the 
soil a quantity of water far in excess of their 
needs, or of their capacity to hold, in order to 
get a sufficient supply of the mineral food dis- 
solved in it, but in exceedingly small quantities ; 
and after that sustenance has been extracted 
the extra useless surplus of water must be got 
rid of. This is accomplished through the 
stomata of the leaves, out of which water is 
always passing im gaseous evaporation or some- 
times even in globules. A secondary but most 
important accompaniment of this is the suction 
thus formed, by which the constant up-flow 
from the root-ends is maintained. 

A third essential office of leaves is as the 
lungs of the plant, which must breathe in essen- 
tially the same manner and for the same pur- 
poses as does an animal; that is, they must take 
up oxygen and give off carbonic acid. This 
independent process (the converse of the simul- 
taneous assimilation) is carried on steadily by 
all plants, night and day; but in those having 
leaves it is mainly performed by these organs, 
because they spread the greatest surface. 

In addition to these foremost and general 
services, leaves are adapted in particular cases, 
almost as numerous as the plant species, to such 
special purposes as a depository of food for the 
young plant in the cotyledons or seed-leaves; as 
bulb-scales in plants like. the hyacinth and lily, 
where part of the nourishment in the foliage of 
one year is stored up in the scales or subterra- 
nean thickened leaves, for the early growth and 
flowering of the next year; as bud-scales, form- 
ing the protective coverings of buds, as tendrils, 
pitchers, fly-traps, etc. 

These complicated requirements and duties, 
under varied conditions and circumstances, have 
produced the extraordinary modifications of 
form and texture which leaves present, and 
which must now be briefly considered. 

Forms and Arrangement of Leaves.—The 
typical and ordinary foliage leaf is a thin, flat 
structure composed of stalk (petiole) and blade 
(lamina) of symmetrical form, and growing in 
the plane of the horizon, so that one side (the 
dorsal) is presented upward to the sky and sun- 
shine, and the other (ventral) is downward and 
in shadow; and these sides usually present ap- 
propriate differences in texture, the upper sur- 
face being usually more smooth and compact 
than the lower. A great variety of textures, 
from. smooth, polished or waxy, to rough, 
downy or spiny, are distinguished by botanists 
and used in the description of plants; these 
variations of surface are largely defensive in 
their character. Some leaves have no stalk and 
are said to be sessile, in which case the base of 
the leaf may partly clasp or completely sur- 
round the stem, or be otherwise modified; 


204 


similarly the stalk takes many forms, sometimes 
with two lesser subsidiary leaves (stipules) at 
the base. The rigid woody centre of the stalk 
may continue straight on through the middle of 
the leaf to its apex, forming a midrib which 
throws out branches alternately on each side 
toward the margin of the blade, each again 
branching repeatedly and connecting with its 
neighbor, and so forming a network or skeleton 
of woody fibres which strengthen and support 
the leaf. These ribs are called veins or nerves, 
and the whole is the “venation” of the leaf. 
Such a simple leaf (for example of the beech) 
is called reticulate or net-veined. In a large 
class of cases, however, the branches of the 
midrib do not spring at approximately equal 
intervals along its length, but all diverge from 
a point near its base, making a palmately veined 
arrangement, as in the maple. This reticulate 
veining is characteristic of dicotyledons. In 
another very distinct type of venation, char- 
acteristic of monocotyledons, there is no mid- 
rib, but the stalk divides at the base of the blade 
into many equal veins which extend in a more 
or less curving line through the length of the 
leaf, converging at the apex; such a leaf’ is 
said to be parallel-veined, as in grasses. Upon 
the plan of the skeleton depends mainly the 
form of the leaf, of which a great number of 
variations are named in botanical manuals and 
used in descriptions of species, depending 
mainly on the character and extent of the in- 
dentation or incisions. 

The arrangement of leaves upon the plant is 
an important matter. That it follows certain 
regular plans is apparent in buds, which: when 
cut across exhibit their young leaves packed 
together in one or another of certain definite 
ways; and their relative position on the stem of 
an herb or the twig of a tree follows as a result 
of the law of growth in that group. The theo- 
retical perfection of arrangement, however, is 
often greatly disturbed by the interference of 
older leaves with the development of the 
younger, and by other causes affecting the un- 
symmetrical growth of the whole plant. The 
arrangement of leaves upon the stem, called 
phyllotaxis, is in most cases one of alternation, 
thus securing the uninterrupted exposure of the 
upper surface of the leaf to the sun. It is to 
obtain this exposure that plants struggle to 
become tall and bear their leaves most  pro- 
fusely at the summit; and that the branches 
of trees reach outward as far as possible; and 
the lower early leaves of many soon die off 
because shaded by the later, higher growth. 
The arrangement is carried out in two prin- 
cipal ways: the leaves are either alternate, one 
after another, only’a single leaf arising from 
each node or joint of the stem; or opposite, 
when there is a pair of leaves on each joint of 
the stem; but sometimes the leaves are whorled 
ot verticillate, there being three or more in a 
circle on one joint’ of the stem. The result of 
this arrangement in’ an alternate-leaved stem is 
to cause the leaves to follow one another up 
the stem in.a spiral manner; while’ any two 
successive leaves on the same species will also 
be separated from each other by just and equal 
portion of the circumference of the stem. The 
same principle governs the parts of the flower 
in which the sepals. of the calyx typically 
alternate with the petals of the» corolla, the 
petals with the stamens and the stamens with 


LEAVES 


the pistils, but it is often disguised in a very 
puzzling way, especially by the absence of one 
or more series of ‘organs. See FLOWER. 
Modifications of Leaves.— Leaves exist in 
other forms than the typical ones of foliage. 
Scales, such as those which envelop and protect 
buds in winter, and the seeds in cones, are 
leaves of simple structure which have no assim- 
ilative powers or functions; they most fre- 
quently originate from an enlarged leaf-base 
upon which a proper leaf never develops. 
Bracteal leaves, or bracts, are of similar char- 
acter and grow beneath and about the flowers, 
of which, when they are colored, they often 
form the most conspicuous part; but fre- 
quently they are green and are connected with 
true leaves by intermediate forms.. Both scales 
and bracts have been forced, under experi- 
mental conditions, to develop into true leaves. 
The modified leaves which form the flowers 
of phanerogams are termed “floral leaves,» and, 
as has been said, typically succeed one another 
in whorls from below upward, as sepals, petals, 
stamens and carpels.' The sepals are usually 
green and much like foliage-leaves; the sepals 
often retain a likeness, but the interior whorls 
usually bear no resemblance to leaves, yet occa- 
sionally, in ill-health, revert to a shape which 
betrays their origin and genetic history. 
Periodicity of Leaf Growth.— Leaves are 
a temporary part of the plant, arising and dis- 
appearing at more or less regular intervals, 
usually once a year.’ This is especially notice- 
able in the higher plants, some of which (an- 
nuals) die in autumn completely, surviving as 
species only in their’ seeds; others die down 
to the roots in the fall and put forth entirely 
new stems as well as leaves the following 
spring; while others, as shrubs and tree, die 
only so far as their leaves are concerned, put- 
ting forth new foliage after the stated period 
of rest: “This period is due to the arrival of 
annually recurring unfavorable conditions of 
temperature or moisture or both, when the 
activity of life in the plant is suspended and it 
ceases to feed or grow. In such a state leaves 
having no function are needless —in fact often 
harmful—and in many cases die and fall off 
in so sudden and conspicuous a manner that we 
say such trees are deciduous; while others, 
which we call evergreen, retain most of their 
leaves in a green condition until gradually 
replaced by new ones, so that the foliage 
seems to be perpetual. The brilliant colors of 
the dying leaves of many trees and herbs ‘in 
autumn are due partly to chemical changes in 
the decaying chlorophyll and partly to the ex- 
posure of pigment cells previously concealed by 
the abundance of chorophyll and other features 
of vital activity. The leaf drops because it no 
longer receives nourishment from the stem or 
twig. The cells at its base close up, transmit- 
ting no more sap, and in so doing separate from 
those in the base of the leaf, which is thus 
cut off and thrown away. ® © 
Bibliography.— The morphology, genesis 
and functions of leaves have been studied most 
deeply by German students, as Haeckel, Fritz 
Miiller, Gobel, Schwender, Marchlewski, Fisher 
and others: These and other authorities have 
been well summarized in the English translation. 
by Porter of Strasburger’s ‘Textbook of 
Botany” (1903). For the forms and nomen- 
clature of leaves, consult the botanical manuals 


LEAVES OF GRASS — LEBANON 


and textbooks of Gray, Wood and: other Amer- 
ican authors. Consult also Atkinson, ‘Ele- 
mentary Botany? (New York 1898); Coulter, 
‘Plant Structures? (ib. 1900); id:, ‘Elementary 
Studies in Botany (ib. 1913); Ganong, ‘The 
Living Plant? (ib. 1913). 

ERNEST INGERSOLL. 


LEAVES OF GRASS, a collection of 
Bossa by Walt Whitman (q.v.), published in 


LEAVITT, Erasmus Darwin, American 
mechanical engineer: b. Lowell, Mass., 27 Oct. 
1836; d. Cambridge, Mass., 11 March 1916. He 
was self-educated, receiving an honorary D.Eng. 
from Stevens Institute in 1884. He worked his 
way up through various’ machine shops and 
in 1860-61 was chief draughtsman for Thurs- 
ton, Gardner and Company, Providence. He 
was assistant engineer in the United States 
navy in 1861-67, but resigned and resumed his 
practice, specializing in pumping and mining 
machinery. He was consulting engineer for 
the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company in 
1874-1904, when he retired. He acted as con- 
sulting engineer at various times for the cities 
of Boston and Louisville, and for private con- 
cerns: He was a member of various engineering 
societies, and in 1883 was president of the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 


LEAVITT, lev’it, Joshua, American editor: 
b.. Heath, Mass., 8 Sept..1794; d. Brooklyn, 
N. Y., 16 Jan. 1873. He was graduated at Yale 
College in 1814 and. was. admitted to the bar 
in 1819. In 1825 he graduated at Yale Divinity 
School and in 1831 became editor of the New 
York Evangelist. He was an active member of 
American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833, and 
from 1837 to 1840 was editor of the society’s 
journal, The Emancipator.. He was an active 
promoter of the “Liberty”’ and “Free Soil” 
parties. In 1848 he became one of the editors 
of the Independent, retaining a position here 
until his death. He compiled ‘The Christian 
Lyre? (1834). 


- LEAVITT, Mary Greenleaf Clement, 
American temperance advocate: b. Hopkinton, 
N. H., 22 Sept. 1830; d. 5 Feb. 1912. She was 
graduated at the West Newton State Normal 
School in 1851, and in 1857 was married to 
Thomas H. Leavitt. She taught in various 
district and grammar schools and in 1867-81 
conducted a private school for young ladies 
~ and children. She was one of the organizers 
of the Boston Women’s Christian Temperance 
Union, was a member of ‘the state board of 
executives and later was national lecturer. In 
1883-91 she was secretary of the world’s W. C. 
T. U. and traveled in Europe, Australia, Asia, 
Africa, South America and many islands, es- 
tablishing branches of that organization. She 
became honorary life president of the world’s 
W. C. T. VU. in 1891. . She was a contributor 
of temperance and purity articles, stories and 
verse to the periodical press. 


LEBAND, 1é’band, John, English Non-con- 
formist divine: b. Wigan, Lancashire, 18 Oct. 
1691; d. Dublin, 16 Jan. 1766. He was ap- 
pointed assistant of the Presbyterian congre- 
gation in New Row, Dublin, in 1716 and later 
became pastor, remaining there all his life. He 
is famous for his writings in connection with 


205 


the deistic movement of the 18th century, 
which, while by many considered common- 
place, are of unquestioned importance in the 
literature of that era. Author of ‘A Defence 
of Christianity» (1733), a reply to Matthew 
Tindall’s ‘Christianity as Old as Creation? ; 
‘Divine Authority of the Old and.New Testa- 
ments Asserted? (1738), in reply to Thomas 
Morgan’s ‘The Moral Philosopher’; ‘Remarks 
on [H. Dodwell’s] Christianity not founded on 
Argument? (2 vols., 1741); his most important . 
work is ‘View of the Principal Deistical 
Writers that have appeared in England? 
(1754-56) ; “Discourses on various Subjects, 
with a ‘Life? prefixed (4 vols., 1768-89). 


LEBANON, éb’a-non, Ind., city and 
county-seat of Boone County, on the Central 
Indiana Railway and the Cleveland, Chicago, 


- Cincinnati and Saint Louis railroads, about 


30 miles northwest of Indianapolis. The first 
permanent settlement was made in 1824, and 
the city was chartered in 1875. Its chief in- 
dustrial establishments are grain elevators, 
a furniture factory, cabinet factory, separator 
factory, wheel works, mitten factory, condensed 
milk plant and canning. plant. The govern- 
ment is vested in a mayor, whose term of office 
is four years, and a council. The waterworks 
are owned and operated by the city. Pop. 
(1920) 6,257. 


LEBANON, Ky., city, county-seat of 
Marion .County, on the Louisville and Nash- 
ville Railroad, about 52 miles southwest of 
Lexington, the capital of the State, and. 70 
miles south of Louisville. It is situated in an 
agricultural region, and is the trade centre for 
an extensive section. The chief manufactures 
are flour, meal, furniture, wagons and. car- 
riages, wheels and hardwood flooring. There 
are also several tobacco warehouses. A large 
amount of livestock is shipped from Lebanon. 
It is the seat of Saint Augustine’s Academy. 
under the auspices ot the Roman Catholic 
Church, and of a public and parish high school 
and good graded schools. . Several churches 
and the city and county buildings are among 
the prominent buildings. The city owns and 
operates the waterworks, Pop. (1929) 3,239. 


LEBANON, Mo., city, county-seat of 
Leclede County, on the Saint Louis and San 
Francisco. Railroad, about 55 miles northeast 
of Springfield. It is situated in an agricul- 
tural, fruit growing, dairying and stock raising 
region and is the trade centre for a large ex- 
tent of country. Its chief manufactures are 
flour, machine-shop products, ice, barrels, lum- 
ber, bricks and dairy products. Its trade is 
principally in the manufactured products, live- 
stock, fruit, hay and vegetables. The city, 
though small, is a well-known health resort 
because of its mineral springs. The water- 
works and electric-light plant’: are the property 
of the municipality. Pop. (1920) 2,848, 


LEBANON, N. H., town, one of the county- 
seats. of .Grafton County, on the. Mascoma 
River, a few miles from its junction with the 
Connecticut River, and on. the Boston and 
Maine Railroad. It is. about 68 miles north- 
west of Concord, the capital of the State. It 
was settled about 1762, by people from the 
vicinity of Lebanon, Conn., who named their 


206 


new home after the Connecticut town. It is 
situated in an agricultural region, but the ex- 
tensive water power supplied ‘by the Mascoma 
River has made it an important manufacturing 
town. The chief manufactures are woolen 
goods, machinery, agricultural implements, 
wooden ware, men’s clothing, sash, doors and 
blinds, snow-shovels, flour, dairy products 
and lumber. It has large brickyards. Over 
1,500 persons are employed in the manufac- 
tories. The annual town meeting is still the 
governing power. Pop. (1920) 6,162. 


LEBANON, Ohio, village, county-seat of 
Warren County, on the Dayton, Lebanon and 
Cincinnati and the Cincinnati, Lebanon and 
Northern railroads, about 73 miles southwest 
- of Columbus, 30 miles northeast of Cincinnati 
and 22 miles south of Dayton. It was laid out 
as a village in 1802. It is situated in an agri- 
cultural region and its industries are connected 
with farm products. It is the seat of the 
Lebanon University. It has a Carnegie public 
library containing about 10,000 volumes. There 
is one orphan asylum; also many beautiful 
residences. The village owns and operates 
the electric-light plant, the gas plant and the 
waterworks. Pop. (1920) 3,396. 


LEBANON, Pa., city, county-seat of 
Lebanon County, on the Cornwall and Leba- 
non and the Philadelphia and Reading rail- 
roads, about 66 miles northwest of Philadelphia 
and 23 miles northeast of MHarrisburg. 
Lebanon was settled as early as 1700 by Ger- 
man emigrants. The borough of Lebanon was 
laid out by George Steitz, in 1750, and was 
first called Steitztown. It was incorporated in 
1820 and chartered as a city in 1885. It is 
situated in the Lebanon Valley, noted for the 
fertility of its soil; but the largest part of the 
wealth of the city comes from the quarries and 
mines of the vicinity. The Cornwall iron 
mines, about five miles distant from the city, 
the limestone and brownstone at the base of 
the mountains, the brick-clay, the iron ore, all 
contribute to the industrial wealth of Lebanon. 
Its chief industrial establishments are furnaces 
and foundries, rolling-mills, steel plants, 
machine shops, a very large nut and bolt works, 
chain works, silk factory, cigars and organs. 
The educational institutions are the public 
and parish schools, the Lebanon Business Col- 
lege, the School of Telegraphy, and four libra- 
ries. It has a large number of churches. Some 
of the prominent public buildings are the court- 


house, county-house and_ post-office. Pop. 
(1920) 24,643. 


LEBANON, Tenn., city, county-seat of 
Wilson County, on the Nashville, Chattanooga 
and Saint Louis and the Tennessee Central 
railroads, about 35 miles east of Nashville. It 
is. situated in an agricultural region, and its 
trade and industries are connected with farm- 
ing products. Its chief manufacture is that 
of cedar pencils. It ships large quantities of 
hay, butter and poultry. It is the seat of 
Castle Heights Training School, of Lebanon 
College for Young Women. and of Cumberland 
University, founded in 1842 by the Cumberland 
Presbyterians. The city has adopted the com- 
mission form of government and owns the 
waterworks and electric-light plants. Pop. 
(1920) 4,084. 


LEBANON — LEBANON SPRINGS 


LEBANON, Cedars of. See CrEpar. 


LEBANON, Mountains of, Syria, two 
nearly parallel. mountain ranges which, com- 
mencing at about lat. 34° 25’ N., stretch south- 
southwest toward Palestine, enclosing between 
them a valley about 70 miles long by 15 miles 
wide, now -simply distinguished by the name 
of El-Bukaa, “the valley,» but known anciently 
by the name of Ccelé-Syria (hollow Syria). 
To distinguish the two ranges that on the west 
is called Lebanon, and that on the east Anti- 
Lebanon; the Arabs, call the.former Jebel- 
Libnan, and the latter Jebel-esh-Shurky. 
Lebanon, which runs almost parallel to the 
Mediterranean coast, and at no great distance 
from it, may be considered as terminating near 
the coast, a little north of the mouth of the 
Litani, between Tyre and Sidon. It is the 
loftier range of the two, and presents almost 
a continuous ridge without any marked break. 
Its loftiest summit — Dhor-el-Khodih, in the 
north, has a height as given by barometer of 
10,060 feet. Anti-Lebanon has a much lower 
average height, and the culminating point of 
this chain, Herman, has.a height of 9,200 feet. 
The prevailing rock of Lebanon is limestone, 
of a whitish color, and from this its name, 
which means “white, is supposed to be derived, 
though others ascribe it to the snows. which 
cover it. There are iron and coal deposits, 
red amber and asphalt. The loftiest summits 
of Lebanon, presenting lofty precipices and 
wild narrow gorges, are almost absolutely 
barren; but at some distance below, vegetation 
makes its appearance, the pastures become 
verdant, and, by means of artificial terraces, 
cultivation is successfully carried on upon 
rugged slopes where it would otherwise be im- 
possible. The southern part of the valley is 
drained by the river Litany (Leontes), which 
has cut through the Lebanon a most beautiful 
gorge. A narrow gauge railway now runs 
through the Lebanon to Beirut. The inhabit- 
able districts are occupied toward the north 


by the Maronite Christians, a hardy and in- 


dustrious race, and toward the south by the 
warlike Druses. Numerous villages and con- 
vents are to be seen on the sides and summits 
of the cliffs. The forests of cedar for which 
Lebanon was anciently celebrated are repre- 
sented by a few groves on Lebanon, there being 
none now on Anti-Lebanon. (See Cerpar). 
The other prevailing forest trees are firs and 
oaks. The silkworm and the vine are largely 
cultivated, and olive, fig and mulberry trees 
abound. Considerable numbers of wild beasts, 
as the jackal, hyena, wolf, bear and' panther, in- 
habit the glens and higher peaks. Since the 
massacre of the Christians in 1860, which was 
followed by French intervention, the Sanjak 
of Lebanon has been under a Christian goy- 
ernor, nominated by the Sultan subject to the 
approval of the Great Powers. Pop. about 


* 400,000: 230,000 Maronites, 50,000 Druses and 


30,000 of Moslem faith. 


LEBANON SPRINGS, N. Y., village, in 
the township of New Lebanon, Columbia 
County, on the Rutland Railroad, about 25 
miles southeast of Albany. It is in a fertile 
agricultural. region, and is a favorite health 
resort because, of its. mineral springs. A com- 
munity of Shakers (q.v.) who live in the vil- 
lage and vicinity make brooms and baskets 


LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE — LEBLANC 


and cultivate extensive gardens. They sell 
considerable garden seed. See NEw LEBANON. 


LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, a co- 
educational institution, founded, in 1867, at 
Annville, Pa., 20 miles from Harrisburg. It is 
under ‘the auspices of the United Brethren. 
The college has five courses which lead to the 
degree of bachelor of arts; and normal, art, 
music, oratory and preparatory departments. 
In 1916 there were connected with the school 
25 professors and instructors, and 360 students. 
The college consists of seven buildings, a 
campus and an athletic field. There are up- 
ward of 10,000 volumes in the college library. 
The plant and grounds are valued at $293,000, 
the endowment $75,000, and the gross income 
is about $52,000. 


LEBEL, le’bél, Nicolas, French soldier 
and inventor: b. Angers, 18 Aug. ‘1835; d. 
Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine, 6 June 1891. He entered 
the Military School of Saint Cyr in 1855, 
served as captain in the northern army dur- 
ing the campaign of 1870, and ‘became director 
of the Musketry School at Tours, and in 1883 at 
Chalons. The same year he was appointed 
member of the commission on securing an im- 
proved rifle for the infantry. The commis- 
sion decided in favor of the small-bore rifle 
offered ‘by Lebel, and known as the “fusil 
Lebel,» which was introduced into the French 
army in 1886. He was present as colonel at 
the battle of Sedan, but sickness cut short ‘his 
military career, and in 1890 he was placed on 
the retired list. 

'LEBENSOHBHN, [a‘bén-son, Abraham Bar 
(pseud. ApaAm), Russian Hebrew poet and 


grammarian: b. Vilna, Russia, about 1789; d. 
there, 19 Noy. 1878. He was educated as a 


Talmudist, became interested in Hebrew gram- © 


mar at 11; and at 13, in accordance with the 
prevailing custom, he was married. He lived 
with his wife’s people the ensuing eight. years, 
engaged in teaching and pursuing his studies. 
He conducted a brokerage business for about 
15 years, and spent the remainder of his life 
in teaching. In 1848-64 he was on the teach- 
ing staff of the Vilna Rabbinical School. He 
early established a reputation as a Hebrew 
poet and his first volume of verse ‘Shire Sefat 
Kodesh? (1842) was received with enthusiasm 
as marking an epoch in Neo-Hebrew literature. 
His ‘was the first work of the new literature 
to rank with similar literature in western 
Europe and he achieved a high reputation in 
the centres of Hebrew learning. He was a 
rabbinical scholar of note and through his 
liberal tendencies became known as a leader of 
the new Judaism. He prepared an article on 
the condition of the Jews in Russia for 
presentation to Sir Moses Montefiore on his 
visit to Russia in 1846 in which he charged the 
Jews with responsibility for their own troubles, 
blaming their general ignorance, their lack of 
skills) as’ artisans, juvenile marriages, the 
ignorance of the rabbis and teachers, and ex- 
travagance for their condition. His remedy 
was that’ of governmental intervention. He 
collaborated with Benjacob in the preparation 
of a 17-volume edition of the Bible with a 
translation into German (1848-53). A second 
volume of his poems was published in 1856 and 
the third in 1869. He was author of a com- 
mentary on Benshew’s ‘Hebrew Grammar’? 


207 


(1874); an allegorical drama ‘Truth and 
Faith? (1867) ; ‘Poems in the Sacred Tongue, 
a complete edition of his verse (3 vols., 1895): 


LEBENSOHN, Micah Joseph, Russian 
Hebrew poet, son of Abraham Bar Lebensohn 
(q.v.);..b. Vilna, Russia,, 22 Feb....1828; . d. 
there, 17 Feb. 1852. He received a modern 
education, supplemented, by . his. father’s 
teachings and a course in philosophy under 
Schelling at Berlin. He made translations of — 
Hebrew songs when very young and engaged 
in-the writing of original verse at 16. _ His life 
and work were shadowed by the contraction of 
tuberculosis, which caused his death at 24. He 
produced verse which ranks above that of his 
father in beauty and pathos and in felicity and 
strength of composition, and is generally re- 
garded as one of the, most notable Hebrew 
poets. Among his translations is that .of 
Schiller’s version of ‘The Destruction of 
Troy»? from the ‘#neid? (1849). Author of 
‘Songs of the: Daughter of Zion? .(1851); 
‘The Harp of the Daughter of Zion) (1870). 
A complete edition of his works was published 
in 1895, and translations of his. verse have ap- 
peared in French, Russian ‘and German. 


LEBERT, la’bért, Hermann, German phy- 
Sician:, ‘b. Breslau, 9 June 18135; d: Bex, 
Canton Waadt, Switzerland, 1 Aug. 1878. He 
studied medicine. at. the universities of Berlin, 
Zurich and Paris,.and in. 1836 engaged | 
practice at Bex. He spent the winters of 1842 

in Parts, studying comparative, anatomy, 
lived in Berlin the winter of 1845-46 and settled 
in Paris in 1846, He was professor of medi- 
cine at Ztirich in 1853-59 and at Breslau in 
1859-74. He specialized in microscopic anat- 
omy, adding appreciably to the knowledge of 
pathology and biology. He conducted a series 
of special investigations in. the progress of 
cancer, tuberculosis and scrofula: . Author. of 
‘Physiologie Pathologique? | (1845) ;. ‘Traité 
Practique des Maladies Scrofuleuses. et Tuber- 


tuleuses>:,;; (1849) ;,..;.*Traité.:.Practique,, des 
Maladies Cancéreuses? (1851) ;. ‘Handbuch der 
Allegemeinen Pathologie und. Therapie? 
(1865); ‘Die. Krankheiten. des Magens? 
(1878), ete. 

LEBERT, Siegmund, German music 
teacher: b. Ludwigsburg, Wiirttemberg, 12 


Dec. 1822; d. Stuttgart, 8 Dec. 1884. He was 
educated in music at Prague and became a 
pianist and teacher of music in Munich. In 
1856 he, together with Faiszt, Bachmann, 
Laiblin, Stark’ and Speidel, founded the Stutt- 
gart Conservatory... While his methods have 
been superseded as unnecessarily laborious, he 
numbered many distinguished musicians among 
his pupils. He received an honorary Ph.D. 
from the University of Tiibingen and the title 
of professor from the king of Wurttemberg. 
Together with his colleagues of the conserva- 
tory he published an edition of pianoforte 
classics; and with Stark’~he was author of 
“Grosse Klavierschule> which went through 
many editions and was translated into English, 
French, Italian and Russian.. He was ‘also co- 
editor with Stark of Clementi’s. ‘Gradus ad 
Parnassum.? ) 


LEBLANC, le’blan, Maurice, French novel- 


ist: b. 1864. He is a brother of Georgette 
Leblanc (Mrs. Maurice Maeterlinck). He be- 


208 


gan his career as a writer of novels and scored 
his. first great success in 1906 when he began 
writing detective stories. His principal char- 
acter, Arséne Lupin, enjoys.a.fame equaled 
only by that of Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes 
in the field of detective stories, and his work 
has attained an even greater success than that 
of’ Emile Gaboriau, his predecessor in this 
field. His skill in handling his material has 
caused him to be compared with Flaubert and 
de Maupassant. He is a chevalier of the 
Legion of Honor. All of his later works have 
been translated into English and have. enjoyed 
a wide vogue on both sides of the Atlantic. 


Author of ‘Une Femme? (1893); ‘L’CEuvre 
de la mort»? (1896); ‘Arnelle et Claude? 
(1897); “Gueule-rouge-80 chevaux? (1904) ; 


€Arséne ‘Lupin? (1907); ‘Arséne Lupin contre 
Sherlock Holmes? (1908); ‘Nouvelles aven- 
tures Arsene Lupin? (1910); ‘Le bouchon de 
cristal? ~(1912); ‘La. Confession d’Arséne 
Lupin? (1913); “Teeth of the Tiger? (1914); 
“Woman of Mystery? (1916); ‘Golden Tri- 
angle? (1917), etc. 


-LLEBLANC,. Nicolas, French chemist: b. 
Issoudun,; department of Indre, 1742; d. Saint 
Denis, 16 Jan. 1806. He studied medicine, was 
appointed surgeon to the Duke of Orleans and, 
after the Revolution, administrator of the de- 
partment of the Seine. His name is associated 
with the process of converting common salt 
into carbonate of soda, a matter to which he 
turned his atterition in 1786, after the Academy 
had offered a prize of 2,500 livres for the dis- 
covery. His first endeavors did not yield a 
decisive result; but led to an accidental dis- 
covery by Dizé, an assistant of Jean Darcet 
(q.v.) at the College of France, through which 
success was attained. Prior to this time soda 
was obtained from natural deposits and the 
ashes of marine plants, the supply of which had 
become insufficient. With the Duke of Orleans 
and another, Leblanc and Dizé formed a part- 
nership and began to make soda. The Revolu- 
tion wrecked their enterprise. Despite his pat- 
ent for 15 years, secured in 1791, Leblanc was 
compelled by the committee of public safety 
to disclose the secret of the process, and the 
manufacture became open to all. After years 
of poverty and fruitless efforts for redress, he 
committed suicide. -The discovery of the essen- 
tial. features of the process was assigned to 
him. in 1855 by a commission of the Academy, 
although the claim of Dizé was. strongly ad- 
vocated. .As to the value-of the process itself 
there. is no doubt. It has made soda cheap, 
thereby facilitating the manufacture of soap, 
the cleansing and bleaching of ‘cloth, etc.; has 
promoted. the manufacture of sulphuric acid, 
and thereby the utilization of metallic. sul- 
phides; and has originated the manufacture of 
chlorine and of bleaching-powder. The Leblanc 
soda-process is still in extensive use, but is now 
dependent more on its by-products than on its 
output of soda One-half of the world’s,soda 
is now made by. the ammonia-soda or Solvay 
process. See Sopa. 


LEBON, 1lébon’, Felix Frédéric Georges, 
French general and tactician: b. Paris, 1845; 
d. 1907. He was educated at the Ecole Poly- 
technique and the Ecole d’Application, de l’Ar- 
tillerie et du Génie, and was#a lieutenant in 
the Franco-Prussian. War. He was’ promoted 


LEBLANC — LEBRUN 


regularly, receiving rank as general of division 
in 1902, and was. generally recognized as an 
authority ,on artillery. tactics. He became a 
member of the superior council of war in 1907. 
He was .a Commander of, the Legion of Honor 
and was the recipient of many foreign decora- 
tions. Besides writing numerous articles on 
artillery tactics and the use of explosives, he 
collaborated on the Revue dartillerie. sate 
-LEBRET, lé-bra’; Georges, French poli- 
tician: b. Etampes,. 1853. He received his 
LL.D, at Paris and in 1879 was commissioned 
by the Minister of Public Instruction to inves- 
tigate and make a report on leases and ‘on 
agricultural laws and customs in)» England and 
Scotland. He was professor of civil and crim- 
inal law at the University of Caen in 1885-91, 
and was then appointed professor of*financial 
legislation there. He served in the House of 
Deputies in 1893-1902, and in 1898-99 he: was 
Minister. of Justice... In 1902 he returned to 
Caen as professor of civil law. He edited the 
Revue critique de legislation et de jurispru- 
dence and was a recognized authority in its 
field. Author of ‘Etude sur la propriété fon- 
ciére en Angleterre? (1882) cleo 

LEBRIJA, 1a-bré’ha, Spain, city in ‘the 
province of. Seville, 44: miles southwest ‘of 
Seville, on the left bank: of the Guadalquivir 
and the eastern border of marshes: calléd “Las 
Marismas, and on» the Seville-Cadiz Railway. 
It has a ruined Moorish’ castle and a church 


which was originally a mosque, and which’ ex- ~- 


hibits a combination of Moorish, Gothic and 
Roman architecture. There. are deposits. of 
clay which supply manufactures of bricks, tiles 
and earthenware, and the city has a trade in. 
stock and country produce, Lebrija was set- 


. tled by the Greeks and is the Roman Nabrissa 


or Nebrissa. It was a flourishing town under 
the Moorish domination and was captured by 
Saint Ferdinand in 1249, but was lost. It re- 
mained Christian under the Castilian crown 
from the time of its capture by Andrew the 
Wise in 1264.. It was the birthplace of Elio 
Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), 
known also as Nebrissensis, tutor of Queen 
Isabella and a leader of the revival of learning 
in Spain, who assisted Cardinal Ximenes in 
compiling the “Complutensian Polyglot Bible.? 
Pop. 11,506. . e 

LEBRUN, lé-briin, Charles, French painter: 
b.. Paris, 24 Feb. 1619; d. there, 12. Feb.. 1690. 
He was the son of a sculptor, but early turned 
his attention to painting and became the pupil 
of P. Perrier and. S. Vouet. He was especially 
attracted by the Italian masters, examples of 
which he copied in the gallery at Fontainebleau 
so that-in his 15th year his works won the 
patronage of. Cardinal Richelieu. Chancellor 
Seguier provided means for him to visit Rome, 
and during his residence there (1642-46) he 
studied under Poussin, at the same time paying 
much attention to the antique and the paint- 
ings of ‘the early masters. In 1646 he-returned 
to France and assisted in founding the Royal 
Academy of Arts and Sciences, in which -he 
was successively professor, chancellor and in 
1683. director. He was also director of the 
Gobelin tapestry manufactory. In 1662 Louis 
XIV appointed him court painter, ennobled him 
and made him curator of his art collections. 
He was meanwhile engaged in decorating the 


LEBRUN — LECHEVALIER 


‘Apollo Gallery in the Louvre. In 1668 the king 
appointed him superintendent of works in the 
building of Saint Germain. He also decorated 
with paintings the royal chateau at Sceaux and 
designed the statues and. fountains for the 
park, etc. In 1679 he undertook his greatest 
work, the interior decoration of the palace at 
Versailles, and in the Great Gallery portrayed 
the achievements of Louis XIV. Very many 
paintings of his are still to be seen in the 
Louvre. His works are characterized by abun- 
dant invention and facility of execution; they 
reflect the spirit of the contemporary Italian 
school, but are marred by excessive straining 
after effect, flatness of design and falsity of 
color tone. His vast canvas, ‘Portrait of the 
Banker Jabech of Cologne and Family, is in 
the Berlin Museum. He exercised a despotic 
influence over the French art of his time. He 
wrote ‘Traité sur la physiognomie? and 
“Methode pour apprendre a dessiner les pas- 
sions.” ‘Consult Generay, ‘Le Style Louis XIV? 
(1885), and Jovin, ‘Charles Lebrun, et les arts 
sous Louis XIV? (1890). 


LEBRUN, Charles Francois, Duc be Pia- 
CENZA, French administrator: b. Saint Sauveur- 
Landelin, 19 March 1739;.d. near Dourdan, 16 
June. 1824. .He was appointed inspector of 
Crown-lands, later entered .the States-General 
and the Constituent Assembly, was appointed 
governor of Seine-et-Oise in 1791, sat in the 
Council. of Five Hundred, of which he was 
chosen president, and was made third consul by 
Bonaparte for services on the 18th Brumaire. 
In 1807 the reorganized the administration of 
the exchequer, and after a long retirement re- 
entered public life as governor of Holland in 
1810. He translated the ‘Iliad,’ the ‘Odyssey’ 
and the ‘Jerusalem Delivered.» Consult his 
‘Memoirs’? (1829). 

LEBRUN, Marie Louise Elisabeth, French 
painter: b. Paris, 16 April 1755; d. there, 30 
March 1842. She was trained under Doyen, 
Joseph Vernet and Greutze, and chose portrait 
painting as her specialty. She left a great num- 
ber of portraits in oil and pastel. About 600 
are identified as her works of which the most 
important are her portrait of herself with her 
little daughter (in the Louvre) ; her portrait of 
herself in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence; 
Marie Antoinette with her three children (in 
the museum at Versailles). In 1783 she was 
elected a member of the Academy. During the 
French Revolution she took refuge in the va- 
rious European capitals, where she painted por- 
traits of the reigning princes and members. of 
their families, as well as of the most famous 
people of the time. Few works of hers are to 
be met with except in private collections. She 
published ‘Souvenirs de ma vie? (Paris 1837). 

LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, called 
LEBRUN-PINDAR, French poet: b. Paris, 
11 Aug. 1729; d. there, 1807. His title “Pindar” 
is due to the form and the mythological allu- 


sions of his odes, not to any great poetical merit, | 


either in them or the lyrics, and as a satirist he 
alternately groveled before and libeled the same 
men. His best odes are addressed to Buffon. 
He excelled in the composition of madrigals 
and epigrams; the latter relate for the most 
part to his quarrels with other authors. 
LECCE, 1ét’cha, ancient Lycita, or LuptA, 
‘scuthern Italy. The town is situated in the 
VOL, 17—14 


Baptiste, 


200 


province of Lecce, on a plain between the 
Adriatic on the north, the Gulf of Taranto on 
the west and the Ionian Sea on the south. It 
has many interesting edifices, especially churches 
and convents, some of which contain admirable 
works of art. At the gate of Saint Biagio is 
a triumphal arch erected in commemoration of 
the entrance of Charles V. There is a public 
library and there are well-established day and 
evening schools and numerous charitable in- 
stitutions, It is the centre of a productive agri-. 
cultural district, and has potteries, wool and 
soap and important tobacco industry. Lecce 
was very flourishing during the Roman period, 
escaped the barbarians:and in 1000 a.p. was 
governed by its own counts. Pop. 36,200. 


LECCO, lék’ko, Italy, capital city of the 
province of Como, at the exit of the Adda from 
the Lake of Lecco, the southeastern arm of 
Lake Como, 16 miles northeast of Como and 32 
miles by rail north of Milan. The city is 
reached by steamer from Como and is 673 feet 
above sea-level. There is a medizval stone 
bridge over the Adda at this point, built orig- 
inally in 1335 and renewed in 1609. While an 
ancient town, Lecco is modern in its buildings. 
It is noted for its excellent schools, and pos- 
sesses a modern hospital, public library and 
similar institutions. It has been described in 
Alessandro Manzoni’s ‘Promessi Sposi,? and a 
statue has been erected to the author by the 
city. There are manufactures of silk and cot- 
ton stuffs, wax-candles, iron and copper works, 
brass foundries, olive-oil mills and wood-carv- 
ing. The town was presented to the bishops of 
Como in the 11th century, came into’ the pos- 
session of the archbishops of Milan in the 12th 
century and in the 13th century it was de- 
stroyed by the Visconti. In the 14th century it 
was fortified and the famous bridge across the 
Adda was built to unite it with Milanese terri- 
tery. It was made a countship in 1647. Pop. 
12,146. 


LECCO, Lake of (It. Lago di Lecco), 
the name given to the southeastern arm of Lake 
Como in Italy. Some of the large streams of 
the northern part of Italy flow into Lake Lecco. 
The town of Lecco and many pretty villages 
are on its shores. 


LECH, léh, a river which has its rise in 
the Alps, in Vorarlberg, Switzerland, at an 
altitude of over 6,000 feet, flows east and north 
until it enters Bavaria, after which its course 
is almost directly north to Donauworth where it 
unites with the Danube. Its length is 129 
miles. It is not a navigable stream, but it has 
extensive water power. On this. river, near 
Rain, about five miles below Donauworth, Tilly 
was defeated and killed, 5 April 1632, by a 
Swedish force under Gustavus Adolphus. 


LECHE, lé-ché, in zoology, the Onotragus 
leche, from South Africa. It is a water ante- 
lope, frequenting damp, marshy places and tak- 
ing to impassable swamps. It goes in consider- 
able herds, and may be known by the peculiar 
way in which it allows its horns to recline, al- 
most touching the withers. 


LECHEVALIER, _ 1é-shé-val’ya’, Jean 
French classical archeologist: b. 
Trelly, Normandy, 1° July 1752; d. Paris, 2 
July 1836. He was educated for the priesthood, 
but in 1784 he became secretary to the Comte 


210 


de Choiseul-Gouffier whom he assisted ‘in 
archeological researches in the plains of Troy 
in 1784-86. During the Revolution he traveled 
in England, Germany, Denmark, Holland, 
Sweden and Russia, and after his return to 
France he was, in 1808, appointetl director of 
the Library of Saint Genevieve: He believed 
that the site of Troy was on the hills above 
Bunarbashi, and he also maintained that the 
‘liad? and the ‘Odyssey? were written by 
Ulysses. Author of ‘Voyage de la Troade 
(1800; Eng. trans. by Dalzel,. “Description of 
the Plains of Troy’); ‘Ulysse-Homére ou du 
veritable auteur de I’Iliade et de l’Odyssée? 
(1829), etc. 


LECHFELD, lék’feélt, Bavaria, extensive 
stony plain south of Augsburg on the west bank 
of the river Lech. It was the scene of a de- 
cisive victory by the forces of Otto II over 
those of the Hungarians, 10 Aug. 955, resulting 
in the cessation of the Hungarian forays into 
Bavarian territory. sae 


LECHFORD, Thomas, American colonial 
lawyer: d. about 1645. He came to the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony in 1638 and was the 
earliest. lawyer in Boston. He was regarded 
with great suspicion by the colonial authorities 
on account of his profession and the nature of 
his religious opinions, and he found extreme 
difficulty in making a living. He, therefore, in 
1641, returned to England, where his book, 
Plain Dealing, or News from New England,’ 
was printed in 1642. It is a valuable source of 
information respecting details of early colonial 
life, and in 1644 was reprinted with the: new 
title, “New England’s Advice to Old England. 
A modern edition, annotated by J. H. Trum- 
bull (q.v.), appeared in 1867. 


LECITHIN, lé-ci-thin, in chemistry, a 
name applied to several phosphoretted fatty 
bodies, of very similar chemical and physical 
properties, derived from brain substance, nerves, 
blood, gall, the yelk of eggs, etc., and also 
from some vegetable substances (maize, etc.), 
and which appear as constant constituents of 
the cell substance of organized bodies. They 
are viscous bodies, insoluble in water, slightly 
soluble in cold alcohol, but very soluble in boil- 
ing alcohol and in ether. From their saturated 
solution in alcohol they crystallize in radially- 
grouped needles, which dry up in vacuo to a 
white powder. They may also be crystallized 
from glacial acetic acid. - Every lecithin is a 
fat containing only two fatty acid radicals, the 
third hydroxyl group being replaced by neurine 
in combination with phosphoric acid. The 
structural formula is — 


O——_——-C.H; 
“he \ 
nS a 
Se ca HO 
Stan 
CH:OR’ 


where Rand R’ are acyl radicals. 


LECKY, 1Jék’i, William Edward Hart- 
pole, English historian: b. Newton Park, near 
Dublin, 26 March 1838; d. London, 23 Oct. 1903. 


LECHFELD — LECLAIRE 


He was educated at Cheltenham: College and 
at Trinity College, Dublin, whence he was 
graduated in 1859, and in 1860 published anony- 
mously his first work, ‘The Religious Ten- 
dencies of the Age? (1860), followed in 1861 
by ‘Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland? 
dealing with Swift, Flood, Grattan and O’Con- 
nell, which appeared under his name in a new 
edition in 1871. An important ‘History of the 
Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism 
in Europe? followed in 1861-65 and ensured 
him wide reputation as scholar and thinker. 
His ‘History of European Morals from Au- 
gustus to Charlemagne? (1869) displayed a 
profound knowledge though its. conclusions 
were not always sound. His most elaborate 
and valuable, work is a ‘History of England in 
the Eighteenth Century? (Vols. I-II, 1878; 
ITI-IV, 1882; V-VI, 1887; VII-VIII, 1890), in 
which he treats very ‘fully of Irish affairs to 
the time of the Addington Ministry. In a new 
edition of this history, published in 12 volumes 
in 1893, the chapters on Ireland were removed 
from their original context and arranged in a 
continuous narrative occupying the last five vol- 
umes. This work is in reality a history of 
civilization for the period covered; treating of 
the forces contributing to the making of the 
19th century England, whether of native or of 
foreign origin.. Lecky’s other ‘works ‘are 
‘Poems? (1891); ‘Democracy and ‘Liberty 
(1896), in which he arraigns modern British 
political life, and makes some comments upon 
Gladstone which once aroused considerable dis- 
cussion; and “The Map of Life: Conduct and 
Character? (1899); ‘The French Revolution? 
(1904); ‘Historical and Political Essays? 
(1908). In 1895 he was elected to the House of - 
Commons as member for the University of 
Dublin, and in 1897 was sworn of the Privy 
Council. In politics’ he was at first a Liberal 
and from 1886 a Liberal-Unionist with an un- 
disguised aversion to democratic government. 
He became corresponding member of the In- 
stitute of France in 1894, and an honorary mem- 
ber of the Royal English Academy upon its 
organization. A biographical memoir was pub- 
lished by his wife (London 1909). Consult 
also Rhodes, J. F., ‘William Edward Hartpole 
ORT (in ‘Historical Essays,» New York 
1 ; 


LECLAIRE, Edmé-Jean, éd-ma-zhon le- 
klar, French social. scientist: |b. Aisy-sur- 
Armangon, 14 May 1801; d. Herblay, 10 Aug. 
1872. At first a farm-worker, then apprentice 
to a mason, he afterward apprenticed himself 
to a house-painter in Paris, and in 1827 began 
the painting business on his own account. He 
proved remarkably successful, and scon took a 
leading position in his:trade. . In 1835, the prin- 
ciple of profit-sharing (q:v:) was proposed: to 
him and in 1842 he began to put it in practice 
in his own establishment, dividing the amount 
available in. sums proportioned to yearly wages. 
A mutual-aid society which he formed in. 1838 
and reorganized in 1853 sustained itself from 
the latter year on the profits which were shared 
among the members: In 1864 the right to a 


~ division of the funds of the society was super- 


seded by a system of retiring pensions. —Le- 
claire was elected maitre of Herblay in 1865. 
In the company which he founded his plan of 


LECLERC —LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION 


distribution is still adhered to with continued 
success. 


LECLERC, lé-klar, Charles Victor Em- 
manuel, French general: b. Pontoise, 17 
March 1772; d. San Domingo, 2 Nov. 1802. He 
entered the cavalry service in 1791 and was 
aide-de-camp to General Lapoype. At the siege 
of Toulon he won the interest of. Napoleon, 
who thereafter held him in high regard. 
Leclerc accompanied Napoleon as his adjutant 
in the Italian campaign of 1796, and in 1797 
he was married to Napoleon’s sister Pauline. 
He served in the Egyptian campaign, receiving 
rank as general of division, and he afterward 
was engaged at Fleurus and Hohenlinden. He 
was placed in command of the expedition 
against Toussaint Ouverture in 1801 and suc- 
ceeded in securing the surrender of the negro 
governor and his forces, but himself fell a 


victim to yellow fever and died in San 
Domingo. 
LECOCQ, 1é-k6k, Alexander Charles, 


French composer: b. Paris, 3 June 1832; d. 
1 March 1911. He received his musical education 
in the Conservatory of the capital, under Bazin 
and Halévy, and the earliest of his operas, to 
appear was ‘Le docteur miracle,’ which had 
won the first Offenbach prize. His operetta 
‘Fleur de Thé gained him the widest recogni- 
tion. In this as in his later productions he fol- 
lowed the advice he had received from Offen- 
bach, that the operetta should be elevated into 
a work of art. His principal operettas are ‘Les 


jumeaux de Bergame? (1868); ‘Gandolfo? 
(1869) ; “Le beau Dunois? (1870) ; ‘La fille de 
Madame Angot? (1872) ; “Giroflé Girofla? 
(1874); ‘La petite Mariée? (1875); ‘Kosiki 
(1876); ‘Le dompteur? (1877); ‘Le petit duc? 
(1878); ‘La, “Rousette (1881) : ‘Plutus? 
(1886), etc. They are 42 in number, and have 


attained the most remarkable popularity in 
France and elsewhere. 


LECOINTE, lé-kwant’, Georges, Belgian 
naval officer and scientist: b. Antwerp, 1869. 
He was captain of the Belgica in the Belgian 
Antarctic expedition of 1897-99, ranking as 
second in command, and later published valua- 
ble reports of the undertaking. He was in- 
strumental in the organization of the Interna- 
tional Polar Commission which met at Brussels 
in 1908, and from 1900 he was scientific director 
of. Belgian Royal Observatory. Author of ‘La 
création d’une marine nationale belge>? (1897) ; 
‘La navigation astronomique et la navigation 
estimée? (1897); ‘Au pays des Manchots? 
(1904) ; “Mesures Pendulaires? (1907), etc. 


LECOMPTON, lé-kémp’ton, Kan., city 
in Douglas County, on the Kansas River, and 
on ‘the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Rail- 
road, about 15 miles east of Topeka. It was 
settled in 1854 by sympathizers with the slavery 
side of the question which was then before the 
people, in relation to the admission of new 
States. Lecompton was the headquarters of the 
pro-slavery men, and it was here that the Le- 
compton Constitution (q.v.) was framed, in the 
fall, of 1857.. Until 1903 it was, the seat. of 
Lane University, founded here in 1865. The 
place was named in honor of Judge S. D. Le- 
comte, one of the early workers in Kansas. 
The electric-light plant is she CORORREES of the 
municipality. Pop. (1920) 310 


211 


LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION, in 
Kansas history a form of territorial govern- 
ment, adopted by a convention held at Lecomp- 
ton, Kan., in 1857, the legality of which in both 
form and action became a matter of dispute 
and caused national. discussion and \Congres- 
sional action. For several years prior to 1857 
the slave question had agitated the territory, 
and numerous bloody quarrels between the 
Free State settlers and the Missourians who 
came across the border into Kansas added fuel 
to the strife. In June 1857 the territorial legis- 
lature, composed entirely of pro-slavery men, 
chosen at an election at which the Free-State 
men had declined to participate on the ground 
of its illegality, met at Lecompton, and among 
other acts passed one providing for the election 
of a convention to frame a State constitution 
for Kansas. Meanwhile Congress. had passed a 
bill declaring void all the enactments of the 
Kansas legislature on the ground that they were 
cruel and oppressive. The election. for dele- 
gates to the constitutional convention was held 
15 June, but the Free-State men took no part 
in it. Only 2,000 votes were cast, while the 
legal voters in the Territory numbered 10,000. 
The constitutional convention met at Lecompton 
in November and adopted a constitution, four 
sections of which related to slavery, declaring 
the rights of owners to their slaves to be in- 
violable and prohibiting the legislature from 
passing acts of emancipation. ‘This provision 
alone was to be submitted to the people at an 
election to be held 21 December. The ballots 
cast were to be ‘endorsed: “Constitution with 
slavery,» or “Constitution with no slavery,” 
thus securing in any event the adoption of a 
constitution, several clauses of which, besides 
those submitted, were highly objectionable to a 
majority of the people. A provision was in- 
serted preventing any amendment to the con- 
stitution previous to 1864. The promulgation 
of this ‘constitution caused great excitement in 
Kansas. 

At the election 21 December the vote re- 
turned was 6,143, more than one-half of which 
was from the counties along the Missouri 
border, whose total number of voters by the 
census did not exceed 1,000. Against the 
slavery clause there were but 569 votes, the 
Free-State men generally abstaining from 
voting. The constitution being thus nominally 
adopted, an election for officers under it was 
to be held 4 January. Ata special session the 
legislature passed an act submitting the Le- 
compton constitution to the direct vote of the . 
people on the same day with the State election, 
and the result was 10,226 votes against it. Con- 
egress after a long discussion referred the 
matter to the people of Kansas at an election on 
3 Aug. 1858, when the Lecompton constitution 
was again rejected by 10,000 majority. Mean- 
while the territorial legislature had called an- 
other convention to meet in April to frame a 
new constitution, which was submitted to the 
people and ratified by a large majority, though 
by a’small total vote. The territorial legislature 
metin January 1859 and passed an act submitting 
to the, people the question of calling still an- 
other constitutional convention. Delegates were 
elected, and at a convention which met from: 5 
July to 27 July. a constitution was finally 
adopted. which prohibited slavery. This was 


212 


ratified by a majority of 4,000 at the election 
4 October, and the slavery question was at last 
settled and Kansas was admitted to: the Union 
as a State, 29 Jan. 1861. See also KANSAS; 
SLAVERY. 


LECOMTE, Paul Henri, French botanist: 
lb. Saint Nabord, Vosges, 8 Jan: 1856. He 
engaged in teaching botany and in 1906 be- 
came professor at the Museum of Natural His- 
tory. In 1897 he founded the Revue des Cul- 
tures Colomales, and for sometime served as 
its editor. He was author of several elemen- 
tary textbooks and ‘Les textiles végétaux des 
colonies? (1895); “Le cacao? (1897) ; ‘Le café? 
(1899) ; “Le coton en Egypte? (1904); ‘Ana- 
cardiares de l'Afrique occidentale? (1905); 
‘Flore générale de Indo-China, etc. 


LECONTE DE LISLE, Charles Marie 
René, sharl ma-ré ré-na lé kont dé lel, French 
poet: b. Saint Paul, Ile de Bourbon (now Reée- 
union), 23 Oct. 1818; d. Louveciennes, 17 July 
1894, When a young man he went to France, 
studied law at Rennes and after a course of 
travel settled in Paris. His progress was slow, 
but gradually he gathered a group of young 
writers, and expanded his own work, whereby 
he won recognition’ as leader of the modern 
Parnassian school of poetry. It’was some years 
before he found a publisher for ‘Poémes an- 
tiques? (1852), his first volume of real signifi- 
cance, but with ‘Poémes barbares? (1862) he 
gained an academic prize of 10,000 francs. In 
- 1884 he published ‘Poémes tragiques,» and in 
1895 appeared “Derniers poémes,’ a posthumots 
volume containing also critiques on ‘his pre- 
cursors in lyric poetry. His hand gave its im- 
press to ‘Le Parnasse contemporain, a series 
of volumes published in 1866, 1869 and 1876, 
which is representative of his school, and in 
these some of his own most notable work was 
first seen. He also rendered valuable service 
to French literature by his superior transla- 
tions of the ‘Iliad? (1867); ‘Hesiod? (1869), 
the ‘Orphic Hymns? (1869); the ‘Odyssey? 
(1870) ; ‘Horace? (1873); ‘Sophocles? (1877) 
and ‘Euripides? (1885). In imitation of the 
Greek he wrote the dramas ‘Les Erinnyes? 
(1872) and ‘L’Apollonide,? based on the ‘Ton? 
of Euripides. His poetry embodies a philosophy 
of human life in which he sought to combine art 
with scientific principles and to weave in one 
poetic. fabric the mythical past with ideal 
visions yet to be realized by the race. In 1887 
he was elected a member of the Academy. 


LECOT, 1é-k6, Victor Lucien Sulpice, 
CARDINAL, French Roman Catholic clergyman: 
b. Montescourt, 8 Jan. 1831; d. Chambery, 19 
Dec. 1908. He was educated at the Petit 
Séminaire at Compiégne and at the Grand 
Séminaire. at Beauvais. He served as chap- 
lain in the French army in the Franco-Prus- 
sian War and in 1886 was consecrated bishop 
of. Dijon. He became archbishop of Bor- 
deaux in 1890 and cardinal priest of Santa 
Pudenziana in 1893. He protested against the 
Church Separation Law of 1901, but endeav- 
ored to persuade the Pope to sanction a com- 
promise, 


LECOUVREUR, | le- niche -rér, Adrienne, 
French actress: b. Damery, Champagne, 5 April 
1692; d. Paris, 20° March 1730. Arriving at 
Paris in her 10th year she made her first 
theatrical venture three years later, and was 


LECOMTE — LECTIONARY 


immediately engaged for the theatre at Lille. 
For the following 10 years she was “on the 
road” as member of various traveling, com- 
panies, but in 1717 was called to the Comédie 
Frangaise, and made her début as Electra in 
Crebillon’s tragedy. Her simple and natural 
impersonation made a deep impression on the 
most fastidious of audiences, and from that 
time she played the role of most of the heroines 
in Corneille and Racine with such success that 
she was welcomed into the most aristocratic 
circles of the city and was drawn into corre- 
spondence with some of the most intellectual 
men and women of the day, among whom was 
Voltaire. During the last 10 years of her life 
she counted among her admirers Maurice of 
Saxony, Voltaire and Lord Peterborough. She 
perished by poison administered by the Du- 
chesse de Bouillon, a jealous rival. This dé- 
nouement is the subject of the play ‘Adrienne 


Lecouvreur,’ by Scribe and Legouvé. Consult 
Mouval, ‘Lettres d’Adrienne Lecouvreur? 
(1892). . . 


LECTERN, or LETTERN, the reading- 
desk or stand on which the larger books used 
in the services of a church are placed. The 
most ancient lecterns were made of wood, and 
elaborately carved. Modern ones have been 


Brass Lectern, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, 
New York City. 


made of marble or ‘brass, very ornamental in 
design and of excellent execution. They are 
sometimes made in the form of an eagle, the 
outspread wings of which form the support for 
the volume. 


LECTIONARY (Lat. lBetionartudn), orig- 
inally a service-book of the church of the 
Middle Ages, so termed as it contained the les- © 
sons (lectiones) or passages of Scriptures, read 
in the church ‘service.’ The Roman Catholic 
Lectionary contained the epistles and gospels of 
the Roman missals, sometimes also all the Tes: 
sons of the various services in the Church, in 
which case it was termed the Plenarium. The 


LECTISTERNIUM — LECTURESHIPS 


most ancient known, the Gallican Lectionary, 
is believed to represent the rite of the ancient 
Gallican Church. It was published from a 
manuscript of the monastery of Luxeuil in 1685, 


by Mabillon (q.v.), who attributed it to the’ 


7th century. It was written in Merovingian 
characters, it names the festival of Saint Gene- 
viéve, and assigns three lessons to each mass, 
in accordance with the ancient Gallican liturgy. 

In the Greek Church the lectionaries consist 
of lessons from the Gospels, from the Acts and 
Epistles. The Greek lectionary is called Syn- 
axarion (ovvavapio), and the oldest. synaxarion 
extant is that prefixed to the Codex Cyprius 
(K), a manuscript of the New Testament 
which belongs to the 8th century. 

The lectionary or calendar of the English 
Book of Common Prayer was first published in 
1559, and contained two lessons, one from the 
Old Testament and one from the’ New for 
daily morning and evening prayer, and special 
lessons for Sundays and holidays. This lection- 
ary was adopted by the Protestant Episcopal 
Church of the United States in 1789, but in 
1883 the General Convention changed it by re- 
vision into the form which it now bears. In 
accordance with this assignment the Old Testa- 
ment is appointed to be read through in the 


course of public worship once a year; the New. 


Testament being read three times in the same 
period. 


LECTISTERNIUM, among the ancient 
Romans, a sacrifice of the nature of a feast 
offered to the gods, an evident survival of 
the idea common in early stages of religious 
development that divinities actually partook of 
the offerings presented to them. On occasions 
of extraordinary solemnity, or in. times of 
public calamity, the Greeks and Romans placed 
tables with food before images of the gods 
reclining on couches: According to Livy the 
first Roman lectisternium took place 354 Bc., 
when a terrible plague affected the cattle, 
These sacrificial feasts were of two kinds — 
ordinary, occurring almost daily, and. extraor- 
dinary, occurring at intervals, and lasting from 
three to eight days, or longer.. Consult Fowler, 
W. W., ‘Roman Festivals? (London 1899). 


LECTOR (reader), a minister of the 
church who reads the Bible, and other writings 
of a religious character, to the: people. The 
order of lectors is the second of the minor 
orders in the: Roman Catholic, the first in the 
Greek Church. The office’ is now merely 
looked upon as one of the steps to the priest- 
hood, and only in the office for Good Friday 
does the missal recognize the functions of the 
lector. Lectors were consecrated by prayers 
and sometimes by laying on of the hands for 
this office; the candidate must have completed 
the seventh year of his age. They are men- 
tioned by Justin Martyr in the 2d century, and 
appear’ to have been proper officers of the 
Church in the 3d century. The orders in the 
Roman Catholic Church are bishop, | priest, 
deacon, subdeacon, acolyte, exorcist, reader, 
ostiarius or doorkeeper See Orners, Hoty. 


LECTURESHIPS, Endowed. The lec- 
ture platform has provided many opportunities 
for extended influence and instruction. Recog- 
nizing their value, many lectureships are en- 
dowed, mainly, in connection with various edu- 
cational institutions. The income from the in- 


213 


vested funds is sufficient to pay the lecturer 
for his work and his expenses. Nearly all the 
educational institutions of England and Amer- 
ica have one or more such lectureships. There 
is another group of lectureships endowed with 
sufficient funds wherewith to publish the lec- 
tures, and thus make them of permanent value. 
We confine this article to this smaller group. 
The majority of these lectureships are theo- 
logical. age ie 

I. English Lectures.— The oldest series 
of lectures was founded as the result of the 
bequest of Robert Boyle. Dr. Richard Bent- 
ley was the first lecturer in the long series 
which was begun in 1691. The Boyle Lectures 
are in defense of natural and revealed religion. 
They are delivered in the Chapel Royal at 
Whitehall. The power of appointment to the 
lectureship lies with the bishop of London. 

The Bampton Lectures founded by the be- 
quest of John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, 
were given annually at Saint Mary’s, Oxford 
University, for many years beginning in 1781. 
They are now given in alternate years, due to 
the depreciation of the income. The incum- 
bent must be an M.A. from either Oxford or 
Cambridge University and cannot fill the lec- 
tureship twice. The lecturers are chosen by 
the heads of the colleges of Oxford Univer- 
sity. The subjects allowed cover almost the 
entire range of theology. . 

The Hulsean Lectures founded by John 
Hulse have been delivered annually at Cam- 
bridge University since 1820. They are con- 
fined to a discussion of Christian evidences or 
biblical difficulties. John Hulse also gave the 
endowment for a prize essay. 

The Congregational Union Lectures were 
founded in 1831 and began in 1833. They 
appear at irregular intervals. They are not 
confined to particular subjects, but are allowed 
a wide range in the field of theology. 

The Cunningham Lectures were founded by 
Dr. W. Binney Webster to perpetuate the 
memory of Rev. William Cunningham, prin- 
cipal of Free Church College, Edinburgh. The 
lecturer is usually selected from the Free 
Church of Scotland, but not necessarily. They 
are delivered in Edinburgh and deal with 
biblical and theological subjects. The first lec- 
tnge was delivered in 1864 by Robert A. Cand- 
ish. 

The Fernley Lectures were founded by John 
Fernley to explain and defend the theological 
doctrines and polity of the Wesleyan Metho-. 
dist Connexion. The first lecture was given in 
1870. The lectures are given annually before 
the conference of ministers of the Wesleyan 
Methodist Connexion. 

The Baird Lectures were founded in 1873. 
The lecturers are selected by the trustees of 
the endowment fund which amounts to £500,000 
($2,500,000). The lecturers are chosen only 
from ministers of the Church of Scotland, and 
ministers of any other Scotch Presbyterian 
Church. The lectures have largely dealt with 
biblical and theological subjects and the church 
history of Scotland. 

The Croall Lectures are named after. their 
founder, Mr. John Croall, and are designed to 
defend and maintain the doctrines of the Chris- 
tian religion, “and to increase the religious 
literature of Scotland” The lecturer is pref- 
erably chosen from the ministry of the Pres- 


214 


byterian churches of Scotland. The lectures are 
delivered. at Edinburgh and were. begun. in 
1875. 

The H'bbert Lectures were founded for the 
purpose of furthering the study of comparative 
religion.. They. are delivered at Oxford and 
London. The lecturers are not drawn exclu- 
sively from England. The first lecture was 
delivered by Max Miller in 1878. 

Lord Gifford founded the lectures which 
bear his name. \ They are delivered at the uni- 
yersities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and 
Saint Andrews. The first lectures were deliv- 
ered in 1888. See Girrorp LECTURES. 

The Schweich Lectures dealing with Old 
Testament subjects have been given at the 
British Academy, London, since 1910. . 

The Drew Lectures on Immortality were 
delivered at Oxford University in 1912, by 
R. H. Charles. 

The Christian Evidence Society maintained 
a course of lectures for several years. 

II. American Lectures.— The Ely Lectures 
were founded in 1865 by Mr. Zebulon Stiles 
Ely of New York, and are delivered at inter- 
vals under the auspices of Union Theological 
Seminary in New York. The subjects are all 
within the range of apologetics. 

The Yale Lectures on preaching on the 
Lyman Beecher foundation were inaugurated 
in 1872 when Henry Ward Beecher gave the 
first course before the Yale Divinity School. 

The Stone Lectures of Princeton Theolog- 
ical Seminary were founded by Mr. Levi P. 
. Stoné;-of: Orange,” N:<J., in 187i, >The Tp oarst 
lecture was delivered in 1883 by Mark Hopkins. 
The subjects are theological. 

The bequest of John Bohlen of Philadel- 
phia in 1874 established the John Bohlen Lec- 
tureship in connection with Holy Trinity 
Church, Philadelphia. The lecturers are. to 
confine themselves to the subjects discussed by 
the Bampton lecturers. 

The Lowell Lectures are given from time 
to time under the auspices of the Lowell Insti- 
tute of Boston, Mass. A course was given by 
Francis Bowen as far back as the winter of 
1848-49. The foundation dates from the _ be- 
quest of John Lowell in 1836. The subjects in- 
clude psychology, anthropology, natural theol- 
ogy and apologetics. 

The Mendenhall Lectures are given at De 
Pauw University, Greencastle, Ind., and deal 
with some phase of the “Divine origin, inspira- 
tion and authority of the Bible They were 
‘founded by the bequest of Marmaduke H. 
asi D.D., and were inaugurated: in 
1915. 

The Louis Clark Vanuxem Foundation of 
Princeton University. was named after its 
donor after tthe receipt of his bequest in 1879. 
The lectures are to be on subjects of current 
scientific interest. 

The Bishop Paddock Lectureship was 
founded in, 1880 by Mr. George A. Jarvis of 
Brooklyn, N. Y., in loving memory of. his 
former pastor and friend, Rt. Rev. Benjamin 
Henry Paddock, bishop of Massachusetts. 
They are delivered at the General Theological 
Seminary,.in.New. York: city... Their .aim_ is, 
“to defend the religion of Jesus Christ as 
revealed in the Holy Bible and illustrated in 
the Book of Common Prayer against the vary- 
ing errors of the day.” 


LECTURESHIPS 


Frederick. Merrick, for 51 years a member 
of the faculty of Ohio. Wesleyan University, 
founded the Merrick Lectureship in that insti- 


_ tution in 1889. The lectures cover the “gen- 
*eral field of experimental and practical reli- 


gion.” 

In 1892 a committee of representatives of 
several of the leading’ universities organized 
‘The American Lectureship on the History of 
Religions? for “the purpose of encouraging the 
intelligent study of religion” The first lecture 
was delivered in 1895. 

The Ingersoll Lectureship, on the immor- 
tality of man, was founded at Harvard Uni- 
versity in 1893 by the bequest of Mrs. Caroline 
Haskell of Keene, N. H. ; 

The Barrows Lectures on Christianity are 
given under the auspices of the University of 
Chicago and delivered in the Far East. They 
were founded by Mrs. Caroline. Haskell in 
1894 as the result of the World Parliament of 
Religions held in Chicago in 1893.. The first 
course was given in 1895-96 by John Henry 
Barrows, after whom they are named. In the 
year 1894 Mrs. Haskell also gave the Univer- 
sity of Chicago the Haskell Lectureship on 
Comparative Religion. 

Mr. William Belden Noble of Washington, 
D. C., founded the William Belden Noble Lec- 


‘tures at Harvard University in 1898. The sub- 


jects are to be within the “large interpretation 
of the influence of Jesus as given by the late 
Phillips Brooks.» 

The Cole Lectures were founded by Col. E. 
W. Cole and wife of Nashville, Tenn. They 
are delivered in connection with the Biblical 
department of Vanderbilt University, and are 
restricted to “a defense and advocacy of the 
Christian religion.» The lecturer is nominated 
by the theological faculty and confirmed by 
the College of Bishops of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South. . 

Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Ill., re- 
ceived from the late lieutenant-governor of 
Illinois, William Bross (1866-70), funds for the 
endowment of the Bross Foundation in honor 
of his son, Nathaniel Bross, who died in 1856. 
The funds had accumulated so that the first 
course of lectures was possible in 1903. The 
subjects are within the range of Christian 
evidences. The same fund also provides for a 
prize to be given to the writer of the most 
mega book in a given period, in the same 
ield. 

The Hale Lectures were founded in 1900 in 
connection with Western Theological Seminary 
of Chicago, Ill., by the bequest of Rt. Rev. 
Charles Reuben Hale, bishop coadjutor of 
Springfield. The subjects specified are: “litur- 
gies and liturgics; church hymns and church 
music; the history of the Eastern churches; 
the history of the national churches; contem- 
poraneous church history.” 

The Nathaniel William Taylor Lectures are 
given annually before the Divinity School of 
Yale University and had their beginning in 
1903. They deal with the evidences of the 
Christian religion. 

The Norman. W. Harris Lectures. were 
founded by. the late Norman Waite Harris, 
a banker of Chicago, Ill. They are delivered 
at Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. 
They. were founded “to stimulate scientific re- 
search of the highest type.» The first lectures 


LEDA — LEDRU-ROLLIN 


were given by Prof, Borden, P. Bowne of Bos- 
ton University in 1907. 

In. 1905 Mrs. Caroline E. Haskell of Chi- 
cago, Ill., established a lectureship at Oberlin 
College on “Oriental literature and its relation 
to the Bible and Christian teaching.» The first 
lecture was given in 1907, 

The George Shepherd Lectures on Preach- 
ing are delivered under the auspices. of Bangor 
Theological Seminary, Bangor, Me. The first 
lectures were delivered in 1904, 

There are other courses of endowed lec- 
tures in connection with various institutions 
and societies which do not publish their lec- 
tures. All the foundations represented above 
have published most of the lectures given on the 
foundation. There are also lectures covering 
one or more years which we. have not in- 
cluded, like the Saint Giles Lectures on Com- 
parative Religion, the Saint Margaret’s Lec- 
tures and the Ingham Lectures. 

SAMUEL G. AYRES, 
Garrett Biblical Institute. 


LEDA, 1é’da, in Greek mythology, the wife 
of the Spartan king, Tyndareus. In order to 
enjoy her, Zeus changed himself into a swan, 
in which form he iS represented with her in 
a picture from Herculaneum. By him she had 
Pollux and Helen, and by Tyndareus, Castor 
and Clytemnestra. 


LEDA, genus of bivalve mollusk with a 
small elongated shell concentrically striated, 
hinged with two rows of small saw-like teeth 
and an external ligament. It exists in the 
Silurian time and is still represented by various 
living species. It is of the Lamellibranchiata 
family and is sometimes classified as of the 
family Ledie. See PELEcyPoDA, 


LEDESMA BUITRAGO, la-dés’ma bwe- 
tra’g6, Alonso de, Spanish, poet: b. Segovia, 2 
Feb. 1562; d. there, 15 June 1632:, His work 
was romantic and highly imaginative, charac- 
terized by fanciful exaggerations, and was the 
foundation of a school of verse-writers known 
as “conceptistas» named from the first of the 
poet’s books. The works of Quevedo and Lope 
de Vega.are supposed to have been influenced 
by him. Author of ‘Conceptos espirituales? 
(1660) ; ‘Juegos de nochebuena? (1611); ‘Ro- 
mancero y monstruo imaginado? ClOl oye CLDi5 

grams y hieroglificos 4 la vida de Cristo? 
(1625). Specimens of his verse are published 
in Rivadeneira’s ‘Biblioteca de autores espa- 
fioles> (Vol. XXXV, 1872). 


LEDOCHOWSKI, Miecislas Halka, mé- 
a-kés‘las hal’ka led-6-hov’ske, Polish Roman 
Catholic ecclesiastic: b. Galicia, 29 Oct. 1822; 
d. Switzerland, 22: July 1894. He studied the- 
ology and subsequently entered the papal dip- 
lomatic service and became papal auditor suc- 
cessively, at. Madrid, Lisbon;. Rio de Janeiro 
and Santiago de Chile. In 1861 he was ap- 
pointed archbishop of. Thebes, while his ap- 
pointment to the archbishopric of Gnesen and 
Posen in 1866 constituted him primate ex officio 
of Poland. .He actively opposed the Prussian 
May laws by which Bismarck sought to sub- 
ject the Roman Catholic Church in Germany 
to state control, In consequence of, his oppo- 
sition, his property was confiscated and himself 
imprisoned in 1873 for two years. He was 
created cardinal in 1875 and in 1892 general 
prefect of the propaganda. 


215 


LEDOCHOWSKI, Wlodimir or Vladi- 
mir, Russian-Polish priest ;)b., Loosdorf, Gali- 
cia, 7, Oct. 1866. He came of a family ‘distin- 
guished in. Russia and in, Austria, and was 
educated at the Vienna Gymnasium, the Semi- 
nary, Tarnow, Austria, and at the Germanicum, 
Rome. He entered the order, of the Jesuits 
in 1889 and was ordained in 1894. He DOramE 
vice-provincial, then provincial for Poland; 
1906 he was. elected assistant-general and e 
1915 general of the Society of Jesus in .cen- 
tral Europe. He was actively connected with 
various undertakings looking toward a peace- 
able settlement of the European War 


LEDOUX, Albert Reid, American engi- 
neer: b. Newport, Ky., 2 Nov. 1852; d. Corn- 
wall-on-Hudson, N.  Y., 25. Oct. 1923.- He 
was educated at the Columbia School of 
Mines and the universities of Berlin and Got- 
tingen. He was Staite chemist and a member 
of the State Board of Health of North Caro- 
lina in 1876-80, thereafter acting professionally 
as consulting engineer, metallurgist, assayer 
and chemist and’ as an expert in chemistry and 
engineering cases. He ‘served for two years 
as expert on the New York Electric Subway 
Commission. He was president of the Ameri- 
can Institute of Mining Engineers in 1903 and 
was a member of the leading scientific societies. 


LEDOUX, Louis Vernon, American poet: 
b. New York, 6 June 1880. He was graduated 
at Columbia University in’ 1902 and became 
associated with his father’s firm, Ledoux and 
Company, mining engineers and metallurgists, 
of which he is vice-president. He has devoted 
considerable time to writing verse and, has 
achieved a considerable success in that line. 
Author of ‘Songs from the. Silent Land 
(1905) ;,..°The ._Soul’s,. Progress...and,,,Other 
Poems? (1907); ‘Yzdra? (1909); “The Shad- 
ow,,0f,,btna.,..<1914) » aalyrical. drama, <Story 
of Eleusis? (1916); ‘George Edward Wood- 
berry, a Study of His Poetry? (1917). 


LEDRAIN, lé-dran’, Eugéne, French 
archeologist: b. Sainte-Suzanne, Mayenne, 
1844; d.. Paris, 1910.. He was educated for the 
priesthood but devoted himself to researches 
in Oriental archeology. He was for many 
years a curator in the department of Meni 
antiquities at the Louvre and also served as 
professor in the Ecole du Louvre. He sche 
author of ‘Un grand seigneur féodal dans la 
moyenne Egypte? (1876) ; “Les momies gréco- 
égyptiennes ornées de portraits peints sur pen- 
neaux? (1877); ‘Histoire: d’Israél> © (2.:vols., 
1879-82) ; ‘Les monuments égyptiens de la 
bibliothéque nationale? (2. vols, 1880-81); 
‘Dictionnaire des noms. propres’ palmyréniens? 
(1886) ;. “Traduction de la bible? (6 vols:, 1886- 
90); ‘Catalogue des monuments araméens et 
himyarites du Musée du Louvre? (1888) ; ‘Dic- 
tionnaire de la langue de l’ancienne Chaldée? 
(1897). 

LEDRU-ROLLIN,. 1é-drii-rdl-lan, Alex- 
andre Auguste, French political agitator: b. 
near Paris, France, 2 Feb. 1807; d. Fontenay- 
aux-Roses, France, 31 Dec. 1874. Admitted to 
the bar in 1830, he became prominent in the 
defense of Republican journalists and men of 
similar views in the reign of Louis Philippe, 
and later as a democratic agitator and leader of 
the workingmen’s party.. On the outbreak of 
the Revolution of 1848 he became a member of 


216 


the provisional government as Minister of the 
Interior, and in. May was one of the five in 
whose hands the Constituent Assembly placed 
the interim government. 
everyone by his arbitrary conduct, and resigned. 
He was a candidate for the Presidency against 
Louis Napoleon in the following December, 
but was ignominiously beaten, An unsuccess- 
ful attempt to provoke an insurrection against 
his rival put an end to his influence, and for 
the next 20 years he lived alternately in Lon- 
don and Brussels, being amnestied only in 1870. 
After his return to France he was elected to 
the Assembly in 1871, and again in 1874. 


LEDUM OIL. See LAprapor TEA. 


LEDYARD, John, American traveler: b. 
Groton, Conn., 1751; d. Cairo, Egypt,.17 Jan. 
1789. He entered Dartmouth College in 1772, 
with a view of fitting himself for missionary 
duty among the Indians. The restraints of this 
mode of life proving irksome, he absented 
himself at one time from college for several 
months, during which he visited the Indians of 
the Six Nations; and, finally abandoning the 
idea of becoming a missionary, he embarked 
on the Connecticut River in a canoe of his own 
fashioning and floated down to. Hartford. 
After a brief experience as a theological stu- 
dent, he shipped at New London as a common 
sailor in a vessel bound for the Mediterranean, 
and at Gibraltar enlisted in a British regiment, 
but was discharged at the request of his cap- 
tain. He accompanied Captain Cook on his 
third voyage around the world, 1776-80, and 
of this voyage he kept a private journal, which 
in accordance with a general order of the 
government was taken from him on the return 
of the expedition to England. Subsequently 
he wrote out from recollection, assisted by a 
brief sketch issued under tthe sanction of the 
Admiralty, an account of the expedition, pub- 
lished in 1783. During the two years suc- 
ceeding his return to England he remained in 
the British naval service, but steadily refused 
to take arms against his native country. In 
December 1782, he found means to escape. He 
intended to journey through northern Europe 
and Asia and after surmounting many obstacles 
arrived at Irkutsk, where on 24 Feb. 1788 he 
was arrested by order of the Empress Cath- 
erine, conducted with all speed to the frontiers 
of Poland, and there dismissed, with an intima- 
tion that he would tbe hanged if he re-entered 
Russia. Ledyard found his way back to Lon- 
don in the spring, and was cordially received 
by Sir Joseph Banks and others who had be- 
friended him. Undaunted by previous adver- 
sities, he eagerly accepted an offer to under- 
take an expedition into the interior of Africa; 
and when asked how soon he would be ready to 
set out, replied: “To-morrow morning.” . He 
departed from England in the latter part: of 
June, intending to cross the African continent 
in.a westerly direction from Sennaar, and had 
proceeded as far as Cairo, when he died. For 
capacity of endurance, resolution and _ physical 
vigor, he was one of the most remarkable of 
modern travelers. Many extracts from his 
journals and his private correspondence. .with 
Jefferson and others are given in Sparks’ mem- 
oir of him. 


LEDYARD, Lewis Cass, American law- 
yer and financier: b. Michigan, 4 April 1851. 


But he offended | 


LEDUM OIL — LEE 


He took his A.B. at Harvard in 1872, and his 
LL.B: at the Harvard Law School in 1875, 
afterward engaging in law practice in Boston. 
He became associated with various corpora- 
tions, railroads and telegraph companies as a 
director, was president of the Franklin Build- 
ing Company and a‘trustee of the United 
States Trust Company. He was trustee and 
vice-president of the New York Public Li- 
brary, president of the Lying In Hospital and 
= trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of 
Et. : 

LEDYARD, William, American soldier: 
b. Groton, Conn., about. 1750; d. Fort Griswold, 
Conn., 7 Sept. 1781. He held the commission 
of colonel in the militia of Connecticut, and 
during the marauding expedition of Arnold-in 
September 1781 was in command of Forts 
Trumbull and Griswold, which protected New 
London. He refused a demand for the surren- 
der of Fort Griswold, and resisted for nearly 
an hour the attack of a British force numbering 
800 men. The command of the attacking force 
devolved upon Major Bromfield, a Tory, who 
effected an entrance into the fort after nearly 
200 of his men had been disabled, including 48 
killed, the Americans having lost about a dozen 
killed. To Bromfield’s inquiry: “Who com- 
mands this garrison?” Ledyard replied: “I did, 
sir, but you do now,” at the same time handing 
him his sword. Bromfield immediately plunged 
it through the body of Ledyard, killing him 
upon the spot. A massacre of the Americans 
ensued, which was not ended until more than 
100 of them were killed and wounded... A 
monument has been erected near the spot to 


’ commemorate this event. 


LEE, Agnes, American writer, formerly 
of Boston, now Mrs. Otto Freer, of Chicago, 
has written many poems for the leading maga- 
zines. Several years ago she published a book 
of poems for children. She has translated into 
English the poems of Théophile Gautier, Flau- 
bert’s ‘St. Julien, Gregh’s ‘Maison de l’En- 
fance, etc. In 1910 appeared her volume of 
poems, ‘The Border of the Lake,’ and in 1914 
“The Sharing,” a book of her later poems. She 
has written several poetical plays. . 


LEE, Albert, American author and editor: 
b. New Orleans, 11 May 1868. He prepared for 
college at Exeter where he was one of the 
founders of the Phillips Exeter Literary Maga- 
zine, which still exists. He was graduated 
from Yale in 1891, having during his. senior 
year edited the Yale Literary Magazine. In 
1891-94 he was on the editorial staff of the 
New York Sun; in 1895 became editor of 
Harper's Round Table; and in 1899 was for 
a short time associate editor of McClure’s 
Magazine, becoming managing editor of Har- 
pers Weekly in the same year. In 1901-03 he 
was associate editor of Collier's Weekly, tak- 
ing the position of managing editor in January 
1903. In 1911 he went abroad for a period 
of travel, and‘ in June 1913 associated himself 
with Mr. Condé Nast in the starting of the 
magazine Vanity Fair, of which he is now 
managing editor. He has written ‘Tommy 
Toddles»? (1896); ©Track Athletics in Detail” 
(1897) ; “The Knave of Hearts? (1897); ‘Four 
for a Fortune? (1898); ‘He, She and They? 
(1899) : ‘The Pie and the Pirate? (1910), ‘Miss 
Phoenix» (1912), which he later dramatized 


LEE 


and produced’ at. the Harris Theatre, New 
York, in October 1913. 


LEE, Alfred, American Protestant Episco- 
pal bishop: b. Cambridge, Mass., 9 Sept. 1807; 
d. Wilmington, Del., 12 April 1887. He was 
graduated at Harvard in 1827, and after study- 
ing law practised for three years in New Lon- 
don, Conn. Feeling, however, that his vocation 
was elsewhere he was admitted to the General 
Theological Seminary, where he was graduated 
in 1837. He was elected rector of Calvary 
Church, Rockdale, Pa. (1838), but on being 
consecrated first bishop of Delaware in 1841, 
took charge of Saint Andrew’s, Wilmington, 
the following year.. He was a member of the 
American Committee for Revision of the New 
Testament (1881) and presiding bishop (1884— 
87): He isthe author of “Life of Saint Peter? 
(1852) ; “Life of Saint John? (1854); SA 
‘Treatise’ on Baptism? (1854); ‘Harbinger of 
Christ?’ (1857); “Co-operative Revision of the 
New Testament? (1881). © 


LEE, Algernon, American journalist: b.. . 


Dubuque, Iowa, 15 Sept. 1873. He was edu- 
cated at the University of Minnesota, and from 
1895 was identified with the Socialist move- 
ment. He edited the Tocsin at Minneapolis in 
1898-99, the Worker in Néw York in 1899- 
1908, and the Daily Call in 1908-09, when he 
became a department editor on the Metropoli- 
tan Magazine. He was appointed educational 
director of the Rand School of Social Science 
in 1909; arid in 1904, 1906, 1916 and 1917 was 
a delegate to’ the International Socialist con- 
ventions. He opposed the sale of War Savings 
Stamps and invited considerable censure by his 
hostile attitude toward the conduct of the 
European? War. 

LEE, Ann, foundress of the Society of 
Shakers in America. See SHAKERS. 


LEE, Arthur, American diplomatist: . b. 
Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 21 Dec. 
1740; d: Urbana, Middlesex County, Va. 12 
Dec. 1792. He was educated at the University 
of Edinburgh; entered the practice of medicine 
at Williamsburg, Va.; studied law in the Tem- 
ple, London (1766-70); practised in England 
in. 1770-76; closely observed colonial questions ; 
was a member of the society known as “The 
Supporters of the Bill of Rights,» by which 
ministerial measures were discussed, and in 
1770 was appointed associate of Franklin as 
London agent of Massachusetts colony. When 
Congress appointed. Franklin, Jay and Dickin- 
son a committee to correspond with friends of 
the colonies in other parts of the world, Lee 
became secret agent in London of the commit- 
tee: and in 1776: he was chosen by Congress 
joint commissioner with “ranklin and Deane 
to obtain a treaty of alliance with France. In 
1777 he dispatched special missions to the gov- 
‘ernments of Spain and Prussia; in 1778 became 
commissioner to Spain; but in 1779 was recalled 
owing to his disagreements with Franklin and 
Deane. He was a representative in the Vir- 


ginia. general assembly in 1781; a delegate to — 


the Continental. Congress in 1781-84, and a 
member of the board of treasury in 1784-89. 
He opposed the adoption of a Federal constitu- 
tion. Consult Lee, R. H., ‘Life of Arthur 
Lee? (1829). . 

LEE, Blair, American legislator and law- 
yer; b.. Silver Springs, Md. 9 Aug. 1857. He 


217 


was graduated from Princeton University in 
1880. and from the Columbian (now George 
Washington) University in 1882, and was ad- 
mitted to the bar in Maryland and in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. - He was elected to the 
Maryland State senate in 1905 and in 1909, and 
on 4 Nov.. 1913 he was elected to the United 
States Senate to fill the term of Senator Jack- 
son, expiring 3 March 1917. 


LEE, Charles, American soldier: b. Dern- 
hall, Cheshire, England, 1731; d: Philadelphia, - 
2 Oct. 1782. In 1751 he entered the English 
army as lieutenant of the 44th, which he ac- 
companied to America in 1754, and with which 
he was present at Braddock’s defeat on the 
Monongahela (9 July 1755). He was wounded 
in Abercrombie’s attack on Ticonderoga (1 July 
1758), took part in the capture of Montreal 
in 1760 and was promoted major in 1761. He 
served in Burgoyne’s division in Portugal in 
1762, and was for a time busy with a schemé 
for establishing in America two colonies, one 
on the Ohio, the other on the Illinois; to be 
recruited from Switzerland. and Germany as 
well as New England. In 1764 he went to 
Poland, there was appointed to: the staff of 
King Stanislaus Augustus, in 1766,accompanied 
the Polish embassy to Turkey, in 1769 as a 
major-general in the Polish army’ fought in a 
campaign against the Turks, and having called 
his superior officers fools, left the service and 
returned to England. He was made lieutenant- 
colonel on half-pay in 1772,. but was. further 
unrecognized by the British government, and 
in disappointment came to America 10 Nov. 
1773, and by skilful display of what military 
knowledge he possessed attracted the attention 
of the Continental Congress, then eager to ob- 
tain competent leaders for the Revolutionary 
army. His career thenceforth was perhaps the 
strangest in the annals of the Revolution. He 
wished to become commander-in-chief of the 
American forces, but accepted the appointment 
as second of the major-generals, Artemas Ward 
(q.v.) being the first. To inspire public con- 
fidence he purchased for £5,000 Virginia cur- 
rency (about. £3,000 sterling), an estate in 
Berkeley County, Va.; but he did not assume 
his rank until guaranteed by Congress pecuniary 
indemnity for possible losses incurred in so 
doing. He undeservedly received popular credit 
for Moultrie’s successful defense of Charles- 
ton, S. C.. (28 June 1776), and was called the 
“Hero of Charleston.” In 1776 he became first 
major-general upon the resignation of Ward. 
He failed:to obey when ordered by Washington 
to cross the Hudson from Westchester County 
with. his 7,000 troops and join the latter in 
New Jersey; but. when Washington. was. com- 
pelled to fall back. on Princeton (2 Dec. 1776) 
crossed the river to Morristown and encamped 
there with 4,000. troops. Gates marched from 
Ticonderoga. with seven regiments for Wash- 
ington’s aid, but Lee diverted three of the regi- 
ments to Morristown. Washington crossed the 
Delaware into Pennsylvania, and Lee diligently 
spread reports of the commander-in-chief’s in- 
capacity and planned a flank movement. upon 
the British army whose success he. intended 
should secure his own appointment to’ replace 
Washington. . He was, however, captured at 
Baskingridge (13 Dec. 1776), and imprisoned 
at New York, where he deserted the American 
cause, and designed a plan for the subjugation 


218 


of the American colonies, the original draft of 
which was found among the private papers of 
the Howes in 1857. He was exchanged in 1778, 
and re-entered the American service for reasons 
not fully known; but his insubordination’ at 
Monmouth (28 June 1778) nearly lost the day, 
and he was suspended from'’command for one 
year. A subsequent disrespectful letter to Con- 
gress caused his dismissal from the army. His 
treasonable correspondence with the British au- 
thorities was not discovered till many. years 
after. He wrote ‘Strictures on a Friendly Ad- 
dress to all Reasonable Americans? (1774)-in 
reply to Dr. Myles Cooper’ (q.v.) ; and made.a 
foolish claim to be the author of. the “Junius” 
letters. Consult the ‘Memoirs, edited from his 
papers by Langworthy (1792), ‘and Moore, ‘The 
Treason of Charles Lee? (1858). 


LEE, Charles, American Cabinet officer: 
b. Leesylvania, Va., 1758; d. Fauquier County, 
Va., 24 June 1815.. He was a brother of Henry 
Lee, soldier (q.v.). He was graduated from 
the College of New Jersey in 1775; studied law 
in the office of Jared Ingersoll at Philadelphia; 
practised -in Westmoreland’ County, Va., and 
sat in the Virginia assembly. On 10 Dec. 1795 
he was appointed by’ Washington Attorney- 
General of the United States, and this office he 
filled until the last month of Adams’ adminis- 
tration (1801). He declined an appointment 
by Jefferson as’ chief justice of ‘the United 
States Circuit Court for the fourth circuit. 


LEE, Eliza Buckminster, American prose 
writer: b. Portsmouth, N. H., 1794; d, Brook- 
line, Mass., 22 June 1864, She was married 
to. ‘Thomas Lee of Boston, Mass., where the 
greater part of her life was spent. She was a 
popular author in her day and among her books 
are ‘Sketches of New. England Life? . (1837) ; 
“Delusion, (1839) ; a translation from the Ger- 
man.of the “Life of Jean Paul Richter? (1842) ; 
“Naomi; or, Boston Two Hundred Years Ago? 
(1848) ; ‘Parthenia: or,:l he. Last ;}Days, of 
Paganism? (1858), and a translation of Ber- 
thold Auerbach’s ‘Barefoot Maiden? (1860). 


LEE, Fitzhugh, American soldier and di- 
plomatist: b. Clermont, Fairfax County, Va.; 19 
Nov. 1835; d: Washington, D. C., 28 April 
1905. He was the nephew of Robert E. Lee 
(q.v.). Appointed as cadet at large to West 
Point by President Fillmore, he entered the 
academy»at 16, and was graduated in 1856, ‘re- 
ceivingi‘an appointment to the famous Second 
cavalry of which A. S. Johnston’ was colonel 
and: R. E. Lee was lieutenant-colonel. | After 
serving “for:a-year: at Carlisle Barracks as 
cavalry instructor of recruits, he reported to 
his regiment’ on’ the frontier of Texas and was 
greatly distinguished in several fights with the 
Indians, being mentioned in the official reports 
for skill and gallantry. In a 
Comanches, 13°°May 1859, fié was severely 
wounded, but recovered and joined his com- 
mand. He led a part of his company in Janu- 
ary 1860, in a very notable and successful fight 
with the Indians, in which he greatly distin- 
guished himself in a single combat with an 
Indian chief. In November 1860 he was 
ordered to West Point as instructor of cavalry 
tactics. When Virginia seceded from the Union 
he promptly resigned his commission and ten- 
dered his services to his native State. He 
served for a time on the staff of Gen. R. S. 


fight with the. 


LEE 


Ewell, and in September 1861 he became lieu- 
tenant-colonel, and in April 1862 colonel of the 
First Virginia cavalry. Henceforth he was in- 
timately connected with Stuart’s cavalry and 
won constant reputation for dash, daring and 
intelligent execution of duty. After the battles 
around Richmond he was made brigadier-gen- 
eral, his brigade consisting of the Ist, 3d, 4th, 
Sth and 9th Virginia cavalry anda battery of 
horse artillery. In the campaign against Pope 
and the Maryland campaign the cavalry ren- 
dered most important service, and General Lee 
did his full duty in these operations. When 
Gen. Robert Lee, withdrew from Sharpsburg, 
Fitzhugh Lee’s brigade relieved the pickets and 
held the lines till. the army had crossed the 
Potomac. On 17 March 1863 Averell’s division 
of 3,000 cavalry crossed ‘the river at Beverly's 
Ford, and attacked him; though he could only 
put 800 troopers in the saddle, he successfully 
resisted Averell, and after’ one of the most 
hotly contested cavalry battles of the war drove 
him back across the river. In the Chancellors- 
ville movement he. protected Jackson’s flank, 
and made a very important reconnoissance by 
which he located the. flank and.rear of- the 
enemy, and enabled Jackson to attack it to the 
best advantage. In the autumn of 1863 he was 
made major-general and given command ofa 
division of cavalry. In the campaign of 1864 
he rendered important service, holding in check 
the advance of Grant’s-army until Gen. R. E. 
Lee’s infantry could occupy Spottsylvania, re- 
pelling Sherman’s raid on Richmond, defeating 
Sheridan at Trevillians and, Samaria Church, 
routing Wilson. at Reams Station and. operating 
with Early. in the Valley, being. severely 
wounded at the battle of Winchester. When 
Hampton» was sent south Lee was given, the 
command of the entire cavalry corps of the 
Army of Northern Virginia, conducting the re- 
treat to Appomattox,’ was one of the council 
of war whom Robert Lee consulted, and one 
of the leaders in the last charge of the Army 
of Northern Virginia. He “accepted the situa- 
tion” after the surrender, and went to work 
on his farm at. Richland. From 1886 to 1890 
he was governor of Virginia. In 1896 he was 
appointed consul-general to Cuba, in which 
position he kept the State Department thor- 
oughly informed of the Spanish policy during 
the rebellion, and vigorously upheld the rights 
and interests of the United States; after the 
destruction of the Maine he did much to pre- 
vent the premature outbreak of war with Spain, 
but when war was inevitable he was recalled. 
In.May 1898 he was appointed major-general 
of United States volunteers, and assigned to 
the command of the 7th army corps. At the 
close of the war he was made military governor — 
of the province of Havana, and. later was given 
the command of the Department of the Mis- 
souri. He published ‘Robert E. Lee? (1894, in 
‘Great Commanders’ Series), and  ‘Cuba’s 
Struggle against Spain? (1899). 


Fis: JonesjcD.D: 


LEE, Francis Bazley, American lawyer 
and historical writer: b. Philadelphia, 3 Jan. 
1869; d. Trenton, N. J., 2 May 1914, He was 
educated at the State Model School in Trenton, 

J., and was graduated from the Wharton 
School of Political Economy in 'the University 
of Pe isy eee in 1890, He was admitted to 


LEE 


the New Jersey bar in I893 and thereafter prac- 
tised his profession in ‘lrenton. In addition to 
various historical monographs relating to New 
Jersey, he is the author and editor-in-chief of 
“New Jersey as a Colony and a State.? 


LEE, Francis Lightfoot, American patriot: 
b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va. 14 
Oct. 1734; d. Richmond County, Va., 3 April 
1797. He was‘elected to the Virginia house of 
burgesses’ for Loudoun County in 1765, and 
later represented Richmond County in that 
assembly. He signed the Westmoreland decla- 
ration against the Stamp Act (1765), and on 
15 Aug. 1775 became a member of the Con- 
tinental Congress, where he served until the 
spring of 1779. On 4 July 1776 he was one of 
the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. He also was a member of the committee 
that prepared the Articles of Confederation, and 
was prominent in debate, particularly on the 
questions of the Newfoundland fisheries and 
the navigation of the Mississippi.. After his 
retirement from Congress he served for a brief 
term in the Virginia legislature. Consult San- 
derson, ‘Lives of the Signers? (Vol. IX, 1827). 


LEE, Frederic Schiller, American physi- 
ologist: b. Canton, N.:Y., 16 June 1859. He 
studied at Saint Lawrence University, at Johns 
Hopkins and at Leipzig, and in 1886-87 he was 
instructor in biology at Saint Lawrence Univer- 
sity. He was instructor and associate professor 
of physiology and histology at Bryn Mawr Col- 
lege’ in 1887-91. In 1891 he was. appointed 
demonstrator of physiology at Columbia Uni- 
versity and he was. subsequently adjunct pro- 
fessor and Dalton professor there, becoming 
essup lecturer in 1911. He was appointed to 
the United States Public Health Service in 
1917. He edited the American. Journal of 
Physiology in 1898-1914, and since 1900 has 
edited the Columbia University Quarterly. He 
has translated and edited a number of medical 
treatises, has contributed to the leading scien- 
tific journals and is author of. ‘Scientific 
Features in Modern Medicine? (1911). 


LEE, Gerald Stanley, American author 
and lecturer: b. Brockton, Mass.,.4 Oct. 1862. 
He was graduated from Middlebury College, 
Vermont, in 1885, and from Yale Divinity School 
in 1888. He was a Congregational minister for 
‘the ensuing nine years at Princeton, Minn., 
Sharon, Conn., and West Springfield, Mass. 
He was lecturer in the English department, 
Smith College, 1897, and has lectured on liter- 
ature and the arts since 1898. He is editor of 
Mount Tom, an All-Outdoors Magazine, and 
author of numerous magazine articles.and the 
following books: ‘About an Old New England 
Church? (1893) ; “The Shadow Christ? (1896) ; 
‘The Lost Art of Reading? (1902); ‘The Child 
and the Book? (1902); “The Voice of'the Ma- 
chines? (1906) ; ‘Inspired Millionaires? (1908) ; 
“Crowds— A Moving Picture of’ Democracy” 
(1913); “Crowds, Jr.> (1914); “We—A Con+ 
fession of Faith for the American People? 
(1916); ‘The Lonely Nation» (1917); ‘The 
Air-Line to Liberty? (1918). 

LEE, Guy Carleton, American publicist: 
-b. 1862. He was graduated at Rutherford Col- 
lege, North Carolina, in 1889 and was admitted 
to the bar of North Carolina in 1894, Pennsyl- 
vania in 1895 and Maryland in 1897. In 1895 he 
was professor of English history and common 


219 


Jaw at Dickinson College; in 1896-98: he was 
scholar, honorary scholar and Fellow, and ‘in 
1898-1905 instructor in history at Johns Hop- 
kins University. He lectured on comparative 
politics at George Washington University 1900- 
02, was literary editor of the Baltimore Sun 
1901-08, and since 1900 has been editor-in-chief 
of the International Literary Syndicate. He 
has published ‘Hincmar— An _ Introduction 
to the Study of the Church in the Ninth Cen- 
tury’? (1898) ; ‘Public Speaking? (1899) ; “His~. 
torical Jurisprudence? (1900); ‘Source Book 
of English History? (1900); ‘True History of 
the War Between the States? (1903); ‘Robert 
E. Lee: A Biography? (1905); ‘The Heart of 
a ‘Child (1910); ‘The Soul of a Woman’ 
(1910) ; ‘The Mind of Man? (1911); and was 
editor-in-chief of ‘The World's Orators?. (10 
vols., 1900); ‘The History of Woman? (10 
vols., 1902-03) ; ‘The History of North Amer- 
ica? (20 vols., 1903-05). He has also -con- 
tributed to reviews: and journals on legal, his- 
torical, political and social. subjects. 


LEE, Harriet, sister of Sophia Lee (q.v.) 
p..London, 1756;"'d.- Clifton, -T Avg’ 1851." -in 
1786 she published the ‘Errors of Innocence,” 


_a novel succeeded by several others now for- 


gotten. In 1797-1805 appeared. her ‘Canter- 
bury Tales, 8 of the 10 tales of which were 
her own, the others being ‘by her sister Sophia. 
They enjoyed a great popularity in the early 
part of the 19th century, and a new edition was 
published in New York in 1856-57. One of 
the most. remarkable is’ the German tale, 
“Kruitzner,? from which Lord Byron borrowed 
not merely the plot and the machinery down to 
the most trivial incidents, but in some instances 
the language, of his “Werner.? She also wrote 
two dramas, the “New Peerage? and the ‘Three 
Strangers.? 


LEE, Henry, American soldier: b, Leesyl- 
vania, Westmoreland County, Va., 29 Jan, 1756; 
d. Cumberland Island, Ga., 25 March 1818. He 
was graduated from the College of New Jersey 
in. 1774; in 1775 became a captain in Col. Theo- 
doric Bland’s legion of Virginia cavalry, and 
in September 1777 joined Washington’s army in 
Pennsylvania. Promoted major for services in 
battle (January 1778), he was given command 
of a partisan corps consisting of two troops 
of horse, and latter increased by a third troop 
and an infantry company. This corps, which 
was employed in the annoyance of the British 
march and camp, was known as “Lee’s legion,” 
and its commander as “Light Horse Harry.” 
On 19 Aug. 1779’ Lee surprised and ‘captured 
the British post at Paulus. Hook (q.v.), -N. J. 
For this achievement, which is regarded as one 
of the most brilliant exploits of the Revolution. 
Congress voted him a gold medal. He was 
promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in the autumn 
of 1780 was sent to South Carolina to join 
Greene’s army. He covered the American re- 
treat through North Carolina (February 1781). 
and was involved in some smart skirmishes 
with Tarleton’s dragoons. After Greene had 
crossed into Virginia, Lee remained in North 
Carolina to. harass the enemy, and, although he 
could not surprise Tarleton, did: defeat) 400 
loyalists under Colonel Pyle. He outfought 
Tarleton at Guilford Court House (15 March 
1781), and with Marion, by. cutting Rawdon’s 
line of communication, compelled that officer to 


220 


abandon» Camden (10 May 1781). He took 
Augusta, Ga. (5 June 1781), and having te- 
joined Greene, fought with distinction at Eutaw 
Springs (8 Sept. 1781), and captured some of 
Rawdon’s: rear-guard: in the British retreat. 
After having been present at Yorktown, he 
shortly resigned his commission. In 1785-88 he 
was a Virginia delegate to the Continental Con- 
gress; in 1788 was a member of the Virginia 
convention for the ratification of the Federal 
Constitution; in 1789-91 sat in the general as- 
sembly of the State and in: 1792-95 was. gov- 
ernor. In 1794 he was appointed by Washing- 
ton to command the 15,000 troops sent to sup- 
press the “Whiskey Insurrection” |(q.v.) in 
western Pennsylvania. . After service as a rep- 
resentative in the Sixth Congress: (1799-1801), 
he withdrew from public life. In his ‘Funeral 
Oration upon President Washington,’ pro- 
nounced in 1799 before both Houses of Con- 
gress, occurs the since famous phrase, “First. in 
war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his 
countrymen.” In 1801. he retired to private 
life, but received a commission in the War of 
1812 as major-general. He was prevented from 
assuming’ duties of this office by a gun shot 
wound which he received while aiding his 
friend, Alexander Contee Hanson, whose house 
was attacked by a mob of political opponents. 
He wrote ‘Memoirs of the War in the South- 
ern Department of the United States? (1812), 
published in revision with a memoir by his son, 
R. E. Lee -(q.v.), in 1869. 


LEE, Hildegarde Langsdorf (Mrs.. Guy 
CARLETON Lee), American physician: b. Cen- 
terville, Pa., 26 March 1868. She was graduated 
at, Dickinson College in, 1888, and at the 
Woman’s Medical College, Philadelphia, 1891. 
In 1912 she married Guy Carleton Lee -(q.v.). 
She has practised her profession at Carlisle, 
Pa., since 1892; was on staffs of Harrisburg 
Insane Hospital, Norristown Insane Hospital, 
Tewksbury Almshouse. She is also assistant 
editor Pennsylvania ‘Medical Journal, and sec- 
retary-treasurer National Society for Broader 
Education and many other societies; is espe- 
cially interested in plans for financing charitable 
organizations, and is known as a lecturer on 
social and economic subjects and contributor of 
articles on sanitation, hygiene, etc. 

LEE, James Prince, English bishop: b. 
London, 28 July 1804; d. Manchester, 24 Dec. 
1869.. He was graduated at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, 1828, ordained in 1830. and in 1830- 
38 he served as a master at Rugby under Dr. 
Thomas Arnold...He was elected head-master 
of King Edward’s School at Birmingham in 
1838. and numbered among his pupils E. W. 
Benson, archbishop of Canterbury, J. B. Light- 
foot and B.. F. Wescott, bishops of Durham. 
He became first bishop.of the newly-created see 
of Manchester in 1848, and was. especially 
notable. for his work in church extension, con- 
secrating 130 churches in the 21: years he served 
as bishop. He was active in the establishment 
of the Manchester Free Library, and bequeathed 
his own library to Owens. College, Manchester. 


LEE, Jennette Barbour Perry, American 
novelist: b. Bristol; Conn., 10 Nov. 1860. She was 
graduated from Smith College, Massachusetts, 
in 1886, was professor of Englishat Vassar 1890_ 
93, and in the College for Women at Western 
Reserve University 1893-96, and in the year last 


. 


(1907) ; 


LEE 


named was married to~ Rev. G. S. Lee (q.v.). 
In 1901-04 she was instructor in English and 
in 1904-13. professor of English language and 
literature at Smith College. She has published 
‘Kate Wetherell? (1900); “A Pillar of Salt? 
(1901); ‘The Son. of, a Fiddler? (1902) ; 
‘Uncle William? (1906) ;.‘The Ibsen Secret? 
‘Simeon Tetlow’s Shadow? (1909) ; 
‘Happy Island? (1910) ; “Mr. Achilles» (1912) ; 
‘Betty Harris? (1912) ; ‘The Taste of Apples? 
(1913); ‘The Woman in the Alcove? (1914); 
“Aunt ‘Jane? (1915); ‘Unfinished Portraits? 
(1916) ; “The Green Jacket? (1917), and nu- 
merous sketches and stories. 


LEE, Jesse, American Methodist clergy- 
man: b. Prince Edward County, Va., 1758; 
d. September 1816. He was admitted to the 
Conference as a preacher among the Methodists 
in 1783, and was chosen as a friend and travel- 
ing companion by Francis Asbury. His writ- 
ings have been the basis of much of the his- 
tory of early Methodism in America. In 1789 
he traveled over New England and preached 
Methodism from’ Connecticut’ to Maine. He 
formed the first Methodist congregation in New 
England at Stratfield, Conn., 26 Sept. 1787, In 
1792 he preached in Massachusetts, and 
gathered the first class at Boston 13 July 1792. 
He was chaplain to Congress during six suc- 
cessive terms. He is known in New England 

as “The Apostle of Methodism.» He wrote ‘A 
History of Methodism in America? (1807). 
Consult’ Lee, L. M., ‘Life and Times of Jusst 
Lee? (1848). 


LEE, John Doyle, Mormon bore ciate a 
Kaskaskia, Tll.; 1812; d.23 March 1877. He 
became a Mormon in 1837, and after doing 
some missionary work began his. official career. 
He was captain. of militia, probate judge of 
Iron County and member of the Territorial | 
legislature. In the Mountain Meadow Mas- 
sacre he was indicted as one of the chief 
instigators and was condemned to death. Con- 
sult ‘The Mormon Menace; being the Confes- 
sion of John Doyle Lee, "Danite, an Official 
Assertion of the Mormon Church under the 
Late Brigham Young? ‘(with an ‘introduction 
by Alfred Henry Lewis, New York 1905). See 
Mountain. Mrapows Massacre, mY 


LEE, Luther, American Methodist clergy- 
man; b. Schoharie, N. Y., 30 Nov. 1800; d. 
Flint, Mich.,. 13 Dec. 1889. _He_ entered "the 
Genesee Conference, in 1827, became an itiner- 
ant preacher. and a temperance and anti-slavery 
lecturer, and. was several times mobbed on ac- 
count of his abolitionist sentiments. From 1843 
to 1867 he was a member of the Wesleyan body, 
having, as_a_ Wesleyan clergyman been. presi- 
dent. in 1853 of Michigan Union College at 
Leoni and pastor of churches at Syracuse and 
elsewhere, but in 1867 returned to the Methodist 
Episcopal denomination. He, was the author 
of. “Universalism Examined and Exposed? 
(1836) ; ‘The Immortality of the SouP (1850) ; 

Slavery Examined in the Light of the Bible? 

(1855); ‘Elements of Theology? (1856); 

‘Natural Theology” (1866). His “Autobiog- 
raphy” was published in New York (1882). 


LEE, Nathaniel, English dramatic poet: b. 
Hatfield, about 1653; d. London, 1692. He was 
educated at Cambridge, turned his attention to 
the drama and in 1675 produced his tragedy of 


LEE 


‘Nero,’ and from that time to 1681 produced 
a tragedy yearly. From 1684 to 1688 he was 
insane and confined in Bethlehem Hospital, 
and after his discharge two more tragedies of 
his were produced. He is the author of 11 
plays, all of which were favorably received; 
but his natural fire and pathos were buried in 
a torrent of words and clouded by a tendency 
to “furious .fustian and turgid rant” In his 
play, ‘The Rival Queens? (1677), occurs the 
oft-quoted line: 

“ When Greeks joined Greeks then was the tug of War” 


LEE, Richard Henry, American patriot: 
b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 20 
Jan. 1732; d. Chantilly, Va., 19 June 1794. He 
was educated in England, but returned in 1752 
to Virginia, where he soon became prominent 
in public affairs and was elected to the house of 
burgesses. In 1773 he became a member of the 
committee of correspondence to communicate 
with the other colonies, and in 1774 was a dele- 
gate from Virginia to the first Continental Con- 
gress. There he attracted attention by his 
eloquence and drafted the petition to the king. 
In the second Congress he prepared the address 
to the people of Great Britain. Both of these 
documents are remarkable state papers. On 7 
June 1776 he moved “that these united colonies 
are and of right ought to be free and inde- 
pendent states; that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British Crown; and that all 
connection between them and the states of Great 
Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved.” 
He was in the’ Virginia legislature in 1780-84, 
was elected president of Congress in 1784, in 
1786 was again a member of the State legis- 
lature and in 1787 also sat in Congress. Upon 
the adoption of the Federal Constitution, to 
which he was opposed, he was elected one of 
the first two senators from Virginia and there 
remained, at first as an Anti-Federalist, until 
his. resignation in 1792. He was one of the 
notable orators of his time. Consult Lee, R. H., 
(his grandson), ‘Life and Correspondence of 
R. H. Lee? (1825). His ‘Letters? have been 
edited by J. C. Ballagh (Vols. I, II, New York 
1910, 1914). 


LEE, Robert, Scottish 
Tweedmouth, England, 11 Nov. 1804; d. Tor- 
quay, 14 March 1868. He was educated at Saint 
Andrew’s University and in 1833 was elected 
minister of the Presbyterian chapel at Arbroath, 
Forfarshire. He was in charge of the parish 
of Campsie, Stirlingshire, in 183643, and from 
1843 until his death was minister of the old 
Grayfriar’s Church, Edinburgh. He also served 
as professor of biblical criticism and dean of 
the Chapel Royal at the University of Edin- 
burgh from 1847. He was an earnest advocate 
of more graceful forms of worship within the 
Church of Scotland, working for the adorn- 
ment of church edifices, written prayers, the 
sanction of suitable postures and the introduc- 
tion of instrumental music. He was respon- 
sible for the installation of the first organ used 
in the national church, that at Grayfriars, in 
April 1864. In 1859 he was charged before the 
Presbytery of Edinburgh with unlawful innova- 
tions, but hecably’ vindicated’ his action and 
defeated his accusers. Other actions followed 
and the case: of his distribution of printed 
prayer books among his congregation was in 
progress at the time of his death, Author of 


clergyman: — b. 


221 


‘The Holy Bible. With the Marginal Refer- 
ences revised and improved? (1854; 2d ed., 
1855); ‘Prayers for Public Worship, with Ex- 
tracts from the Psalter and other parts of 
Scripture? (1857) ; ‘The Reform of the Church 
in Worship, Government and Doctrine? (Part 
I, 1864), etc. Consult Story, ‘Life of Robert 
Lee? (2 vols., 1870). 


LEE, Robert Edward, American soldier: 
b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 19 
Jan. 1807; d. Lexington, Va.,_ 12 Oct. 1870. 
His father, Gen. Henry Lee (q.v.), popularly 
known in the War for Independence as “Light- 
Horse Harry,” left his home at eAlexandria 
(whither he had moved in 1811), when Robert 
was only six years of age, for a sojourn in 
the West Indies, on account of his health. 
After being away nearly five years, he re- 
turned, but the march of the fatal disease which 
had attacked him could not be resisted. When 
off the coast of Georgia, at his request he was 
put ashore on Cumberland Island and carried 
to the home of Mrs. Shaw, a daughter of 
Nathanael Greene, his old commander, where 
he died. Robert never saw his father after 
lhe left his home and was only 11 years old 
when he died. His mother was Anne Hill 
Carter. 

Observant, respectful and dignified, the youth 
was reaching out for manhood over a route 
that might 'be used as a model for those who 
followed him. He obtained his early educa- 
tion in good private schools in Alexandria, 
Va., and being sedate and studious, stood high 
in the estimation of his teachers and was. be- 
loved by all his comrades. At 18 the inherited 
instincts of his nature became aroused and 
he resolved to be a soldier.. A cadetship at 
the United States Military Academy at West 
Point was obtained for him by Gen. Andrew 
Jackson, and the natural bent of his mind was 
confirmed. To all. duties he gave his closest 
attention; to all studies his profound thought; 
to all military drills, evolutions, tactics, strat- 
egy and commands, his perfect obedience. He 
became an officer in the cadet battalion at the 
proper time and was the adjutant of his class, 
when a first classman—a post of honor ina 
cadet’s aspiration. After many who first. en- 
tered the academy in his class had fallen by 
the wayside in the various examinations, semi- 
annually held, 46 still remained to receive 
graduating diplomas. In 1829 Lee graduated 
second in his class without having received 
a single demerit during his whole course of 
study, because he conscientiously discharged 
all the duties confided to him; convinced then 
as he said many years afterward, that “duty 
was the most sublime word in the English lan- 
guage” He was at once commissioned brevet 
second lieutenant and was assigned to the engi- 
neers corps, the “Scientific Corps of the Army” 
as it was called, and won high reputation in that 
important branch of the service. On 30 June 
1831, two years after leaving West Point, he 
married Mary Randolph Custis, daughter of 
G. W. P. Custis, who was a grandson of 
Mrs. George Washington, and thus became 
proprietor of “Arlington on the Potomac and 
other estates. Five years after, in 1836, he 
was promoted to first heutenant and two years 
later, in 1838, was made captain. In’ 1834-he 
became assistant to the chief engineer of the 


222 


army in Washington and in 1837 took charge 
of erecting works,to protect Saint Louis from 
the erosion of the Mississippi. From 1841 to 
the outbreak of the Mexican War he was at 
Fort. Hamilton in. charge of the’ defenses. of 
New York. During the Mexican War, the op- 
portunity was presented for the first time to 
show the military mettle of the engineer officer, 
and Winfield Scott, when placed in command 
of the army to. invade’ Mexico, constantly 
consulted with Lee, acted largely on his advice 
and mentioned him repeatedly in his official 
reports. Lee was responsible for the arrange- 
ment of the batteries used to reduce Vera 
Cruz. In that campaign he made a reputation 
superior to all officers of his grade. He sur- 
passed them in personal daring, scientific coun- 
sels—a coup d’a@il of the battle-field — and 
for felicitous execution of orders. In the re- 
connaissances before the victory of Contreras 
he especially distinguished himself, as was also 
the case at Chapultepec, where he was wounded. 
He was brevetted major at Cerro Gordo, 18 
April 1847, liewtenant-colonel at Contreras and 
Churubusco and colonel at Chapultepec. His 
veteran commander said that his “success was 
largely due to the skill, valor and undaunted 
courage of Robert E. Lee,” and that “f oppor- 
tunity offered, he would show himself the 
foremost captain of his time.” 

At the close of the Mexican War his serv- 
ices aS an engineer were again demanded by 
the government and he was made’a member of 
the board of engineers of the United States 
army, being employed at Baltimore from 1849 
to 1852 in the construction of forts for harbor 
defense; 1 Sept. 1852 he was made superin- 
tendent of the academy at West Point—a 
complimentary detail—and the school derived 
such benefit from his great ability and sagacious 
administration of its affairs that there was a 
general desire to retain him. Three years af- 
terward, in 1855, the boundary lines of the 
United States having been extended, making it 
difficult to protect American citizens on the 


frontier, two new cavalry regiments were added 


to the three then in service and Lee was of- 
fered the position ‘of lieutenant-colonel of the 
2d cavalry by Jefferson Davis, the Secretary 
of War, and accepted, serving with his regi- 
ment at various posts in westetn Texas and 
giving very efficient service in protecting the 
settlers from the depredations of the Coman- 
ches and other Indians. Lee was at Arling- 
ton on a furlough to settle up the estate of 
his wife’s father, Mr.:Custis, when on 16 Oct. 
1859 John Brown with a small force marched 
into Harper’s Ferry to liberate slaves and in- 
augurate’ war between the whites and the 
blacks. No one then knew the limit of the 
aggressive action of Brown, but the War De- 
partment knew that an officer of balanced 
judgment, combined with experience and cour- 
age, should represent the government at that 
point. Lee was selected and he promptly re- 
sponded to the summons to go to Harper’s 
Ferry. His judicious plans to capture Brown 
were successful, and the latter’s trial, convic- 
tion and execution followed. Lee then re- 
turned-to Washington and.in a short time was 
again on his way to resume his duties in 
Texas, “having charge of the department of 
Texas until February 1861. 

Though absorbed by the conscientious dis- 


LEE 


charge of his duties, Lee’s letters show that he 
had noticed the increasing chasm between the 
northern and southern sections of the republic, 
and that the citizens thereof were ranging 
themselves upon their-respective sides. Hon- 
ing to the last that the diverging views could 
be brought together, Lee was at last face to 
face with the “irrepressible conflict” and could 
only consider. on what side his sword, already 
famous, should be drawn. “We are between a 
state of anarchy and civil war. May God avert 
us from both. I must be patient and wait the 
end, for I can do nothing to hasten or retard 
it» he said. “I cannot anticipate a greater 
calamity for the country than the dissolution 
of the Union,” he wrote in 1861. The. plead- 
ing of the veteran Scott, who said that Lee’s 
services to the Union would be worth to it 
50,000 men, and the long friendship of his 
comrades must be resisted; but beyond all, 
the command of the army of the United States, 
offered him on 18 April by President Lincoln, 
had to be respectfully set aside. His reply to 
Francis Preston Blair, who had been designated 
to approach him on the subject, is the key to 
his action. “I declined the offer he made to 
me to take command of the army that was to 
be brought into the field, stating as candidly as 
I could, that though opposed to secession and 
deprecating war, I could take no part in an 
invasion of the Southern States.» His inabilit 
to accept forced a prompt resignation, whic 
read 

ARLINGTON, WASHINGTON Ciry, P. O.. 


April 20, 1861. 
Honorable Simon Cameron, 
Secretary of War. 


S1r:—I have the honor to tender the resignation of my 
commission as colonel of the first regiment of cavalry. 


Very respectfully your obedient servant, 
R. E._ LEE, 
Colonel First Cavalry. 


Having once decided the question he never 
faltered in his allegiance or doubted the cor- 
rectness of ‘his decision. He said to Gen. 
Wade Hampton in 1869, as they were discuss- 
ing the war and its results: “I could have taken 
no other course without dishonor, and if it 
were all to be gone over again, I should act in 
precisely the same manner.” Going to Rich- 
mond at the request of the Virginia Conven- 
tion, he was made major-general and com- 
mander-in-chief. of the Virginia forces (23 
April) .and when Virginia joined the Con- 
federacy he was commissioned in the Con- 
federate service and made one of the five full 
generals. In July 1861 the endeavored from a 
distance to direct the Confederate attempts to 
hold what is now West Virginia and in August 
took personal charge of the difficult campaign, 
but the campaign failed through: the fault of 
others and he was severely criticised by the 
newspapers. He was then put in charge of 
the sea-coast defenses in South Carolina, 
Georgia and Florida, and here his knowledge 
and practical experience in engineering’ came 
into play, for there is little doubt but that the 
heroic defense which that department after- 
ward made was only possible through his skill 
and energy in placing it in proper condition. 
In March 1862 he was made military adviser to 
President Davis and occupied that position till 
the wounding of Gen. J. E. Johnston at Seven 
Pines. He quickly demonstrated his power of 


“a 3 


ASavanees oe 
Photograph by Geo. S. Cook, Richmond 


_GEN. ROBERT E. LEE 


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LEE 


organization. Everything had to be created — 
armies organized and the various necessary 
departments constructed, and on 1 June he was 
placed in command of the Army of Northern 
Virginia. He at once determined to drive Mc- 
Clellan from the siege of Richmond... He sum- 
moned “Stonewall” Jackson to his’ aid, col- 
lected all the reinforcements he could. and, 
after sending J. E. B. Stuart on a scouting 
circuit of the Union army, on 26 June opened 
the “Seven Days Battles, attacking McClellan’s 
lines on the Chickahominy. Several battles 
were fought (Oak Grove, Mechanicsville, 
Gaines’ Mill, Peach Orchard, Savage Station 
and.Glendale, qq.v.), and, while repulsed. in a 
bloody battle at Malvern Hill (1 July) where 
McClellan had made a last stand to save his 
army, Lee had prepared for a combined ajtack 
the next morning, but found that McClellan 
had retreated during the night under cover of 
his. gunboats at Harrison’s Landing, 30 miles 
below Richmond. He captured 52 pieces of 
artillery and quantities of stores of all kinds 
and left McClellan’s. army in. a demoralized 
condition, and though he had not annihilated it, 
as he had designed and might have so done but 
for the failure of some of his subordinates, he 
had driven it away from Richmond, raised the 
siege and by a series of manceuvres brought it 
to. pass that McClellan and Pope, who had 
taken command of the Army of Virginia, united 
forces near Washington. ‘Here Lee, completely 
routed Pope, the campaign culminating in the 
battles on the old field of Manassas on 28, 29 
and, 30 August and finally drove him. to the 
fortifications in front of Washington (see 
Butt Run, SeconD BATTLE oF). Then fol- 
lowed the Maryland campaign, in which Jack- 
son. captured Harper’s Ferry with 11,000 
prisoners and large quantities of arms and 
stores. On 14 Sept. 1862 a part ‘of Lee’s army 
under D. H. Hill was worsted in a battle at 
South Mountain (q.v.) or Boonsboro because 
McClellan had come into possession of Lee’s 
orders. Accordingly Lee abandoned his in- 
tention of invading Pennsylvania, ordering an 
immediate retreat into Virginia on the 15th and 
deciding to fight McClellan on the heights and 
banks of ‘the Antietam near Sharpsburg. At 
Sharpsburg (Antietam), 17 Sept. 1862, Lee re- 
pulsed every attack made by McClellan’s well- 
equipped troops and advanced his own lines, 
only retreating across the Potomac when ‘he 
learned that the Union army had. received 
large reinforcements (see ANTIETAM, BATTLE 
or). On 7: November Burnside superseded 
- McClellan in command of the Union forces 
and crossing the’ Rappahannock at Fredericks- 
burg, tried to take the Confederate army by 
surprise (13 December). Lee, however, had 
divined his purpose and, occupying a naturally 
strong position, not only repulsed his attack, 
but administered a crushing defeat, compelling 
him’ to recross the river, where his strong 
works and heavy artillery rendered him 
safe from a counter attack by Lee. (See 
FREDERICKSBURG, BATTLE OF). In’ February 
1863 Hooker succeeded Burnside and was de- 
feated by Lee at Chancellorsville (q.v.). .In 
the Gettysburg campaign of 1863, Winchester 
was captured by Ewell, and at Gettysburg 
(q.v.) 1-3 July, Lee faced: Meade} gained a de- 
cided victory the first day, gained some ground 
(ae second day, ‘but was repulsed. with heavy 


‘hhausted 


223 


loss on the third day.. He remained in line of 
battle all day the 4th of July and for several 
days at Hagerstown, but Meade did not attack 
him, and he later retreated into Virginia, in 
November. and. December 1863. compelling 
Meade to withdraw after the Mine Run cam- 
paign (q.v.), though the latter had 70,000 men 
to Lee’s 50,000... In March. 1864. Grant was 
made commander-in-chief of the Union army, 
“which was to crush Lee and capture Rich- 
mond.» He had 120,000 well-equipped and 
provisioned troops, while Lee had not more 
than 62,000 men, badly armed, wretchedly 
equipped and poorly supplied with rations, 
clothing, ordnance stores and. transportation. 
And yet he outgeneraled and defeated Grant 
in every battle in that campaign from_ the 
Wilderness. to Petersburg, from the Rapidan 
to the lines in front of Richmond, compelling 
him to camp before Petersburg and. remain 
practically idle for several months,;or until 


March 1865. (See WILDERNESS; ‘TopD’s 
TAVERN; Po River; SpoTTSYLVANIA. CouRT 
House; North ANNA; Hawes’ SuHop; Pa- 


MUNKEY and TotorpotoMoy; Drewry’s BLUFF; 
PETERSBURG;  TREVILIAN STATION; . SAINT 
Mary’s CHurRcH; WELDON and. SouTH SIDE 
RAILROADS; JERUSALEM PLANK ROAD; DEEP 
Bottom; GLoBE TAVERN;. REAM’S;. STATION; 
Fort Harrison; Poplar. SPRING. CHURCH; 
HatcHer’s Run; Fair Oaxs)., These great 
contests against enormous odds are. a monu-- 
ment of the strategic and tactical ability of 
Lee as well as to the courage of his troops. 
His defense of Richmond and Petersburg 
alone was a marvelous example of defensive 
warfare. Now the supply of money was ex- 
and the question of feeding the 
soldiers was daily becoming more troublesome. 
A. discontinuance in the supply of arms. and 
ammunition. was imminent. .His gallant army 
had ‘been exposed in a violent campaign. to 
overwhelming numbers and he no longer had 
“Stonewall” Jackson and J. E. B. Stuart by 
his side. During the remainder of the war Lee 
had. to: guard 40 miles of breastwork with a 
bare skirmish line and yet meet every move of 
the enemy, to supply his army, to recruit his 
thinned ranks from a country already stripped 
of its men, and to witness. the starving out of 
his army — yet he met and overcame all these 
obstacles with a resourcefulness which was 
‘born of. the highest. order of military genius. 
(See Hatcuer’s Run; Fort STEDMAN). Hav- 
ing been made commander-in-chief of all the 
Confederate armies in February 1865, he deter- 
mined to unite with Johnston and attack, Sher- 
man before Grant could reinforce him, but, on 
account of the poor condition of the roads.and 
the lack of transportation facilities, Grant fore- . 
stalled him with ‘his 101,000 infantry, 14,700 
cavalry, 9,000 field artillery, and 369 guns at- 
tacked Lee’s army. (46,000 infantry, 6,000 
cavalry,.5.000 field artillery and 190 guns) at 


Dinwiddie Court House and White Oak Road 


(qq.v.), 30-31 Marchj,and at Five,,Forks. (q.v.) 
1-2 April, inflicting a crushing defeat and caus- 
ing him to retreat. Upon, reaching Amelia 
Court House he found that his provisions had 
been sent.in error to the capital, and so being 
unable to retreat or give battle with any degree 
of success, on 9 April, at Appomattox Court 
House, the Army of Northern Virginia surren- 
dered. (See. FARMVILLE and. HicHsripcr}), 


224 


The number of men surrendered was about 
27,000, but when the troops marched out to 
stack their arms hardly 8,000 were able to 
present themselves with muskets in their hands. 
When the time arrived for him to yield to the 
inevitable and surrender his splendid army, 
with whose courage and heroism the whole 
world was familiar, he was greater if possible 
than ever before. “When you return to. your 
homes,” he said to his troops at Appomattox, 
“you will take with you the satisfaction that 
proceeds from the consciousness of duty faith- 
fully performed, and I earnestly pray that our 
merciful God extend to you his blessing and 
protection.” 

“In August 1865, General Lee was formally 
elected President of Washington College, and 
notified of his election by Judge Brockenbrough, 
Rector of the Board of Trustees. He was 
offered a salary of $1500 per annum, and re- 
fusing all kinds of offers of wealth and high 
position at home and abroad, General Lee ac- 
cepted the task of rebuilding the fortunes of his 
great kinsman’s bankrupt and looted institution, 
and dedicated his life to the reuniting of the 
North and South, the rebuilding of his de- 
vastated section, and the training of the future 
leaders of the new era to solve the problems 
and bear the burdens of the social, economic, 
and political reconstruction of the Old South, 
(From Letter of Henry Louis Smith, President of 
Washington and Lee. University, 17 May 1924.) 

When tendered the presidency of the college, 
General Lee at first declined, saying he was “an 
object of censure to a portion of the country and 
might draw upon the college a feeling of hostil- 
ity.’ “I think it is the duty of every citizen” he 
further added, “in the present condition of the 
country to do all in his power to aid in the 
restoration of peace and harmony and in no 
way to oppose the policy of the State or general 
government directed to that object” He finally 
accepted, however, saying that after what he 
had written if the board still thought his ser- 
vices would be advantageous to the college 
and country he would yield to their judgment, 
and in October 1865 was installed. He con- 
tinued to refuse highly remunerative positions 
because he preferred to continue the educa- 
tional work he had undertaken. At last, how- 
ever, the labor and exposure of his campaigns 
and responsibilities attendant to his position as 
president of the college brought bodily distress. 
In the spring of 1870 he was persuaded to go 
south for his health, but the steady progress 
of the disease could not be checked and his 
life work rapidly drew to a close... On the 
evening of 28 Sept. 1870 he was stricken with 
apoplexy from which he never recovered; he 
lingered on for a fortnight, breathing his last 
on the morning of 12 Oct. 1870. Early in the 
war Lee’s home at Arlington, Va., had been 
seized by Federal troops and in January 1864 
was purchased by the national government at 
a tax sale for $26,800, the Arlington National 
Cemetery being established there later in the 
same year. In 1868 G. W. C. Lee, one of the 
heirs under the Custis will, sued for the recovery 
of the property in the United States District 
Court for the Eastern District of Virginia which 
rendered a decision in his favor. This was 
affirmed upon appeal by the United States Su- 
preme Court, 4 Dec. 1882: Thereupon Congress 
by Act of 3 March 1883, appropriated $150,000 


LEE 


for the purchase of this property, and on 31 
March 1883, G. W. C. Lee conveyed to the 
United States, by deed, the title to the property 
in question for the sum appropriated. . 

Lee had for 63 years lived and moved 
among a people who will cherish his memory 
through succeeding generations, as long as the 
sun, moon and stars endure. He was a most 
remarkable man whether soldier or citizen. 
Benjamin Hill, of Georgia, summed up Lee’s 
character in splendid form when he said: “He 
was a foe without hate, a friend without 
treachery, a soldier without cruelty, and a 
victim without murmuring. He was a public 
officer without vices, a private citizen without 
wrong, a neighbor without’ reproach, a Chris- 
tian without hypocrisy, and a man without 
guilte He was Cesar without his ambition, 
Frederick without his tyranny, Napoleon with-— 
out his selfishness, and Washington without his 
reward. He was as obedient to authority as a 
servant and royal in authority as a king. He 
was as gentle as a woman in life, pure and 
modest as a virgin in thought, watchful as’ a 
Roman Vestal, submissive to law as Socrates, 
and grand in battle as Achilles.” 

Bibliography.—Allan, W. M., ‘The Army 
of Northern Virginia in 1862” (Boston 1892) ; 
“The Correspondence of Gen. Robert E. Lee, 
Chancellorsville to Gettysburg? (in ‘Southern 
Historical Society Papers,» Vol. XXVIII, pp. 
148-155, Richmond 1900); Adams, C. F., “Lee 
at Appomattox’ and Other Papers? (Boston 
1902) ; Bradford, Gamaliel, ‘Lee the American? 
(Boston 1912); Barnard, J..G.,° ‘The Penin- 
sular Campaign» (New York 1864); Bruce, 
P. A., “Robert E. Lee? (Philadelphia 1907) ; 
‘Battles and Leaders of the Civil War? (New 
York 1884-88) ; Cooke, J. E., ‘Life of General 
Robert E. Lee?’ (New York 1871); Deering, 
J. R., “Lee and His Cause? (New York 1907); 
Evans, C. A., (ed.), ‘Confederate -Military: 
History? (Atlanta, Ga., 1899); Freeman, D. S. 
(ed.), ‘Lee’s Dispatches? (New York 1915); 
Lee, R. E., Jr., “Recollections and Letters of 
General Robert E. Lee? (New York 1909) ;: 
Gilman, Bradley, ‘Robert E. Lee? (New York: 
1915); Hill, F. T., “On the Trail of Grant and 
Lee? (New York 1911); Jones, J. W., ‘Life 
and Letters of Robert E. Lee? (New York 
1906), and “Personal Reminiscences, Anecdotes 
and Letters of Gen. Robert E, Lee? (New 
York 1876); Lee, Fitzhugh, ‘General Lee? 
(New York 1894); Longstreet, H: D., ‘Lee 
and Longstreet at High Tide? (Gainesville, 
Ga., 1904); Long, A. L., ‘Memoirs of Robert 
E. Lee (New York 1887); .Page,..-T. Ni, 
‘Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier? (New York, 
1911), and ‘Robert. E. Lee, the Southerner? ' 
(New York 1908); Pollardj.KreA., ‘The Early 
Life, Campaigns and: Public Services of Robert 
E. Lee? (New York 1871); Shepherd, H..E., 
‘Life of Robert Edward Lee). (New. York: 
1906); Stiles, R., ‘Four Years under Marse: 
Robert? (New York 1904); Taylor, W.-H., 
‘General Lee, His Campaigns in Virginia, 1861- 
65> (Norfolk 1906) ; Trent, W. P.,, ‘Robert E. 
Lee? (Boston 1899); White, H. A., ‘Robert E. 
Lee and the Southern Confederacy’? (New 
York 1898); Webb, A. S., ‘The Peninsula» 


(New York 1881). FitzHucH LEE; ©. 
Revised by Irvine E. RINEs. 


LEE, Samuel, English clergyman and 
Orientalist: b. Longnor, Shropshire, 14 May 


LEE 


1783 ; d. Barley, Hertfordshire, 16 Dec. 1852. He 
acquired Greek, Hebrew and a knowledge of 
Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Persian and Hindu- 
stani without instruction and was. graduated 
from Queen’s College, Cambridge, in 1818. He 
was appointed professor of Arabic at Cam- 
bridge in 1819, held several parishes, was regius 
professor of Hebrew at Cambridge in 1831-48 
and in 1838-52 he was rector of Barley. He 
was a linguist of rare attainments and was re- 
puted to have mastered 18 languages. Author 
of ‘Novum Testamentum Syriace? (1816); 
“Vetus Testamentum Syriace? (1823); ‘Gram- 
mar of the Hebrew Language’ (1830; 6th ed., 
1844) : ‘Hebrew, Chaldee and English Lexicon? 
(1840), and numerous scholarly translations. 


LEE, Samuel Philips, American naval of- 
ficer: b. Sully, Fairfax County, Va., 13 Feb. 
1812; d. Silver Springs, near Washington, D. 
C., 5 June 1897. He entered the navy as 
midshipman in 1825 and was promoted passed 
midshipman in 1831. He reached the rank of 
commander in 1855, and served on the board 
of examiners in 1858-60. He was assigned to 
blockade duty off the coast of South Carolina 


on the outbreak of the Civil War. He was 
appointed acting rear-admiral in 1862 and 
placed in command of the North Atlantic 


blockading squadron and perfected a blockad- 
ing system by which the Confederacy was com- 
pletely isolated. In 1864 he received command 
of the Mississippi squadron and moved up the 
Cumberland to the support of Hooker, keeping 
communications open and gaining a vote of 
thanks from Congress. He was promoted 
commodore in 1866 and rear-admiral in 1870, 
receiving at that time command of the North 
Atlantic squadron. He was retired 13 Feb. 
1873. Author of ‘The Cruise of the Dolphin? 
(Reports of the United States Navy Depart- 
ment, 1854). 


LEE, Sir Sidney (formerly SoLomon Laz- 
Arus), English author and editor: b. London, 
5 Dec. 1859. He was educated at the city of 
London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, 
from which he was graduated in 1882. In 1883 
he became assistant editor of the ‘Dictionary 
of National Biography, in 1890 joint editor 
with Sir Leslie Stephen, and on the retirement 
of the latter in 1891 was appointed editor-in- 
chief. Under his editorship appeared the last 
37 volumes (Vols. XXVII-LXIII, 1891-1901), 
together with two supplements (6 vols.) and 
the ‘Index and Epitome.’ To this work he 
contributed 820 articles. His ‘Memoir on 
King Edward VII, contributed to the ‘Second 
Supplement, provoked a storm of controversy, 
his portrayal of that monarch not ‘being re- 
garded by many critics as sufficiently eulogistic. 
He was Clark lecturer in English literature 
at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1901-02, 
Lowell Institute lecturer at Boston in 1903, and 
lecturer for the Common University Fund at 
Oxford in 1909. He was knighted in 1911, and 
in 1913 was appointed professor of English 
language and literature in the University of 
London. He has published ‘Stratford-on- 
Avon from the Earliest Times to the Death of 
Shakespeare? (1885; new ed., 1906); ‘Lord 
Herbert of Cherbury’s Autobiography, with 
a Continuation of his Life’ (1886; new ed., 
1906); ‘A Life of William Shakespeare? 
(1898; popular ed., 1900, 1907; rev. and re- 

VOL. 17—15 


225 


written, 1915); ‘A Life of Queen Victoria? 
(1902; new ed., 1904); ‘Shakespeare’s First 
Folio Facsimile, with Introduction, and Cen- 
sus of Extant Copies? (1902); ‘Elizabethan 
Sonnets”? (1904); ‘Great Englishmen of the 
16th Century? (1904); ‘Shakespeare’s Poems 
and Pericles? (1905); ‘Shakespeare and the 
Modern Stage” (1906); ‘America and Eliza- 


bethan England, in Scribner’s. Magazine 
(1907); ‘The French Renaissance in Eng- 
land? (1910); ‘Principles .of Biography,’ 


Cambridge Lecture (1911); ‘Shakespeare and © 
the Italian Renaissance,’ British Academy 
Shakespeare Lecture (1915); ‘The Life of 
William Shakespeare’? (1916). 


LEE, Sophia, English author: b. London, 
May 1750; d. Clifton, near Bristol, 13 March 
1824. She was the eldest daughter of John Lee, 
an actor. She was the author of a comedy en- 
titled ‘The Chapter of Accidents, brought out 
at Haymarket Theatre in 1780 with great suc- 
cess. The next year her father died and she - 
removed with her sisters to Bath, where she de- 
voted the profits of her play to the establish- 
ment of a young ladies’ seminary over which 
she and her sister Harriett (q.v.) long pre- 
sided. She wrote two or three novels and 
contributed ‘The Young Lady’s Tale? and ‘The 
Clergyman’s Tale? to the “Canterbury Tales,” 
published by herself and her sister. 


LEE, Stephen Dill, American soldier: b. 
Charleston, S. C., 22 Sept. 1833; d. Vicksburg, 
Miss., 28 May 1908. He was graduated from 
West Point in 1854; served on the frontiers of 
Texas, Kansas and Nebraska; was promoted 
to the rank of first lieutenant in 1856 and served 
in Florida in 1857. On the secession of South 
Carolina he resigned from the United States 
army and was made captain of South Carolina 
volunteers, and gradually rose from this rank 
to that of lieutenant-general. He was at Seven 
Pines, at the Seven Days’ Battles around Rich- 
mond, in the campaign against Pope and at 
the second battle of Bull Run. He was placed 
in command of the forces at Vicksburg, but 
was succeeded by General Pemberton before the 
capture of the city by the Federals. After the 
war he settled at Columbus, Miss. He was 
elected to the State senate in 1870 and was a 
prominent member of the Constitutional Con- 
vention in 1890. In 1880 he was made president 
of the State Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege at Starkeville, holding this position till 
1899, when he became commissioner of the 
Vicksburg National Park. He was. president 
of the United Confederate Veteran Associa- 
tion after 1904. 


LEE, Thomas George, American profes- 
sor of anatomy: b. Jacksonville, N. Y., 27 Nov. 
1860. He was educated at the universities of 
Pennsylvania, Wurzburg, Harvard and Munich, 
and in 1884-86 he was assistant professor of 
histology and embryology at the University of 
Pennsylvania. He was lecturer and director 
of the laboratory at Yale in 1886-91 and as- 
sistant professor of histology at Radcliffe in 
1891-92. In 1892 he went to the University of 
Minnesota as professor of embryology and 
histology, became professor of anatomy and 
director of the Institute of Anatomy in 1909, 
and since 1913 he has been professor of com- 
parative anatomy there. He is associate editor 


226 

of the Anatomical Record and has written 
several monographs on the embryology of 
vertebrates. 


LEE, Vernon, the nom-de-plume of the 
English writer, Violet Paget (q.v.). 

LEE, William, English clergyman and in- 
ventor: b. probably at Calverton, Nottingham- 
shire; d. Paris, about 1610. He was educated 
at Cambridge University and while either cu- 
rate or incumbent at Calverton he, in’ 1589, 
invented the stocking-frame. Failing to secure 
royal patents in England, owing to the aversion 
to supplant hand-labor by machinery, he re- 
moved to France upon the invitation of Henry 
IV, who promised the patronage withheld by 
Queen Elizabeth. He established his. frames 
at Rouen and was highly successful in his un- 
dertaking until the assassination of Henry IV, 
and subsequent unsettled conditions caused the 
withdrawal of royal patronage. He died, dis- 
appointed and unremunerated, and his work- 
men returned to England where the foundation 
of the manufacture of hosiery by machinery 
was then laid. 


LEE, William, American diplomatic repre- 
sentative: b. Stratford, Va., 1737; d. near Wil- 
liamsburg, Va., 27 June 1795. He-was a brother 
of Arthur Lee (q.v.), Francis Lightfoot Lee 
(q.v.) and Richard Henry Lee (q.v.). Prior 
to the Revolution he was active as a merchant 
in London; and there he was for a time agent 
of Virginia colony. In 1777 he became asso- 
ciated with Thomas Morris (q.v.) as superin- 
tendent of the commercial affairs of the United 
States at Nantes, France, and in 1778 was ap- 
pointed commissioner to Prussia and Austria, 
but accomplished nothing, A treaty drawn up 
by him with Neufville, a merchant of Amster- 
dam, in the year 1778, and approved by the 
burgomaster of that city, became the avowed 
cause of the war declared by Great Britain 
against Holland. Consult Wharton, ‘Revo- 
lutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the 
United States? (1889). 


LEE, William Little, American lawyer: b. 
Sandy Hill, ‘N,_Y.,.25 Feb. 1821; d; Honolulu, 
28 June 1857. He was educated at Norwich 
University, Vermont, and at the Harvard Law 
School, and engaged in the practice of law at 
Troy, N Threatened with tuberculosis, he 
in 1846 decided to remove to Oregon, making 
the journey by sea; but repairs on the vessel 
detained him at Honolulu and he undertook 
some important legal commissions from the 
Hawaiian government. He afterward accepted 
the appointment of chief justice and chancellor 
and remained in those offices until his death. 
He framed a new constitution with civil and 
criminal codes; was president of the commis- 
sion governing the distribution of lands to the 
common people, a proceeding due to his good 
offices; and in 1855 he negotiated a reciprocity 
treaty with the United States. His death was 
due to a recurrence of his old trouble follow- 
ing overwork in the Hawaiian small-pox epi- 
demic of 1853. 


LEE, Mass., town, in Berkshire County, 
on the Housatonic River and on the New York, 
New Haven and Hartford Railroad, about 33 
miles northwest of Holyoke and 10 miles south 
of Pittsfield. The town includes the villages 
of South and East Lee. Lee is situated in an 
agricultural region; but the country is traversed 


LEE — LEE FAMILY 


by the southern spurs of the Green Mountains, 
known as the “Berkshire Hills” in this region. 
The delightful climate and beautiful scenery 
make Lee and vicinity favorite summer 
resorts. ‘The town was settled in 1760 and 
incorporated in 1777. A fine white marble 
found in the town is much used for building 
purposes. The principal manufactures are 
paper and dairy products. The government of 
the town is administered by a town meeting or 
by officials elected at the annual town meeting. 
Pop. (1920) 4,085. Consult Hyde and Hyde, 
“Centennial History of Lee — 


LEE, nautical term designating the side of 
a ship sheltered from the wind. The word 
comes from the Anglo-Saxon hleo and it is 
likewise found in other languages, the Icelandic 
hle, the Dutch lj, the Danish Je. A “ee 
shore” is one unprotected from the wind, 
as the wind blows straight upon it. To “get 
under the lee» is to take a position placing 
some object between one and the wind. “Lee- 
way” is when a ship drifts away from her- 
course before the wind. “Leeward” means the 
direction away from the wind. “Lee anchor” 
is the one not held taut by the swinging of 
the ship in the wind. A “lee-board” is one of 
two long, flat pieces of wood placed on the 
sides of a shallow boat and kept close-hauled 
except when the one on the lee side is let down 
to prevent the boat from drifting too rapidly to 
“leeward.” 


LEE-BOARD. See CENTRE-BOARD, 


LEE FAMILY, The, a family of Virginia, 
some of whose members have been conspicuous 
in public affairs at almost every stage of Ameri- 
can history. Among all the eminent names of 
the South there is none that outranks this in 
the number or prominence of those who repre- 
sent it in the records of the nation. Sprung 
from a cavalier line of old and distinguished 
English stock, the Virginia Lees have continued 
in the New World that order of Old-World 
aristocracy ——an aristocracy of character and 
culture, of honor and of public service — which 
has legitimated itself under the broadening con- 
ditions of democratic development, and to 
which, as well as to the plainer but not less 
masterful middle-class English element that 
elsewhere entered into the making of the re- 
public, democracy in the American Common- 
wealth owes its most essential traits. That 
Richard Lee who, during the reign of Charles 
I, brought his large household to Virginia and 
himself ‘became the first of this illustrious line 
in America, brought also to the Northern Neck 
in Northumberland County, where he settled, 
an English yeoman’s sturdiness, raised and 
enlightened and nowise debilitated by the re- 
finements of gentility. A stout partisan of the 
Stuart cause, he supported Sir William Berke- 
ley (q.v.) in his resistance to Cromwell’s policy, 
and through this attitude the colonists, threat- 
ened by the Protector’s fleet, forced {ts com- 
mander into a treaty styling the colony an 
independent dominion. Lee is said to have 
joined successfully with Berkeley in having 
Charles II proclaimed king in Virginia nearly 
two years earlier than his final coronation in 
London... Richard Lee’s son, Richard, and the 
second Richard’s third son, Thomas, were 
leaders in the colony, Thomas dying just as 
his governor's commission was made out, By 


LEE-HAMILTON — LEECHES 


his wife, Hannah Ludwell, he had five sons, 
who became distinguished for public and patri- 
otic acts. Of these, Richard Henry Lee (q.v.), 
by reason of the diversity and singular. effi- 
ciency of his services, rendered for many years 
before the Revolution, during that struggle and 
for 10 years afterward, to Virginia and all the 
colonies and later States, stands among the 
pre-eminent figures of his day. The steps pre- 
liminary to the Declaration of Independence 
can never be recalled without remembrance of 
him as mover of the resolutions which led to its 
adoption in the Continental Congress. The 
address to the people of Great Britain, which 
he wrote, is perhaps surpassed in weight and 
loftiness of spirit by no, American state paper. 
His brother, Francis Lightfoot Lee (q.v.), not 
only was one of the signers of the Declaration, 
but also made liberal sacrifices for the patriot 
cause, all the more to be remembered to his 
honor when it is considered that by temper and 
education he was fitted rather for the occupa- 
tions of a student, and for social elegancies, 
than for the turmoil of politics and the trage- 
dies of war. Arthur Lee (q.v.), youngest son 
of Thomas, was educated in two. professions, 
medicine and law, and distinguished himself by 
public services both at home and abroad. “As 
representative of the colonies in Europe dur- 
ing the Revolution, he displayed abilities as a 
_man of learning, versatility and political saga- 
‘city, which he applied in ways highly. useful to 
his country in critical times. William Lee (q.v.), 
another of the sons of Thomas, also repre- 
sented the United. States in Europe at that 
period, with less distinction than others of this 
family attained, but not without some exhibition 
of their unusual qualities.. The fame of Henry 
Lee. (q.v.), the “Light Horse Harry” of the 
Revolution, unique in several respects, is endur- 
ing by reason of his political and military serv- 
ices, while his name is endeared to the Ameri- 
can people for his noble eulogy of Washington. 
As first cousin of Richard Henry Lee and of 
Arthur Lee, his rights are as valid as theirs in 
the name to which he adds a lustre in return 
for that it sheds on him. His son, Robert 
Edward Lee (q.v.), not only stands as a con- 
nector of the two great epochs of his country’s 
history — the Revolutionary period and that of 
the Civil War—but in his life and deeds, he 
worthily perpetuated the fame of the great 
family whose name he bore, whose blood, 
whose spirit, whose traditions he inherited. 
His nephew, Fitzhugh Lee (q.v.), whose name 
may fittingly close this sketch, was one of those 
Americans who, in civil and in military life, 
proved themselves efficient factors in the final 
restoration of the Union. 


LEE-HAMILTON, Eugene, English poet: 
b.. London, 6 Jan. 1845; d. 9 Sept. 1907... He 
was, educated at Oxford and entered the 
diplomatic service in 1869, resigning in 1875. 
He was for many years an.invalid, obliged to 
maintain a recumbent posture continually and 
turning to his art for solace. In 1896 he re- 
covered his health, and in the following year 
visited the United States and Canada. Among 
his published works are ‘Poems and Tran- 
scripts? (1878); ‘The New Medusa’. (1882); 
‘Imaginary Sonnets? (1888) ; 
of Youth? (1891); ‘Sonnets of the Wingless 
Hours? (1894); ‘Forest Notes? (1898); ‘The 


‘The Fountain. 


227 


Lord of the Dark Red Star? (1900); and ‘The 
Romance of the Fountain» (1905). He is a 
half-brother of Violet Paget (q.v.), “Vernon 
Lee,» and married in 1898 the novelist, Annie 
E. Holdsworth (q.v.). 


LEE-METFORD RIFLE, a _ military 
weapon formerly manufactured for the use of 
the United States navy and now displaced by 
the Springfield rifle. It was a gun discharging 
a steel-jacketed bullet with smokeless powder. 
The velocity of the bullet was 2,460 feet per - 
second and the penetration at the regulation 
range of 15 feet was 62 pine boards each seven- 
eighths of an inch in thickness. The pressure 
on the gun when fired was 60,000 pounds to the 
square inch. The rifle could kill at over a mile. 


LEECH, John, English illustrator: b. Lon- 
don, 29 Aug. 1817; d. there, 29 Oct. 1864. He 
studied at the Charterhouse School nine years, 
where Thackeray was his school-fellow; began 
the study of medicine at Saint Bartholomew’s 
Hospital; ‘but soon he gave up his medical 
studies and began making drawings. The first 
of his important works were the illustrations to 
the ‘Ingoldsby Legends.» He joined the staff 
of Punch in 1841. In that field he worked 
with pre-eminent success, supplying weekly pic- 
tures of all sections of English life — scenes of 
field and forest, of the busy streets, of the 
rustic cottage and alehouse, and the elegant 
city dwelling and club; the huntsman, the swell, 
the injured paterfamilias; the fast young lady 
and her grave, portly mother; the housemaid 
and her follower, etc—all thrown off with 
remarkable precision and showing a_ steady 
growth in artistic power. He was buried be- 
side Thackeray in Kensal Green Cemetery. 
His designs for Punch have nearly all been 
published separately as ‘Pictures of Life and 
Character? and as ‘Pencilings from Punch,’ 
He also executed the illustrations for ‘The 
Comic History of England,? ‘The Comic His- 
tory of Rome? and various other books. Con- 
sult Brown, ‘John Leech? (1882); Everitt, 
‘English »Caricaturists? (1886); ‘Life, by 
Frith (1891). 3 

LEECH LAKE, a body of water in Cass 
County, Minn., the largest of the lakes which 
constitute the headwaters of the Mississippi 
River. It is about 1,300 feet above the level 
of the sea; 24 miles long and 15 miles wide. 
The short stream, which is the direct outlet of 
the lake and flows into the Mississippi, is called 
Leech Lake River. The United States has built 
a dam at its outlet, which drains into the Mis- 
sissippi. On the south and east shores is the 
Leech Lake Indian Reservation. The country 
round is well wooded and fish and game are 
plentiful. 


LEECHBURG, Pa. borough in Arm- 
strong County, 34 miles northeast of Pittsburgh, 
on the Pennsylvania Railroad. The first use 
of natural gas in iron making in western 
Pennsylvania was made here in 1874. There 
are cement, steel and iron works and rich coal 
mines. Pop. (1920) 3,991. 

LEECHEE. See LitcHt. 


LEECHES, highly specialized Annelida 
constituting the order Hirudinea or Discophora. 
They are distinguished from most other anne- 
lids by the nearly complete obliteration of the 
celom or body-cavity, owing to the develop- 


228 


ment of parenchymatous connective tissue, 
muscles, etc., the presence of an anterlor or 


oral sucker and a posterior or subanal sucker, | 


and by the absence of sete, except in Acan- 
thobdella. In all leeches which have been care- 
fully studied there are exactly 34 segments or 
somites, each represented by a ganglion in the 
central nervous system, and being of smaller 
size and simpler structure toward the ends 
than in the middle of the body, where each is 
divided into from 2 to 12 rings, one of which, 
sometimes regarded as the first, sometimes as 
the middle ring, bears metameric,.eye-like sense 
organs. Most leeches are temporary parasites, 
a few nearly permanent parasites; the rest are 
predatory hunters or scavengers, or they may 
change from one mode of life to another. 
They are marine, fresh-water or terrestrial. 
The first class is most abundant, both in indi- 
viduals and species, in cold seas, the second 
is both temperate and tropical and the third is 
confined to warm regions. Four families are 
distinguished: the Jchthyobdellide or fish- 
leeches, the Glossiphonid@ or tortoise and snail 
leeches, the Herpobdellide or .worm-leeches 
and the Hirudinide or jawed leeches. The first 
two families possess a long protrusible pro- 
boscis and are much more closely allied than 
the Herpobdellide and Hirudinide, which have 
no proboscis. The Ichthyobdellide are chiefly 
parasitic on fishes and, except a few-fresh- 
water forms, are marine. Some of them, as 
Branchellion, are branchiate. The Glossi- 
_ phonide are richly represented in the fresh- 
water lakes and streams of North America by 
a great variety of species, most of which attach 
themselves to tortoises, whose blood they suck, 
or else they devour water-snails and small 
worms. A few are parasitic on fishes. In all 
of them the oral sucker is small and the eyes 
in one to four pairs placed near the median 
line. The Herpobdellide contains slender, six 
or eight-eyed, predaceous leeches, which are 
extremely abundant in fresh-water ponds and 
feed on small leeches and worms. They have 
no toothed jaws and the digestive tract is simple 
and straight. The Hirudinide have 10 eyes, 
generally three-toothed jaws and a spacious 
sacculated digestive tract. Here belong the 
true blood-sucking leeches, the medicinal leech 
of Europe and our native Macrobdella decora, 
also formerly largely employed in this country 
for blood-letting. The only terrestrial leech 
of the United States belongs to this family. It 
inhabits garden soil, feeds on earthworms and 
is one of the largest leeches known. Consult 


Beddard, F. E., ‘Earthworms and_ Leeches? 
(in “Cambridge Natural History,? Vol. II, 
Cambridge 1901); id., ‘Earthworms and their 
Allies» (New York 1912); Leuckart and 


Brandes, ‘Parasiten des Menschen”; Moore, J., 
“The Leeches of the United States National 
Museum? (in Proceedings» of the United 
States National Museum, Vol. XXI, Washington 
1899); Verrill, A. E., “Invertebrate Animals of 
Vineyard Sound (ib. 1874); Whitman, Quar- 
terly Journal Microscopical Science (1886); 
Moore, ‘Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of 
Natural History? (1901)... — 


LEEDS, England, a municipal, parliamen- 
tary and county borough and large manufactur- 
ing city, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 
the river Aire, 18544 miles north of London. 


LEEDS 


The river, which in passing through the city is 
spanned by eight bridges, is navigable from its 
mouth in the Humber, and connects with the 
Leeds and Liverpool Canal (127 miles long) 
which gives communication with the west. The 
town extends for about seven and one-half 
miles from east to west and about seven from 
north to south. From the extent of the manu- 
factures the town is naturally smoky, and on 
the whole its appearance is not prepossessing, 
although much modern improvement has ‘been 
effected. The most conspicuous building is 
the Roman-Corinthian town-hall, considered 
one of the finest municipal buildings in the 
kingdom. The greater portion of one wing 
is allotted to the Free Public Library, to which 
has been added the Fine Art Gallery. Other 
notable buildings are Leeds Infirmary, in the 
Gothic style; the new general post office, in 
the Renaissance style; the school-board offices, 
the Royal Exchange, the stock exchange, Leeds 
University (q.v.), the Leeds Institute of 
Science, Art and Literature; the Grand 
Theatre, the new Empire Theatre, the gram- 
mar school, the Coliseum (a public hall), ete. 
Among the places of worship are the parish 
chugch of Saint Peter’s; Saint George’s, with 
a tower and spire 160 feet high; Holy Trinity, 
a fine building in the Early English style; some 
of the Dissenting places of worship, and the 
Roman Catholic church of Saint Ann’s, Other 
institutions are the Leeds Medical School 
(1894), Young Men’s Christian Institution, a 
large training college for students for the. 
Wesleyan ministry and a literary and philo- 
sophical society. There is an admirable central 
library with 24 branches. The grammar school 
dates from 1552. The charitable institutions 
of Leeds are numerous. Parks have been laid 
out by the corporation and recreation grounds, — 
the chief being Roundhay Park (two miles 
from Leeds), 300 acres in extent and contain- 
ing a lake of 33 acres. The fine ruins of 
Kirkstall Abbey (q.v.) (three miles from Leeds), 
a Cistercian foundation dating from 1152 with 
the adjacent grounds, presented to the town by 
Colonel North in 1889, form an attractive re- 
sort. Adal Church, nearby, dates from 1140. 
There are interesting Roman remains in the 
vicinity. The waterworks supply Leeds with 
water from the Washburn, a tributary of the 
Wharfe. The street car system, which is rail- 
less overhead trolley, is owned and operated by 
the municipality, as is electricity supply. An 
extension of the city boundaries took place in 
1912, which brought in the Roundhay, 
Shadswell and Seacroft districts. 

Leeds is and has been for generations the 
chief seat of the woolen manufacture of York- 
shire and has become the seat of other im- 
portant industries. Chief of these is the whole- 
sale clothing trade, in which several thousand 
hands are employed, many being also employed ~ 
in the steel works, iron foundries, rolling-mills, 
tool and machine factories; in the boot and 
shoe factories and the leather trade, and in the 
cloth-cap trade, which is also ‘becoming a great 
branch of industry. There are also locomotive 
works, tobacco manufactories, color-printing 
works, extensive chemical and glass works, 
important works for the making of drainage 
pipes, firebricks, ornamental terra-cotta and 
pottery ware, etc. One of the great sources of 


LEEDS — LEES 


the wealth of Leeds is its abundant supplies of 
coal and iron. Nearly 100 collieries are worked 
in the district. y 

The history of Leeds extends over more 
than 1,200 years, the town being mentioned 
under the name of Loid or Loidis by the 
Venerable Bede as the capital of a _ small 
British kingdom about 616. Its first charter 
was obtained in 1208, and it was incorporated 
by Charles I in 1626. It was made a city in 
1893, and its mayor was raised to the dignity 
of lord-mayor in 1897. The vicinity is crowded 
with villages, most of the inhabitants of which 
are employed in manufacturing for the Leeds 
market. Pop. about 453,170. Consult the 
publications of the Thoresby Society; Jack- 
son’s ‘Guide to Leeds,? and A. Tait’s volume 
on ‘Some of the Public Institutions of Leeds? 
(London 1903). 


LEEDS, University of. The Leeds 
School of Medicine, founded in 1831, and the 
Yorkshire College, established as a college of 
science in 1874, were united in 1884; from 
1887-1903 the college formed part of Victoria 
University, Manchester, and from the latter 
year until it received its charter as the Uni- 
versity of Leeds (25 April 1904) it was asso- 
ciated with Owens College of Victoria Uni- 
versity. It has four faculties — arts, medicine, 
science and technology. There is an observatory, 
and the museums and laboratories are excel- 
lently equipped. The university owns a farm 
and dairy school at Garforth, and a new build- 
ing has recently been opened for the agricul- 
tural department at the university. The uni- 
versity is supported by grants trom the city of 
Leeds and the Yorkshire County councils, and 
it also receives liberal financial aid from the 
Clothworkers’ Company of London which has 
in all contributed not less than £160,000, for 
buildings and technical equipment, and from 
the Skinners’ Company of the same city. The 
students in 1913-14 numbered 1,262. 


LEEDS MUSICAL FESTIVAL, a three- 
day, triennial musical event in England 
inaugurated in 1858 as part of the ceremonies 
connected with the opening of the town-hall by 
Queen Victoria. Sterndale Bennett was the 
first conductor. While the festival was a suc- 
cess, giving £2,000 of its profits to the Leeds 
medical charities, it was not until 1874 that it 
was organized on a permanent basis. It pro- 
duces new compositions, both choral and 
orchestral by native and foreign composers, and 
reached a high state of development under the 
direction of Sir Arthur Sullivan, who was its 
conductor in 1880-98; inclusive. Sir Michael 
Costa conducted the festival in 1874-77, and 
since 1901 Sir C. V. Standford has been con- 
ductor. Consult Bennett, J.. and Spark, F. R.,, 
‘A History of the Leeds Festivals, 1858-89? 
(1892). 


LEEK, England, market town in Stafford- 
shire, 26 miles southeast of Manchester and 157 
miles northeast of London, on the Churnet Val- 
ley branch of the North Staffordshire Rail- 
way. The church of Saint Edward the Con- 
fessor was built in 1180 but has been greatly 
changed through different restorations. There 
are ruins of the Cistercian Abbey, De la 
Croix, dating from 1214, and there are also 
remains of the Roman invasion. The town 
received its grant for a Wednesday market 


229 


from King John. It has at the height of sum- 
mer a double sunset, caused by the sun’s sink- 
ing behind one hill to reappear and sink be- 
yond another. The town has broad, regular 
streets, modern educational and municipal insti- 
tutions and important manufactures of silks 
and of agricultural implements. Pop. 15,487. 

LEEK, a mild onion-like plant: (Allium por- 
rum), native to the Mediterranean region and 
much cultivated for culinary purposes. For 
table use its stems are usually blanched by 
mounding earth about them as in blanching - 
celery several weeks before they are needed 
for use. Leeks are used in soups and other- 
wise. They are the more tender and succulent 
the richer the soil. The flower stem is about 
two feet tall, and the flowers are disposed in 
large compact balls, supported on purple 
peduncles. The leek was well known to the 
ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and is 
a Welsh national emblem. Several species of 
the genus grow wild in the United States, fur- 
nishing the wild leeks, wild onion, field garlic, 
etc., of the country folk. When cows eat these 
plants their milk and butter is tainted in con- 
sequence. See GARLIC. 


LEEMPOELS, lam’pools, Jef (Joseph), 
Belgian painter: b. Brussels, 15 May 1867. He 
studied at the Brussels Academy of Art under 
Portaels and Stallaert and specialized as a por- 
trait and figure painter. He received the great 
state medal at Vienna in 1895 and was awarded 
gold medals at Saint Louis (1904), Antwerp, 
Paris and Buenos Aires. He is a chevalier of 
the Legion of Honor and of the Order of Leo- 
pold. His portraits include those of Belgian 
royalty and nobility, and he also spent a sea- 
son in New York engaged in portrait work. 
His figure paintings are on the symbolic order 
and he is noted for his strong technique, fine 
coloring and careful finish. His ‘Hymn to a 
Family? is a portrait group of himself and 
family, and his portrait of King Leopold hangs 
in the Senate House, Brussels. His figure 
paintings include ‘Friendship?; ‘Destiny and 
Humanity? ; ‘Angel or Demon? ; ‘Les Eplorés? ; 
‘Dominique? ; ‘Men Going to Work,’ etc. 

LEER, lar, Prussia, city and riverport in 
the province of Hanover, 58 miles east of 
Groningen, on the river Leda near its con- 
fluence with the Ems, and at a junction of 
railways to Bremen, #mden and Minster. The 
town is very old but its municipal privileges 
date only from 1823. The heathen place of 
sacrifice is near here. Leer furnishes steam- 
boat connections with the North Sea health 
resorts, Borkum and Norderney, holds markets 
for livestock and has an extensive trade in 
foodstuffs, paper, hardware and Westphalian 
coal. Manufactures include textile industries, 
iron foundries, shipbuilding yards, and soap, 
cigar, vinegar and earthenware: factories. Leer 
has broad, well-paved streets, a harbor im- 
proved in 1903, fine churches, a town-hall with 
a tower 165 feet high, and schools for the study 
of navigation and the classics. Pop. 12,690. 


LEES, Charles Herbert, English physicist: 
b. Glodwick, Oldham, 28 July 1864. He was 
educated at Owens College, Manchester, and 
at Strassburg University. He was appointed 
assistant lecturer and demonstrator in physics 
at Owens College in 1891; became lecturer in 
physics at the University of Manchester in 


230 


1900, and was afterward professor of physics 
at the University of London. He has col- 
laborated in the production of textbooks on 
practical physics and is author of papers on 
conduction of heat and electricity, and kindred 
subjects, published in the Philosophical Maga- 
gine, the Philosophical Transactions of the 
Royal Society and similar publications. 


LEE’S MILL, Engagement at. Lee’s 
Mill is a point on the Warwick River, in Vir- 
ginia, near which occurred the first consider- 
able collision of the Peninsula campaign. The 
Confederate forces under General Magruder 
occupied the line of the Warwick, and between 
Lee’s Mill and Wynn’s Mill Cobb’s brigade 
threw up intrenchments and constructed _re- 
doubts for artillery. On 16 April 1862 Gen. 
W. F. Smith, with his division of Keyes’ corps, 
was ordered by General McClellan to recon- 
noitre Cobb’s position, stop his work and, if 
deemed judicious, drive Cobb from it. Brooks’ 
Vermont brigade was thrown forward, and 
after an artillery fire of more than six hours, 
part of the time from 18 guns, four companies 
of the 3d Vermont crossed the stream below 
a dam and seized the rifle-pits of the 15th 
North Carolina, but were driven back with 
severe loss. The effort was renewed later in 
the day, when, under cover of a heavy artillery 
fire, which was sharply replied to, detachments 
of the 4th, 5th and 6th Vermont endeavored 
to cross the Warwick, but were driven back. 
The Union loss during the day was 156 killed 
and wounded, and 9 missing. The Confederate 
- loss did not exceed 75 killed and wounded. 
The result confirmed McClellan in his convic- 
tion that the line of the Warwick could not be 
carried by direct assault, and he directed all 
his efforts to the siege of Yorktown (q.v.). 
Consult ‘Official Records? (Vol. XI); Webb, 
A. S., ‘The Peninsula? (New York 1881-1908) ; 
McClellan, J. B., ‘McClellan’s Own _ Story? 
(New York 1887); Allan, W., and Hotchkiss, 
J., ‘The Battlefields of Virginia» (New York 
1867). 


LEESER, Isaac, American rabbi and 
journalist: b. Neuenkirchen, Prussia, 12 Dec. 
1806; d. Philadelphia, 1 Feb. 1868. In his 18th 
year ‘he removed to Richmond, Va., where he at 
first engaged in business. In 1829 he became 
Hazan or minister of Congregation Mikveh 
Israel of Philadelphia. His first work, ‘The 
Jews and the Mosaic Law,’ appeared in 1833, 
followed in 1837 by his sermons in two vol- 
umes. He edited in 1841 ‘Grace Aguilar’s 
Spirit of Judaism,’ and-began in 1843 his 
monthly magazine, The Occident, which he 
conducted until near the end of its 25th vol- 
ume. In 1845 he published his Pentateuch in 
Hebrew and English, and in 1848 his edition of 
the ‘Daily Prayers, according to the German 
ritual. Retiring from the ministry in 1850, he 
issued an English translation of Schwarz’s clas- 
sic ‘Geography of Palestine,’ and an edition 
of the Hebrew Bible, with Jaquett. He began 
now an English translation of the Old Testa- 
ment, completed in later years. In 1857 he was 
elected minister of the Beth El Emeth Syna- 
gogue, but continued his literary labors, editing 
‘Dias Letters? (1859); ‘The Inquisition and 
Judaism» (1860); ‘Mrs. Hester Rothschild’s 
Meditations and Prayers? (1864): Grace Agui- 
lar’s ‘Jewish Faith and Spirit of Judaism? 


LEE’S MILL — LEEUWARDEN 


(1864). In addition to his work as editor, 
translator, author and lecturer, he gave the im- 
petus to nearly every Jewish charity in the 
city, while he suggested institutions that have 
since been established, so far-sighted was his ~ 
vision. He was for decades the leader of the 
conservative party in American Israel and was 
aggressive and fearless in his opposition to the 
reform movement, whose progress, however, 
he could not check. 


LEETE, Frederick De Land, American 
Methodist Episcopal bishop: b; Avon Springs, 
N. Y., 1 Oct. 1866. He was graduated at 
Syracuse University in 1889, and was ordained 
in the ministry in 1888. He held various 
pastorates, was general secretary of the Young 
Men’s Christian Association at Utica in 1891- 
94, and in May 1912 he was elected bishop in 
charge of Georgia, South Carolina, Florida 
and Alabama. He is well known as a public 
speaker, and is author of ‘Everyday Evangel- 
ism? (1909); ‘Christian Brotherhoods? (1912) ; 
‘The Church in the City? (1915). 


LEETE, William, English colonial gov- 
ernor of Connecticut: b. Dodington, Hunting- 
donshire, England, 1613; d. New Haven, Conn., 
16 April 1683. He was destined for the pro- 
fession of law, and after being called to the 
bar practised in the Bishop’s Court at Cam- 
bridge, but joined the Puritans who were emi- . 
grating in great numbers to America, and 
reached the western continent in 1637. He 
made his home in the New Haven colony in 
1639 and became a religious leader in Guilford, 
which he had helped to found. From 1658 to 
1661 he was deputy governor of New Haven. 
From 1661 to 1665 he was governor, at which 
latter date the colony was united with Con- 
necticut by royal charter. He was deputy govy- 
ernor of the colony of Connecticut from 1669 
to 1676, when he was appointed governor, a 
position he held till his death. 


LEETONIA, Ohio, village in Columbiana 
County, 58 miles north of Wheeling, W. Va., on 
the Youngstown and Ohio River, Pennsylvania 
and Erie railroads. It is situated in a coal- 
mining district and there is a supply of 
natural gas. There are manufactures of 
machinery and tools. Pop. (1920) 2,688. 


LEEUWARDEN, 1a’war-dén, the Nether- 
lands, Holland, capital city of the province of 
Friesland, 31 miles west of Groningen, on the 
canal between Harlingen and Groningen. The 
town grew around the courts of the Friesian 
stadtholders and is comparable to The Hague 
for its general attractiveness; possesses many 
handsome buildings and is one of the most 
important cities of second rank in the country. 
It was originally a walled city, but the old 
gates have been demolished, and the walls 
more or less obliterated. There is a town-hail 
built in 1715; a royal palace built for the 
Friesian stadtholders: the Kanselarji, dating 
from 1502; the unfinished church tower, Old- 
hove, built in 1529. Notable is the Friesian 
Museum, containing relics of several strata of 
civilizations from the stone to the modern 
age, gathered from the terpen, or artificial 
mounds, once very numerous itn the province, 
richly illustrating the evolution of the race, and 
especially of the Teutonic migrations. The 
city has an. extensive trade in grain, cattle, 


LEEUWENHOECK — 


foodstuffs, wines and brandies, flax, chicory 
and woolens; and manufactures sewing-ma- 
chines, musical instruments, gold and _ silver 
wares, cardboard and tobacco. There are 
shipbuilding yards and copper, iron and lead 
works. Its history dates back to 1149 and 
in 1190 it received its rating as a town. It 
had free access to the sea until about 1300 
when the estuary on which it was built was 
silted up. It was important in the military 
history of the 15th and 16th centuries, and be- 
came a bishopric in 1559, but came under the 
Reformation in 1580. During our Revolu- 
tionary War, this city was the centre of inter- 
est in the American cause. On 26 Feb. 
1782, after the pro-American excitement at 
Franeker (q.v.), the first vote to recognize the 
independence of the United States of America 
was taken in the legislature; the example of 
Friesland being quickly followed by the other 
six states of the Dutch Republic and then by 
the national body, the States-General, John 
Adams being received soon after as persona 
grata by the stadtholder, 19 April 1782. The 
Burgher’s Club of Leeuwarden “in grateful 
recognition of the Acts of the Assemblies,” 
had a silver medal struck showing a man in 
ancient “Free Friesian” costume, between two 
female figures, holding back Great Britain and 
welcoming the United States, while a cherub 
from the skies confers upon the latter the hat 
of freedom. The States-General medal, com- 
memorating recognition of the American by 
the Dutch Republic, represents the Dutch 
maiden, grasping over an altar the hand of the 
American “libera soror”; the reverse showing 
a steed free from all trammels, rushing to the 
mountains of freedom, with Latin mottoes 
meaning “Tyrants repulsed by valor,” and 
“inder French auspices” Another medal, rich 
in emblems, dates and Latin mottoes, struck 7 
Oct. 1782, commemorates the Treaty of Com- 
merce and Navigation made on that date be- 
tween the two republics, Dutch and American. 
On 15 July 1909, in the presence of the queen’s 
representative and an audience of notables, a 
bronze tablet “Memorial of Gratitude” erected 
by the De Witt Historical Society of Tomp- 
kins County, N. Y., was unveiled. Consult 
Griffis, ‘The American in Holland (1899). 
Pop. 37,897. 


LEEUWENHOECK, 1a’wén-huk, or LEU- 
WENHOEK, Antonius van, Dutch anatomist 
and microscopist: b. Delft, 24 Oct. 1632; d. 
there, 26 Aug. 1723. He early gained a reputa- 
tion for the high quality of the lenses he 
manufactured for the use of microscopists, 
demonstrating the superiority of single lenses 
of short focus to the double lenses hitherto in 
use. 
cation his natural talent for investigation in- 
duced Leeuwenhoeck to make personal observa- 
tions and his discoveries caused him to be 
termed the “father of scientific microscopy.” 
He was introduced to the Royal Society of 
London by De Graef in 1673; and in 1680 was 
elected a Fellow of the French Academy of 
Sciences, becoming corresponding member in 
1697. His reputation for lenses, which he con- 
tinued to manufacture during his life, was not 
surpassed in Europe, and a collection of 26 of 
the lenses bequeathed to the Royal Society, but 
subsequently lost, are stated to have been of 


While not possessed of a scientific edu- . 


LEFEBURE-WELY 231 


double convex construction ranging from 40 
to 160 diameters in magnifying power. His 
most important discovery was that of the 
capillary circulation of the blood, announced 
in 1690, and completing the theory of Harvey. 
His investigations definitely overthrew the 
theory of “spontaneous generation” supposed by 
even the learned at that time to be the origin 
of many insects and animals. His discovery 
of the spermatic animalcules, while made a 
few months later than that of Ludwig Hamm 
of Leyden, was nevertheless an independent | 
investigation. He was the first to discover the 
mischievous effect of the aphides upon plant 
life, and he made careful observations on the 
structure of plants. Among his other discov- 
eries were those of the red corpuscles of the 
blood, the fibrous structure of the crystalline 
lens, the nature of the brain, nerves, hair and 
epidermis. While his physiological specula- 
tions were at times wide of the truth they 
were not more so than those of the best physi- 
ologists of the day, and in the main display 
remarkable powers of observation coupled with 
Sagacious deductions which anticipated many 
modern physiological discoveries. His method 


of scientific research set a high standard among 


biologists. Of his papers concerning his dis- 
coveries 112 were first published in the Philo- 
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 
and 26 appeared in the Memoirs of the Acad- 
emy of Science. His collected works were pub- 
lished ‘Sendbrieven, outledingen en outdekkin- 
gen oudervindigen en beschouwingen? (7 vols., 
1685-1718) ; a Latin edition, ‘Opera Omnia, 
sive Arcana Nature Ope Exactissimorum Mi- 
croscopiorum Selecta? (7 vols., 1715-22: an 
abridged English edition translated by S. Hoole, 
2 vols., 1798-1801). 


LEEUWIN, 1a’vin or 1é’win, Cape, the 
name of the point of land which is the south- 
western extremity of Australia. It was named 
after the vessel Leeuwin, in which were the 
Dutch navigators who discovered in 1622 this 
part of the continent. The light from the light- 
house can be seen 20 miles away. The place is 
subject to severe storms. 


LEEWARD ISLANDS. 
EsTABLISH MENTS IN OCEANIA. 


LEEWAY, the deviation of a ship from 
her course caused by her lateral drift to lee- 
ward. Likewise, the angle caused by the line 
of a ship’s course and that of her keel. When 
a strong wind is blowing the steersman makes 
a proportionate allowance between the headway 
and the drift to leeward. When steeting in a 
smooth sea little or no leeway is made. 


LEFEBURE-WELY, lé-fa'bir-va'lé, 
Louis James Alfred, French musician: b. 
Paris, 13. Nov. 1817; d. there; 21 Dec. 1869. 


See FRENCH 


.In 1832, at the age of 15, he succeeded his 


father as organist of Saint-Roch, and in that 
year entered the Conservatoire. He was 
awarded second prizes in piano and organ in 
1834 and first prizes in both in 1835. He after- 
ward  studie composition privately with 
Adolphe Adam, and the organ with Séjan. He 
retained his position as organist of Saint-Roch 
and engaged in teaching and composition. In 
1847-58 he was organist at the Madeleine, and 
he succeeded Séjan at Saint Sulpice in 1863. 


232 


He was noted for his improvisations, which, 
together with his compositions, were remark- 
able for their brilliant harmonies. He was 
elected to the Legion of Honor in 1850. He 
was especially famous as an organist and for 
his compositions for the organ. He was au- 
thor of 50 études; three symphonies; three 
masses; an opera-comique, ‘Les recruteurs? 
(1861); a cantata, ‘Apres la victoire? (1863), 
etc. 


LEFEBVRE, le-favr, Charles, French 
composer: b. Paris, 19 June 1843. He studied 
at the Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas 
and in 1870 won the first prize with his can- 
tata, ‘Le jugement de Dieu.» He was after- 
ward a professor at the Conservatoire and 
engaged in composition. He was author of 
several symphonies, sonatas, much instrumental 
music and ‘Judith? (1879); ‘Melka? (1883) ; 
‘Zaire’ (1887); ‘Eloa? (1889); “La messe du 
fant6me’? (1899); ‘Toggemburg? (1906), etc. 


LEFEBVRE, Jules, French painter: Db. 
Tournan, Seine-et-Marne, 10 March 1836; d. 
Paris, 24 Feb. 1912. He was apprenticed to 
the trade of his father who was a baker, but 
through his mother’s interest he was sent to 
Paris and became the pupil of Léon Coignet. 
His ‘Death of Priam,’ exhibited in the Salon 
(1851), won for him the Grand Prix de Rome, 
since which he gained many medals and 
honors. His ‘Femme Couchée? in the Salon of 
1868, a nude of singular freshness and power, 
established his reputation as an artist of the 
first rank, and the votes of the judges were 
divided equally between this picture and a 
painting of Corot’s for the medal of honor, 
which was, however, bestowed on Brion. 
Among his best-known canvases are ‘Grass- 
hopper? (1872) in the Saint Louis Museum; 
“Mignon? and ‘Graziella? (1878) in the Metro- 
politan Museum, New York; ‘Diana Surprised? 
(1879) ; ‘Lady Godiva, a painting popularized 
by many reproductions; ‘Psyche? (1883). 
‘La Vérité in the Salon of 1870 attracted 
wide attention, and in recognition of its merits 
the painter was decorated with the cross of the 
Legion of Honor. ‘Truth? is represented as 
holding aloft to the world a shining mirror. 
The action is impressive, the lines and propor- 
tion of the figure admirable, although the 
coloring is a little cold. Asa painter of ideal 
heads Lefebvre has become widely popular. 
His ‘Vittoria Colonna» is one of the most 
effective of these. ‘La Liseuse? (1889); ‘La 
Poésie Antique,» ‘Laure? and ‘Violetta, all 
exhibit the classic beauty, the repose and ex- 
quisite refinement of the ideal school while 
‘Clemence Isaure? is a study which is very 
human and life-like. 

_Lefebvre was one of the first of French 
painters, and his influence was great in the 
Julien School where he was one of the in- 
structors. 
realists and impressionists, he stood in the 
same class as Hector Leroux, Baudry, Bou- 
gereau and Puvis de Chavannes, as an advanced 
idealist. Yet in opposition to such artists as 
Courbet, Manet and Bonnat, he was immensely 
popular, being in his love of ideal beauty and 
his refined technique “French of the French.” 

LEFEBVRE, or LE FEVRE, Nicolas or 
Nicasius, chemist, probably a native of France: 
b. about 1620; d. London, 1669. He was edy- 


Among the romanticists, classicists,. 


LEFEBVRE— LEFEBVRE-DESNOUETTES 


cated at the Protestant Academy at Sedan, 
acquired a knowledge of chemistry and became 
his majesty’s apothecary and distiller. In 1660 
appeared his ‘Traité de la Chemie Théorique 
et Pratique,> which went through several edi- 
tions, and was translated into German. In 
1660 he was invited to London by Charles II 
to take the post of royal professor and apothe- 
cary in ordinary to the household. He was 
also elected to the Royal Society, which had 
just ‘been founded. In 1664 appeared a trans- 
lation into English of his ‘Traité entitled “A 
Compleat Body of Chymistry.» The whole work 
is very well done, the author shows thorough 
familiarity with his subject, and his descrip- 
tions of apparatus, of substances and of prep- 
arations are clear and systematic. His work 
served as a-model for those of succeeding 
chemists. 


LEFEBVRE, Pierre Francois Joseph, 
DuKE oF DANzic, marshal of France: b. Rouf- 
fach, Alsace, 20 Oct. 1755: d. Paris,. 14 Sept. 
1820. At the outbreak of the Revolution he 
was a sergeant in the Guards. He espoused 
the cause of the revolutionists, rose to the 
rank of officer and was noted for his courage 
and humanity in the street fighting in Paris. 
He was promoted general of division in 1793. 
He served at Fleurs, Altenkirchen and in other 
actions of the Revolutionary campaigns, and in 
1799 he was wounded at Stokach. He returned 
to France and aided Napoleon in the coup 
d’état of 18 Brumaire, and became one of the 
first marshals of the First Empire. He was at 
Jena, received his ducal title for his services 
at the siege of Danzig in 1806-07, served in 
Spain in 1808-09, and commanded the Bavarian 
forces at Abensberg, Rohr and Eckmiihl. He 
was in command of the Imperial Guard in the 
Russian campaign and fought through Napo- 
leon’s last campaign against the Allies. He 
gave allegiance to Louis XVIII and was made 
a peer, but joined Napoleon in the Hundred 
Days and was not permitted to return to his 
seat in the Upper Chamber until 1819. He 
was one of the ablest of Napoleon’s subordinate 
commanders, fearless, unassuming, trustworthy 
and loyal. His wife, nicknamed by the court, ° 
“Madame Sans Géne” (q.v.), was, like himself, 
a child of the people and suffered much criti- 
cism, but retained his unquestioning loyalty. 


LEFEBVRE-DESNOUETTES, 1é-féy’r’- 
da’-noo’ét’, Charles, Count, French cavalry 
general: b. Paris, 14 Sept. 1773: d. at sea, 22 
April 1822. He volunteered in the Revolution- 
ary army in 1792 and in 1798 had risen to the 
rank of captain, and was appointed aide-de- 
camp to Napoleon. He won promotion at both 
Marengo and Austerlitz, served in the Prussian 
campaign of 1806-07, and in 1808 became gen- 
eral of division and was created a count. He 
participated in the Spanish campaign and was 
taken prisoner by the English late in 1808. He 
escaped after two years and joined Napoleon’s 
invasion of Russia. He took part in the Aus- 
trian and Prussian campaigns, served again 
under Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was 
wounded at Waterloo. He was condemned to 
death for his allegiance to Napoleon but made 
his escape to the United States. Eventually he 
obtained permission to return to France, but 
was lost at sea off the coast of Ireland when 
the Albion went down with all on board. 


LEFEVRE ~— LEG 


LEFEVRE, FAVRE, fa’vr’, or FABER, 
fa’bar, Pierre, ‘Tesuit priest: b. Villaret (now 
Villard), Savoy, 13 April 1506; d. Barcelona, 
1 Aug. 1546. He studied at the College of 
Sainte-Barbe, Paris, and became the tutor of 
Ignatius Loyola. He was ordained in 1534 and 
on 15 August of that year he was one of the 
six original associates of Loyola in the founda- 
tion of the Order of the Jesuits. In 1537 he 
was professor of theology in the Collegio di 
Sapienza in Rome, and in 1538 he was sent 
to Parma and Piacenza where he labored for 
a revival of Christian piety. He was sent to 
Germany in 1540 to uphold Catholicism at the 
Diet of Worms, and he was called to that of 
Ratisbon in 1541. He then worked for a time 
in Spain, but returned to Germany in 1543 
and established the Jesuit College at Cologne. 
In 1544 he was again sent to Spain where he 
founded Jesuit colleges at Coinbra, Madrid, 
Valencia and Valladolid He was selected to 
attend the Council of Trent in 1546, but died 
on the way. He was revered next to Loyola 
in the original order of the Jesuits. He was 
beatified 5 Sept. 1872 and his feast day is 
8 August. 


LEFFERTS, Marshall, American engineer: 
b. Bedford, Long Island, 1821; d. 1876. After 
receiving a common school education he took 
up various occupations, finally settling down 
in the profession of electrical engineer, which 
he pursued from 1849 to 1860. He patented an 
automatic system of telegraphic transmission. 
During that time he was in the employ of 
the American Telegraph Company, and consult- 
ing engineer to the Atlantic Cable Company. 
He made many improvements in inventions in 
the department of electrical transmission while 
in the service of these companies. During the 
war he commanded the 7th regiment. In 1867 
he became connected with the news department 
of the Western Union Telegraph Company; 
two years later, president of the Gold and 
Stock Telegraph Company, and 1871 he took 
control of the commercial news department, 
which had been purchased by that company. 


LEFFMANN, Henry, American chemist: 
b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1847. He was gradu- 
ated from Jefferson Medical College in 1869 
and from the Pennsylvania College of Dental 
Surgery in 1884. He -was elected assistant 
professor of chemistry at the Philadelphia Cen- 
tral High School and served from 1876 to 1880. 
He was port physician 1884-87, and 1891-92, 
and in 1888 was appointed but not confirmed, 
coiner United States Mint, political reasons 
interfering. After 1888 he was professor of 
chemistry at the Women’s Medical College of 
Pennsylvania and professor of chemistry at 
the Wagner Free Institute of Science. Among 
his works are ‘First Steps in Chemical Prin- 
ciples»; ‘Compend of Organic Chemistry” ; 
“Compend of Chemistry”; ‘Analysis of Milk 
and Water Products’; ‘Sanitary Relations of 
Coal Tar Products>’ (from the German) ; 
‘Structural Formule for the Use of Students? ; 
‘Analysis of Water; ‘Select Methods in Food 


Analysis” (2d ed., ” 1905) ; ‘About Dickens? 
(1908); ‘States-Rights Fetish» (1913). He 
edited Reese’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence and 


Toxicology? (4th and 5th eds.), and ‘Allen’s 
oo Se Organic Analysis» (Vols. I and II, 
3d ed.). 


233 


LEFORT, leé-for’, Francois Jacques, Rus- 
sian admiral and statesman: b. Geneva, 1653 
or 1656; d. Moscow, 2/12 March 1699. He was 
of Scottish descent, was educated at Geneva, 
and after service with the French and Dutch 
navies he joined the Russian army in 1675. 
He served in the wars against the Turks and 
Tatars and afterward became a sort of mili- 
tary monitor to the future Peter the Great. 
He was a close supporter and adviser of Peter 
in the struggle against his sister, Sophie, for 
the rulership in 1677-79 and gained the undying © 
gratitude of the monarch. He reorganized 


_ the army with the assistance of Patrick Gor- 


don, materially aided the realization of Peter’s 
project of creating a navy, and was largely 
instrumental in introducing Western ideals in 
the court of Russia. He became grand admiral 
and generalissimo in 1694, and shared in the 
naval triumph in which Peter wrested Azof 
from the Turks in 1695-96. He was chief of 
the embassy in the expedition in which Peter 
the Great traveled incognito through Europe 
in 1697-98. Consult Bassville, ‘Précis histoire 
la vie de Francois Lefort? (1784); Posselt, 
oe General und Admiral F. Lefort (2 vols., 
1 


LEFRANC, 1é-fran’, Abel Jules Maurice, 
French historian: b. Elincourt-Sainte-Marguer- 
ite, Oise, 27 July 1863. He was educated at 
Paris and at the universities of Leipzig and 
Berlin. He was secretary, and later professor, 
of the College of France, was exchange pro- 
fessor at the University of Chicago in 1913 
and was thrice a laureate of the French Acad- 
emy. He was a collaborator on the ‘Grande 
Encyclopédie? and attained general recognition 
as ‘an authority on the literature of the 16th 
century. Author of ‘Histoire de la ville de 
Moyon et de ses institutions jusqu’ a la fin 
du XIITe siécle? (1887) ; ‘Histoire du Collége 
de France depuis ses origines jusqu’ a la fin 
du premier Empire? (1893); ‘Lecons sur 
Moliere et sur le roman francais au XVIIe 
siécle? (1904-09); ‘Défensede Pascal: Pascal 
est-il un faussaire?? (1906); ‘Etudes sur 
Maurice Guérin et sur ses ceuvres inédites? 
(1908) ; ‘Les ceuvres de Francois Rabelais? 
(1912-13) ; “Grands ecrivains francais de la 
renaissance? (1914); ‘CEeuvres inédits de An- 
dré Chenier? (1914), etc. 


LEFUEL, lé-fwél’, Hector Martin, French 
architect: b. Versailles, 14 Nov. 1810; d. Paris, 
1 Jan. 1881. He studied under his father and 
Huyot, and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and 
in 1839 won the Prix de Rome. He designed 
in 1848 a mantel for the Palais de Florence 
which won great admiration, and in 1854 he 
succeeded Visconti in the direction of the work 
at the Louvre and at the Tuileries. He built 
the temporary palace for the Exposition des 
Beaux-Arts in 1855, and the facades of the 
Grand Galerie and the Rue de Rivoli were his 
work. He remodeled the pavilions Marsan and 
Deflore, and built the national porcelain works 
at Sévres. He was a professor at the Ecole 
des Beaux-Arts, and in 1855 he was elected to 
the Institute. 


LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, 
Icelandic leggr, Danish leg, Swedish lag; the 
Anglo-Saxon word was scanca or sceanca, from 
which is derived the English word “shank”), 
one of the two lower limbs of man, and any 


234 


one of the limbs of an animal, used in sup- 
porting and moving the body, in standing, 
walking, running, climbing or swimming. The 
sense of the word is occasionally restricted to 
the designation of that portion of the body 
between the knee and the ankle, but more gen- 
erally it is used in describing the entire lower 
limb. 


LEGACY, a gift of a chattel, money, or 
other personal’ property made through the will 
of a person deceased. Such bequests are either 
specific or general; a specific legacy as the name 
indicates is confined to the gift .of a specific 
article, as a piece of plate, a painting, etc.; a 
general legacy is one which is paid out of the 
general assets of the estate. If the subject of 
the specific legacy fail, that is, if it goes 
out of the possession of the testator, the legacy 
becomes null, whereas a general legacy, which 
of its very nature is not to be paid out of any 
particular property or possession, does not 
lapse provided the general assets of the estate 
are sufficient to cover it. When the assets are 
insufficient, debts being first paid off, specific 
legacies take precedence over general, the latter 
being then reduced pro rata. A demonstrative 
legacy is a term given to a bequest which to 
some extent partakes of the character of the 
two preceding forms of bequest. It is one in 
which the testator orders to be given the lega- 
tee out of specific property or funds. Such is 
a bequest of a number of shares of stock out 
of a large number. In the case where the 
_legatee dies before the testator the legacy lapses 
and is included in the share of the residuary 
legatee, or in case such a legatee is not named, 
passes to the testator’s next of kin. Legacies 
may be satisfied by the testator previous to his 
death, in which case they are said to lapse by 
ademption. Legacies to a married woman are 
subject to the law governing the property of 
this class of persons, and legacies to a minor 
are payable to the guardian who holds such in 
trust for his ward. ‘The testator’s powers are 
in some States limited by statute. For these 
and for rules as to the interpretation of clauses 
giving bequests, the provisions in regard to 
illegitimate children, etc. (see WuILL). Con- 
sult the references there appended. 


LEGAL EDUCATION. Instruction in 
law schools is given by lectures, by eee 
from textbooks and by discussion and explana- 
tion of selected cases. Each of these systems 
has its advocates. In a majority of the schools 
instruction is given mainly by lectures. Next 
in popularity comes the method of recitations 
on lessons previously assigned. There are only 
a few schools that depend mainly on the dis- 
cussion and explanation of selected cases. See 
COUNSELLOR AT LAW, EDUCATION, PROFESSIONAL. 


LEGAL HUNDRED, The, the govern- 
ing conference of the Wesleyan Methodist 
Church established by John Wesley in 1784 in 
order to give to his Church organization a legal 
standing before the civil authorities. The pow- 
ers of the body are defined in a paper called 
“the Deed of Declaration,” its purpose being 
to secure the property and safeguard the unity 
of the Church. A hundred members. were 
named from the General Conference, of which 
all ministers in the Church were members; 
vacancies are filled by election, thus rendering 
the body perpetual. The Conference meets 


LEGACY — LEGAL TENDER > 


once a year, its sessions never less than five 
days, nor longer than \three weeks, and con- 
trols all Church procedure whether of denom- 
inational or business nature. 


LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, all proceedings, 
whether civil or criminal, provided for by law 
and brought or instituted in a court of law, 
or legal tribunal, for the purpose of establish- 
ing or acquiring a right, or enforcing justice or 
a remedy. The term covers all the processes 
of a suit from its initiation to the filing of 
records. A secondary meaning of the term 
makes it distinguish between cases tried in 
common-law courts and those of ecclesiastical 
courts or courts of admiralty, chancery or 
equity. 


LEGAL REPRESENTATIVE, or 
PERSONAL REPRESENTATIVE, one 
who personally represents another and suc- 
ceeds to his rights and place, as the executors 
or administrators of a will or estate of a de- 
ceased person; the heirs of a deceased oe ig 
either through relationship or bequest, and, 
the case of a living person, a representative in 
cases of bankruptcy or insolvency, as an 
assignee or receiver; or a guardian, partner, an 
assignee of a mortgage or a grantee of land. 
The term originally designated only the ex- 
ecutors or administrators of the estate of a 
decedent. The approval of the court is neces- 
sary to the confirmation of any such appoint- 
ment. 


LEGAL TENDER, in its widest sense, an 
offer to perform a contract according to speci- 
fied conditions. It also designates the coin and 
paper money which a creditor may tbe com- 
pelled to accept in payment of debts. Gen- 
erally speaking, all kinds of United States 
money are legal tenders in ordinary transac- 
tions, either with or without limit as to amount. — 
Specifically, gold coins are a legal tender for 
any amount; gold and silver certificates are not 
legal tenders; silver dollars, United States 
notes and the few United States treasury notes 
of 1890 still outstanding are unlimited tenders 
unless otherwise contracted; subsidiary silver 
coin are legal tenders for all dues to the amount 
of $10, and minor coin for all dues to the 
amount of 25 cents. National bank notes are 
not really legal tenders, but in ordinary busi- 
ness they pass as such. They are receivable at 
par in payment of dues to the United States, 
except duties on imports and for payments by 
the United States, except interest on the public 
debt or redemption of the national currency. 
Certificates of deposit payable to order are 
issued to national banks for United States 
notes; they bear no interest, and are chiefly 
used in the settlement of clearing-house bal- 
ances and in the reserves of the banks. State 
banks are governed by varying local laws, and 
their circulation is almost wholly within the 
several States. Consult Breckenridge, S. P., 
‘Legal Tender? (Chicago 1903); Hepburn, A. 
B., ‘History of Coinage and Currency in the 
United States? (New York 1903); Hunt, A. R., 
‘Treatise on the Law of Tender (Saint Paul, 
Minn., 1903) ; Laughlin, J. L., ‘Economic Ef- 
fects of Legal Tender,” in Vale Review (Vol. 
X, New Haven 1902) ; Smith, J. C.)\,“Legal 
Tender: Essays? (London 1910), and United 
States Revised Statutes, §§ 3584-3590, as 


amended. 


LEGAL-TENDER CASES — LEGAL TERMS 


LEGAL-TENDER CASES, in American 
finance, a series of cases before the United 
States Supreme Court, involving the question 
whether certain acts of Congress declaring 
United States notes a legal tender in payment 
of all debts, public and private, were constitu- 
tional. The cases were first argued in Decem- 
ber 1867 and decided in November 1869, by a 
divided court. Five members of the court de- 
cided in the affirmative and three dissented. In 
1871 after a reorganization of the Supreme 
Court, the cases were again brought up for 
argument. Again the court divided, five judges 
upholding the constitutionality of the act and 
four dissenting. All the judges agreed that 
Congress had full power to direct issues of 
paper money. In 1878 Congress decreed that 
legal tender notes which had been redeemed or 
received in the Treasury from any source 
should be reissued and kept in circulation. 
This latter act was assailed in the courts and 
the Supreme Court decided, with but one dis- 
senting voice, that Congress had full power to 
make United States notes a legal tender in the 
payment of private debts in times of peace as 
well as in times of war. This decision closed 
all judicial action upon the subject. Consult 
Thayer, ‘Legal Tender? in Harvard Law Re- 
view (1887); Legal Tender Cases (110 U. S. 
421, 1884); Bancroft, George, ‘A Plea for the 
Constitution? (New York 1886); Miller, ‘Lec- 


tures on the Constitution of the United States? 


(ib. 1891), 


LEGAL TERMS. The following is a list 
of the most important legal terms commonly 
employed in the United States and Canada. As 
it would be impossible to give anything like a 
complete list of such terms within any reason- 
ably brief space —there being, in number, sev- 
eral thousand of them,—care has been taken 
to select only those which are most frequently 
used, and, in each case, as far as possible, to 
specify in what particular branch of law they 
are applied — whether in civil law, criminal law, 
pleadings or elsewhere: 


ABALIENATION.— In civil law, the act of transferring a 
title in real or personal property from one person to 
another. 

ABANDONMENT.— (a) The act of voluntarily leaving a per- 
son to whom one is bound by ties of obligation, as hus- 
band, wife, etc.; (b) the relinquishment of one’s rights in 
a possession or claim. 

ABATOR.-— (a) One who, without legal right, enters a free- 
hold upon the death of its possessor, and before the 
heir or devisee; (b) a person who removes a nuisance. 

ABETMENT.— In criminal law, the act of encouraging, coun- 
selling or inciting a felony. 

ABEYANCE.— A state of uncertainty or of expectation. 

ABJUDICATION.— In civil law, the act of divesting a debtor 
of his real estate for the benefit of his creditors by means 
of judicial decree. 

ABJURATION.— The negative part of the oath of allegiance 
by the taking of which foreigners desiring to become 
citizens of the United States solemnly abjure their alle- 
giance to the former sovereign. 

AsLe.— In civil law, having the necessary qualifications; fit. 

ABOLITION.— A suppression of proceedings, or permission 
to stay further prosecution. 

ABROGATION.— A term denoting the annulment of a law 
by the act of legislature or by usage. 

ABSENTEE.— One who is not within the jurisdiction of a 
particular court. 

ABSOLUTE EstaTEeE.— An estate the right in which has been 
determined so unconditionally that the owner is deemed 
qualified to take immediate and unlimited possession. 

ABSOLUTION. —In civil law, a formal sentence or decree 
declaring a person to be innocent of the crime with which 
he has been charged. 

ABSQUE HOC.—A term used in law in the denial of some 
matter of fact that has been alleged and is repeated. 

ABSQUE TALI CAUSA.— A term used in law to denote ‘“‘with- 
out such cause.” 


235 


Ass. RE.— An abbreviation of the Latin phase ‘‘absente 
reo,’’ used in law to indicate the absence of the defendant. 

ABUSE OF DiISTRESS.— Such use of an animal or chattel 
distrained that the distrainer lays himself liable to prose- 
cution for misappropriation. 

ABUSE OF POWERS.— Used (a) in civil law to denote the 
act of resorting to intentional irregularity in order to 
gain a legal advantage over one’s opponent; (b) in criminal 
law to denote a use of legal processes for illegal purposes, 
as when a criminal complaint is made merely for the 
purpose of coercing the payment of a debt, or when valuable 
Rey, is sold on execution to satisfy a very small 

ebt. 

ACCEPTILATION.— In civil law, a release made by a creditor 
to a debtor without consideration and when the debt has 
not been paid. 

AccoMPLICE.— In criminal law, any participator in an 
offense, either before or after its commission. 

AccRuE.— In civil and criminal law, to become an enforce- 
able right, as the statute of limitation, which accrues by 
lapse of time. 

ACCUMULATIVE JUDGMENT.— A second judgment, which 
does not begin to exercise its effect until after the first 
judgment has expired. 

ACQUIESCENCE.— (a) Used in Canadian law as a synonym 
for “free consent’’; (b) a term used to denote any neglect 
to take legal proceedings that might naturally imply con- 
sent to the matter in hand. 

ACT IN pAIs.— A term denoting an official act that has been 
performed out of court and has not been recorded. 

Acts oF Court.— See Law, Legal Acts. 

AcuERDO.— A formal decision or decree of a qualified court. 

Ac ETIAM.— A term used to denote the introduction to the 
statement of the real cause of action in a case where it 
was necessary to allege a fictitious cause of action. 

AvppRESS.— In equity pleading, the technical introduction 
in a bill of the court in which a remedy has been sought. 

ADEMPTION.— The annulment of a grant or the lapse of a 
legacy by the testator, either by satisfying it or by mani- 
festing an intention to revoke it. 

ADJUDICATION.— (a) The formal judgment of a court; (b): 
a decree in which the court declares an ascertained fact 
to be such, as in cases of bankruptcy. 

ADJUDICATION, FORMER.—A prior decision in a case be- 
tween the same parties employed to bar any subsequent 
litigation covering the same or similar points in dispute. 

ADJUNCTION.— The act of affixing one person’s property 
to that of another, as when one erects a building upon 
another’s land, etc. 

ADMEASUREMENT.— A term used to denote the act of ascer- 
taining and laying off the portion due, as in cases of the 
settlement of an estate, the adjustment of damages, or of 
dower right. Sometimes known as admensuration. 

ADMINICLE.— Synonymous for corroboratory evidence. 

ADMITTANCE.— In civil law, the act of giving possession of 
a copyhold estate. 

ADPROMISSOR.— Synonymous for security, or bail. 

AD QUOD DAMNUM.— (a) A term used to designate a writ 
issued commanding an inquiry as to the damage liable to 
result from the opening of a highway, or the institution 
of other public improvement; (b) the order under which 
the compensation for damage is paid when private property 
has been seized for public uses. 

vdeee Bh The right of presentation to a vacant benefice 
q. V.). 

AFFEERMENT.— A term used to denote the assessment of a 
,pecuniary penalty according to the circumstances of the 
case. 

AFFILIATION.— Used to denote the act of determining the 
paternity of a child, that the obligation for its proper 
maintenance may be judicially fixed. 

AFFIRMANCE.— The confirmation by a higher court of the 
findings of a lower court. 

AFFIRMATIVE.— A term used in judicial proceedings to 
SE the side upon which the burden of proof must 
all. 

AIDING AND ABETTING.—In criminal law, a term used to 
denote the act of a person who, while not directly respon- 
sible for the commission of a felony, has supported, sus- 
tained and rendered aid to its perpetrators. 

ALEATORY CONTRACT.— A term used in civil law to denote 
that this document, is a contract, the fulfilment of the 
conditions of which depends upon a contingent event. 

ALLOWANCE.— A term used in law to denote an extra sum 
awarded in addition to regular costs. 

AMBIDEXTERITY.— A term applied to the act of a juror 
who takes money from both parties to a suit and who 
promises to render his verdict in favor of each of them. 

AMBULATORY.— A term used in civil law to denote that 
a thing is capable of being altered; thus, the return of 
a sheriff is ambulatory until it has become a matter of 
record. 

AMERCEMENT.— Synonymous with affeerment. 


_ AMICABLE ACTION.— A term used in law to denote that the 


action at issue has been commenced and is being prose- 
cuted by mutual consent of both parties to the proceed- 
ings, in order that they may obtain the decision of the 
court on the matter as a question of law. 


236 


AMORTIZATION.— The conveyance of ptoperty to a corpora- 
tion. 

ANCEsTOR.— In law, one who' has preceded another in the 
possession of an inheritance, whether he be a progenitor 
or a collateral relative. 

ANCILLARY LETTERS OF ADMINISTRATION.—In law, the 
term ‘‘ancillary’’ denotes that the administration is a 
local and subordinate one, covering such part of the 
assets of a decedent as are not only without his domicile 
but which the law requires should be collected and applied 
to the satisfaction of the claims of creditors, the surplus 
being remitted to the principal administrator. 

ANNULMENT.— A judicial act making void retrospectively 
as well as prospectively, as in the annulment of a marriage. 

ANTECESSOR.— Synonymous for an ancestor. 

APPELLANT.— The person appealing, or removing a cause 
from the lower to the higher court. 

APPENDANT.— Any right or privilege that may pass with an 
inheritance. 

APPLICATION.— In civil law, the appropriation of a debtor’s 
assets among several creditors when the payment is in- 
sufficient to meet all obligations in full. 

APPOINTMENT.— The designation, by a person having the 
right to do so, of a beneficiary to take the use of an estate 
created under a previous will or deed. 

ApPPROVER.— In criminal law, one who turns state’s evidence 
by confessing his part in a felony and giving evidence 
against all his accomplices in the commission of the crime. 

ArM.— In law an arm is any object that a man may take 
in hand while in anger with the intention of assaulting 
another. ; : j 

ArraAy.— (a) The act of empanelling a jury; (b) the jury 
itself. 

ASPORTATION.— Used in criminal law to denote the felonious 
removal of goods from one place to another. 

Assay.— The examination of weights and measures by the 
legal standard. 

AtTtEmpT.— An “attempt,” to be a crime in law, must be 
an act done in part execution of the design to commit 
the felony; the mere preparation, without an effort at 
commission, not being a criminal offense. 

ATTENDANT.— In civil law, a person who owes a service 
to another. 

ATTENTATE.— (a) A question improperly attempted by an 
inferior judge; (b) something done after an extra-judicial 
appeal. 

ATTORN.— In civil law, to acknowledge tenancy under a 
person who was not the original landlord but who has 
since: claimed to have become such. 

AUTHENTIC.— Designating an action which has been executed 
with all respect to the formalities of law, performed by 
the proper persons and attested before the proper au- 
thorities. An ‘‘authentic act’’ in civil law is a deed that 
has been properly performed and attested before a proper 
magistrate. 

AvER.— (a) To allege as a fact; (b) to offer in evidence. 

AVOIDANCE, PLEA IN.—A plea in which the defendant, 
without denying the plaintiff’s allegation, introduces some 
new facts in the hope of evading its effect. 

BreQuest.— Personal property left to a person by will. 

BILL In Equity.— The pleading in an equity suit in which 
the plaintiff explains the circumstances upon which he 
bases his prayer for relief. 

Britt oF Exceptions.— In common-law practice, a doc- 
ument drawn after a trial by the unsuccessful party in 
which he presents all the rulings complained of as errors 
at the time of trial, and all the exceptions taken thereto, 
in order that they may be considered by the court to 
which he has appealed. See BILL. 

Britt or PartrcuLars.— A document in which the par- 
ticulars of the matter at issue are set forth in detail. 

Bona Fine.—In law, designating an act done without 
fraudulent intent. Thus, a “bona-fide purchaser’ is a 
person who has purchased something for the price asked 
and without notice of an adverse claim; a ‘‘ bona-fide 
possessor” is one who possesses something without the 
knowledge that there are others who have a better right 
in its title. 

BrieFr.— (a) A systematically arranged and concisely ex- 
pressed, but formal, memorandum of the points of law or 
of fact that are to be brought out in argument or developed 
in the examination of witnesses at the trial; (b) a writ 
summoning the person upon whom it is served to answer 
to the action. 

BURDEN OF PRoor.— A term used to denote the obligation 
which rests upon one of the parties to a legal action to 
produce sufficient evidence to establish the fact that he 
has alleged in his complaint under penalty of having 
judgment entered against him, and this burden is not 
shifted until the party upon ‘whom it has first tested 
has submitted sufficient evidence to turn the presump- 
tion in his favor. 

Capias.— In civil law, a writ directing that the person of 
the defendant be taken into custody. The most common 
kind of writs of capias are (1) the ‘“‘capias ad respon- 
dendum,”’ under which the body is taken to answer before 
judgment has been declared; and (2) the “‘capias ad satis- 
faciendum,’’ which designates that the body execution 
was taken after judgment had been entered. 


LEGAL TERMS 


~ 


Caption.— A document or Aust of a document setting forth 
the time and place that an action at law has been taken, 
with the court of authority before which it was performed, 
and such other particulars as might be required to render 
it valid, all of which information must have been written 
upon or attached to the paper to which it relates. 

CaARRIAGE.— A term used in equity practice to designate 
the party to whom the right of going forward with the 
proceedings has been entrusted. . 

CasE.— The term applied to any suit, or action in court. 

CauseE.— A legal proceeding calling for judicial decision. 

CAUSE OF ACTION.— The condition of facts which entitles 
one party to bring action against another. 

CAUSE TO SHOW.—A term usually applied to denote an 
order from the court commanding a person to present a 
reason for some action, as why he should not be punished 
for cigar a7 of court, etc. 

CESSER.— (1) A term denoting that a person has neglected 
to perform the service or make the payment ordered by 
the court for two years; (2) a cessation, as of liability. 

CESSION.— The voluntary surrender of a debtor’s assets to 
satisfy his creditors. Also termed ‘‘cessio bonorum.”’ 

CHARGE.— An address delivered by a judge at the conclusion 
of a trial in which he instructs the jury in relation to the 
points of law, the weight of evidence, etc. 

CHARGING ParT.—In a bill of equity, that part in which 
the plaintiff alleges other and anticipatory evidence, or 
introduces matter to which he wishes the defendant’s 
answer. 

CuEAT.— A fraud committed by imposition. Such an act 
is punishable by law: (1) when it deprives another of 
his property, even when it is not great enough to amount 
to a felony; and (2) when it is accomplished by some 
method other than that of mere words, as in the use of 
false weights or measures or in the substitution of worthless 
articles for those of real value. 


. CLAIMANT.— (a) One who brings suit to obtain something 


which he demands as his right; (b) in admiralty proceedings, 
this term is applied to the person who is permitted to 
defend an action “in rem”’ brought against certain goods 
in which he claims property right. 

Ciaim Notice.— A term used in mining law to denote that 
a miner has posted a notification of his intended occupancy 
upon a piece of public land. 

CLAuUSE.— (a) A term used to denote a collocation of words 
which might be removed from the instrument without 
affecting its intelligibility; (b) used_to specify a distinct 
proviso, as a clause in a contract. The term “assumption 
clause’’ denotes a stipulation frequently inserted in a deed . 
to property upon which there is a mortgage or other 
incumbrance, that, under its operation, the payment of 
said debt may be assumed by the grantee to the exonera- 
tion of the original debtor. The ‘‘Enacting Clause’’ is 
the leading declaration of a statute, which usually begins 
“Be it enacted,’’ etc. An “Interpretation Clause’’ defines 
the meaning and limitations of words used in an act, while 
the ‘‘Saving Clause’’ is that which exempts something 
which might otherwise be included in the operation of the 
instrument or statute. 

Copici..— An instrument containing anything which a 
testator might wish to add, revoke or explain in relation 
to his will. Although supplementary to the will itself it 
is actually a part of it. See WILL. 

COGNIZANCE.— (a) A plea admitting the facts as alleged in 
the declaration; (b) in actions for replevin, a plea that 
the defendant holds the goods in question contrary to his 
right; (c) the action of a court in taking authoritative 
notice of a cause. 

COLLATERAL ANCESTORS.— A term used in civil law to 
denote relatives, or antecessors who are not progenitors. 
COLLATERAL Facts.— Facts considered foreign to the matter 

at issue. 

CoLLATERAL IssuE.— Something outside of the main ques- 
tion at issue. 

COLLATERAL PROCEEDINGS.— Proceedings brought, not for 
the direct purpose of impeaching the prior proceedings, 
but as a fresh action, as opposed to a ‘‘direct’’ action. 

COLLATERAL SECURITY.— Additional security. 

COLLATERAL TESTIMONY.— Confirmatory testimony. 

CoLLaTion.— A term used in civil law to indicate that 
former advancements of a decedent’s property have been 
returned in order that the estate may be equitably divided 
among all the heirs. 

COLLOCATION.— The alfotivent among creditors of the 
proceeds of a judicial sale that has been made to satisfy 
their claims. 

CoLLusion — A term used in law to denote a private, or 
secret, understanding by which two or more parties agree 
to act as though at variance with one another in order that 
they may prejudice those who are not a party to their 
secret and so obtain a remedy to which they are not 
legally entitled. 

Comity oF Nations.— A term used in international law to 
define that spirit of courtesy which causes one nation to 
recognize the laws and institutions of another in such a 
manner as to permit them to take effect within its own 
territory. 

COMMERCIAL LAw.— The term by which the laws relating 
to commerce are known. These include all laws regarding 


LEGAL TERMS 


shipping, bills of exchange, insurance, brokerage and 
general commercial affairs. See COMMERCIAL LAw. 

CoMMINATORY.— Designating an act of imposing such a 
heavy forfeiture in a business transaction that it cannot 
be enforced in a court of justice. 

Common Law.— A term used to define that body of law that 
has been derived from such sources as the reports of 
adjudged cases, from the opinions of legal authorities, and 
from popular usage and custom, rather than from any 
statutory enactments. See Law, COMMON. 

ComMuNITyY PROPERTY.— A term used in civil law, and in 
the statutes of several States, to designate the property 
of husband and wife, exclusive of the antenuptial property 
of either, and of the property secured by either through the 
avenue of bequest or gift. 

COMPENSATION.— Used in civil law to denote the annulment 
of a debt by a counterclaim which the debtor holds against 
his creditor. See MANDATE. 

CoMPENSATORY DAMAGE.—A term used in civil law to 
define such damage as may have been estimated as a fair 
equivalent for the injury received. 

CoMPETENCE.— (a) Legal right and authority to act; (b) also 
weet Bice regard to evidence to denote its legal fitness to be 

eard. . 

CoMPLAINANT.— The plaintiff in, or one who commences, a 
legal action against another, or in whose behalf a criminal 
prosecution is instituted. The claim for relief upon which 
such an action is brought is commonly known as the 
complaint. 

ConcLusion.— (a) The decision or finding in a case; (b) the 
end of a pleading; (c) an estoppel or bar by which one is 
held to the position which he has taken. A “conclusion of 
fact’”’ is a decision on the part of a judge or referee as to 
the actual facts in the matter at issue; a “‘conclusion of 
law” is a similar decision in which the legal rights and 
obligations of the parties to the action resulting from the 
conclusion of fact are clearly specified. 

CONCLUSIVE EvIDENCE.— A term applied to testimony that 
possesses such weight as to preclude any contradiction of 
the fact in question. 

Concurso.— A term in civil law usually applied to the 
litigation, or opportunity for litigation, which exists when 
several creditors, acting adversely to one another, claim 
the right to share in an estate, the object being to make 
one accounting cover all the claims against the fund. 

Concussion.— Used in civil law as a synonym for extortion. 

COoNDONATION.— Used to denote an act of remission by 
which a husband or wife pardons a matrimonial offense 
which one knows that the other has committed by per- 
mitting the guilty party to return to al! conjugal privileges. 
It is by such an act that the innocent party loses all right 
to seek a remedy for the offense in question. 

CoONFIRMATION.— Used in civil law to denote the perfection 
of the title in an estate or possession. 

ConF.Lict.— Used legally to indicate the opposition existing 
between the laws of various jurisdictions when an effort 
is made to apply them in reference to each other. 

ConFusIon.— A term used in civil law to denote the extinc- 
tion of an obligation owing to the fact that the two persons 
necessary to its continuance have become one person, as 
when one has become the heir of the other, etc. 

ConjJOINT.— Used in civil law to indicate a person who has 
a mutual interest with another in an enterprise or 
obligation. 5 

CONNIVANCE.— The act of having a secret understanding 
with another; usually employed in relation to a wrongful 
act. 

CONSIDERATION.— A term used in law to denote the remu- 
neration that a contracting party accepts in exchange for 
something else or in return for a service rendered. A 
“concurrent consideration”’ is a consideration received at 
the time of the making of the agreement; an “executed 
consideration” is one previously received; an ‘‘executory 
consideration,’”’ one to be received at a date subsequent 
to the agreement. The term ‘“‘good consideration’’ is used 
to define that natural love and affection which is usually 
considered an adequate motive for the transfer of property 
without a valuable equivalent, except as against creditors. 
A “valuable consideration’’ is an equivalent that must be 
admitted to be of pecuniary value. ‘‘Want of consider- 
ation”’ is the lack of any equivalent whatever, and “‘failure 
of consideration” denotes that an apparently good equiva- 
lent has afterward become worthless. See MANDATE. 

CONSOLIDATION.— Used in civil law to denote the merging 
of the profit of land with the property. 

CONSTRUCTION.— (a) Used to denote an intelligent reading 
with such explanations as may be necessary to define the 
meaning of the text; (b) when uncertainty exists as to the 
actual intent of an instrument; any altered reading of the 
text designed to show its proper application is also termed 
a “‘construction.”’ 

ConTEMpT.— A term usually applied to define the disobe- 
dience to, or open disrespect for, a court or legislative 
assemblage that has come to be known as ‘‘contempt of 
court,’’ an offense that may be committed either in or 
outside of the courtroom, and which is punishable by 
commitment to prison or by the imposition of a fine. The 
term ‘‘constructive contempt”’ is applied when the offense, 
while not committed in the presence of the court, is of 


237 


such a character that the law is obliged to take cognizance 
of it, whether it was performed intentionally or not. Any 
wilful or aggressive disobedience or disorder is termed 
“criminal contempt,’ while an act committed in the 
presence of the court is known as a “direct contempt.” 
A person who has been committed for this act against the 
dignity of the judiciary, and who has not purged himself 
therefrom, is said to be “in contempt.” 

CONTRABAND.— The term applied to goods that are pro- 
hibited from importation or exportation by the laws of 
the country. Such goods, when handled illegally, subject 
one to the charge of smuggling. 

ContTRACT.— Used in the civil law to denote a document in 
which the rights and agreements of the two or more parties 
concerned in the obligation are specifically defined that 
they may become enforceable by law. Among the many- 
terms used in relation to the making or execution of 
contracts, the following are among those which are most 
commonly employed: Accessory contract, one made to 

secure the performance of a previous contract; aleatory 
contract (q.v.); bare contract, an unconditional surrender 
or agreement; commutative contract, one in which each 
party gives and receives an equivalent; contract of record, 
one that had been entered before a judicial tribunal, as a 
judgment, etc.; executed contract, one in which the thing 
agreed upon has been done; executory contract, one in 
which the thing agreed upon has yet to be done; express 
contract, one in whicn the agreement is expressly stipulated 
in writing; gambling contract, one in which the parties 
agree to make good all differences that may be occasioned 
by chance within a specified time, but such contracts 
cannot be enforced at law; implied contract, one that may 
be imputed by construction, as when by some valuable 
exchange or service rendered justice demands that the 
contract be carried out as implied; indeterminate contract, 
one in which the terms cannot he fixed until other motives 
act; joint contract, one in which the parties are bound to 
perform all the obligaitons of the agreement, or are entitled 
to receive tne benefit of them; mutual contract, one in 
which the obligation assumed by each party is in view of 
the obligation assumed by the other party; oral contract, 
one depending upon word of mouth alone; simple contract, 
a contract not under seal; special contract, one in which 
the thing to be done is specified in detail under seal; verbal 
contract, same as oral contract; voidable contract, one 
liable to be made void but which is binding until such 
notice is given; void contract, one that is not legally 
binding upon either party. See CONTRACT. 

CoNnTRIBUTION.— In civil law, the amount levied upon each 
of several persons having mutual interests in the same 
enterprise to equalize the loss suffered or the payments 
made. A “suit for contribution ’’ is an action brought to 
compel the payment of such proportionate shares. 

CoNnvVERSION.— (a) An unauthorized attempt to exercise the 
rights of ownership over personal property belonging to 
another; (b) an assumption in equity that real property 
has been converted into personal property or vice versa 
when the owner has shown in a proper manner that such 
was his intention. 

Corpus Juris Civitis.— Body of the Civil Law. 

Cost.— The sum fixed by law as the amount to be charged 
as the expense for bringing suit. In actions at law such 
costs are usually aggregated that they may be paid by the 
losing party when final judgment is entered. 

CourtTs-MARTIAL.— See LAw, MILITARY. 

CovENANT.— In civil law, any agreement under seal. 

CovEerT.— A term used to denote that a person is under 
protection; usually applied to a woman, and especially to 
one who is married. 

Covin.— An agreement in which two or more parties have 
entered into collusion to the detriment of another 
party. 

CREDIBLE WITNESS.— One who is qualified to testify and 
who cannot be impeached as unworthy of credit. : 
CrEpIToR’s ACTION.— (a) The term applied to a bill ia 
equity, in which one or more creditors, acting for all other 
creditors, seek to reach assets that could not legally be 
sold on execution that they may obtain an accounting and 
due settlement by law; (b) the same term is applied to the 
bill that may be brought by creditors seeking to set aside 

a transfer of assets as a fraudulent transaction. 

CRIMINAL Law.— That body of law which relates to crimes 
and their punishment. See LAw, CRIMINAL. 

Cross-ACTION.— A suit brought by the defendant in a 
previous action against the plaintiff therein. 

CuMULATION.— A combination of causes for action, or 
defenses, so joined that all must be tried together. 

CurIA ADVISARI VuLT.— A term denoting a postponement 
after argument to give the court time for deliberation. 

Dative.— Designating something that may be disposed of 
at pleasure. 

De BENE Esse.—A legal term denoting that a thing is 
taken for what it is worth, as in the case of testimony that 
may be suppressed after more full examination. 

DECLARATION.— The pleading in which a plaintiff explains 
his claim for relief in a civil action. 

DEDICATE.— To surrender voluntarily (private property) 
that it may be applied to public uses. 


238 


Depit.— In Canadian law, the sum stipulated to be paid as 
a penalty in case of breach of contract. 

DE Domo REPARANDO.— (a) The term applied to a common 
law writ issued to a houseowner against a neighbor whose 
building is in danger of falling with damage to the plaintiff's 
property; (b) a writ issued against a cotenant to compel 
him to show cause why he should not share in the expense 
of repairing property held in common. 

DrED.— A document, under seal, made for the purpose of 
conveying real estate. See DEED. 

DEFORCEMENT.— In civil law, the withholding of property 
to which another person holds the rights but of which he 
cannot gain possession. 

DEGREE.— The term applied to the distinctions made in the 
culpability of various persons who have violated the 
criminal law; thus, the active perpetrator is charged with 
crime in the ‘first ’’ degree; those who aided or abetted 
him, in the ‘‘ second ”’ degree. ‘ 

DE JurEe.— A term implying right according to law. 

DELEGATION.— A term applied in civil law to denote that a 
debtor has freed himself from the responsibility for his 
debts by offering another person who binds himself to 
assure their payment. 

DELIVERY.— In civil law, the act of placing a person in 
legal possession of any property. 

DenmisE.— In civil law, a term used to denote a lease for a 
number of years. 

DEPART.— To deviate in one pleading from the defence 
made in a prior pleading. 

DE PLANO.— Used in law to denote that a thing is so mani- 
festly right as to require no argument. 

DETERMINABLE.— A term used in civil law to denote that 
a thing is liable to termination by uncertain contingencies. 

DeETINET.— A common law action of debt in which it is 
alleged that the defendant held back money that should 
have been paid to the plaintiff. 

Devest.— A term used as a synonym for deprivation of title. 

Dicrum.— An opinion of a judge, but not the deliberate 
determination of the court. 

DiuinuTion.— Used to denote that an omission has been 
made in the records of a case sent from a lower to a higher 
court for review. 

DIscLAIMER.— (a) A refusal to accept a position, as trustee 
of an estate or executor under a will; (b) a plea by which 
the defendant abandons all claim upon or interest in the 
subject at issue; (c) an instrument by which a patentee 
abandons a part of his claim of invention. 

DISCONTINUANCE.— A term used to imply that a suit has 
been terminated through the action of the plaintiff. 

DIsScRETION.— A judicial power that is exercised purely upon 
personal judgment in view of existing circumstances and 
not upon application of any rules of law. 

DisMmiss1ion.— Rejection of a suit by the court on the ground 
that it is unworthy of maintenance. 

DISTRAIN.— To seize and hold another’s goods in order to 
apply them to the satisfaction of the distrainor’s claim, or 
to maintain possession of them until such a claim is 
settled. — 

DisTURBANCE.— In common law, the wrongful obstruction 
of any party in the enjoyment of his personal rights. 

ee In civil law, the act of abandoning one’s 
effects. 

Do. capax.— A term used in common law to denote that 
a child is of sufficient age to be able to distinguish the 
difference between right and wrong. 

Dominus.— In civil law, the person who maintains possession 
of something by right. 

DonaTion.— In civil law, the transference of something 
from one person to another without consideration. 

DoweEr.— The portion of a husband’s estate which reverts 
to the wife upon his death. 

Dup.icity.— Used to define the act of pleading two or more 
distinct matters together as if they constituted only one. 

Duress.— Used to denote the exercise of such restraint as 
to practically amount to coercion. ‘‘Duress of goods’’i s 
the forcible seizure of goods without authority to force the 
claimant into settlement; ‘“‘duress of imprisonment’’ 
implies actual personal restraint; ‘duress per  minas’, 
denotes coercion effected by threats of personal injury to 
life or limb. In law, no promise or agreement is held 
to be binding if made under duress. 

ELeciT.— (a) A judicial writ of execution; (b) a title to land 
held under such writ. 

ELIMINATION.— A term frequently used as a synonym for 
ejectment. 

ENCUMBRANCE.— The amount for unpaid services or public 
charges that rest upon a property to diminish its value 
even through changes of ownership. 

Enjorn.— The act of restraining a person by means of a 
judicial injunction. 

ENTIRETIES, TENANCY By.— A tenure created when an 
estate is divided or conveyed to a man and his wife during 
coverture. 

Escrow.— A writing that has been fully executed but which 
has then been placed in the hands of a third party, to be 
held by him until such time as the specified conditions 
Pate ee the instrument was prepared have been 

ulfilled. 


LEGAL TERMS 


EspLEees.— A term used to denote the products of the land, 
whether in produce, rents, or otherwise. 

EvocaTion.— In law, the act of taking an action from one 
court for the purpose of carrying it to a higher court. | 

ExactTion.— An offence committed by officials in authority 
who exact or take a fee when the law requires that none 
be paid. 

EXCEPTION.— (a) A term most frequently used to denote 
the action in common law practice by which all objections 
made to the rulings of a court are noted in writing that they 
may be submitted to a higher court as an explicit reason 
why an appeal should be granted; (b) a clause in a con- 
veyance exempting some portion of the estate from the 
sale; (c) a writing employed in a case in equity to indicate 
the particular portions of an adversary’s pleadings to which 
objection has been taken. 

EXCHANGE.— In civil law, a reciprocal transfer of property 
in which no financial consideration is offered or required. 

EXECUTOR DE SON TORT.— One who attempts to settle the 
affairs of a deceased person without authority. ; 

Ex FACIE.— A term used to denote what may be assumed 
from the face of a writing. 

EXPATRIATION.— The act of renouncing the country of one’s 
birth to become a citizen of another country. 

Expromissor.— In civil law, one who binds himself to pay 
the debts of another person. 

chee In civil law, to seize lands in satisfaction of a 

ebt. 

ExtTorTION.— (a) A gross overcharge which could not be 
upheld in law; (b) the act of obtaining money from another 
person when none, or a smaller amount, is due. 

EXTRADOTAL.— In civil law, that portion of a woman's 
Sablag hes that is exempt from consideration under dower 
Tight. 

Factum.— The term used to denote the statement of a case 
to the court. 

Frr.— An estate held in trust. When it is vested in the 
owner and his heirs and assigns forever, it is commonly 
known as a “‘fee simple.” 

FEIGNED IssuE.— A term used to denote that the issue has 
been prepared for court by agreement, or by judicial 
order, rather than by the ordinary procedure. 

FIDUCIARY Capacity.— A term often used to denote that 
the position occupied by the party referred to was one 
of trust and confidence, the idea being that violations of 
such confidence are not covered either by discharge in 
bankruptcy or by the laws and rulings regarding imprison- 
ment for debt. 

Freri FAcrIAS.— A civil law writ that may be issued after 
judgment, empowering the sheriff to levy upon goods or 
lands to secure the amount due. 

FoRBEARANCE.— In civil law, the act of restraining the 
enforcement of one’s legal rights. 

Force AND Arms.—A term used’ to denote that the act 
complained of was done with violence. 

ForciB_E Entry.— The act of taking possession of property 
by means of threats, or by arms, etc. 

ForEIGN ATTACHMENT.— The process of seizing the local 
property of an absent debtor in order that he must either 
put in an appearance or allow the claims of the creditor 
to be satisfied. 

ForeiGN Matter.— Actions that must of necessity be tried 
in some other: county. 

ForRFEITURE.— The act of having one’s property transferred 
to another as the result of one’s negligence or by reason of 
the misdeed of another person. 

FuRNITURE.— In civil law, personal chattels in use by a 
family, and, ordinarily, exempt from legal process. 
Gace.— A term used to denote the personal property that 
~has been placed in a creditor’s hands by a debtor as 

security for the payment of his indebtedness. 

hee DEL LEY.— Used synonymously with a ‘‘wager of 
aw.”’ 

GARNISHEE.— The person who takes possession of the 
money or property of another with the avowed intent to 
keep it to answer the claim of the creditor, or until the 
defendant is otherwise discharged. 

Girt.— In civil law, a conveyance that is made without 
consideration, either in blood or money. 

Givinc Time.— In civil law, an agreement by which all the 
creditors agree to give a debtor time to pay his debts 
instead of forcing him to abide by the terms of the first 
agreement. ; 

Go WitHout Day.— A term used to denote that a case has 
been dismissed from court. sae 

GrANT.— (a) A generic term applied in civil law to all 
transfers of real estate; (b) the instrument by which the 
transfer is made, or the property which is so transferred. 

Gross NEGLIGENCE.— A term used to indicate that the 


ordinary care which even a thoughtless man might take of 


his own person or property has in this instance been 
omitted. > 
HaBEAs Corpus.— A term used to denote a writ issued to 
parties suspected of detaining another, and commanding 
them to produce the body of that person at a certain time 
and place, there to submit to such judgment as the court 
may see fit to make in the matter. This habeas corpus 
action is one of the most famous in law, it havinggbeen 


LEGAL TERMS 


used so often to protect human rights that it has come to 
be known as the ‘Great writ of Liberty.’”’ See HABEAS 
Corpus. 

HABITATION.— In civil law, the right of an individual to 
live in a house owned by another person without prejudice 
to the property. 

HABITUAL CRIMINALS.— Persons who are so well known as 
malefactors by reason of their criminal past history and 
associations as to be punishable by penalties of more 
severity than are ordinarily imposed upon persons who 
have no such record against them. 

HEARSAY EvIDENCE.— The term applied to testimony that 
cannot derive its value in credibility from the witness 
himself, but must depend largely upon the veracity of 
another person. 

HERITAGE.— In civil law, every kind of immovable property, 
whether acquired by purchase, descent, or otherwise. 

Hicu Seas.— A term often used in the settlement of ques- 
tions of jurisdiction, etc. It denotes the uninclosed water 
of the ocean and all those of the sea-board that may be 
beyond the boundaries of the low-water mark. 

Ho.p.— Used technically in civil law as a part of the term 
“To have and to hold,’ the clause known as the 
“tenendum,’’ by which the grantee’s tenure to the land in 
question is expressed. 

Homo.LocaTion.— A term used in civil law to denote the 
approbation of the award and order necessary before 
execution may take place. 

HyYpoTHECATION.— A term used in civil law to denote a 
creditor’s right over a debtor’s property: the power to 
cause it to be disposed of by sale that he may secure his 
payment from the proceeds. There are various forms of 
hypothecation recognized by law: Conventional hypothe- 
cation, or those effected by the agreement of parties; 
general hypothecation, as when a debtor hypothecates his 
entire estate for the benefit of his creditors; legal hypothe- 
cation, those that are not dependent upon a contract or 
agreement; special hypothecation, or the hypothecation of 
a special estate; and tacit hypothecation, as when ordered 
by the court to secure a debtor’s creditors. 

IMMATERIAL AVERMENT.—In pleading, a statement of 
unnecessary particulars sometimes included in connection 
with, or as description of, what is actually material to the 
case. 

IMMORAL CONSIDERATION.— A term used to define a contract 
based upon something which is contrary to good morals; 
such contracts usually being void. 

IMMOvABLES.— A term used in civil law to denote that kind 
of property which from its own nature or by its situation 
cannot move itself or be removed without great difficulty. 

IMPARLANCE.— A term denoting the continuance of a cause 
for a few days to give one of the parties to the issue time 
to answer the pleadings of his opponent. 

IMPEDIMENTS.— In civil law, the legal hindrances in the 
making of contracts, as minority, lack of reason, coverture, 
€tc: 

ImMprertum.— A term used to define a power that vests only 
in the executive: The right to call upon the military forces 
of the State to enforce its statutes. 

IMPERTINENT.— A term used to denote that certain matters 
that have been introduced into a bill, answer, or other 
proceedings in equity, are not properly before the court. 

IMPROVEMENT.— A term used in civil law to denote the 
betterment in the condition of a property due to the 
expenditure of labor and money. 

IN FRAUDEM LEGIS.— A term used to imply that a thing is 
“contrary to the law.’ 

In Futt Lire.—A term used to indicate that a person 1s 
neither physically nor civilly dead. 

IN LOCO PARENTIS.— Literally, in place of a parent. 

IN PARI CAUSA.—A term employed to denote that two 
parties are in equal right according to law, in which case, 
according to usage, the party having possession is regarded. 
as of best right. 

IN PARI DELICTO.— A term indicating that both parties to 
an issue are equally at fault, a case in which no relief can 
be obtained. : 

IN PROPRIA PERSONA.— Literally, in his own person. 

IN SOLIDUM IN SOLIDO.— A term used in the making of a 
contract, and meaning, ‘‘For a whole as a whole.’”’ 

In sTATU QUO.— Literally, in the same condition as before. 

In toto.— Used legally to imply “in the whole.” 

INALIENABLE.— Designating properties that cannot be trans- 
ferred from one to another, as the public highways, parks, 
etc. ; 

INCOMPATIBILITY.— A term denoting the incapability of two 
persons to exercise the rights and privileges when together, 
as in the case of landlord and tenant, husband and wife, etc. 

INDIRECT EvIDENCE.— A term used to denote that kind of 
evidence that, while it does not establish the fact in ques- 
tion, furnishes a presumptive proof in its favor. 

INDUCEMENT.— Employed in civil law to denote the con- 
sideration, or benefit which was used to induce the promisor 
to make the contract in question. 

INDUCIAE.— Used in civil law to indicate the declaration of 
a truce in judicial hostilities. 

INJURIA ABSQUE DAMNO.— A term used to imply that the 
wrong incurred was without damage or loss, in which the 
action at law cannot be maintained, 


239 


JEOPARDY.— The condition of a prisoner when a trial jury 
has been impanelled and sworn to try his case. If he 
escapes this jeopardy he cannot again be subjected to the 
same danger, the United States Constitution clearly defin- 
ing that point that ‘‘No person shall be subject for the 
same offenes to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.’’ 

JOINDER.— (a) In civil law, the merging of several causes of 
action in a single declaration; (b) in criminal law, the act 
of joining several cases of the same nature in one indict- 
ment; (c) acceptance by both parties to.an action of an 
issue tendered. 

Joint Action.— A term used when two or more persons are 
alike parties to a suit, as two or more plaintiffs against 
two or more defendants. 

Jus ABUTENDI.— A term meaning, literally, the right to 
abuse, but generally employed to denote that the party in ~ 
question has every possible right over his property. 

JUSTIFYING Bait.— A term used to denote that the parties 
who have been produced as bail have been able to justify 
themselves in spite of any exceptions taken by the 
opposition. 

LABor A Jury.—A term used to denote that an effort has 
been made to reach the jury for the purpose of tampering 
with it, or affecting its decisions. 

LAcHES.— Neglect to perform a certain duty or to protect a 
claim at the proper time. 

LAw or Eguity.— See LAw. 

Law or MERCHANTS.— See LAw. 

Law oF NATIONS.— See Law. 

LesE Mayjesty.— Apparent disrespect for a monarch. In 
some countries such an offense is treated as treason. 

LETTERS ‘TESTAMENTARY.—An instrument in writing, 
granted by a judge or other official having authorty and 
jurisdiction over the probate of wills, making it known 
that the will in question has been proved in proper form 
and that the estate is in order to be administered. 

LEVITICAL DEGREE.—A term used in law to denote the 
degrees of kindred that are prohibited in the 18th chapter: 
of Leviticus. 

LrEx Loci.— A term used to denote the local law, or, literally, 
the law of the place. 
LIQUIDATED DAMAGES.— Damages, the amount of which 
have been decided upon by an anticipatory agreement 

between the parties concerned. 

Mave Known.— A term used to denote that a writ of scire 
facias has been duly served upon the defendant. 

Martnour.— A term which literally means ‘‘found in hand,” 
and which is used in criminal law to denote that the 
goods stolen were found with the person who stole them. 
“To be taken in the mainour,”’ therefore, is synonymous 
with being caught in the act. 

MAINTENANCE.— A term used in law to denote any officious 
interference with the course of justice. ; 

MALFEASANCE.— A term used to denote the unlawful or 
wrongful conduct of a public official in office. 

MALpRACTICE.— A term denoting bad medical practice, 
whether due to ignorance, carelessness, or criminal intent. 

MALUM IN SE.— A term denoting that an act is evil in itself, 
in counterdistinction to the offenses that, while not 
naturally evil, have become so because of the fact that 
they have been specifically prohibited. 

MANBOTE.— The compensation paid to the relatives of a 
murdered man by the murderer, or on behalf of the latter. 

MANDAMuS.— A writ issued by a superior court by which 
an inferior court, a corporation, or other body is directed 
to perform some act therein specified on the ground that 
it is a part of their office and duty. A writ of mandamus 
which couples this command with an alternative to the 
effect that if this act be not done the party commanded to 
perform it must show cause why this order has not been 
obeyed, is termed an “alternative mandamus”; a writ in 
which the command of the superior court is absolute, is 
termed a “peremptory mandamus.” 

MANU ForTi.— A term used in pleading to denote that the 
entry was the most forcible that could be made. 

MATTER IN DEED.— A matter that may be proved by deed. 

MATTER OF Fact.—A matter that may be referred to a 
jury, as its truth is a question that may be determined by 
the senses, or decided upon evidence. 

MATTER OF Law.—A matter the truth or falsity of which 
must be decided by established rules of law. 

MATTER OF RECORD.— Mattér that may be proved by the 
production of an authentic record. 

MERCANTILE LAw.— That branch of law in which the rights 
and duties arising out of mercantile relations are defined. 
METES AND Bounps.— A term used to define the boundary 

lines of lands. 

MISFEASANCE.— The performance of official or legal duty in 
an improper manner by a public official. 

MISJOINDER.— A term used in pleading to denote the 
improper union of causes of action or of persons in a single 
suit at law. 

Mora. CEerRTAINTY.— A term which denotes the degree of 
certainty by which a jury is justified in determining its 
verdict. 

More or Less.— A term used to convey the impression that 
the quantity of the matter at issue is uncertain and that 
neither party shall find cause for complaint in its deficiency 
or excess. j 


240 


Mutct.— The fine imposed upon the conviction of an 
offender for the commission of an offense. 

MunlicipaL LAw.— See Law. 

Mystic TESTAMENT.— A term used to define a will under 
seal. 

NATURAL LAw.— See LAw, NATURAL. 

NE BAILA PAR.— A plea in detinue, in the making of which 
the defendant denies that the thing sued for was ever 
delivered to him. 

NEveER INDEBTED.— A plea in which the defendant asserts 
that he is not indebted to the plaintiff for the amount sued 
for. 

New Promise.— A new contract made after the original 
agreement has become invalid and by the terms of which 
the signers agree to fulfil the stipulations of the prior 
contract. 

NeEwty DIscovERED EvIDENCE.— A term used to denote 
that the proof of new facts that have been obtained since 
a verdict was rendered are of sufficient importance to 
affect the decision of the court. 

Nrait picit.— Literally, he says nothing. A term used to 
denote that judgment may be taken by default. 

NIHIL HABET.— Literally, he has nothing. A term used in 
the return made by the sheriff who has been unable to 
discover the property required under a writ of scire facias, 
Cte. 

NoMINAL DAMAGE.— A term used when a trifling sum has 
been awarded in a case where a breach of duty, or an 
infraction of the plaintiff’s rights, has been shown, but by 
which no serious injury or loss had been sustained. 

NONFEASANCE.— Refusal or failure by a public official to 
perform a legal or official duty. 

Nut Tort.— A plea to a real action in which the defendant 
enters a denial of any wrong. 

NuLLA BonA.— A term used in a return to a writ of fieri 
facias denoting that there are no goods upon which a 
levy may be made. 

OpTIonAL Writ.—A writ which contains the alternative 
providing that if a thing is not done cause must be shown 
as to why it was not done. 

OrGANIC LAW OF THE STATE.— See LAw, CONSTITUTIONAL. 

OYER AND TERMINER.— Although this name was. originally 
applied only to an English court for the trial of indict- 
ments, it has since been adopted in some portions of the 
United States as the title of the higher courts of criminal 
jurisdiction. See Court. 

PARTICEPS CRIMINIS.— A term used to denote that a party 
is a partner in the crime alleged. 

PENDENTE LITE.— A term used to denote that a matter is 
in statu quo pending the action of the court. 

PEREMPTORY CHALLENGE.— A privilege permitted in crim- 
inal cases when the prisoner’s counsel is granted the right 
to make a specified number of challenges of jurors with- 
out giving his cause. 

PERPETUATING TESTIMONY.— A term applied to testimony 
that has been reduced to writing and duly attested ac- 
cording to law that it may be preserved to be read in 
evidence at some action not yet instituted. 

PLAINTIFF AND DEFENDANT.— See LAw. 

PositivE FrAup.—A term used when the deception in 
question was not only successful but was so clearly in- 
tentional as to be beyond the possibility of doubt. 

Precarious Ricut.—A right that the owner has trans- 
ferred to another person that the latter may enjoy it until 
it shall please him to revoke it. 

Procfs VERBAL.— In French Canadian law, an act or proc- 
ess of apportioning the expenses for the building and 
maintenance of public utilities, as bridges. 

Quiet ENJOYMENT.— A term employed in covenants or 
leases by which it is agreed that the vendee or lessee 
shall be permitted to peaceably enjoy the premises. 

Quo WarrAnto.— A term derived from the name of a writ 
issued to compel a person or a number of persons to show 
by what warrant they have assumed the duties of a public 
office, trust, or franchise. It is, accordingly, the remedy 
which must be resorted to to oust usurpers from office, 

Rate.— In Great Britain, an amount levied upon property 
in the nature of a tax for legal purposes. 

REAL COVENANT.— A term applied to the signed and sealed 
agreement by which two or more persons bind them- 
selves to pass a real thing. . 

REBUTTING EVIDENCE.— The testimony in a trial in which 
the defendant. makes answer to the plaintiff’s surre- 
joinder. 

RECOUPMENT.— The term applied to the right accorded the 
defendant to claim damage, in the same action, from the 
plaintiff because of his failure to comply with some tross- 
obligation or his violation of some duty imposed upon him 
by the terms of the contract. 

REJOINDER.— The term applied to the fourth stage in the 
pleadings in an action at common law, in which the defend- 
ant makes answer to the plaintiff’s replication. A sur- 
rejoinder is the next pleading of the plaintiff. 

ReEpLEvIN.— A term applied to a personal action brought 
to recover possession of goods that have been wrongfully 
taken or detained, security being given by the com- 
plainant to try the right to their ownership by means of a 
regular suit at law, and to return the goods replevined if 


LEGARDEUR DE SAINT-PIERRE — LEGATION 


such action should be determined in favor of the defend- 
ant. A ‘“‘replevin in the cepit’’ is an action in which it 
is claimed that the defendant wrongfully took the goods, 
while a “‘replevin in the detinet’”’ is an action claiming 
that he wrongfully detained them. 

SALVAGE.— See LAw, MARITIME; SALVAGE. 

SEPARATE MAINTENANCE.— An allowance made by a hus- 
band for the support of his wife from whom he has 
separated. 

SPECIFICATION.— A detailed statement or description, as 
of a patent. 

STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU.— The resumption by the seller of 
either the actual or constructive possession of goods that 
have not been paid for while on their way to the vendee but 
before the latter has acquired actual possession of a prop- 
erty right in such articles. 

SUBORNATION oF PERyURY.— The term applied to the act 
by which another person is persuaded to commit the crime 
of perjury. See PERJURY. 

TENDER.— A term denoting an offer to deliver something 
in satisfaction of a debt, or to give to the other party 
the specific thing required by the contract in question. 

TRANSFER.— (a) The act of conveying property, right, or 
title from one person to another; (b) the removal, as of 
a cause, from one jurisdiction to another. 

TRUE BILL.— When an indictment is found against a party 
accused of a felony before the grand jury the finding is 
termed a “true bill.’”’ See LAw, CRIMINAL. 

ULTIMATUM.— In international law, a final statement, as 
of one power to another, before breaking off friendly nego- 
tiations. 

UNDER AND SuBjEcT.— A term used in instruments for the 
conveyance of land, indicating that the party taking it 
accepts the transfer subject to the mortgage upon it. 

Vapium Mortuum.— Literally, a dead pledge. A term used 
to denote the security given in the form of a mortgage by 
which the lender agrees that if the money borrowed is 
not repaid at the time specified the estate shall pass’ to 
the lender. 

VADIUM VIVUM.— Literally, a live pledge. A term used to 
denote a pledge given in the form of a mortgage under 
which the lender agrees to take the sum borrowed out of 
the profits of the land. 

WitHout PREJUDICE.— A term used in cases of overtures 
and communications between parties to an action at law 
by which it is specified that should the negotiations fail 
to result in the adjustment of the controversy nothing 
that has transpired at such meetings will be taken advan- 
tage of at subsequent hearings before the court, but all 
will be regarded as “‘without prejudice’ to the matter at 
issue. 

YIELDING AND PaAyInG.— A term used in the writing of 
a lease that it may constitute a covenant on the part 
of the lessee to pay the rent stipulated. 


LEGARDEUR DE SAINT-PIERRE, 
Jacques. See SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES LAGAR- 
DEUR DE. 


LEGARE, la-gre, Hugh Swinton, Amer- 
ican statesman: b. Charleston, S. C., 2 Jan. 
1797; d. Boston, Mass., 16 June 1843. He was 
graduated at the College of South Carolina in 
1814, and subsequently studied at Edinburgh 
University. After a tour of Europe he re- 
turned home in 1820, and two years later en- 
tered upon the practice of law. In 1821 he 
represented his native city in the State legis- 
lature, and in 1830 was elected attorney-general. 
In the same year he established the Southern 
Review, a quarterly, with Stephen Elliott. In 
1832 he was appointed chargé-d’affaires at Brus- 
sels. In 1836 he was elected to the lower House 
of Congress. In 1840 he was appointed by 
President Tyler Attorney-General of the United 
States. He was a brilliant orator and debater, 
and his contributions to the New York Review 
on ‘Demosthenes, the ‘Origin of Roman 
Law, etc., were marked by much literary 
ability. 

LEGATE, an ambassador sent by the Pope 


and armed with his authority to represent him 
at the court of a foreign prince or state. 


LEGATION, a diplomatic mission; also, 
the building in which the minister resides and 
the area immediately. surrounding it. A lega- 
tion is usually deemed immune from the juris- 


LEGAZPE — LEGER 


diction of the country in which it is situated, 
and to be subject only to the laws of the 
country which the Minister represents. It may 
therefore serve as a place of refuge for polit- 
ical offenders. All persons attached to a for- 
eign legation are protected by the act of 30 
April 1790, from violence, arrest or molestation 
(Fed. Cas. No. 2,278). : 


LEGAZPE, Miguel Lopez de, mé-gél 
16’path da la-gath’pa, Spanish soldier: b. Zu- 
marraga, Guipuzcoa, about 1510; d. Manila, 
Luzon, 20 Aug. 1572. He was for several years 
chief secretary of the government of the City 
of Mexico, and in 1564 was made commander 
of the Spanish forces sent to the Philippine 
Islands. He sailed from La Navidad, Mexico, 
in November 1564 and reached the islands in the 
following February. He took possession of 
several of the islands and founded San Miguel 
in Cebu, in May 1565; began the subjugation 
of Luzon in 1570, and founded the city of 
Manila in May of the next year. 


LEGEND, originally a term applied to col- 
lections of biographies of saints and martyrs 
or of remarkable stories relating to them. In 
the Middle Ages a collection of the lives of 
the saints was known by the name of Legenda 
Sanctorum, or Historia Lombardica. There is 
a celebrated collection, called the Golden Legend 
(Aurea Legenda), by Jacobus de Voragine, 
archbishop of Genoa, who died in the year 
1298. It was translated into English by Caxton, 
. and printed by him at the command of William, 
Earl of Arundel, in 1483. Many of the 
medizval legends were of an uncritical char- 
acter, and along with true history often mingled 
much fable. In the course of time the legend 
came to mean only the fictitious parts of the 
story and became distinct from authentic his- 
tory. It has now come to mean any unauthen- 
tic or improbable story handed down from 
ancient times. Legend is also used for the 
motto or words engraved in a circular manner 
round the head or other figure upon a medal 
or coin. The meaning of this term is similar 
to that of inscription; but the latter refers 
chiefly to the writing placed in the middle of 
the coin, while the legend surrounds it. 


LEGEND OF GOOD WOMEN, an un- 
finished poem of Chaucer, planned to embrace 
the lives of 19 women of antiquity celebrated 
through their devotion to Cupid, but of which 
he completed eight and a part of the ninth, 
supposed to have been written about 1685. 
While nearly all the stories used are in Boc- 
cacio’s ‘Declaris Mulieribus? there is doubt 
that Chaucer had ever seen that work. He 
followed the original authors, Ovid, Livy and 
others, and ‘there are indications of influences 
from Virgil, Dante and Guido da Colonna. 
The prologue and ‘Cleopatra? are considered 
among Chaucer’s best work. 


LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW, The, 


one of the stories in Washington Irving’s 
‘Sketch Book? (7 parts, 1819-20). It deals with 


the tradition of the Headless Horseman, used | 


to interrupt Ichabod Crane’s courtship of 
Katrina van Tassel, and is one of the most 
popular tales in the book. 


LEGENDE DES SIECLES, 1a’zhand’ da 
zé-a'kl, La (THE LEGEND oF THE CENTURIES), 
a collection of lyrical epic verse by Victor 
““~ yor. 17 — 16 


241 


Hugo, published in 1859-77-83, and considered 
his finest work in this field. 


LEGENDRE, Adrien Marie, a-dré-6n ma- 
ré lé-zhondr, French mathematician: b. Paris, 
18 Sept. 1752; d. Auteuil, France, 9 Jan. 1833. 
He was professor of mathematics in the mili- 
tary school at Paris and in 1783 became a mem- 
ber of the Academy. He was in 1787 employed 
by the French government, with Cassini and 
Mechain, to measure a degree of latitude be- 
tween Dunkirk and Boulogne, while English 
mathematicians did the same on the other side 
of the Channel, in order to determine the pre- 
cise location of the observatories of Greenwich 
and Paris. In 1808 Legendre was appointed by 
the imperial government councillor for life to 
the university. He particularly distinguished 
himself by profound investigations as to the at- 
traction of elliptical spheroids, and his method 
of calculating the course of the comets at- 
tracted great attention. His best-known work 
is ‘Eléments de géometrie? (1794; new ed.,, 
with additions and modifications by Blanchet 
1845), which has been translated into English 


with notes by Sir David Brewster. He wrote 
also ‘Essai sur la théorie des nombres? 
(1798); “Nouvelle methode pour déterminer 


Vorbite des cometes? (1805); ‘Exercises du 
calcul integral, sur divers ordres de tran- 
scendantes et sur les quadratures? (1811-19) ; 
‘Traité des fonctions elliptiques et intégrales 
Eulériennes? (1827-32), etc. 


LEGENDRE, Louis, French revolutionist: 
b. Versailles, 22 May 1752; d. Paris, 13 Dec. 
1797. He was a butcher, and at the outbreak 
of the Revolution he speedily became a leader 
through his untutored eloquence and personal 
magnetism. He was prominent in the taking 
of the Bastille, in the massacre of the Champs 
des Mars and in the attack on the Tuileries. 
He was a member of the Convention and voted 
for the execution of Louis XVI. He repre- 
sented the Convention on missions to Lyons and 
Seine-Inférieure in 1793, was a member of the 
Comité de Streté Générale, and was instru- 
mental in securing the fall of the Girondists. 
He deserted Danton after his arrest, and after 
the fall of Robespierre he was active among 
the reactionaries, opposed the Jacobin Club, 
which he had helped to found, and as presi- 
dent of the Convention was prominent in the 
impeachment of J. B. Carrier. He afterward 
was elected a member of the Council of An- 
cients. 


LEGENDRE, Napoléon, Canadian poet 
and essayist: b. Nicolet, Quebec, 13 Feb. 1841; 
d. 1907. He was educated at Saint Mary’s 
Jesuit College, Montreal, was admitted to the 
bar of Lower Canada in 1865, edited Le journal 
de Vinstruction publique in 1871-76, and in 
1876 was.appointed clerk of the French jour- 
nals of the legislative council of Quebec. He 
was -an original member of the Royal Society 
of Canada. Author of ‘Sabre et scalpel? 
(1872); ‘fchos de Quebec? (2 vols., 1877); 
‘Les perce-Neige,’ poems (1886); ‘La langue 
francaise au Canada? (1892), etc. 


LEGER, 14-zha, Louis Paul Marie, French 
scholar and author: b. Toulouse, 13 Jan. 1843. 
In 1885 he was appointed professor of the 
Slav languages at the Collége de France, 
and has done much to awaken an interest in 


242 


the history and philology of the Slav peoples 
by such works as ‘Slav Studies? (1875) ; ‘His- 
tory of Austria-Hungary» (1878), translated 
into English; ‘Slav Tales? (1882); ‘The Save, 
Danube and Balkan? (1884); ‘Bulgaria? 
(1885); “Russians and Slavs? (1890); ‘Rus- 
sian Literature? (1892); ‘Le Monde Slav? 
(2d ed., 1897-1902) ; ‘Slav Mythology (1902) ; 
“Souvenirs d’un slavophile? (1905); ‘Moscow? 
(1904); ‘Prague? (1907); ‘Serbs, Croats and 
Bulgarians? (1913). He was elected a mem- 
ber of the Institute in 1900. 


LEGER (léj’ér) LINES, in music the short 
lines drawn above and below the staff for those 
notes which exceed its compass; the corre- 
sponding spaces being called “leger spaces.” 
The term dates from about 1700 and its origin 
is disputed. 


LEGERDEMAIN, 1éj-ér-de-man’, the art 
of deceptive juggling; variously styled pres- 
tidigitation, thaumaturgy or sleight of hand; 
or less correctly, magic. Properly, magic 
(q.v.) is the name for necromancy, divination, 
sorcery or unusual and apparently supernat- 
ural things accomplished by the aid of occult 
powers or discarnate spirits. The term magic 
has been popularly used by self-styled “magi- 
cians» who are really jugglers or sleight-of- 
hand performers, depending on their ability to 
trick or mislead spectators at a public perform- 
ance, aS in a theatre. The typical stage per- 
former has a stock of tricks, depending largely 
upon the use of apparatus calculated to de- 
‘ceive or mislead, as boxes and pitchers with 
double bottoms or concealed compartments. 
There is much substitution of like objects, as 
coin, eggs, handkerchiefs, etc. The expert pres- 
tidigitator has a skilful knack of directing the 
attention of the public at the instant he substi- 
tutes one thing for another. It is this substitu- 
tion that has suggested the terms — legerde- 
main (fine hand) and sleight-of-hand. He di- 
rects the attention to one thing when he wishes 
it removed from another. When the spectator 
is advised to watch slowly the movement of his 
hands, it is likely that the important thing is 
done with his foot, or by an attendant, etc. The 
simple juggler amazes one by the celerity with 
which he handles half a dozen balls, plates, 
etc., but the legerdemain artist goes farther 
and is satisfied only by imitating the impossible 
in the work of the true magician or spiritual 
medium. The successful thaumaturgist may 
carry with him considerable machinery for the 
performance of his deceptions. Some of these 
have become widely known and advertised, as 
the human head resting on a plate on a small 
table with no apparent body. In this trick, 
mirrors between the legs of the table hide the 
person who sits under with his head through 
a “faked” plate. These mirrors reflect dra- 
pery of the same color as that at the rear and 
the spectators appear to see right through and 
under the table. Another popular trick is that 
of locking a man in a trunk and then tying the 
trunk with many ropes, after which a curtain 
is dropped. Within a few seconds the man ap- 
parently walks out, carrying the opened trunk 
in his hand. The obvious explanation is that 
there are two similar trunks and two men— 
twins being hired for the performance. Rob- 
ert Houdini was the first to bring real 
scientific methods to the aid of modern con- 


LEGER LINES — LEGGETT 


juring, and more recently the Herrmanns have 
been famous in this art. There is a_ well- 
known popular vaudeville deception carried on 
by the scientific use of liquid air. Here the 
performer appears to fry eggs on a cake of ice, 
whereas he simply freezes them. 
Snake-charming is largely hypnotic, and it 
is believed that some of the East Indian per- 
formers in the open air simply hypnotize the 
beholders into the conviction that they see 
what-does not really take place. Other tricks 
are undoubtedly magic, performed through oc- 
cult knowledge not generally recognized, as 
telepathy, clairvoyance, materialization, — etc. 
The true scientific conjurer makes one of op- 
tical delusions, as in the famous ghost trick; 
of reflections of sound; of expert and highly 
elaborate systems of signaling with a confed- 
erate; trap-doors, curtains, invisible wires, 
electrical contrivances, etc. For several hun- 
dred years there have been exhibitions of a 
person—usually a “beautiful lady” — sus- 
pended in mid-air, without apparent means of 
support. This trick undoubtedly has been ac- 
complished in more ways than one. The 
method in case of “Astarte” was a supporting 
iron bar of the color of the back curtains that 
escaped detection. Another method, in which 
the elbow of the subject is allowed to touch a 
cornice, consists in using steel armor worn 
under the clothing and bolted to the cornice. 
Consult Smithsonian Annual Report (‘Psychol- 
ogy of Prestidigitation?) for 1894; Hoffman, 
‘Modern Magic?; Carter, ‘Magic and Magi- 
cians? (1903); Cochrane, ‘The Machinery of 
Amusement’ (in ‘Modern Industrial Prog- 
ress,» 1905); Houdini, ‘Unmasking of Robert 
Houdini? (1908); Elbiquet, ‘Text-Book of 
Magic? (1913). See Maaic. ‘ 


LEGGE, lég, James, British Chinese 
scholar: b. Huntly, Aberdeenshire, 1815; d. 
Oxford, 29 Nov. 1897. He was educated at 
King’s College, Aberdeen, and at the High- 
bury Theological School, London; was or- 
dained and in 1839 went as a missionary to the 
Chinese. He was stationed at Malacca at the 
head of the Anglo-Chinese College until 1842 
when the college was removed to Hongkong, 
where he remained for 30 years. He was an 
earnest missionary and realized the necessity 
for an understanding of the language and cul- 
ture of China among his coworkers. He there- 
fore began in 1841 a translation of the Chinese 
classics (8 vols., Hongkong 1861-73). In 1875 
a chair of Chinese language and literature was 
founded at Oxford University for occupation 
by Dr. Legge and he remained there wntil his 
death. In addition to his numerous transla- 
tions and works on Chinese religion he was 
author of ‘The Life and Teaching of Confu- 


cius? (1867); ‘The Life and Teaching of 
Mencius? (1875); ‘The Religions of China? 
(1880). ® 


LEGGETT, lég’ét, Mortimer Dormer, 
American soldier: b. Ithaca, N. Y., 19 April 
1821; d. Cleveland, Ohio, 7 Jan. 1896. After 
graduating in medicine at Willoughby, Ohio, he 
studied law and was admitted to the bar in 
1845. In the following year he was. instru- 
mental in organizing the first union free school 
system in Ohio. He was professor of plead- 
ings and practices in Ohio Law College 1855- 
58, superintendent of the Zanesville (Ohio) 


\ 


LEGGETT — 


public schools in 1858-62, and from 1862-65 
served in the Federal army and was promoted 
to be major-general of volunteers in July 1864 
and was commissioned major-general a year 
later. From 1871-81 he was United States 
Commissioner of Patents. From 1881 till his 
death he practised in Cleveland, Ohio. 


LEGGETT, William, American journalist: 
b. New York, 1802; d. New Rochelle, N. Y.., 
29 May 1839. He was educated at the college 
in Georgetown, D. C., and in 1822 entered the 
navy as midshipman, but resigned in 1826. He 
had in the previous year published a volume of 
poems, ‘Leisure Hours at Sea, by a Midship- 
man of the U. S. Navy, and in 1828 became 
editor of the Critic, a weekly literary journal, 
soon united with the New York Mirror, to 
which he contributed ‘Tales by a Country 
Schoolmaster? and ‘Sketches at Sea.» In 1829 
he became one of the editors of the New York 
Evening Post, to which journal he was at- 
tached until 1836. He then commenced a 
weekly journal called the Plaindealer, which 
attained a large circulation, but was soon dis- 
continued through the failure of its publisher. 
In May 1839 he was appointed by President 
Van Buren diplomatic agent to Guatemala, but 
died suddenly while preparing for his depar- 
ture. His ‘Political Writings,» with memoir 
by Theodore Sedgwick, appeared in 1840. Leg- 
gett was remarkable among the journalists of 
his day as an unflinching advocate of freedom 
of opinion for his political opponents as well 
as for the men of his own party. Among his 
staunch friends was William Cullen Bryant. 
Consult Wilson, J. G., ‘Bryant and his Friends? 
(New York 1886). 


LEGGETT’S, or BALD HILL, Battle of, 
an engagement of the Civil War, near Atlanta, 
Ga. The battle of Peachtree ‘Creek (q.v.), 20 
July 1864, was a Confederate defeat. On the 
2lst General Sherman advanced strong skir- 
mish-lines to within about two miles of the 
works surrounding Atlanta. In the morning 
Leggett’s division was ordered to carry a high, 
bare hill, situated about half a mile south of 
the Decatur Railroad. Supported on the right 
by Giles A. Smith’s division, Leggett advanced 
under cover of the hill itself, dashed forward 
when reaching its base, drove Cleburne’s Con- 
federates from it and began to entrench. The 
Confederates made several vain efforts to re- 
take it. From its summit Atlanta was in full 
view. Discovering at daybreak of the 22d that 
the advanced Confederate works had been 
abandoned, Sherman ordered a general ad- 
vance along his line to occupy the city, and 
the movement began accordingly. During the 
night, however, the Confederate General Hood 
had abandoned his advanced lines on the left 
and ordered Hardee’s corps of four divisions 
to march entirely past Sherman’s left and at- 
tack his left and rear. Giles A. Smith’s divi- 
sion of Blair’s 17th corps held Sherman’s left 
and Dodge’s 16th corps was some distance in 
rear of the centre of Blair’s corps and per- 
pendicular to it. Blair fronted west, Dodge 
south. ) 

About midnight Hardee moved out of At- 
lanta by the McDonough road, and about day- 
break, when the troops had made a _ night 
march of 15 miles, and passed beyond Sher- 
man’s left, he halted, formed line and gave his 


LEGHORN 243 


men needed rest. In half an hour the order 
was given to advance and his corps went for- 
ward until Bates and Walther’s divisions came 
to open ground, where they received a most 
deadly fire from Dodge’s two Union divisions, 
which held them in check. Every effort to ad- 
vance was repulsed with great loss and Gen- 
eral Walther was killed. On the Federal side 
Gen. J. B. McPherson (q.v.), commanding the 
Army of the Tennessee, hastened troops to fill 
an interval between Dodge and Blair, rode to 
Dodge and then toward Blair’s line, and had 
gone but a short distance when he fell mor- 
tally wounded, being succeeded in command by 
Gen. John A. Logan. Meanwhile the left of 
Hardee’s line had enveloped Giles A. Smith’s 
division, attacking it in front, flank and rear, 
Smith gradually yielding ground and refusing 
to connect his left with Dodge’s right, the Con- 
federates gradually advancing to the foot of 
Leggett’s Hill. When MHardee’s attack on 
Sherman’s left and rear was being delivered, 
Hood ordered Cheatham’s corps to attack in 
front, and the attack fell upon Leggett’s Hill 
and the 15th corps on the right of it, just 
as Leggett had repulsed an attack in his 
rear. Leggett, by desperate fighting, held his 
ground. The Confederates made repeated at- 
tacks until nightfall, when Hardee withdrew his 
right wing, leaving his left connected with the 
entrenched line in front of Atlanta. On the 
right of Logan’s corps the Army of the Ohio 
was attacked by Smith’s Georgia militia, which 
was readily repulsed. On MHardee’s right 
Wheeler’s cavalry attacked Sprague’s brigade 
in Decatur and for a time pressed it vigor- 
ously, but Reilly’s brigade of the Army of the 
Ohio coming to its assistance, Wheeler was re- 
pulsed. The battle of Leggett’s or Bald Hill 
was one of the greatest of Sherman’s Atlanta 
campaign and involved four corps of his army 
and two of Hood’s. The loss of the Army of 
the Tennessee was 430 killed, 1,559 wounded 
and 1,733 missing, with 10 guns; the entire 
Union loss during the day was about 4,000. 
The Confederate loss is not known; it has been 
variously estimated at from 6,000 to 10,000; it 
was probably between 5,000 and 6,000. Con- 
sult ‘Official Records? (Vol. XXXVIII); 
Gox,.:}. .D..:.cAtlanta’,’ (New. York |. 1882) ; 
Sherman, W. T., ‘Personal Memoirs? (New 
York 1875); The Century Company’s ‘Battles 
and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. IV, New 
York 1887-88). 
E. A. CARMAN. 


LEGHORN, lée’horn or lég-hdrn’ (It. 
Livorno, lé-vér’n&), Italy, a walled city and the 
third commercial port of Italy, in Tuscany, on 
the Mediterranean. It is the capital of the 
province of Leghorn, which has an area of 133 
square miles and a population of about. 135,- 
765. It is about 200 miles northwest of Rome 
and 60 miles west of Florence. It is a well- 
built and clean city; the north part called Ve- 
nezia Nuova, is intersected by canals along 
which are warehouses and stores, and a ship 
canal connects with the Arno. Leghorn has an 


~ inner and outer harbor and a good roadstead; 


the approach to the new dock has been deep- 
ened to 28 feet to admit of the entrance of 
large vessels. In the outer harbor is a light-_ 
house, built in 1303. Some of the manufac- 
tures are straw hats (originally the famous 


244 


Leghorn hats), leather, woolen caps, glass, 
paper, soap, coral ornaments, etc. Shipbuilding 
is one of its important industries, vessels for 
the Italian navy being constructed here. The 
chief exports are olive oil, borax, wine, marble, 
pumice stone, quicksilver, candied fruit, hemp, 
hides, soap, raw silk, etc. The chief imports 
are sugar, cotton, coal, tobacco, grain, spirits 
and petroleum. In.the middle of the 16th cen- 
tury Leghorn had less than 800 inhabitants; 
but about this time it became a free port, the 
first one on the Mediterranean. After the de- 
cay of Porto Pisano, a neighboring city, Leg- 
horn grew into importance. It has few build- 
ing of the Renaissance period; a 17th century 
cathedral, a synagogue dating from 1581 and 
the royal castle are the principal public build- 
ings. Some of the educational institutions are 
the Royal Commercial Marine Institute, the 
Royal Marine Academy, a library with over 
72,000 volumes, a number of academies and 
seminaries. There are many charitable insti- 
tutions. It is the seat of a bishopric and a 
United States consul. Leghorn is a popular 
summer resort and its connection by electric 
lines with the bathing places and with beautiful 
villages in the vicinity make it a most desirable 
place of residence at any season of the year. 
Pop. 105,315. 


LEGHORN, a breed of domestic fowls. 
See Pouttry. 


LEGHORN HATS, hats made in Tuscany 
from straw-plait obtained from bearded wheat 
cut green and bleached. They are so called 
because imported from Leghorn. 


LEGION, in ancient Roman armies, a body 
of infantry consisting of different numbers of 
men at different periods, from 3,000 to above 
6,000, often with a complement of cavalry. 
Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each 
cohort into three maniples and each maniple 
into two centuries. Every legion had 60 cen- 
turions and the same number of optiones or 
lieutenants and standard-bearers. The stand- 
ard of the legion was an eagle. 


LEGION, Theban, a Roman legion sup- 
posed to have been composed entirely of Chris- 
tians, which upon refusal to participate in the 
persecution of their fellow Christians was by 
the orders of the Emperor Maximianus (285- 
305) twice decimated and finally exterminated. 
The legion was composed of 6,600 men re- 
cruited from the East and under command of 
Mauritius who later became the patron saint 
of Agaunum, Switzerland, the name of the 
town of their martyrdom being changed to 
Saint Maurice in his honor. The legend ap- 
pears to have originated with Eucherius, bishop 
of Lyons, and. while there are many later 
versions they supply details rather than change 
its outline. There has been much controversy 
concerning the authenticity of the story. It is 
alleged that nearly a century and a-half elapsed 
between its supposed date and the first written 
record of it. Further arguments against it are 
that Christian soldiers were rarely executed 
but given their choice of sacrificing to ithe 
gods or being discharged, and that an entire 
legion would scarcely have been put to death 
at a time when Maximianus sorely needed 
troops. Consult ‘Acta sanctorum,? edited by 


J. Bolland and others (Sept. vi, 308-49, 895- 


LEGHORN— LEGION OF HONOR 


26), and Minge, J. P., ‘Patrologiz cursus com- 
pletus series greca? (Vol. CLXXI, 1625-30). 


LEGION, The Thundering, a Roman 
legion of the time of Marcus Aurelius. The 
substance of their story is that after driving 
the Marcomanni and Quadi from Hungary 
(174 a.p.), Marcus Aurelius and a portion of 
his army found themselves in a valley enclosed 
by high mountains and were in danger of 
perishing from thirst. The prayers of the 
Christian soldiers in the army brought the 
needed water in the form of a thunderstorm, 
which not only saved the army but put the 
barbarians to rout through terror and _ the 
swift attack of the Romans. The legend states 
that the legion was thereafter called the 
Thundering Legion in honor of the achieve- 
ment. Of the actual occurrence of the 
thunderstorm and its assistance to Marcus 
Aurelius there is no doubt; but the name 
Thundering Legion (Legiéd Fulminata) had ex- 
isted from the time of Augustus, and probably 
originated in the representation of lightning as 
the device on its shields. A marble pillar at 
Rome represents the deliverance of the army 
by means of the storm, but is not considered a 
memorial to the supposed prayers of the Chris- 
tians. Dio Cassius in ‘Excerpta Ziphilin? (I, 
Ixxi, 8) states that the miracle was due to an 
Egyptian sorcerer. The letter of Marcus 
Aurelius, giving credit to the prayers of the 
Christians, printed in the first ‘Apology of 
Justin Martyr, is spurious. Capitolinus at- 
tributes the miracle to the prayers of Marcus 
Aurelius himself, while Tertullian supports the 
Christian legend. 


LEGION OF HONOR, French Order 
of the (L’Ordre de la Légion d’Honneur), an 
order created by Bonaparte, First Consul, on 
19 May 1802 (29 Floréal, Year X), to reward 
distinguished services rendered in military and 
civil life. The emblem of the Légion d@’Honneur 
is a star with five twofold-rays, the centre of 
the star being surrounded by an oak and laurel 
crown, one side representing the French Re- 
public (substituted for the emperor’s head), 
with the inscription “République Francaise 
1870,” the other side being adorned with two 
tricolor flags (substituted for the imperial 
eagle), and bearing the inscription, which has 
not been changed: “Honneur et Patrie.» The 
star, white enameled, is made of silver for the 
Chevaliers, and of gold for the other grades. 
The diameter is of 40, 60 or 70 millimeters 
(1.57, 2.36 or 2.75 inches), according to the 
grades. The badge is attached to a red-watered 
ribbon and worn on the left side of the chest. 

The badge of the Legion of Honor, when 
worn by civilians or military and naval officers 
in civilian clothes, is a red-watered ribbon fixed 
to the left side buttonhole of the coat. The 
ribbon takes the form. of a “rosette” or little 
rose for the higher grades. 

The number of members of the order, orig- 
inally provided by the law, was not to exceed 
6,000, but this amount was very rapidly ex- 
ceeded, and Napoleon himself, up to 1814, had 
granted the membership of the Legion of 
Honor to 36,825 individuals. 

The first decorations were distributed with 
great solemnity to the “légionnaires” in Paris, 
Place des Invalides, on 14 July 1804 by Napo- 
leon who, by that time, had become emperor: 


LEGION OF HONOR 


the decorations were therefore distributed in 
his own name so that the new dignitaries had 
to swear fidelity to him; for that reason some 
distinguished individuals refused the crosses 
which had been offered to them, their personal 
convictions and principles not allowing them to 
recognize the establishment of the new régime. 
Among these distinguished objectors were 
Lafayette and Rochambeau. 


Civil Medal. 


Among the members of the first promotion 
I may mention the following names which are 
now well known in the world of sciences, art, 
literature, politics and, of course, in the mili- 
tary and naval history of France: Monge, 
Berthollet, Lagrange, Laplace, Prony, Parmen- 
tier, de Jussieu, Cuvier, Montgolfier, Colin 
d'Harleville, Chénier, Fontanes, Le Brun, Da- 
cier, Sylvestre de Sacy, David, Le Sueur, Méhul, 
Monsigny, Cambacérés, Siéyés, Talleyrand, 
Fouché, Volney, d’Aguesseau, Portalis, Brillat- 
Savarin; all the Maréchaux de France, the 
Generals and Admirals; it may be mentioned 
here that Marshal Augereau refused to answer 
when his name was called. 

A second distribution of a still more 

solemn character was made by the emperor, at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer, on 17 April 1805, in pres- 
ence of 70,000 troops. Presently the Cross of 
the Legion of Honor was to smell powder for 
the first time at the famous battle of Auster- 
litz (2 Dec. 1805). According to the latest 
statistics there are 49,236 légionnaires, distrib- 
uted among the five degrees as follows: 
Chevaliers, 41,108; officiers, 6,713; commandeurs, 
1,142; grands officiers, 229; grands-croix, 44— 
total, 49,236. 
_ The President of the Republic is 
“souverain chef et grand maitre de lOrdre» 
(sovereign head and grand master of the 
order). 


the 


245 


These statistics, however, were compiled be- 
fore the war; none of a more recent date are 
available, although more than 30,000 crosses 
have been allowed since the beginning of the 
war; a decree of 13 Aug. 1914 authorizes the 
distribution of as many crosses as circumstances 
will require; but a special law passed by both 
Houses of Parliament will be necessary to give 
a legal and definite ratification to all the nom- 
inations. Of course the bill will be passed 
without the slightest opposition. During peace- 
time, in order to be admitted to the member- 
ship of the Legion of Honor it is necessary to 
have discharged, with some distinction, civil or 
military functions during at least 20 years and 
sometimes 25 years. This rule, however, does 
not apply to the persons who have rendered 
extraordinary services in their civil or military 
functions, or in the arts and sciences. But, in 
any case, in order to be admitted to a superior 
grade it is necessary to have been: (1) For the 
grade of officier, four years a chevalier; (2) 
for the grade ‘of commandeur, two years an 
offiicier; (3) for the grade of grand officier, 
three years a commandeur; (4) for the grade 
of grand-croix, five years a grand officter. 

The nominations and promotions from a 
lower to a superior grade are made twice a 
year, on the lst of January and the 14th of 
July. There are of course exceptions to that 
rule when the latter are justified by extraordi- 
nary services and circumstances, as for in- 
stance in time of war, but the Legion of Honor 
is the highest distinction of that kind which 
can be obtained in France; it is not granted 
easily, and there is no légionnaire who is not 
very proud to wear the badge of an order 
which has been famous ever since it was 
created by Bonaparte. 

All officers, non-commissioned officers and 
privates in the army and the navy who are 
members of the Legion of Honor receive the 
following annual pensions according to their 
grade: Chevaliers, 250 francs ($50); officiers, 
500 francs ($100) ; commandeurs, 1,000 francs; 
grands-officiers, 2,000 francs; grands-croix, 
3,000 francs. 

No pension whatever is paid to the /égion- 
naires who have been admitted to the member- 
ship of the order for civil services. 

When admitted or promoted, the /Jégion- 
naires have to pay to the Grande Chancellerte 
the following fees according to their grade: 


For the copy For the price 

of the patent of the badge 

The Chevaliers}. 35. ..2a0.. 25.00 francs 12.00 francs 
“ Officiersé. aoa Gs 50.00 “ 67,503 


“ Commandeurs........ 80.00 149.00 * 
“ Grands Officiers....... 120.00 “¢ 58.00 “ 
EMGrands:Gsorxeren ies ee 200.00 “ 240.00 


The administration is entrusted to a Grand 
Chancellor who holds the seal of the Order, 
works up the annual budget, reports to the 
President of the republic all propositions con- 
cerning the Legion of Honor, etc. A Secre- 
tary-General, appointed by the President of the 
republic, represents the Grand Chancellor when 
the latter is absent for any reason whatever. 

The Grand Chancellor is assisted by a 
Council of the Order which assembles every 
month for general purposes (management, 
budget, control of the regulations, vacancies 
arising from the death of members every six 
months), distribution of the available crosses 
among the different ministerial departments, 


246 


discipline, etc. The Council consists of the 
Grand-Chancellor, president; the Secretary- 
General, vice-president, and 12 members of the 
Order appointed by the President of the re- 
public. 

Membership in the Legion is forfeited when- 
ever the l/égionnaire loses temporarily or per- 
manently his rights of French citizenship. The 
President of the republic is also empowered 
to suspend or suppress the use of the rights 
and prerogatives attached to membership of 
the Order, after a penal sentence of a civil or 
military court, and whenever it has been ascer- 
tained that the /égionnaire has acted in a dis- 
honorable manner in certain cases where the 
law provides no penalty. - 

Of course, distinguished foreigners are ad- 
mitted to the Order, but their admission is at 
the same time more easy and more difficult 
than is the case for Frenchmen; more easy 
because there are no restrictions as regards the 
length of time during which they have to make 
themselves serviceable, and more difficult be- 
cause the cross is allowed only on account of 
rather high distinction. A law provides that 
foreigners are “admis et non recus» (admitted, 
not received), and form a contingent quite dis- 
tinct from the French cadres. The foreign 
members of the Order have the same rights as 
the French members to a funeral with military 
honors. 

Among the Americans who are or have been 
members of the Legion of Honor may be men- 
tioned the following: 


GRANDS CROIX. 
Horace Porter (soldier and 
diplomat) 
Robert S. McCormick 
(diplomat) 


GRANDS OFFICIERS. 
David R. Francis, ex-Sec- 
retary of the Interior 


Francis B.. Loomis (dip- 
lomat) 

Rear-Admiral Peary 

Ferdinand W. Peck 

Charlemagne Tower (dip- 


lomat) 
Major-General Leonard 
Wood 


COM MANDEURS. 
Rear-Admiral Ammen 
Brigadier-General Baird 
Wharton Barker (University 

of Pennsylvania) 


Major-General John R. 
Brooke 

Nicholas Murray Butler 
(president Columbia Uni- 
versity) 

Andrew Carnegie (steel 


magnate and philanthro- 
pist) 
Rear-Admiral Higginson 
Major-General Howard 
Mer. John Ireland (late arch- 
bishop of Saint Paul) 
Perry Belmont (diplomat) 
Dr. Arthur W. de Roaldes 
(surgeon) 
Major-General Schofield 
Major-General Sickles 


OFFICIERS. 
Charles F. Beach (a distin- 
guished American lawyer 
practising in Paris) 


Paul Wayland Bartlett 
(sculptor) 

A. Barton Hepburn (ex- 
president New York 
Chamber of Commerce) 

Patrick Collins (late mayor 
of Boston) 

Deering Jones (Chicago) 

Charles W. Eliot (president 
emeritus, Harvard Univer- 
sity) 

James Howard Gore (pro- 
fessor of Columbia Uni- 
versity) 

William R. Harper (late 
president of the University 
of Chicago) 

William Jacob Holland 
(director of the Carnegie 
Institute, Pittsburgh) J 

James H. Hyde (formerly 
vice-president of the 
Equitable Insurance Co.) 

Harry Pratt Judson (presi- 
dent of the University 
of Chicago) 

A. Lawrence Lowell (presi- 
dent of Harvard Uni- 
versity) 

C. W. McCormick (presi- 
dent of the McCormick 

Harvesting Co.) 

John W. Mackay (president 

a es Commercial Cable 
0. 


Ridgway Knight (artist) 

Robert J. Thompson (dip- 
lomat) 

Edward Tuck (banker) 


John Wanamaker (formerly 
Postmaster-General) 


Two weeks after the famous battle of Aus- 
terlitz a decree signed by Napoleon, at Schoen- 
brunn, on 15 Dec. 1805, ordered the creation 
of three schools for the education of the 


LEGION OF HONOR 


if 


daughters of the members of the Legion of 
Honor. The first of these schools was estab- 
lished in the Chateau d’Ecouen, near Versailles, 
in 1806; the second one, at Saint- Denis, near 
Paris, in 1808, the third one, at La Maison des 
Loges, i in the forest of Saint Germain, in 1811. 

The daughters of the légionnaires ee have 
no fortune are admitted free of charge to these 
educational establishments; the granddaughters, 
sisters or nieces of the légionnaires are also 
admitted to the same establishments, but they 
have to pay 1,000 francs a year at the Saint- 
Denis school and 700 francs at the Ecouen 
and des Loges schools. The total number of 
pupils admitted free of charge in the three 
schools amounts to 1,200, whilst the number of 
paying pupils is limited to 155 altogether. The 
Grand-Chancellier has the general control of 
the three establishments to which the pupils are 
admitted on his own recommendation to the 
President of the republic. 

The annual expenses of the Order are about 
17,000,000 francs ($3,400,000), the two principal 
items being ‘the pensions of the members, 
about 10,000,000 francs ($2,000,000), and the 
pensions of the Médaillés Miulitaires, about 
6,000,000 francs — ($1,200,000), (see MéDAILLE 
MILIrAIRE below), other minor items of ex- 
pense being the salary of the staff at the Grande 
Chancellerie about 250,000 francs ($50,000), 
the three educational establishments for young 
ladies about 300,000 francs ($60,000). The 
receipts are provided by an annual interest of 
4,150,000 francs ($830,000) on Rentes frangatses 
(French Consolidated Fund), which are owned 
by the Order. The Domaine d’Ecouen together 
with the fees paid by some of the pupils give 
an annual income of about 110,000 francs 
($22,000). The Ministry of Justice, to which 
the Order of the Legion of Honor is financially 
connected, provides every year all the funds 
required to balance the accounts. It may be 
mentioned here that in 1916 a rich American 
gentleman, formerly a president of the National 
City Bank, New York, contributed generously 
1,000,000 francs ($200, 000) to the Order, the 
interests of which are to be distributed among 
the children of the /égionnaires who have been 
killed during the war. 

The Palais de la Légion d’Honneur which 
is situated on the Quai d’Orsay and Rue de 
Lille, is the private property of the Order. It 
was burnt down during the Commune in 18/1, 
and part of the records were destroyed. On 
the initiative of General Vinoy, who was then 
the Grand-Chancellier, a public subscription for 
the reconstruction of the building was opened 
on 7 June 1871. The list was headed by 
Monsieur Thiers with 2,000 francs; on 2 Octo- 
ber the subscription lists were closed. A total 
amount of 1,625,599 francs 19 centimes ($325,- 
119.83) was provided, mostly by the légion- 
naires. The Palais was completely recon- 
structed in 1878. 

The Legion of Honor may be granted to 
privates. and non-commissioned officers, but in 
very exceptional circumstances only. The 
Meédaille Militaire (which carries the privilege 
_of an annuity amounting to 100 francs ($20)), 
“was therefore created in 1852 in order to recog- 
nize the services of “non-commissioned officers, 
corporals, privates or marines,” especially in 
time of war. The Médaille Militaire may also 


LEGISLATION 


be granted to field-marshals and admirals and 
to general officers who have been commanders- 
in-chief. In such cases, that distinction is con- 
sidered as being second to none. The Médaille 


Military Medal. 


Militaire for instance was granted to Marshal 
Joffre after the battle of the Marne. 

The médalles are granted partly on the 
recommendation of the Minister of War and 
the Minister of the Navy, and partly on the 
recommendation of the Grand-Chancellier de la 
Légion d’Honneur; but all nominations are to 
be approved by the Conseil de Ordre. As al- 
ready stated, the pensions of the Médaillés 
Militaires absorb about 6,000,000 francs of 
the financial resources of the Legion of Honor. 

MARC DE VALETTE. 


LEGISLATION. The term “legislation” 
in its most restricted sense has reference to 
the enactments of a legislative body (see 
LEGISLATURE). In a larger sense, legislation 
embraces the totality of general rules of law 
binding upon the community, whether they 
emanate from a legislative body, from the 
people acting by way of the referendum, from 
a constituent assembly (in the United States a 
“constitutional convention”), the chief of state 
(president, king or emperor), or a subsidiary 
law-making body, such as a municipal or 
county council. In a special sense it may also 
be applied to the body of so-called judge-made 
law built up by the courts as a result of their 
power to interpret the meaning of the constitu- 
tion and laws. Legislation through the agency 
of bodies of specially chosen representatives is 
of modern origin. (See LEGISLATURE). Among 
the ancients custom was the chief source of 
law, and in Rome positive written law had to 
conform to custom in order to be valid. This 
theory of the supremacy of customary law 
over written law persisted throughout most of 
the medieval period. (See Law). After the 


247 


close of the Middle Ages, however, legislation 
was exalted above custom, the idea that legisla- 
tion proceeded from the state took root and it 
was denied by the jurists that customary law 
might override the prescriptions of positive 
aw. 

In the United States the great body of legis- 
lation consists of the enactments of Congress, 
the State legislatures and the various sub- 
sidiary law-making bodies, particularly the 
municipal councils. The constitutions also con-. 
tain a large body of legislation, and not all of 
this is organic or fundamental in character, for 
in recent years there has been a marked tend- 
ency to insert in them many rules of private 
law and even rules of parliamentary pro- 
cedure. (See CoNstiTuTION). Formerly much 
of this legislation was embodied in the statutes, 
but the growing distrust of the legislatures has 
had the effect of transforming more and more 
the constitutional convention into an ordinary 
law-making body as well as a_ constituent 
assembly. 

The evidence of this tendency is found in 
the great length of some of the more recent 
constitutions, such as those of Louisiana, Okla- 
homa and Virginia, all of which contain a mul- 
titude of provisions which logically should be 
reserved to the statutes. The body of legisla- 
tion found in the constitutions and the statutes 
is supplemented by a mass of judge-made law 
consisting of the interpretative decisions of the 
courts. Not strictly legislation in form, it is 
such in effect, and a study of the text of a con- 
stitution or statute apart from the constructions 
which have been read into it by the judiciary 
often gives an imperfect knowledge of its 
meaning and effect. Where there is doubt as 
to the meaning of the statute the courts not 
only claim the right to discover its meaning, 
but also to give effect to the intention of the 
law-maker so far as that intent can be ascer- 
tained. “Modern courts,» says the German 
jurist Windschied, “may and habitually do 
think over again the thought which the legis- 
lator was trying to express,” while the Roman 
jurists went even further and undertook “to 
think out the thought which the legislator was 
trying to think,” that is, what he would have 
intended had he known what future conditions 
would be. English and American judges, how- 
ever, have always maintained that they do not 
legislate, that they do not “make” the law in 
interpreting the meaning of doubtful statutes, 
but that they only “find” it, between the lines 
as it were. Finally, in addition to the body of 
legislative enactments. and judge-made law 
there is a mass of what is in effect, though not 
in form, legislation emanating from the execu- 
tive as a result of the power to issue orders 
and regulations. Though far less in quantity . 
and importance than the body of executive 
legislation in Europe, where the ordinance 
power of the executive is much larger, it is 
nevertheless very considerable, and of far more 
importance than is generally known in this 
country. Thus the President of the United 
States, in pursuance of authority either dele- 
gated to him by Congress or resulting from his 
constitutional power to execute the laws, has 
issued regulations for the government of the 
army and navy, the operation of the postal serv- 
ice, the management of the public domain, the 
conduct of the Indian service, the civil service, 


248 


the customs service, the internal revenue serv- 
ice and various other branches of the adminis- 
trative service. Many of these regulations lay 
down rules of conduct not only for public 
officials and employees, but are binding upon 
private individuals as well and for violation of 
which they are subject to the penalties of the 
criminal law. See EXECUTIVE. 

In Europe this source of legislation is even 
more important, for there the ordinance power 
of the executive is much larger. In England 
what are known as the “statutory rules and 
orders in council» constitute a very extensive 
and important body of subsidiary legislation; 
they are published with the acts of Parliament 
and not infrequently constitute the larger bulk 
of legislation found within the covers of the 
volume of law enacted annually for the gov- 
ernment of the English people. They consist 
of orders issued by the Crown in Council either 
in pursuance of the royal prerogative — a more 
or less undefined realm of power which the 
Crown inherited from early times and of 
which it has never been deprived by Parlia- 
ment — or in pursuance of authority, expressly 
delegated to the Crown or the ministers by 
act of Parliament. Some of these orders are 
issued for the purpose of supplementing the 
statutes, which in England are usually brief 
and embody i in outline only the general will of 
Parliament; others regulate matters with which 
Parliament has not dealt at all, but the regu- 
lation of which has been delegated to the 
Crown or the minister. 

On the continent of Europe legislation of 
this character is even more extensive. There 
the power of the executive to issue ordinances 
(réglements, Verordnungen) and _ regulations 
(arrétés) is very large. There even more than 
in England acts of the legislature rarely descend 
into details in laying down rules of conduct or 
in prescribing the mode of executing the law. 
Usually the will of the legislature is declared 
only in general terms and a large discretionary 
power is left to the officer charged with the 
execution of the law. The power to elaborate 
the statute and supply the details so as to make 
it enforceable is then left to the executive 
through the exercise of the pouvoir réglemen- 
taire. ° There also much more than in the 
United States a large independent power of 
legislation in respect to matters not dealt with 
by the legislature is delegated by Parliament to 
the executive. Thus in France the power to 
legislate for the colonial possessions in so far 
as the Parliament itself has not legislated on 
colonial matters is exercised by the President of 
the republic. 

Regarding the procedure and methods of 
legislation by legislative bodies a few obser- 
vations may be made. 

It is a general though not an absolutely 


universal constitutional rule that revenue bills. 


may originate only in the more popular of the 
two chambers. The rule originated at a time 
when upper chambers were generally appointed 
or were largely hereditary bodies and it was, 
therefore, considered improper to permit them, 
being irresponsible as they were to the people, 
to initiate measures for laying taxes. Although 
in many countries the upper chamber is now a 
popularly elected body, the old restriction on 
its power to initiate money bills still survives 
in spite of the fact that it no longer has any 


LEGISLATION 


yaison d’étre. In a number of countries, nota- 
bly France and the United States, the exact 
meaning of the restriction has often been a 
source of controversy between the two cham- 
bers. In countries like the United States, 
where the so-called presidential system of gov- 
ernment prevails, legislative measures may be 
initiated only by members of one or the other 
chamber; on the contrary, in those countries 
where the cabinet or parliamentary system is 
found, it is the right of the ministry as well 
as of any member to introduce bills and in 
practice most important measures are pre- 
pared and introduced by the ministry. They 
are, therefore, known as “government” bills in 
contradistinction to “private” bills, or those 
introduced by members who do not belong to 
the ministry. Their passage is advocated by 
the ministry and the refusal of the legislature 
to pass them may and generally does cause 
the ministry to resign. (See Caprnet GOVERN- 
MENT). Indeed, in England, Parliament has 
to a large degree abdicated its legislative power 
in favor of the Cabinet. In practice it chooses 
from its members a small body of leaders to 
whom it accords the power to frame legislative 
measures, reserving to itself only the right of 
control. 

In the United States and England a distinc- 
tion is made between bills and resolutions. A 
bill embodies the will of the legislature on 
matters of a more permanent and funda-. 
mental character, while a resolution embodies 
the legislative will on matters of a temporary 
or subsidiary character. In Congress and some 
of the State legislatures a distinction is also 
made between joint and concurrent resolutions, 
the latter of which expressing the views of the 
legislature only do not require the approval 
of the executive. In Congress and in many of 
the State legislatures joint resolutions like bills 
must be submitted to the executive for his 
approval or disapproval. 

In England and the United States an import- 
ant distinction is that between public and pri- 
vate or local bills. A private bill, unlike a 
public bill, instead of dealing with matters of 
public interest and affecting generally all per- 
sons within the State or all persons within a 
particular class as defined according to some 
essential characteristic, affects only a particular 
person or locality. Such are bilis for the in- 
corporation of a city or a public service com- 
pany, for changing the name of an individual, 
for legitimizing an illegitimate child, for the 
settlement of a private claim and the like. It 
is characteristic of such bills that they are 
generally designed to confer a benefit, a privi- 
lege or an exemption upon some person, com- 
pany or place. In the English Parliament a 
special procedure has been provided for deal- 
ing with such bills. They may be brought be- 
fore Parliament only by petition and only after 
public notice has been given by advertisement 
in the community to be affected by the bill if 
it becomes a law. Fees are also required of 
the parties promoting or opposing such bills. 
After being reported on by two examiners of 
petitions they are considered by a special com- 
mittee on private bills which after hearing 
evidence for and against them makes a recom- 
mendation to the House. In the United States 
generally the procedure in respect to private 
bills does not differ in essential particulars 


LEGISLATION, DIRECT 


from that in regard to public bills. In a few 
States, however, there is a different procedure. 
Thus in Massachusetts private or local bills 
may be proposed only by petition and due notice 
-must be given to all the parties concerned. In 
some States prior notice of an intention to 
apply for a special act must be published in 
the community where the person or thing 
affected is found. In New York local and 
private bills providing for an appropriation of 
money require a vote of two-thirds of the 
members of the legislature for their enactment 
while bills affecting a single city must after 
passage by the legislature be submitted to the 
mayor thereof for his approval. Legislative 
bodies usually have the power to provide for 
their own organization and to frame their own 
rules of procedure. By the Constitution of the 
United States, however, the Vice-President is 
made the presiding officer of the Senate and by 
most of the State constitutions the lieutenant- 
governor is made the presiding officer of the 
State senate. The State constitutions likewise 
impose certain restrictions on the legislature in 
respect to its procedure. Thus both houses 
are required to keep and publish a journal of 
their daily proceedings; generally it is provided 
that no law shall be passed except by bill; that no 
bill shall embrace more than: one subject which 
shall be clearly expressed in the title; that every 
bill shall be read at least three times before 
being passed; that no law shall be amended by 
mere reference to its title, but the amended 
portion must be set out in full; that the yeas 
and nays of members voting shall be recorded 
upon the demand of a certain number of mem- 
bers; that every bill shall be referred to a com- 
mittee for examination and report; and that 
all bills shall be printed and placed on the desks 
of members, etc. Subject to these and some- 
times other ‘similar constitutional requirements 
the legislature is free to adopt such rules of 
procedure as it may choose. See also CABINET 
GOVERNMENT; CONSTITUTION ; EXECUTIVE; LAW; 
LEGISLATURE. 

Bibliography.—Alexander, ‘The  Proce- 
dure of the House of Representatives? (New 
York 1916); Bryce, ‘The American Common- 
wealth? (New York 1910); Clifford, ‘History 
of Private Bill Legislation (London 1885) ; 
Cushing, ‘Law and Practice of Legislative As- 


semblies> (New York 1907); Jones, ‘Statute 
Law Making? (Boston 1912) ; Ilbert, ‘Legis- 
lative Methods and Forms? (Oxford 1901) ; 


‘American Legislatures and 

(New York 1903). 
James W. GARNER, 

Professor of Political Science, University of 


Illinois. 
LEGISLATION, Direct. As its name 


implies direct legislation is a system of law- 
making in which the people themselves legislate 
instead of delegating that duty to a group of 
elected representatives known as _a legislature. 
It has come to be synonymous with the initia- 
tive and referendum although it may properly 
be regarded as a more general and inclusive 
term. See INITIATIVE and REFERENDUM. 
History.— While direct legislation seems 
first to have made its appearance in Switzer- 
land in the 16th century it is in the United 
States that its evolution and operation may 
best be studied. The germ of the modern sys- 


Reinsch, Paul, 
Legislative Methods’ 


249 


tem of direct legislation may tbe found in the 
colonial custom of authorizing the constituency 
of a member of the legislature to “instruct” 
him formally as to their wishes in relation to 
any problem of legislative policy. This “in- 
struction” did not legally bind the legislator 
but merely imposed a possible moral obliga- 
tion upon him. A second step in the direction 
of direct legislation was the establishment in 
Massachusetts in 1778 of the precedent of 
referring a new State constitution to the people 
for ratification. The spread of this system has 
been rapid and consistent and it may now 
be regarded as settled that American State con- 
stitutions may be neither adopted nor amended 
without the approval of the electorate of the 
State. In the third place, some of the earlier 
State constitutions required that upon certain 
specific questions any action taken by the legis- 
lature must receive popular ratification at the 
polls. The subjects upon which such referenda 
were necessary were not numerous and the 
favorites seem.to have been the State banking 
laws, bond issues and the location. of State 
capitols. Finally, the principle of direct legis- 
lation was applied to local problems. Where 
absolute uniformity of legislative policy 
throughout the entire State seemed undesirable 
“local option” was introduced whereby separate 
localities could adopt or reject a certain policy 
as their needs and desires might direct. This 
system of “local option” was frequently em- 
ployed to solve the vexed problem of the regu- 
lation of the liquor traffic but it has also been 
applied to local financial problems, boundary 
changes and in more recent times under the 
name, “municipal home rule,” to the very struc- 
ture of municipal government. 

In 1898 South Dakota adopted a constitu- 
tional amendment creating a system of State- 
wide initiative and referendum. This was the 
first State to place the power to enact and 
to veto laws directly in the hands of the people. 
In 1902 Oregon followed suit with a system of 
direct legislation which has attracted wide at- 
tention and has served as a model for several 
of the American States. The spread of the 
system since that time has been fairly rapid, 
especially in the States west of the Missis- 
sippi River. By January 1919 21 States have 
the initiative or referendum or both, the State 
of Massachusetts adopting the system of direct 
legislation in November 1918. For the names 
of these States together with the dates of the 
adoption of the system, see under INITIATIVE 
and REFERENDUM. 

Public Opinion Bills—AIt is well estab- 
lished that the legislature cannot delegate its 
law-making power to the electorate without 
being specifically authorized to do so by the 
State constitution. In other words any system 
of direct legislation must be provided for in 
the organic law of the State. Several of the 
State constitutions, however, definitely author- 
ize the legislature to consult the wishes of the 
people upon legislative measures whenever they 
desire to do so and with the understanding 
that this expression of popular opinion is 
merely advisory. In Illinois this system has 
been still further developed in the Public 
Opinion Act of 1901 which permits 10 per cent 
of the voters of the State by petition to secure 
the reference of any proposition to a_ vote 
of the people for an expression of opinion. 


250 


The vote thus taken does not bind the legis- 
lature but gives them an accurate knowledge 
of what the people desire, 

Voters’ Interest in Direct Legislation.— 
Election statistics show that in general people 
are less interested in voting upon constitutional 
amendments and statutes than upon candidates 
for office. The percentage of interest thus 
shown varies from year to year, from. State 
to State, and from measure to measure. 

Roughly speaking, the number of people who 
will vote in a direct legislation election seems 
to range from 60 to 80 per cent of those who 
will vote for State officers. Some questions 
like prohibition and woman suffrage always 
called forth a heavy vote while other less 
striking measures. sometimes come very near 
escaping the voter’s eye altogether. Some 
States try to guarantee that only measures 
which are of general and State-wide interest 
be submitted to the people by requiring not 
only that a certain per cent of the voters must 
petition for their submission but also that 
that per cent must be obtained in two-fifths, 
or half as the case may be, of the counties 
of the State. Thus measures of purely local 
concern are automatically excluded from the 
ballot. 

Advantages.— The arguments in favor of 
direct legislation may be summarized as fol- 
lows: First, it embodies the central principle 
of democracy for it places in the hands of 
the people the means of securing without in- 
terference or delay the enactment of their will 
into law. Second, the realization that it is 
futile to oppose the wishes of an electorate 
possessing the power of direct legislation will 
make the legislature more sensitive to the 
popular will and render the frequent use of the 
initiative and referendum unnecessary. Third, 
the educational value of direct legislation can- 
not be over-emphasized. From his share in it 
the voter acquires interest and-information re- 
garding public affairs which increase his value 
as a citizen. Finally, the system has proved 
successful in practice. The States which have 
it show no disposition to abandon it, the laws 
which the people have enacted thave been weil 
drawn and salutary, and civic interest has been 
augmented. 

Disadvantages.— The opponents. of direct 
legislation advance the following arguments: 
First, it destroys representative government by 


weakening not only the power of the repre- - 


sentative legislature but also its sense of re- 
sponsibility. Second, it tends to break down 
the fundamental distinction between the con- 
stitution of the State and ordinary statutes by 
making it possible for them both to originate 
and be changed in substantially the same way. 
Thus respect for the constitution is diminished. 
Third, it imposes upon the voter the burden 
of expressing an opinion upon questions re- 


garding which he has little or no information 
or understanding. Fourth, in like manner it 
burdens the voter with the decision of problems 
in which, as proved by the actual votes cast 
in many instances, he has little or no interest. 
Fifth, it turns the technical and difficult task 
of drafting laws over to amateurs with the 
result that much of this legislation is carelessly 
drawn and defective. Sixth, it has accom- 
plished nothing where it is in use which has 
not been done with less expense and trouble 


LEGISLATIVE REFORM 


elsewhere. Finally, it opens up vast opportu- 
nities for demagogues and radical minorities to 
persist in the presentation of their fads and 
programs until by virtue of the sheer weari- 
ness and indifference of the electorate they 
may secure their enactment into law. 

Recall While the recall of officers is 
hardly an integral part of a system of. direct 
legislation it is very frequently a_companion 
of the initiative and referendum. It embodies 
the principle of direct political action by the 
people. It permits a stipulated percentage of 
the voters by petition to compel an officer to 
stand again for re-election before the expira- 
tion of his term. If he does not receive a 
majority of the votes cast in this election he is 
thereby ousted from office and the opposing 
candidate assumes the duties of the office. 
The recall is regarded as a more radical sys- 
tem than the initiative and referendum, is in 
force in fewer States and is less frequently 
used where it is in force. See RECALL. 

For literature on direct legislation see 
INITIATIVE and REFERENDUM. 

RoBERT EUGENE CUSHMAN, 

Associate in Poltical Science, University of 

Illinois. 


LEGISLATIVE REFORM. Growth of 
Popular Distrust of Legislatures. No one 
can say that American State legislatures have 
been denied the opportunity to prove themselves 
worthy of the confidence and respect of the 
American people. At the close of the Revolu- 
tionary War a reaction in political opinion set 
in which reduced the formerly powerful State 
governor to the position of a figurehead and 
enormously expanded the importance and au- 
thority of the legislatures. The use made by 
the State legislature of these wide. powers, 
especially during the ante-bellum decades when 
corporate charters, franchises and other spe- 
cial privileges were being granted, forms one of 
the black chapters in our political history. 
While corruption and disregard of the public 
interest were not universal they were so nearly 
so that American public opinion came to re- 
gard the State legislature with a distrust which 
recent efforts at reform have not succeeded in 
removing. This popular distrust of State legis- 
latures has been evidenced in the constitu- 
tional provisions, which began to appear about 
the time of the Civil War, placing restrictions 
upon legislative powers. Some of these related 
in minute detail to legislative procedure but 
mostly they comprised long lists of subjects 
upon which the legislature might not act at 
all or might act only under rigorous constitu- 
tional restraints. This distrust was also shown 
in the very general policy of providing that 
legislatures should meet only every other year 
and that the length of the session should be 
restricted, provisions reflecting clearly the point 
of view that a legislature is a necessary evil 
and its term of activity should accordingly be 
reduced to the minimum. The recent spread — 
of the system of direct legislation, whereby 
the people acquire the power themselves to 
enact or veto laws, is a further indication 
of popular lack of confidence in our representa- 
tive legislatures. 

Present Need for Legislative Reform.— 
The more striking criticisms which at the 
present time may legitimately be urged against 
State legislatures may be summarized as fol- 


LEGISLATIVE REFORM 


lows: First, the quality of the men who com- 
pose them is frequently exceedingly poor. 
Without losing sight of the fact that many, 
probably most, of the legislators are honest and 
some of them are competent, it remains true 
that too frequently they prove to be venal and 
wholly unfit by training or education to per- 
form the functions of their office. Second, 
lobbying continues to prevail at most State 
capitols. Corporations and organizations de- 
sirous of securing special privileges at the 
hands of the legislature send paid representa- 
tives to exert influence upon the members. 
While this influence may be exerted by legit- 


imate means, such as arguments before legis- 


lative committees, it is far more likely to take 
the form of open bribery or other forms of 
corruption. Third, the demand for special and 
local legislation, what may be called private 
legislation, leads to most serious abuses. The 
time of the legislature is occupied with mat- 
ters trivial in importance while the demands of 
various localities and interests for legislative 
consideration are met by the convenient method 
of “og-rolling,» or “pork-barrel” legislation, 
whereby each legislator in order to secure the 
granting of his own demand supports those 
of every one else. Local and individual inter- 
ests are thus furthered; the interests of the 
State at large are ignored. Fourth, legislative 
procedure is complicated and beset ‘by technical 
requirements which too often result merely in 
confusion and delay without securing the de- 
liberation and caution which they were de- 
signed to provide. The result is hasty and ill- 
considered legislation turned out in enormous 
quantities. Fifth, there is no centralized re- 
sponsibility for legislation passed by a State 
legislature. Such responsibility is lost in a 
maze of committees and party caucuses as well 
as between the two houses of the legislature. 
No men or group of men can be held really 
accountable for objectionable legislation. Fi- 
nally, the laws themselves, drawn by men from 
every walk of life, most of whom are without 
training or experience, are frequently poorly 
drawn. No effort is made to relate them to 
the already existing law of the State, while 
they frequently do not accomplish their obvious 
purposes because of ambiguous or conflicting 
provisions. 

Proposals for Legislative Reform.— The 
need for reform in our State legislatures has 
long been recognized and a variety of remedies 
have been suggested and in some cases adopted. 
These proposals may be considered briefly as 
follows: (1) The first is a sweeping change in 
the structure, composition and organization of 
the legislature. The bicameral or two-house 
system is to be abolished and the size of the 
single house much reduced. This, it is claimed, 
would minimize confusion and encourage effi- 
ciency. This single house is to be elected by 
a system of proportional representation so that 
the various political and economic interests 
may have adequate representation therein. 
Finally greater harmony is to be established 
between the legislature and the executive of 
the State by allowing the governor and heads 
of the administrative departments to have seats 
in the legislature. This program was devised 
by reformers in the State of Oregon but has 
never been adopted in any State. (2) A sec- 
ond and less revolutionary measure of reform 
is directed against the abuse of lobbying. Two 


251 


schemes have been devised for this purpose: 
One of them, embodied in a New York statute, 
requires the registration in the office of the 
secretary of state of all lobbyists together with 
the names of the persons or interests they rep- 
resent and an account of any money spent in 
influencing legislation. The other plan is in 
force in Wisconsin and forbids entirely all 
efforts to influence members of the legislature 
privately. Lobbyists must confine themselves 
to appearance before legislative committees and 
the presentation of printed literature to in- 
dividual legislators. Both of these laws: have 
produced salutary results. (3) A third remedy 
for legislative abuses is the introduction of 
a budget plan for the control of State finances. 
By placing in the hands of a responsible State 
officer the duty of presenting a financial pro- 
gram which shall comprise the estimates both 
of income and expenditures and by taking from 
the legislature the power to increase the ap- 
propriations thus proposed the serious evils of 
the “pork barrel” will be removed and the 
energies of the legislators will be released for 
the consideration of matters of State-wide 
importance. (4) In the fourth place legisla- 
tive procedure must be reformed in such a way 
as to secure adequate and careful considera- 
tion of all measures. (5) Fifth, the length of 
legislative sessions should ‘be extended so as to 
permit a more efficient and leisurely transac- 
tion of public business. Good laws can hardly 
be expected from a legislature which must 
complete its work in 60 days. (6) Sixth, 
legislative salaries should be increased to a 
point which would make it possible for the 
abler and better trained citizens to become 
legislators without too serious financial loss. 
A State which pays but $4 a day to its law- 
makers cannot justly complain if their work is 
not of highest grade. (7) In the seventh 
place, several States, following the lead 
of New York and Wisconsin, have established 
legislative reference bureaus. To be most 
efficient such bureaus should not only collect 
data upon problems of legislative policy for 
the benefit of the members of the legislature 
but it should also be able to offer expert help in 
the difficult task of bill-drafting. These bureaus 
have materially raised the quality of legislation 
in the States where they exist. (8) Finally, 
real and permanent legislative reform cannot 
be expected unless the people of the State take 
an interest in the work of the legislature, keep 
informed and alert in regard to matters of 
legislative policy and show a willingness to 
let the legislators know their opinions and de- 


sires. Bad government cannot exist for long 
where public sentiment is intelligent and 
aroused. 


Bibliography.— Beard, ‘American Govern- 
ment and Politics? (revised 1914); Dealey, 
‘The Growth of American State Constitutions 
(1915); Dodd, ‘Procedure in State’ Legisla- 
tures? ‘(Annals of the American Academy of 
Political and Social Science, 1918) ; Holcombe, 
‘State Government in the United States? 
(1916); Reinsch, ‘American Legislatures and 
Legislative Methods? (1907); Reinsch, ‘Read- 
ings on American State Government? (1911); 
Young, ‘The New American Government and 
Its Work? (1915). 

RoBerT EUGENE CUSHMAN, 
Associate in Political Science, University of 
Illinois. 


252 


LEGISLATURE. In the most general 
sense of the term a legislature is any law- mak- 
ing body, whether Congress, Parliament, Land- 
tag or other assembly of representatives 
charged with the enactment of general rules 
of conduct binding upon the inhabitants of the 
state. In a narrower sense the term is descrip- 
tive only of the law-making bodies of the 
States composing the American republic, al- 
though several of these bodies are officially des- 
ignated by other names. Thus in several States 
the legislature is officially known as the general 
assembly or the legislative assembly, and in 
two, Massachusetts ‘and New Hampshire, the 
Colonial name “general court” survives. 

Legislatures are of modern origin. Among 
the ancient Greeks legislation was enacted by 
popular assemblies rather than by select bodies 
of representatives. Among the ancient Ro- 
mans legislation was enacted by the comitia, 
likewise a popular assembly embracing all the 
citizens of Rome. Under the empire the em- 
peror became the chief source of legislation and 
his edicts and rescripts were supplemented by 
a large body of judge-made law emanating from 
the pretors and jurists. Representative law- 
making bodies in the modern sense never ex- 
isted among the Romans. Montesquieu was 
right when he said that the ancients had no 
notion of a legislative body composed of rep- 
resentatives of the people (‘Esprit des lois, 
Bk. xi, ch. 8). The English historian Free- 
man remarks that “the ancient world trampled 
on the very verge of representative govern- 
ment without actually crossing the boundary” 
(‘History of Federal Government, ch. 2). 
Throughout the Middle Ages the chief source of 
legislation was the king or the feudal lord. The 
beginnings of the modern representative sys- 
tem are found in the Wuitenagemot of early 
English history, out of which the English Par- 
liament, the first representative legislature 
known to history, was destined ultimately to 
evolve. Not popularly elected at first, its mem- 
bers came eventually to be chosen by the free- 
holders. In the 13th century, thanks to Simon 
de Montfort, representatives of the boroughs 
were added. From early times the clergy also 
had their representatives, so that in the end 
the Parliament, as it came to be called, was in- 
deed an assembly of the three estates of the 
realm: nobility, commons and clergy. 

On the continent of Europe the develop- 
ment of legislative bodies was. slower of 
growth. The rise of cities gave an impetus to 
the development of the representative principle 
through the demand which it created for repre- 
sentation of these agglomerations in the law- 
making bodies. In France the beginnings of 
legislative representation are found in the 
meeting of the representatives of the three es- 
tates in a general parliament in 1302. Called 
together to consult with the king, they soon ac- 
quired the right to give or withhold supplies 
from the Crown. Meetings of the estates took 
place at regular intervals until 1614 when they 
ceased to be convoked by the king until the 
outbreak of the Revolution. From that time 
on France has had a Parliament, although it 
has not always been a truly representative 
body, during the period of 1800-14. 

It was characteristic of the representative 
system of Europe until the 18th century that 
its legislative bodies did not represent the 


LEGISLATURE 


whole people but special classes such as the 
clergy, the nobility, the towns and the like. The 
deputies of each class ,were separately sum- 


“moned and often sat apart and voted sepa- 


rately. Thus the Parliament of Sweden until 
comparatively recent times was composed of 
four chambers. Deputies usually also bore in- 
structions from their constituencies and were 
obliged to vote in conformity with the man- 
dates thus given. They were, therefore, not 
representatives in the modern sense, with 
power to declare the will of the people, but 
only delegates commissioned to consult for the 
common good and to report back to their con- 
stituencies. 

Ultimately nearly all the legislative bodies 
of Europe came to consist of two chambers. In 
England this ‘transformation was completed 
early in the 14th century, the representatives of 
the nobility and clergy constituting one cham- 
ber; the representatives of the towns, bor- 
oughs and counties, the other. It was due 
wholly to the existence of this class system in 
England rather than to any considerations of 
policy or expediency that the organization of 
the British Parliament came to be bicameral in 
structure. Inasmuch as the distinction between 
clergy, nobility and commons was never intro- 
duced into America the reason which gave rise 
to the bicameral system in England never ex- 
isted here. Nevertheless, all of the original 
State legislatures, except those of Georgia, 
Pennsylvania and Vermont, were constructed 
on the bicameral principle. Benjamin Franklin 
stood almost alone among the founders of the 
republic in advocating the unicameral system 
of legislative organization, and it was mainly 
due to his influence that the legislature of 
Pennsylvania at first consisted of a _ single 
chamber. The three States which started with 
single-chambered legislatures, however, soon 
abandoned the system for the bicameral idea 
and it has prevailed in all the States then ex- 
isting and in those subsequently admitted to 
the Union. Likewise Spain, Portugal, Mexico, 
Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and other states which 
once had unicameral legislative bodies have all 
abandoned the single chamber principle for the 
bicameral system. “The bicameral system,” 
says Francis Lieber, “accompanies the Angli- 
can race like the common law and everywhere 
it succeeds” “Of all forms of. government 
that are possible among mankind,” said the his- 
torian Lecky, “I do not know any which is 
likely to be worse than government of a single 
omnipotent democratic chamber.” 

The superiority of the double-chambered 
legislature is defended on several grounds. In 
the first place, the existence of a second house 
serves as a check on hasty and ill-considered 
legislation. In the second place, the bicameral 
system affords protection to the people against 
the despotic tendencies of a single chamber — 
“t doubles the security of the people,” said 
Judge Story, “by requiring the concurrence of 
two distinct bodies in any scheme of usurpa- 
tion or perfidy where otherwise the ambition 
of a single body would be sufficient.” The ~ 
Americans restrain their legislatures, says 
James Bryce, by dividing them just as the Ro- 
mans restrained their executives by substituting 
two consuls for one king: On the other hand, 
there has been a growing disposition in recent 
years to question some of the advantages 


LEGISLATURE 


claimed for the bicameral system, and in a 
number of States, notably Oregon, Nebraska 
and California, there have been well-organized 
movements looking toward the establishment of 
legislatures composed of a single house. In 
Oregon the question of abolishing the senate 
was submitted to a vote of the people in 1912 
and again in 1914, and although the pro- 
posal was defeated a large vote was cast 
in favor of it. In Nebraska a joint com- 
mittee of the legislature after making 
a careful study of the merits and demerits of 
the bicameral system made a report advocating 
the establishment of a small legislative body 
composed of a single chamber. Likewise tn 
California recently a majority of both houses 
of the legislature voted in favor of a proposed 
amendment to the constitution providing for 
the creation of a single-chambered legislative 
assembly. The arguments against the bicameral 
system are in brief the following: It greatly 
increases the cost of legislation by reason of the 
larger number of members and employees; it 
conduces to deadlocks, dissension and intrigue; 
and it retards the dispatch of legislative busi- 
ness. Moreover the checking function, which 
is the chief raison d’étre for a second cham- 
ber, works both ways; that is, it often serves 
to hinder the enactment of good legislation as 
well as to prevent bad legislation. Again, 
since both houses are now elected by constitu- 
encies composed of the same persons, each 
house is little more than a duplicate of the 
other; neither is more radical or more con- 
servative than the other and hence neither is 
by its constitution and nature disposed to re- 
strain the other. Advocates of the single- 
chambered system also argue that the execu- 
tive veto, the referendum and the power of the 
courts to declare acts of the legislature uncon- 
stitutional now afford adequate checks against 
unwise and unconstitutional legislation. Fi- 
nally, it may be remarked that there are al- 
ready more than 60 single-chambered legisla- 
tures in. the world to-day, including those of 
Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, the South African 
Union, all the provinces of Canada except Que- 
bec and Nova Scotia and many of the German 
states. As is well known the legislative bodies 
of many large cities are also unicameral in 
structure. The unicameral principle, therefore, 
is not a theory but it is in practical operation in 
many countries. 

‘In many of the European states the upper 
houses of the legislature are not organized on 
the principle of popular representation. In 
some of them there is a hereditary element, in 
others certain public officials are members of 
right and in many there is an appointive ele- 
ment. (See GREAT BRITAIN — PARLIAMENT). 


In the United States since the adoption of the . 


17th amendment the upper house of Con- 
gress has been chosen by the same method 
as the lower house so that both rest on the 
same principle although senators are chosen 
for longer terms, they represent larger con- 
stituencies and higher qualifications are re- 
quired of them. Both houses of the State leg- 
islatures are composed of representatives with 
only slightly different qualifications and terms, 
and they are chosen by constituencies made up 
of the same class of electors. Members of both 
houses are apportioned either on the basis of 
the total population or the number of voters. 


253 


Equality of representation is everywhere pro- 
claimed as a principle, but the principle is seri- 
ously deviated from in certain New England 
States where in consquence of the town sys- 
tem of representation small communities with 
populations of less than 1,000 inhabitants not 
infrequently choose as many representatives as 
populous cities like Providence, New Haven 
and Hartford. The common rule that each 
county, however small its population, shall 
have at least one representative or that each 
county shall have one senator often plays havoc. 
with the principle of equality of representa- 
tion. In several States constitutional limita- 
tions have been imposed on the representation 
of the large cities. Thus in New York, no 
county may have more than one-third of all 
the representatives —a provision designed to 
limit the representation of New York city; and 
somewhat similar provisions are found in the 
constitutions of Pennsylvania and Rhode 
Island. 

Illinois alone among the States has a sys- 
tem of minority: representation in the lower 
house of the legislature. Under this system, in- 
troduced in 1870, it has nearly always been 
possible for the principal minority party in 
each legislative district to choose one of the 
three members to which the district is entitled 
in the lower house, and it has often enabled 
secondary parties such as the Prohibitionists, 
Progressives and Socialists to elect a few mem- 
bers. (See PrRoporTIONAL REPRESENTATION). 
It has the disadvantage, however, of fre- 
quently resulting in the election of a house in 
which no party has a working majority, thus 
making difficult the enactment of important 
constructive legislation. Moreover, it fre- 
quently results in the election of a legislature, 
a majority of the members of which belong to 
a political party different from that to which 
the governor who is chosen at the same elec- 
tion belongs, thus dividing the legislative power 
between two politically antagonistic depart- 
ments and thereby paralyzing it to a degree. 

In all the States the upper house of the leg- 
islature is officially designated as the senate. - In 
size the State senates vary from 19 members in 
Arizona to 63 in Minnesota, 40 or 50 being a 
common number. In about two-thirds of the 
States the terms of senators are four years; in 
most of the others it is two years; in New Jer- 
sey it is three years; and in Massachusetts and 
Rhode Island it is one year. In a number of 
States the senators are divided into classes, the 
terms of one-half or one-third of them expir- 
ing at the same time, thus making the senate 
to some extent a permanent and continuous 
body. In all the States the senate has certain 
special functions such as the approval of ex- 
ecutive appointments and the trial of impeach- 
ment cases. 

In most of the States the lower branch of 
the legislature is known as the “house of rep- 
resentatives,” in a few it is styled the “assem- 
bly» and in three the “house of delegates.” 
In size it varies from 35 members in Arizona to 
more than 400 members in New Hampshire, the 
houses of the New England legislatures being 
especially large on account of the town system 
of representation. Their senates, however, are 
small bodies: 24 in New Hampshire, 35 in 
Connecticut, 30 in Vermont and 40 in Massa- 
chusetts. 


254 


In all the States members of the legislature 
receive some pecuniary compensation for their 
services. It is in the form either of a salary 
or a per diem allowance. The largest salaries 
are those paid the members of the legislatures 
of Illinois and New York ($3,500 per term 
and $1,500 per year, respectively) ; the smallest 
are those of South Carolina and New Hamp- 
shire ($200 per year). In about 30 States the 
per diem method prevails, the amount varying 
from $3 per day in Kansas and Oregon to $10 
per day in California, Iowa and Kentucky, the 
most general amount being .$4 or ‘§ 
per day. Mileage, ranging from 10 cents per 
mile to 25 cents, is usually allowed and fre- 
quently there is a small allowance for station- 
ery and newspapers. In some States the 
amount of compensation is fixed by the con- 
stitution; in some the maximum amount is spec- 
ified, in others the determination of the 
amount is left entirely to the legislature, usu- 
ally subject, however, to the limitation that no 
increase may take effect during the term for 
which the legislature making it is elected. In 
the majority of States the legislature holds 
regular sessions every two years, but in Mas- 


sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Georgia- 


and South Carolina annual sessions are held. 
Alabama alone of all the States is content with 
quadrennial sessions. In all the States the gov- 
ernor is empowered to call extraordinary ses- 
sions, but usually the legislature is restricted 
at such sessions to the considerations of only 
-such matters as are specified in the governor’s 
proclamation. In many States the length of the 
legislative session is limited by the constitution 
to a certains number of days—40, 60 or 
90, with a view to preventing long-drawn- 
out sessions. In other States the same end is 
accomplished by constitutional enactments pro- 
viding that at the expiration of a certain num- 
ber of days the pay of the legislature shall 
cease. 

The powers of the State legislature, unlike 
those of Congress, are not specifically enu- 
merated by the constitution. In this respect 
they are more like those of the English Parlia- 
ment. A State legislature, therefore, may 
usually exercise any legislative powers which 
have not ‘been delegated to Congress or pro- 
hibited to the legislature by the Federal or 
State Constitutions. Their powers are conse- 
quently very wide and as President Woodrow 
Wilson thas well said in his book on ‘The 
State,’ the attempt to enumerate them would 
involve cataloguing all the business and social 
relationships of life— obviously an impossible 
task. Among their powers may be mentioned 
the enactment of the civil and criminal law, 
the law of judicial procedure, the law of busi- 
ness, of contracts, partnerships, agency and 
the like, the regulation of trade, industry and 
the professions, local government, public health, 
the public safety, education, charity, marriage 
and divorce, railways, elections and hundreds 
of other matters. As a result of the action of 
the courts in declaring important acts of the 
legislature unconstitutional for excess of 
power there has been a disposition in recent 
years to enumerate in the constitution certain 
matters upon which the legislature is author- 
ized to enact laws, the purpose being to remove 
doubt as to the power of the legislature in 
respect to such matters. 


.Chambers in Practice? 


LEGITIM — LEGITIMACY 


In consequence of the popular distrust of 
the legislatures, there has been a tendency in 


/recent years to impose constitutional limita- 


tions on their powers, particularly in respect 
to the incurring of debts, the levying of taxes 
and the appropriation of money. Many consti- 
tutions forbid the enactment of local or special 
laws where a general law would be applicable 
or they allow it only under certain restrictions, 
These restrictions have had the effect of reduc- 
ing the output of legislation in many States 
and of removing well-known evils that are in- 
separable from private and_ local legislation. 
See also CoNGress; LEGISLATION ; REFERENDUM ; 
PARLIAMENT; SENATE. . 

Bibliography.— Burgess, ‘Political Science 
and Constitutional Law? (Vol. II, New York 
1890) ; Bryce, ‘The American Commonwealth? 
(Vol. X, Ch. 40, New York 1910); Dealey, 
‘Growth of American State Constitutions? 
(Chs. XV-XVII, New York 1915); Garner, 
‘Introduction to Political Science? (Ch. XIV, 
New York 1910); Harley and Others, ‘Second 
(London 1911); Lea- 
cock, ‘Elements of Political Science? (Pt. II, 
Ch. II,. Boston 1906); Marriott, ‘Second 
Chambers? (Oxford 1910) ; Reinsch, ‘American 
Legislatures and Legislative Methods? (New 
York 1907); Sidgwick, ‘The Elements of 
Politics? (Ch. XX, New York and Londen 
1897) ; Wilson, ‘Constitutional Government in 
the United States? (Chs. IV-V, New York 
1908). 

James W. GARNER, 

Professor of Political Science, University. of 

Ilhnots. 


LEGITIM, (1) in Scots law, the share of 
the movable property which descends to chil- 
dren on the death of the father, amounting to 
one-third when the widow survives and one- 
third to her as her jus relicte (q.v.). The 
father can dispose of the remaining third, 
which was called “dead’s part,” as he desires 
by will. If no widow survived, one-half was 
legitim and one-half dead’s part. (2) In civil 
law, that part of a man’s personal property 
which descends to his children at his death. 
It amounted to one-fourth in Roman law. It 
is embodied in the law of Louisiana. The word 
is also spelled legitime. 


LEGITIMACY. As a law term “egiti- 
macy” is employed mainly to describe the status 
of children born in lawful wedlock. The mean- 
ing of the term will be best understood by 
contrasting the condition of illegitimate with 
that of legitimate children. A child born out 
of wedlock is nullus filius; it has no legal 
parents. Neither its mother nor its putative 
father have any parental obligations toward it, 
and, when the public authorities intervene to 
compel a parent to support his or her illegiti- 
mate offspring, the action is taken in the pub- 
lic interest, to prevent the child from be- 
coming a public charge, and not because of 
any inherent legal right of the bastard. 
Primarily the authorities look to the mother 
to provide for the child, but where the mater- 
nal parent lacks ability to support it the puta- 
tive father may be proceded against. In some 
countries the law will not inquire into the 
paternity of a bastard, however. An illegiti- 
mate child is incapable of inheriting either 
from its mother or putative father or, from 


LEGITIMATION — LEGITIME 


the collateral relations of either; in the eye 
of the law a bastard has neither ancestors nor 
next of kin. Another child born to its parents, 
whether in or out of wedlock, stands in no 
legal relation toward it with respect to prop- 
erty. Nor do its own parents inherit any- 
thing from an illegitimate child which dies in- 
testate. Only the legitimate descendants of 
persons born out of wedlock inherit from them 
by law; if-they have no descendants their prop- 
erty escheats to the State. In other respects 
the civic status of a person is not affected by 
illegitimacy. He can hold and acquire prop- 
erty by gift or by will and dispose of the same 
like any natural person; and, though titles and 
estates of inheritance do not descend to him 
by law, he can become the founder of a family 
and become the possessor of a name in his own 
right. The bar sinister, which heraldry re- 
quired illegitimate sons to blazon on_ their 
escutcheons, was often borne by great men, 
conscious of their own worth, without a sense 
of disgrace; and to be “his own ancestor” was 
the pride of more than one of the heroes of 
history. — 

A child born in wedlock is presumably 
legitimate, though evidence that husband and 
wife had not lived together for a period so 
long as to preclude the possibility of the former 
having been the father would rebut the pre- 
sumption. Under the common law the pre- 
sumption of legitimacy was conclusive unless 
the father was shown to have been “beyond 
the four seas» for more than nine months 
prior to the birth of the child; if, during that 
time he was within the kingdom, the presump- 
tion of his fatherhood could not be combated 
even by proof that he was continuously absent 
from his domicile. This hard and fast rule has 
now been relaxed, and in England, as every- 
where, fatherhood may be disproven by any 
competent evidence. Children of marriages 
which are found to have been nullities because 
of legal impediments are illegitimate, just as 
are children resulting from illicit intercourse. 
The harshness of this rule has been ameliorated 
to some degree by the doctrine of “putative 
marriage.” One party to an annulled mar- 
riage having been unaware of the disqualifying 
impediment, that party and the children of the 
marriage are entitled to all the rights that 
would have been theirs if the marriage had 
been valid. The children of the union are to 
be regarded as legitimate. This canon has 
become a rule of equity. In England legitimacy 
may be established by proceedings in court 
under the statute (21 and 22. Victoria chap. 
93) passed in 1858. It was under this law that 
an ignorant butcher from the antipodes tried 
to prove his title to the Tichborne estate; and 
he found many believers in his claim, includ- 
ing the mother of the real heir. 

Proposals were frequently made by the 
medieval church to the lay authorities that 
children born out of wedlock be legitimized by 
the subsequent marriage of their parents. In 
1235 the English bishops, in their capacity of 
lords spiritual, endeavored to make the pro- 
_ posal a law. In the record of the Statute of 
Merton (20 Henry ITI, chap. 9) the repudiation 
of the principle by the lords temporal is 
set forth as follows: The bishops having “in- 
stanted the lords that they would consent that 
all such as were born afore matrimony should 


255 


be legitimate as well as they that be born 
within matrimony, as to succession of in- 
heritance, forasmuch as the church accepteth 
such as legitimate all the earls and 
barons answered with one voice that they 
would not change the laws of the realm which 
had hitherto been used and approved” The 
law of England remains unchanged in this’ re- 
spect, and the rule was also followed in the 
United States as part of the common law. 
By statute in most of the States a child born. 
out of wedlock is now legitimized by the mar- 
riage of its parents. This is, and has long 
been, the rule in practically all countries in- 
habited by people of European race. In politi- 
cal history legitimacy has reference to sovereign 
successions by “divine right.” Legitimists. re- 
gard all breaks in the right line of descent as 
usurpations of sovereignty, particularly when 
the ‘breaks have been caused by parliamentary 
depositions of kings and by popular revolution. 
According to the ‘Legitimist’s Almanach, 
published up to recent times, the Comte de 
Chambord was Louis XIX, king of France, 
Don Carlos was king of Spain; Sicily, Naples, 
Modena, Parma and other parts of Italy were 
still under their former Bourbon kinglets, while 
Maria Theresa, Duchess of Este and late con- 
sort of former King Ludwig III of Bavaria, 
was known as the “White Rose Queen” and 
regarded by the Jacobites as the legitimate sov- 
ereign of Great Britain, Ireland and the do- 
minions beyond the seas, she being a descend- 
ant of the elder and deposed branch of the 
Stuarts. 
STEPHEN PFEIL. 


LEGITIMATION, the act of conferring 
legitimacy (q.v.) on a person born out of wed- 
lock. It is effected by act of the legislature, by 
adoption or by the subsequent marriage of: the 
father and mother of the bastard. The latter 
means, however, can only be had provided the 
father and mother were free to marry at the 
time of the birth, and that there was no diri- 
ment impediment to such marriage. In Eng- 
land, Ireland and in a few of the United States 
legitimation by subsequent, marriage does not 
obtain, the maxim there being, “once a bastard, 
always a bastard.” In most States, however, 
such a marriage legitimizes previous offspring. 
Complications arise where after the child’s 
birth, one of the parents marries a third per- 
son, has children, and after the dissolution of 
this marriage, marry. The general rule in 
such cases is to confer a status of legitimacy 
on the bastard child, but not to displace the 
legitimately-born children by the latter. See 
BASTARD; ILLEGITIMACY; LEGITIMACY; and con- 
sult ‘Legitimation by Subsequent Marriage? 
(in Journal of Society of Comparative Legisla- 
tion, Vol. VI, new series, London 1906). 


LEGITIME, Francois Denys, fran-swa 
dé-né la-zhé-tém, Haitian general: b. 1842. 
During the administration of President Salo- 
mon, he was accused of aspiring to the Presi- 
dency, and accordingly went to Kingston, 
Jamaica, remaining three years, then returned 
to Haiti at the invitation of his followers, and 
on 7 Oct. 1888 was elected President of the 
provisional government. General Thélémaque 
denounced the election as a job, and attempted 
to make himself President, but he was killed in 
the battle which ensued. Légitime was elected 


~~~ 


256 


President of Haiti 17 Dec. 1888, but resigned in 
1889, owing to the opposition, of General Hip- 
polyte, and again retired to Jamaica. In 1896 
President Sam granted a general amnesty, and 
he returned to Haiti. 


LEGITIMISTS, The, in French history 
the supporters of the claims of the elder Bour- 
bon line, descended from Louis XIV, against 
those of his younger brother, Philippe, Duc 
d’Orleans. The party existed from the over- 
throw, in 1830, of Charles X, who was of the 
elder Bourbon line and was succeeded by Louis 
Philippe, an Orleanist. The Bourbons became 
extinct with the death of the Comte de Cham- 
bord in 1883, and the claims of both lines were 
united in the Comte de Paris, grandson of 
Louis Philippe. In Spanish history the term 
is used to designate an adherent of the pre- 
tender, Don Carlos de Bourbon (1788-1855), 
second son of Charles IV of Spain, and his 
descendants, in claims to the throne of Spain. 
The word légitimiste was not admitted by the 
French Academy until 1878, but it had already 
been accepted in both French and English usage, 
meaning a supporter of hereditary right to 
govern as against parliamentary rule. 


LEGLER, Henry Eduard, American li- 
brarian: b. Palermo, Italy, 22 June 1861; d. 
13 Sept. 1917. He was educated in Switzerland 
and in the United States. He was a member of 
the Wisconsin assembly in 1889, secretary of 
the Milwaukee school board in 1890-1904, secre- 
tary of the Wisconsin Library Committee in 
1904-09, and from 1909 was librarian of the 
Chicago Public Library. In 1912-13 he was 
president of the American Library Association. 
Author of ‘Chevalier Henry de Tonty (1896) ; 
“Leading Events of Wisconsin History? (1897) ; 
“The Genesis of Poe’s Raven? (1907); ‘Of 
Much Love and Some Knowledge of Books? 
(1912), etc. 


LEGNAGO, 14-nya’go, Italy, city in the 
province of Verona, on the river Adige, 33 
miles by rail southeast of Verona. It is one 
of the series of towns fortified by the Austrians 
in 1815, known as the Quadrilateral, its original 
fortifications having been destroyed by Napoleon 
in 1801. The surrounding country is low and 
marshy but highly productive; sugar, rice and 
other cereals are grown and the town has a 
thriving trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 
town, 2,731; commune, 17,000. 


LEGNANO, Italy, city in the province of 
Milan, on the river Olono, 16 miles northwest 
of Milan. It has a ruined castle of the 
Visconti and its church of San Magno, dating 
from 1529, has an altarpiece by Bernardino 
Luini which is considered among his fin- 
est. work. Near here the Lombard League 
was victorious over the forces of Frederich of 
Barbarossa in 1176. There are important silk 
and cotton factories and other textile industries, 
as well as machine-shops and boiler works. 
Pop. commune, 24,364. 


LEGOUIS, lé-goo’é, Emile, French literary 
critic: b. Honfleur, Calvados, 1861. He studied 
at the universities of Caen and Paris, was 
appointed lecturer and professor at the Uni- 
versity of Lyons in 1885 and in 1904 became 
professor of English language and literature 
at the Sorbonne. He was exchange professor 
at Harvard in 1912-13. Author of ‘Thomas 


LEGITIMISTS — LEGRAND | 


Gray; Choix de poésies? (1887) ; 
Beaupuy? with Bussiére, G. (1891) ; 
esse de William Wordsworth? 

trans., 1897) ; 


‘Le général 
‘La Jeun- 
(1896 ; Eng. - 
“Quelques poémes de Wordsworth? 
(1896) ; ‘Morceaux choisis de littérature an- 
glaise” (1905) ; ‘Défense de la poésie fran- 
Gaise a usage des lecteurs anglais” (1912) ; 
‘William Wordsworth? in ‘Cambridge History 
of English Literature? (Vol. XII, 1914), ete. 


LEGOUVE, | 1eé- -goo-va, Gabriel Ernest 
Wilfrid, French dramatist and miscellaneous 
writer: b. Paris, 15 Feb. 1807; d. 14 March 
1903. In 1827 he won a prize of the Academy 
with a poem on the art of printing, ‘Découverte 
de l’imprimerie.» While instructor in the 
Collége de France 1847, he lectured on the 
history of woman’s development; and_ later 
published ‘Moral History of Women” (7th ed., 
1882), and ‘Woman in France in the 19th 
Century? (1864). These works were received 
with great favor, and were followed by ‘Science 
of the Family» (1867), and ‘Messieurs the 
Young Folk» (1868). Meanwhile Legouve was 
winning high distinction as a playwright with 
‘Louise de Lignerolles? ; ‘Adrienne Lecouvreur? 
with Scribe (1849); ‘Medea?; ‘By Right of 
Conquest? ; ‘Miss Suzanne? (1867); ‘Anne de 
Kerwiler? (1879); ‘Considération,» etc. In 
1882 he published ‘Recollections of Sixty 
Years, and in 1890 ‘Winter Flower, Winter 
Fruits: Story of my Household? In 1885 he 
became a member of the French Academy. 


LEGOUVE, Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste, 
French poet and dramatist: b. Paris, 23 June 
1764; d. Montmartre, 1812. He was father of 
Gabriel Jean Baptiste Ernest Wilfrid Legouvé 
(q.v.). His verse was extremely popular and 
of his plays ‘La mort de Henri IV? (1806) 
was most successful. He was elected to the 
Academy in 1798. The death of his wife in 
1810 caused the loss of his reason and he died 
in a sanatorium. Author of the dramas ‘La 
mort d’Abel? (1792); ‘Epicharis? (1793); 
‘Quintus Fabius» (1795); ‘Etéocle? (1799) ; 
‘La mort de Henri IV” (1806). Of his poems 
‘Le Mérite des femmes? (1801) reached 40 
editions. 


LEGRAIN, lé-gran, Georges Albert, 
French archeologist: b. Paris, 4 Oct. 1865. He 
was educated at the College de France. He 
was appointed a member of the Institut Fran- 
cais d’Archaéologie Orientale at Cairo in 1892, 
and in 1894 was made inspecteur- dessinateur 
of the museum there. In 1895 he was given 
direction of the reconstruction of the great 
temple of Ammon at Karnak, where in 1904 
the excavations made in the progress of the 
work disclosed an enormous collection of buried 
statuary, comprising 800 stone statues and 
17,000 of bronze. No find of similar magnitude 
had been made since Mariette’s at Serapeum 
and it was rated as of vast historical import- 
ance. He was also engaged in the reconstruc- 
tion of the temples of Rameses III, Osiris and 
Ptah. Author of ‘Catalogue du Musée de 
Cairo”; ‘Le statuette funéraire de Pathmos? 
(1904) ; ‘Comment doit-on établir une généalo- 
gie egyptienne? (1906) ; ‘La grande stéle de 
Toutank-hamanou a Karnak? (1907); ‘“Lougsor 
sans les Pharaons? (1914), etc. 


LEGRAND, lé-gran’, Louis Désiré, French 
lawyer and diplomatist: b. Valenciennes, 30 


LEGRAND DU SAULLE — LEGUMINOS 


March 1842. He was educated at Paris, served 
in the Franco-Prussian War, was elected a 
member of the House of Deputies in 1876 and 
in 1882-95 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at 
The Hague. He is a chevalier of the Legion 
of Honor and was named corresponding member 
of the Academy of Sciences in 1890. Author 
of ‘Du Divorce et de la séparation de corps’ 
(1865); ‘Sénac de Meilham (1868); ‘Le 
Mariage et les mceurs en France? (1879); 
‘Compte rendu de la législature au nom de la 
gauche republicaine? (1881); ‘L’Organisation 
des Indes néerlandaises? (1887); ‘L’Idée de 
patrie? (1897); ‘Précis de procedure civile 
usuelle et pratique? (1897; new ed., 1904), etc. 


LEGRAND DU SAULLE, le-gran’du sol, 
Henri, French physician and alienist: b. Dijon, 
16° Aptil 1830. “d. ‘Paris,’ 6 May’ 1886.°°-He 
studied medicine at Dijon, served as interne at 
various hospitals and in 1862 took his M.D. at 
Patric. ire Was,one Of the’ editors’ of* the 
Gazette des Hospitaux in 1854-62, engaged in 
the practice of medicine and tn 1868 became 
connected with the prefecture of police, Paris, 
where he shared the labors of Laségne. He 
was appointed physician at the Salpétriere in 
1879. He was one of the founders in 1868 of 
the Societe de Medicine Legale and was for 
many years connected with Annales médico- 
psychologiques. Author of ‘La folié devant 
les tribunaux? (1864); ‘La folie héréditaire? 
(1873) ; ‘Traité de médecine legale? (1874) ; 
‘Etude meédico-legale sur les épileptiques” 
(1877) ; ‘Etude médico-legale sur interdiction 
des aliénés’? (1880), etc. 


LEGRENZI, Giovanni, Italian composer: 
b. Clusone, near Bergamo, 1625; d. Venice, 26 
July 1690. He studied under Pallavicino and 
was appointed organist at the church of Saint 
Maria Maggiore at Bergamo. He later became 
maestro di capella of the church of the Spirito 
Santo at Ferrara and about 1664 he was ap- 
pointed director of the Conservatorio dei 
benedicanti at Venice. In 1681 he became vice- 
maestro and in 1685 nfaestro di capella at Saint 
Mark’s, Venice, where he remained until his 
death. His most famous pupils were Lotti and 
Gasparini. His compositions have a wide range 
but he is most famous for his operas, of which 
he wrote 17 and which surpassed. anything then 
written in the instrumentation as well as pos- 
sessing other merits. Among them are ‘Achille 
in Sciro’? (1664); ‘La Divisione del Mondo? 
(1675); ‘I due Cesari? (1683); ‘Pertinace? 
(1684), etc. 

LEGROS, lé-gr6’, Alphonse, Anglo-French 
artist: b. Dijon, France, 8 May 1837; d. London, 
8 Dec. 1911. In 1857 he exhibited for the first 
time in the Salon, but finding small encourage- 
ment in France, removed to London in 1863, 
became a naturalized Englishman and was ap- 
pointed in 1870 Slade professor in University 
College. His work, alike in painting, etching 
and modeling, is strongly mannered, and as a 
colorist his range is limited. He presents the 
rural scenes and peasantry of France with an 
austere dignity of style and force of expression, 
which though they did not make him popular 
won generous recognition from his brother 
artists. His more important works are the 
‘Anglers,’ the ‘Pilgrimage,’ the ‘Spanish 
Cloister,” the ‘Benediction of the Sea, the 
‘Baptism,’ the ‘Coppersmith, the ‘Dead 

vot 17—17 


257 


Christ,?> ‘Woman Praying,» ‘Public Penance,” 
and ‘On the Edge of the Woods,’ which last 
is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. 
His versatility was extraordinary — pen and 
pencil drawings, medal work, portraiture, etch- 
ings and sculpture having each the marks of his 
pronounced individuality. But his fame is per- 
haps greatest in his etched portrait work and 
this gave him a distinctive place in contempo- 
rary art. Among his subjects were Watts, 
Poynter, Leighton, Carlyle and Manning. Note- 
worthy etchings are ‘Death and the Woodman,’ 
and ‘Le Repas des Pauvres,? both ‘marked by 
a fine breadth in conception and handling. His 
monumental fountain at Welbeck Abbey is 
perhaps his best piece of sculpture. 


LEGUIA, 14-goo’ya, Augusto B., Peruvian 
financier and statesman: b. Lambayeque, 19 
Feb. 1864. He studied at Valparaiso, Chile, 
served in the Chilean-Peruvian War and after- 
ward became prominent in financial circles. He 
became Minister of Finance in 1904 and was 
elected President in 1908. A revolutionary up- 
rising by the followers of Pierola endeavored 
to gain control of the government in 1909, and 
on 29 May -succeeded in taking President 
Leguia prisoner. Loyal government. forces 
came. to his rescue within an hour, however, 
and order was promptly restored. His ad- 
ministration saw the boundary dispute with 
Bolivia settled in favor of Peru and also the 
resumption of friendly relations with. Chile, 
with whom there had. been ill-feeling over 
boundary decisions. .Upon the expiration of 
his term as President he took up his residence 
in London.. 


LEGUME, lég’iim, the fruit or seed of plants 
of the Leguminose or pulse family. The seed 
vessel, or pod, has one cell and two valves; is 
generally dehiscent, opening down both sides, 
the seeds being borne on the ventral suture. 
Peas and beans form the most familiar mem- 
bers of the group. Indehiscent legumes, which 
at maturity break into one-seeded parts, are 
known as loments. 


LEGUMIN, or vegetable casein, a protein 
substance analogous to the casein of milk, ob- 
tained from beans, pease, lentils, vetches and 
other leguminous seeds ; the principle of the 
Leguminose. 


LEGUMINOSZ, a group of plants for- 
merly considered a family, but now generally 
divided into three families., The term, however, 
is a convenient one and is retained for the 
group -as a whole. The plants are’ herbs, 
shrubs and trees widely distributed in all cli- 
mates but most. numerous in tropical and sub- 
tropical regions; growing upon all kinds of soil ; 
exhibiting a great range of habit from creeping 
annual to climbing shrub; useful for a great 
variety. of purposes — ornament, food, timber, 
fodder and in the arts; and constituting one 
of the largest groups of plants, about -7,000 
species. distributed among about 450 genera. 
The ‘species are characterized by alternate, 
stipulate, usually compound leaves ; papiliona- 
ceous of sometimes regular flowers commonly 
arranged in racemes; monadelphous, diadel- 
phous or occasionally distinct stamens, typically 
10,' surrounding a single simple pistil which 
generally becomes a pod or legume containing 
one to many sheds 


258 


The spethes naturally fall into three fami- 
lies: (1) Fabacee@, with flowers resembling a 
butterfly ; (2) Cesalpiniacee, with imperfectly 
or not at all papilionaceous corollas, which may 
sometimes be nearly regular; (3) Mimosacee, 
with small, regular flowers. The first group 
contains more than two-thirds of the .species. 
‘Its members are adapted for insect fertilization, 
especially by bees, which alight upon the lower 
petals, brush against the pistil which is thrust 
out by the insect’s weight, then come in contact 
with the stamens and finally carry the pollen, 
which has been discharged, to other flowers. 
Thus the pistils receive pollen from stamens 
not in the same flower with them. In some in- 
stances they may also obtain pollen from these 
stamens, thus having a double chance,.to be 
fertilized: See FLOWERS AND INSECTS. 

Perhaps the most interesting trait found in 
the group is the power possessed by the species 
of obtaining free nitrogen from the air by 
means of the tubercles or wart-like excrescences 
upon their roots. These tubercles are the homes 
of bacteria which have gained entrance to the 
plant’s tissue through the root-hairs and are 
thus the result of irritation. The plants, it is 
believed, furnish the bacteria with carbohydrate 
food in return for the nitrogenous material pre- 
pared by them, thus exhibiting excellent ex- 
amples of symbiosis (q.v.). Largely owing to 
this reciprocal action, the legumes are valued as 
green manures, a fact long acted upon but un- 
explained until the last quarter of the 19th 
century, when Hellriegel and other investigators 
proved it, and even went further to show that 
soils poor in the bacteria could be inoculated 
profitably. See C Lover; Nitrrocen; Root-Tu- 
BERCLES ; GREEN MANURING; VETCH ; ‘ CowPEA ; 
BEAN; “LUPINE; ACACIA ; LICORICE; INDIGO; 
SwEeEt PEA; Mepic: LABURNUM; TAMARIND: 
Mimosa. 

LEHAR, 1a’har, Franz, Austrian com- 
poser: b. Komron, Hungary, 30 April 1870. 
He was educated at the Academy of Music at 
Prague and was successively concert master at 
the Elberfeld Opera, a regimental bandmaster 
in the Austrian army 1890-1902. and conductor 
at the Vienna Theatre. His light opera, ‘Die 
lustige Witwe? (‘The Merry Widow’), pro- 
duced at. Vienna, 30 Dec. 1905, brought. him 
worldwide fame and a great fortune. He is 
also author of ‘Wiener Frauen?_ (1902); ‘Die 
‘Juxheirat? (1904); ‘Mitislav “ der Moderne? 
(1906); ‘Der Graf von Luxemburg? (1909) ; 
“Le roi des Montagues? (1914), etc. 


LEHI, 1é’hi, Utah, city in Utah County, 31 
miles south of Salt Lake City, on the: north 
shore of Utah Lake, and on the Denver and 
Rio Grande and -San Pedro, Los Angeles and 
Salt Lake railroads. It is situated in an irri- 
gated farming district chiefly interested in rais- 
ing sugar beets and fruit. There is a canning 
factory and a sugar refinery. Fop. (1920) 3,078. 


LEHIGH, 1léhi, a river, of Pennsylvania 
which has its rise east of Wilkesbarre, in Lu- 
zerne County, and flows nearly south to a point 
about 12 miles below Mauch Chunk, where it 
breaks through the Blue Ridge. From here its 
course is southeast to Allentown, then northeast 
to. Easton, where it enters the Delaware River, 
after a course of about 120 miles. In its upper 
course it is a rapid and picturesque mountain 
stream, broken by several falls. It passes 


from New York to Buffalo, N. Y., 


LEHAR—:LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD COMPANY 


through a rich coal and iron-ore region, and 


serves as an outlet for the products of the 
mines. It was made navigable by a series of 


extensive improvements to Whitehaven, 84 miles 


from its mouth. The Lehigh Valley "Railroad 
follows the course of the river for nearly its 
entire length. 


LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, an institution 
at South Bethlehem, Pa. founded by Asa 
Packer (q.v.) in 1866. - His endowment of the 
university, including an appropriation of land, 
totaled about $3,000,000, said: to: be the largest 
donation by one American. to. the cause of 
education up to that time. The‘ original object 
of Judge Packer was to “afford the young 
men of the Lehigh Valley a complete edu- 
cation, technical, literary and scientific, .for 
those ‘professions represented in the develop- 
ment of the peculiar resources of the sur- 
rounding region.” Lehigh’s growth has carried 
it far beyond local scope. The student. body 
of the first year numbered 40 young men from 
four States and one foreign country. In 1916 
there were 775 students, representing 30 States 
and 12 foreign countries. The teaching staff 
has increased from 7 in 1866 to 78 at this 
time. The alumni body, including graduates 
and non-graduates, representing Lehigh in all 
parts of the world, numbers about 6,000, There 
is now a campus and park of more than 160 
acres, with 20 buildings, a stadium and an 
additional playing field. For beauty of natural 
surroundings and architecture, Lehigh’s lay-out 
is regarded as one of the finest in the entire 
country. The 20 buildings include Packer Hall, 
Packer Memorial Church, Fritz Engineering 
Laboratory, the Linderman. Library, ~ with 
130,000 volumes, Drown Memorial Hall, Col- 
lege Commons and Taylor gymnasium and field 
house. There are eight technical courses: civil 
engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgi- 
cal engineering, electrometallurgy, mining engi- 
neering, electrical engineering, chemical engi-: 
neering and chemistry. In the arts and science 
department there are courses leading to the 
degree of bachelor of arts and of bachelor 
of science. A course in business. adminis- 
tration is included. The master’s degrees 
in-arts and sciences are granted in gradu- 
ate courses. The proximity of the plant 
of ithe Bethlehem Steel Company and. of 
cement, zinc, coal mining and other important 
industries affords opportunities for study by 
classes accompanied by instructors. In 1915 
the productive funds of the university were 
$1,480,000 and the income $256,754. 


LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD COM- 
PANY, The, was incorporated by an act of. the 
legislature of Pennsylvania, 21 April 1846, as 
the Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill and Susque- 
hanna Railroad Company ; its name was changed 
re Lehigh . Valley Railroad Company 7. Jan. 
1853. 

The Lehigh Valley Railroad system is to- 
day. a. double-track trunk. line extending 
through the States of New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania and New. York, from the Atlantic, Sea- 
board to the Great Lakes. The main line runs 
a. distance 
of 448 miles. The entire mileage of the system 
in 1916 was.1,443.69 miles, of which 596.47 miles 
was double track. The company possesses ter- 
minals on the Hudson River :front opposite 


LEHIGHTON — LEHMANN 


New York city, at Perth Amboy, N. J., and on 
Lake Erie at Buffalo, N. Y. The company also 
controls the Lehigh Valley Coal Company and 
the Morris Canal, 106.48 miles in length. At 
the eastern end of the line in New York har- 
bor the company owns a fleet of 286 boats. 

The rolling equipment of the road 30 June 
1916 consisted of 971 locomotives (passenger, 
freight and switching), 631 passenger-car equip- 
ment, 43,579 freight-car equipment (of which 
18,322 are coal cars). The ‘total earnings of 
the system for the year ended 30 June 1916 
were $47,382,569; expenses of operation for 
the same period, $33,092,978; net earnings from 
operations, $14,289,591; percentage, operating 
expenses to gross earnings, 69.82 per cent. The 
amount of merchandise freight moved for the 
year ending 30 June 1916, exclusive of. com- 
pany’s material, was 19,752,591 tons. For the 
same period the coal tonnage, not including 
supply coal, amounted to 13,959,754 tons; the 
coal tonnage amounted to 70.67 per cent of the 
total tonnage hauled during the year. 


. LEHIGHTON, Pa., borough in Carbon 
County, on the Lehigh River, and on the Cen- 
tral of New Jersey and the Lehigh Valley rail- 
roads, about 75 miles. northeast of Harrisburg, 
the capital of the State, and 70 miles, in direct 
line, northwest of Philadelphia. It is a trade 
centre for a mining section of the county. Its 
chief manufactures are silk and lace, meat- 
packing, shirts, stoneworks, car-springs, flour, 
leather, stoves, furniture, brick and mining 
tools. The borough owns the. electric-light 
plant, but leases it to.a private corporation who 
operates it. The fair grounds of the County 
Industrial Society are located here. Pop. 6,102. 


LEHMANN, 1a’man, Alfred Georg Lud- 
vig, Danish psychologist and psychophysicist: 
b. Copenhagen, 1858. He was graduated at 
the University of . Copenhagen, and later 
studied at the University of Leipzig under W. 
Wundt, who greatly influenced his later career. 
He was in 1890 appointed docent, and in 1910 
professor, -at the University of Copenhagen, 
where he founded a psychophysical laboratory. 
The Society. of Sciences awarded him a gold 
medal for his ‘Hovedlovene for det menneske- 
lige Folelsesliv?. (1892)... He is also author of 
“Overtro og Troldom? (4 vols., 1893-96; trans- 
lated into German) ;.‘De sjelelige Tilstandes 
legemlige Ytringer? (3 vols. 1898; German 
trans. 1899-1905); ‘Psychologische Methodik? 
(1905); “Grundztige der Psychophysiologie? 
(1912); “Paedagogisk Psykologi? (1913). 


_ LEHMANN (Charles Ernest Rodolphe), 
Henri, French painter: b. Kiel, Schleswig, 14 
April 1812; d. 31 March 1882. He studied 
under his. father, Leo Lehmann, and under 
Ingres in Paris, visited Munich and Italy, and 
in 1847 settled at Paris where the, became 
naturalized. He as first painted scriptural sub- 
jects but eventually confined himself chiefly to 
portrait work, in which field he made a con- 
siderable reputation. He also’ executed mural 
decorations;; among them the chapel of. the 
church of: Saint»Merry, and the Throne Hall, 
Luxemburg: Palace. He became a chevalier of 
the Legion of Honor in 1853, a member of the 
superior council of the Beaux Arts in 1875, 
and professor at’ the Ecole des Beaux Arts. 
His works include ‘Tobias and the Angel? 
(1835); ‘Jeptha’s Daughter? (1836); ‘Jere- 


_ Gallery, Florence; 
* Ingres, Edmorid About, etc. 


259 


miah? (1842), Angers Museum; ‘Leonidas? 
(1848), Nantes Museum; ‘Adoration of the 
Magi and Shepherds? (1855), Rheims Mu- 
seum; ‘Rest? (1864), Luxemburg Museum; - 
“Calypso» (1870); portrait of himself, Uffizi 
and portraits of Liszt, 


LEHMANN, Frederick William, American 
lawyer: b. Prussia, 28 Feb. 1853. He was 


’ graduated at Tabor College, Iowa, in 1873 and 


was admitted to the bar in that year. He en- 
gaged in practice at Nebraska City in 1873-76, 
Des Moines, Iowa, in 1876-90, and since then 
has practised at Saint Louis. He was solicitor- 
general of the United States in 1910-12. He 
was a government delegate and chairman of 
the committee on plan and scope at the Univer- 
sal Congress of Lawyers and Jurists in 1904; 
and United States delegate to the A. B. C. 
mediation confer nce at Niagara Falls in 1914. 
He was president of the American Bar Asso- 
ciation in 1908-09, and second vice-president 
of the American Academy of Jurisprudence 
in 1914. 


LEHMANN, Johannes Edvard L., Danish 
theologian and historian: b. Copenhagen, 19 
Aug. 1862. He studied in Lund, Germany, 
Holland, England and Paris, and took his Ph.D. 
at the University of Copenhagen in 1896. He 
became docent in the history of religion at 
Copenhagen in 1900, professor of that subject 
at Leyden in 1909 and at the University of 
Berlin in. 1910. Author of ‘Zarathustra? (2 
vols., 1899-1902); ‘Mystik i Hedenskab og 
Kristendom> (1904; German trans. 1907); 
‘Buddha? (1907); ‘Textbuch zur Religions- 
geschichte? (1912); ‘Barnelerdom og. Yug- 
lingsliy? (1913), etc. He also edited and revised 
De la Saussaye’s ‘Lehrbuch der _ Religions- 
geschichte? (4th ed., 1912). 


LEHMANN, Karl Bernhard, German 
physician: b. Ztirich, 27 Sept. 1858. He studied 
at the University of Zurich and in 1881 was 
appointed assistant in the physiological institute 
there.. He was physiological assistant . at 
Munich from 1883 until he became assistant 
professor of hygiene at Wiirzburg in 1887, 
where he was appointed professor in 1894. 
Author of ‘Methode praktischer Hygiene? (2d 
ed., 1901; Eng. trans., Crookes, 1893); with 
Neumann, R. O., ‘Atlas und Grundriss der 
Bakteriologie» (1897; 5th ed., 1911); ‘Der 
Bedeutung der chromate fiir die Geshundheit 
der Arbeiter? (1914), etc. 


LEHMANN, Lilli, German operatic singer: 
b. Wirzburg, 1848. Her mother, who was 
harp-player and prima donna under Spohr at 
Cassel, gave her the first musical instruction 
and under her training Fraulein Lehmann de- 
veloped a remarkable soprano voice. She made 
her début in Berlin (1870) and subsequently 
produced so good an impression that she was 
appointed imperial chamber singer in 1876. She 
became famous from the parts she took in the 
Nibelungen trilogy at Baireuth, and sang in 
Wagner’s operas in London (1884), and as 
principal soprano in the same operas at the 
Metropolitan Opera House, New York, her 
principal réles being Brinhilde and_ Isolde. 
From 1885-90 she was mainly at the Metro- 
politan Opera House, New York, and in 1899 
appeared at Covent Garden, London, in a 
round of parts. On her return to Germany 


260 


she found herself debarred from appearing on 
the operatic stage through having outstayed the 
leave given her by the Berlin Opera, but through 
the personal intervention of the emperor, the 
prohibition was removed. In 1888 she was 
married to Paul Kalisch. 


LEHMANN, Liza, English singer and 
composer: b. London, about 1862; daughter of 
Rudolf Lehmann (q.v.). She studied vocal 
music at London and Rome, and composition 
under Freudenberg and Hamish MacCunn. On 
23 Nov. 1885 she made her début in London; 
her success was assured, and she was received 
well throughout. Great Britatn and Germany. 
In 1894 she retired from public singing on her 
marriage with Mr. Herbert Bedford, a well- 
known composer. She devoted herself hence- 
forth to composition and produced ‘works 
of freshness and. originality, many of them 
tinged with a refined feeling which recalls the 
modern German romantic or emotional school. 
Her most successful works are the ‘Persian 
Garden?; and ‘The Daisy Chain? (1901). 


LEHMANN, Peter Martin Orla, Danish 
statesman: b. Copenhagen, 19 May 1810; d. 
there, 13 Sept. 1870. He was educated in 
law at the University of Copenhagen and while 
of German descent early affiliated himself with 
the Danish national party. He was a contrib- 
utor to Kjdbenhavnsposten in his student days 
and in 1839-42 was one of the editors of the 
Fadrelandet, which he founded with C. N. 
David. He was active in the affairs of 1848, 
‘was foremost in the party which insisted upon 
the Eider as the Danish boundary and main- 
tained that. Schleswig was an integral part of 
Denmark. He was a member of the cabinet 
formed by Count A. W. Moltke in 1848 and 
was sent to London and Berlin on missions 
concerning Schleswig-Holstein affairs. He was 
a member of the Folketing in 1851-53; of the 
Landting in 1854-70; and of the Reichrat in 
1856-66. He was Minister of the Interior 
under Hall in 1861-63. He had a wide follow- 
ing, was liberal in his policies and a firm 
believer in the maintenance of Danish rights 
against German aggression. Author of ‘Om 
Aarsagerne til Danmarks Ulykke? (1864), 
which ran through eight editions and was 
translated into English. His collected works 
were published (4 vols., 1872-74). 


LEHMANN, Rudolf, Anglo-German painter 
and writer: b. near Hamburg, 19 Aug. 1819; d. 
Bushey, Herts, 27 Oct. 1905.. He was educated 
at the Johanneum, Hamburg, and proceeding 
to Paris studied painting under his brother, 
Henry Lehmann; he was afterward the pupil 
of Cornelius and Kaulbach (q.v.) at Munich. 
He went to Rome in 1839 and remained there 
16 years. His largest picture is ‘The Blessing 
of the Pontine Marshes by Sixtus V,? which 
was bought by the French government after be- 
ing exhibited in France 1846. He also executed 
for the French government a ‘Madonna and 
Child.» In 1866 he settled in London and be- 
came a successful portrait painter, his work 
being distinguished by a reposeful dignity. He 
published ‘An Artist’s Reminiscences? (1894) ; 
“Men and Women of the Century? (1896). 


LEHMANN, Rudolph Chambers, English 
journalist, lawyer and politician: b. near Shef- 
field, England, 3 Jan. 1856.. He was educated 


LEHMANN — LEHR 


at Cambridge and became a barrister of the 
Inner Temple in 1880. He has been a: member 
of the staff of Punch from 1890 and was 
editor of the London Daily News in 1901. He 
coached the Harvard crew in 1896 and 1897. 
He is a keen politician and represented the 
Harborough: division’ of Leicestershire in the 
Liberal interest from 1906-11. He has pub- 
lished among other works ‘In Cambridge 
Courts? (1891); ‘Mr. Punch’s Prize. Novels? 
(1893) ; Isthmian Library: Rowing? (1897) ; 
‘Anni Fugaces,» verse (1901); ‘Adventures of — 
Picklock Holes» (1901); ‘Crumbs. of Pity? 
(1903); ‘The Complete Oarsman? (1908) ; 
“Memories of Half a Century? (1908); ‘Light 
and Shade? (1909); ‘Charles Dickens as 
Editor? (1912); ‘A Spark Divine? (1913). 


LEHMKUHL, lém’kool, Augustinus, Ger- 
man Catholic theologian: b. Hagen, Westphalia, 
23 Sept. 1834.. He was educated at Essen- 
Ruhr and at various scholasticates of the Jesuit 
order, which he entered in 1853. He was or- 
dained to the priesthood in. 1862. and became 
successively professor of Sacred Scripture, 
dogmatic theology and. moral theology at the 
scholasticates of Maria-Laach (1862-72) and 
Ditton Hall, England (1873-80). Since 1880 
he has resided mostly in Holland and devoted 
himself to literary pursuits. . He published 
‘Herz Jesu Monat? (1861; 11th ed, 1912); 
‘Theologia moralis? (2 vols., 1883; 11th ed., 
1910) ; “Compendium theologiz moralis? (1886; 
Sth ed., 1907); ‘Arbeitsvertrag und Strike? 
(4th ed., 1904); ‘Die soziale Not und der 
kirchliche Einfluss? (4th. ed, 1905); ‘Die 
soziale Frage und die staatliche Gewalt? (3d 
ed., 1896); ‘Internationale Regelang der so- 
zialen Frage? (3d_ed., 1896) ; “Der christliche 
Arbeiter? (3d ed., 1902); ‘Das birgerliche 
Gesetzbuch des deutschen Reichs? (7th ed., 
1911); ‘Das Herz des gottlichen Menschen- 
freundes? (2d ed., 1906); °“Casus Conscientiz? 
(2 vols., 4th ed., 1900); ‘Probabilismus vin- 
dicatus’ (1906); ‘Das Gattesbrot? (2d ed., 
1912). He collaborated in Herder’s ‘Kirchen- 
lexikon? and ‘Konversationslexikon, etc., and 
edited many compendia’ and manuals. Dr. 
Lehmkuhl is known far beyond his own country 
due to the fact that his theological works and 
the ‘Casus: Conscientie? are the textbooks’ in 
nearly all the Catholic seminaries of the world. 


LEHR, lar, Julius, German economist:_b. 
Schotten, Hesse, 18 -Oct. 1845; d. Munich, 10 
Oct. 1894. He was educated at Giessen, became 
privatdocent in economics at Munich in_ 1868, 
professor at Karlsruhe in 1874, and from 1885 
until his’ death was professor at Munich. Au- 
thor of ‘Schutzzoll und Freithandel? (1877) ; 
‘Politische Oekonomie in gedrangter Fassung? 
(4th ed., 1905); ‘Produktion und Konsumtion 
in der Volkswirtschaft? (1895; ed. by Franken- 
stein), etc. . | 


LEHR, Paul Ernest, French jurist, author 
and educator: b. Saint-Dié, Vosges, 13. May 
1835. He was educated at Strassburg and was 
admitted to the bar there. He was engaged in 
the defense of. Strassburg as a captain in the 
National Guard in 1870, and after the fall of 
the city he retired to Lausanne, Switzerland. 
In 1875. he was appointed professor of com- 
parative jurisprudence at the Academy of 
Lausanne, and) in 1877 he was appointed to a 


LEHRS — LEIBNITZ 


post in the French embassy in Switzerland. 
His contributions to the knowledge of foreign 
law were important. Author of ‘Eléments de 
droit civil germanique» (1875); ‘Eléments de 
droit civil russe? (2 vols., 1877-90); ‘Eléments 
de droit civil espagnol? (2 vols., 1880-90); 
‘Eléments de droit civil anglais? (1885); ‘Le 
nouveati code pénal portugais? (1888), etc. 


LEHRS, lars, Karl, German _ classical 
. scholar: b. Konigsberg, 2 June 1802; d. there, 9 
June 1878. He was of Jewish descent, but be- 
came a Christian in 1822. He was educated at 
the University of Konigsberg, and from 1845 
until his death he was professor of ancient 
Greek philology there. He was the originator 
of a new system for the study of Homer, ex- 
plaining from the text itself, the method being 
embodied in his important work ‘De Aristarchi 
Studiis Homericis? (1833; 2d ed., 1882). He 


was also. author of ‘Questiones _ Epice? 
(1837); ‘De Asclepiade myrleano?. (1845); 
“Horatius. Flaccus? (1869); ‘Die  Pindar- 


scholien? (1873), etc. 


LEIB, lib, Michael, American politician: 
b. Philadelphia, 1759; d. 1822. He was sent to 
the State legislature, and to Congress in 1798, 
where his pronounced political opinions made 
him conspicuous. Re-elected in 1800 and again 
in 1802; he opposed the administration of Jeffer- 
son, whom he had at first supported, and was 
politically associated with William Duane 
(q.v.), who published the Aurora. Returned to 
Congress in 1804, he there vigorously opposed 
Gallatin, and entering the Senate in 1808 was 
there especially hostile to both Madison and 
Gallatin. He left the Senate in 1814 to become 
postmaster of Philadelphia. 


LEIBL, Ii’b’l, Wilhelm, German genre and 
portrait painter: b. Cologne, 23 Oct. 1844; d. 
Wirzburg, 4 Dec. 1900. He was a pupil of 
Piloty and of Ramberg at Munich, and in 1869- 
70 he was in Paris studying the methods of the 
French realists by whom his later work was 
largely influenced, although he was likewise an 
earnest student of MHolbein’s manner. He 
worked into his final representative manner — 
strength of line accompanied by delicacy of 
finish and fine coloring — through his early pe- 
riod of devotion to realism, and the second 
of painstaking particularity in detail. His work 
ranks among the best of his period in Ger- 
many, and he had a large following. He re- 
ceived the gold medal at the Paris Salon of 
1870, the Prussian large gold medal and similar 
honors. He was a member of the Berlin Acad- 
emy. His portraits ranked high and include 
one of his father (Wallraf-Ricartz Museum, 
Cologne); the painter, Paulsen (Berlin Gal- 
lery) ; Frau Gedon (gold medal, Paris Salon) ; 
the painter, Sperl (Budapest Gallery). His 
genre pictures dealt mainly with sturdy. peasant 
types.. Among. them. are. ‘Cocotte’; ‘The 
Bachauer Peasant Women? (National Gallery, 
Berlin) ; ‘Three ‘Women in Church? (Hamburg 
Gallery) ;. ‘Two Poachers? (Berlin. Gallery); 
‘A Provincia? (Pinakothek, Munich); ‘In the 
Kitchen? (Stuttgart .Museum), etc. He col- 
laborated with Sperl, the landscape painter, in 
several canvasses, and also executed a number 
of fine etchings. 


LEIBNITZ, lib’nitz, Gottfried Wilhelm 
von, the most universal scientific’ genius of 


261 


modern times: b. Leipzig, 21 June 1646; d. 
Hanover, 14 Nov. 1716. He early lost his 
father, a professor of moral philosophy in the 
local university, and depended for his childish 
education mainly upon undirected omnivorous 
private reading. Having passed through the 
University of Leipzig, he graduated doctor of 
laws from Altdorf, near Nuremberg, in 1666, 
and passed almost at once into the service of 
the archbishop elector of Mainz, arch-chan- 
cellor of the empire, in whose interests he be- 
gan the series of attempts to find a basis for 
the reunion of Western Christendom which oc- 
cupied him at intervals through a great part of 
his life. In 1672 Leibnitz was dispatched to 
Paris in the hope that he might be able to pro- 
mote the interests of the German states by 
diverting the ambitions of Louis XIV toward 
the conquest of Egypt. he mission failed of 
its intended effect, but the residence of Leibnitz 
in Paris, between 1672 and 1676, which was 
only broken by a brief visit to London in 1673, 
was of the utmost importance for the develop- 
ment of his thought, as it brought him into con- 
tact with the chief living exponents of Car- 
tesianism, Arnauld and Malebranche, as well as 
with Huygens and other leading mathematicians. 
From this period date Leibnitz’s critical study 
of Cartesianism and his introduction to higher 
mathematics, of which the first result was his 
discovery of the fundamental notions of the 
infinitesimal calculus. This discovery, made in 
1675, was announced in 1676 to Newton, who 
promptly replied that he had for years been in 
possession of methods (the “method of flux- 
ions”) leading to the same results as those of 
his’ correspondent. The nature of these 


* methods was however disguised in a couple of 


anagrams. Leibnitz did not actually publish his 
discovery until 1684; Newton’s method was only 
given to the world in 1693. Leibnitz’s later 
years were unfortunately much disturbed by a 
bitter controversy, which reflects little credit on 
either party, with the friends of Newton, who 
accused him of having stolen the idea of the 
calculus from papers of Newton’s seen during 
his visit to England. It is now generally ad- 
mitted that this charge, which was never made 
by Newton himself, was quite baseless, and 
that though Newton had elaborated his methods 
for private use as early as 1665, the discovery 
of Leibnitz was entirely independent, while his 
notation was so much more convenient that it 
has completely replaced that of his great rival, 
even in England. 

On the termination of his residence in Paris 
Leibnitz spent several weeks in Holland in close 
communication with Spinoza, then living at The 
Hague, where he died in the following spring 
(1677). It appears that the two thinkers had 
repeated philosophical discussions, and that 
Leibnitz was'even allowed to see the jealously 
guarded manuscript of Spinoza’s ‘Ethics.» His 
subsequent misrepresentation of the extent of 
this intercourse with the greatest thinker of the 
previous generation, which has only been ex- 
posed within recent years, is perhaps the great- 
est blot on Leibnitz’s character. Leibnitz had 
already been deprived of his diplomatic position 
by the death of the Elector of Mainz in 1673. 
He now (1676) accepted from Johann Fried- 
rich, Duke of Brunswick, the post of court- 
librarian at Hanover, which he filled for the 


262 


rest of his life. Much of his time was hence- 
forward taken up with public affairs and with 
preparation for a history of the House of 
Brunswick, in connection with which he spent 
two years (1687-89) in research in the archives 
of Austria and Italy. He negotiated long, but 
to no result, with Bossuet and Spinoza for the 
reunion of the Roman and Reformed churches, 
did much to promote the mining industry of 
the Harz district, and in especial labored to 
advance the organization of scientific research 
by the foundation of academies. The sole di- 
rect result of these last exertions was the cre- 
ation in 1702 of the Berlin Academy with Lieb- 
nitz as its first president. Plans for similar in- 
stitutions in Dresden, Vienna and Saint Peters- 
burg proved abortive. 

During the lives of Johann Friedrich and his 
successor, Ernst August, Leibnitz remained in 
high favor and enjoyed in particular the friend- 
ship of the “two Electresses,” Sophia, wife of 
Ernst August and daughter of Descartes’ cor- 
respondent, Elizabeth of the Palatinate, and 
her daughter, Sophia Charlotte, queen of Prus- 
sia. With the accession of the former’s son, 
George Louis, afterward George I of England, 
to the dukedom he seems to have fallen into 
some disfavor, which, combined with the at- 
tacks of Newton’s partisans, did much to em- 
bitter his last years. 

Works.— In addition to his diplomatic and 
historical compositions, Leibnitz conducted an 
enormous scientific and philosophical corre- 
’ spondence, but his busy life left little time for 
the production of philosophical works on a 
large scale. He preferred to make his ideas 
known piecemeal in correspondence and occa- 
sional short essays on particular points. The 
one extended philosophical treatise published 
in his lifetime, the famous ‘Theodicy,? a de- 
fense of natural theology against the sceptical 
attack of Bayle, is by general consent his poor- 
est performance. (The far more important 
‘New Essays on Human Understanding, a 
penetrating criticism of the empiricism of 
Locke, remained in manuscript until 1765; the 
even more valuable ‘Discourse on Meta- 
physics, composed in 1685 for Arnauld, was 
not printed until 1846. Even the famous 
“Monadology,»? the best known of his shorter 
philosophical essays, was only published in the 
original French by Erdmann in 1840). There 
is thus no such thing as an even approximately 
complete edition of the philosophical writings 
of Leibnitz. The best substitute available is 
afforded by the two editions of Gerhardt of the 
mathematical (Halle and Berlin. 1850-63) and 
the philosophical works (Berlin 1875-90). But 
the recent publication by M. Couturat of a 
selection from the manuscript preserved at Han- 
over (Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leib- 
nitz, Paris 1903), has shown that many things 
of first rate importance have been passed over 
in Gerhardt’s editions, and has thrown a wholly 
new light on the logical foundations of Leib- 
nitz’s system. Though the great majority of the 
Hanover manuscripts are still unprinted, it is 
already clear that Leibnitz had anticipated to a 
previously unsuspected extent many of the most 
important recent developments in. both mathe- 
matics and philosophy.. Thus he had conceived 
the idea of projective geometry, and of the cal- 
culus of extension, while he had completely 
worked out the main principles of the exact 


LEIBNITZ 


logic recreated nearly 200 years later by Boole. 
Similarly the feasibility of the apparently chi- 
merical project of. a universal “characteristic,” 
or philosophical symbolism independent of 
spoken. language, to which so much of Leibnitz’s 
thought was devoted, has only been shown in 
the last few years by its approximate realization 
in the mathematical logics of Peano, Freje and 
others. 

Philosophical System.— Leibnitz makes his 
first appearance as a philosopher with a settled 
system of his own in 1685 at the age of 39, in 
the ‘Discourse on Metaphysics» composed for 
Arnauld. He had previously passed succes- 
sively under several different influences. In 
youth he had been familiar with the traditional 
doctrines of the great schoolmen, particularly 
with the nominalist system of Duns Scotus, and 
had afterward been powerfully influenced by 
the new materialist and mechanical philosophy 
of nature as expounded by Hobbes and Gas- 
sendi. During his stay in Paris, he had been 
a profound student and acute critic of Car- 
tesianism, and had subsequently, as we have 
seen, come into relations: with Spinoza, ‘who, 
however, failed from the first to satisfy him. 
At some-time between 1675 and 1685. he had 
evidently further made:a special study of Plato 
and Aristotle. The system of ideas at which he 
finally arrived bears traces of all these prepara- 
tory studies. In its general character it is cor- 
rectly described by the common statement that 
it represents a reaction against the exclusively 
mechanical interpretation of nature and mind 
and a return to the spiritualistic and teleological 
conceptions of the Platonic-Aristotelian philoso- 
phy. Against the purely mechanical conception 


of extra-human nature assumed by Cartesian- 


ism Leibnitz maintains that the explanation of 
mechanical routine itself has always in the last 
resort to be found in final casuality, in pur- 
posive activity; against the Spinozistic concep- 
tion of the illusoriness of all finite individual- 
ity, which he sincerely regarded as fatal to re- 
ligion, he insists upon the ultimate and absolute 
reality of individual finite existence. At the 
same time, Leibnitz’s system is one of pure and 
consistent rationalism; he aims at ruining the 
mechanical philosophy by showing that it col- 
lapses of itself when the attempt is made to 
think it out with rigorous consistency. Phys- 
ical science is absolutely justified in demanding 
a mechanical explanation of all events without 
exception, but the very nature of mechanical 
explanation is such that it cannot be finally 
satisfactory, but demands a further metaphys- 
ical explanation in terms of individual purposive 
activity to make it intelligible. ; 

In his most generally known works Leibnitz 
contents himself with expounding the conse- 
quences of this train of thought without clearly 
indicating the ultimate logical premises upon 
which it is based. What these premises are 
may best be learned from some of the papers 
recently printed by M. Couturat. In particular 
the little tract headed ‘Prime Veritates? (ulti- 
mate truths) contains a deduction of all the 
leading doctrines of the Leibnitian system, with 
one exception, from one or two ultimate logical 
theories. This sketch will be closely followed 
in the next few paragraphs. ff 

The fundamental assumption from which 
Leibnitz starts.is the doctrine (1) that all true 
propositions are analytical, i.e., the predicate of 


LEIBNITZ 


every true proposition is part: of the meaning 
of its. subject term. This is, in fact, the very 
meaning of the word truth. All ultimate truths 
are therefore identical and can be reduced to 
one of the two, forms, A is A (Law of. Iden- 
tity), A is not non-A (Law of Contradiction, 
which Leibnitz wrongly regards as a mere ver- 
bal transformation of the Law. of ‘ Identity). 
What we call ana priori or deductive proof is 
_ merely the reduction of a derivative proposition 
to a form in which this identity. between sub- 
ject and predicate is made explicit by means of 
logical analysis. So-called, synthetic proposi- 
tions, in which the predicate appears to involve 
a. new, determination, of the subject, are merely 
propositions. for which we have not succeeded 
in, performing this analysis.. It is this denial 
that any true proposition can be really synthetic 
which constitutes the fundamental difference 
between Leibnitz and Kant. 

It is now further assumed. (2) that every 
proposition is one which affirms or denies an 
attribute.of a substance or subject, and (3). that 
there. is an ultimate plurality of such logical 
subjects or substances. Of these assumptions 
(2), which is, in fact, logically a mere, trans- 
formation of (1), is the source of, Leibnitz’s 
worst logical difficulties, as it. forces him to 
hold. that no proposition asserting a relation 
between two substances can. be an_ ultimate 
truth. Any statement of the form, “A has the 
relation x to B,” must be decomposable into a 
pair of statements of the form “A has an at- 
tribute x.” “B hasan attribute x2” (3) )Con- 
stitutes the only real fundamental divergence 
between Leilbnitz and Spinoza, since according 
to the latter the subject of every true proposi- 
tion must ultimately be the one real substance — 
viz., God. Leibnitz’s' reason for assuming a 


plurality of substances seems to have been his. 


strong conviction that the human self is. a real 
and ultimate individual.- 
Leibnitz goes on to observe that the whole 


difference between. the necessary truths of: 


science and the contingent truths of every-day 
experience is explained by the distinction be- 
tween explicitly and implicitly analytical propo- 
sitions. . When. writing for others, Leibnitz 
habitually spoke of this difference between 
truths of reason and truths of fact as if it were 
an ultimate difference in kind.. Truths of. rea- 
son, he usually says, depend upon the Law of 
Contradiction, and: are therefore demonstrable; 
truths of fact depend on the Principle of Suffi- 
cient Reason, and are, with the one exception 
of the existence of God, contingent and_in- 
demonstrable. From the ‘Prime Veritates> it 
is clear that his real meaning was merely that 
truths of fact (propositions involving the as- 
sertion of existence) would require an infinitely 


prolonged analysis before they could be re- 


solved into identities, Leibnitz’s Law of Suff- 
cient Reason, in fact, turns out to mean simply 
the doctrine that every truth is analytical and 


therefore capable of a priori proof, though the 
dn ins 


production of the proof may demand 
finitely prolonged: analysis and thus be prac- 
tically impossible for us. It now follows (1) 
that no two things can be exactly alike; nu- 
merical diversity always: implies difference: in 
attributes, since there must be a reason why the 
things are counted as two and not as one, and 
this reason must, on: the principles just laid 
down, lie in some difference in their attributes. 


263 


(Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles). 
Hence Leibnitz denies that space is a reality, 
for if it were, there would be infinitely numer- 
ous real things (the points of space), which are 
all. exactly alike. (2) There are no “external” 
relations. between things, i.e., no relations which 
do not arise out of the attributes of the terms 
related, since every truth, reduced:to its simplest 
terms, consists in the ascription of an attribute 
to a subject, and no proposition asserting re- 
lation between. two things can therefore be an 
ultimate truth. Hence, since geometry and me- 
chanics consist precisely in the study of such 
“external”. relations, the whole world of ex- 
tended and moving objects must be merely ap- 
parent or phenomenal, not real. (3) The true 
concept of any individual substance logically 
involves the whole series of its past, present and 
future states. Everything that can happen to 
such a substance is logically a consequence of 
the character of that substance, each substance 
is causa sui, the reason for the succession of its 
own states. Hence God, being omniscient, can 
deduce the whole history, e.g., of Saint Peter 
or Alexander the Great, from contemplation of 
the concept of Peter or Alexander. (4) Every 
individual, substance involves in its concept the 
whole structure of the universe, so that from 
complete knowledge of any one substance we 
could deduce a priori, if our power of analysis 
were infinite, the whole history of the universe. 
This follows from the consideration that every 
substance stands in some relation to every other, 
while, according to the logic of Leibnitz, every 
relation presupposes as its foundation a corre- 
sponding attribute in each of its terms. Hence 
all the substances are different expressions of 
the same fundamental system: They “mirror” 
or “represent” the same structure but with vary- 
ing degrees of clearness, like perspective draw- 
ings, taken from different points, of the same - 
fort or city. ‘The connection between different 
substances is’ thus ideal or metaphysical, not real 
or causal. Strictly speaking, no finite substance 
exercises a real influence on another, since every 
substance is the sufficient reason tor the suc- 
cession of its own states, and the passing over 
of a state or predicate from one thing into 
another is unintelligible. Thus what we com- 
monly call-external causes are, in truth, merely 
occasions or conditions of the occurrence of a 
change of which the real cause is always the 
nature of the substance in which the change 
takes place. But, since all substances “mirror” 
the same system, the result is that there ap- 
pears to be causal interconnection between the 
states of all the things in the universe. Each 
thing develops from within, entirely unaffected | 
by any other, and yet the result is the same as 
it would be if everything were casually affected 
at every moment by all the rest. This is Leib- 
nitz’s most famous theory, the doctrine of the 
Pre-established Harmony between all sub- 
stances. A particular case of it is the psycho- 
physical correspondence between the soul and 
the body: The soul develops independently ac- 
cording: to the law-of its own nature, and the 
same is trie of each of the substances which, 
as-an aggregate, compose the body, yet the cor- 
respondence ‘between the. psychical and. the 
bodily’ series of changés: is’ as complete as it 
would be if each series were at every step con- 
ditioned by the other, nor is there any need, 
after the fashion of. the Occasionalists, to in- 


264 


voke the supernatural interference of God to 
effect the correspondence. The point is well 
illustrated by the analogy of a band of musi- 
cians who keep perfect time and tune simply 
because each of them is playing correctly from 
his own score without waiting for his cue from 
any of the others. 

Further consequences are (5) that empty 
space does not exist, since it would have to con- 
sist of points which are all different, and yet 
all exactly alike. For the same reason, bodies 
do not consist, as Descartes held, of mere ex- 
tension, since extension, if real, would be merely 
the infinite repetition of elements which are ex- 
actly alike. (6) Matter is not only infinitely 
divisible but infinitely divided. There are no 
atoms, or indivisible parts of matter. If an 
atom were a true substance or ultimate unit it 
would be theoretically possible to deduce the 
whole constitution of the universe from ade- 
quate knowledge of the motion of one atom, 
whereas in fact many different theories of the 
universe may agree in yielding the same series 
of positions for a given atom. ‘All matter is 
therefore, as we read in the ‘Monadology,? 
composite, and thus even the smallest particle 
is a fully organized world; every part of the 
“divine machine” of Nature is, in its turn, a 
further machine. In a word, space, motion and 
body, when body is defined as extended matter 
in motion, are not substances but merely vera 
phenomena, orderly and connected appearances 
of the same kind as, e.g., the rainbow; that is, 
they are appearances corresponding to com- 
posites or aggregates of individual substances. 
But, as there are no atoms, no body is really 
one, and consequently not really many, since 
“many” means a collection of ones. Thus the 
“corporeal substances” of the physical world 
must possess a “form,” or principle of unity, 
which is itself immaterial and analogous to our 
“soul The so-called material world must be 
regarded as an aggregate of immaterial units. 
This is why perception and volition, the funda- 
mental attributes of the incorporeal elements, 
are inexplicable on mechanical principles, which 
only apply to composites. Hence the philo- 
sophical interpretation of the universe has in- 
evitably to be given in terms of final causality, 
i.e, of the purposive activity of the ultimate 
simple elements. 

Finally (7) since substances are simple units, 
no substance can begin or cease to exist bit by 
bit, by gradual development. The simple sub- 
stance or monad, to adopt the technical term 
borrowed by Leibnitz from the younger Van 
Helmont, has no parts, and is a kind of spirit- 
ual or metaphysical “point,» and therefore can 
only come into existence, if at all, by instan- 
taneous creation, and only perish, if at all, by 
instantaneous annihilation. 

The only important doctrine of Leibnitz 
which does not figure in the foregoing sketch, 
taken from the tract on ultimate truths, is also 
the one doctrine which is most manifestly an 
excrescence on the system, the theorem of the 
existence of God. This is, according to Leib- 
nitz, the only “truth of fact» which can be 
proved by a finite process of logical analysis. 
Leibnitz attempts to prove it both from a con- 
sideration of the “eternal truths” or “truths of 
reason,» the universals of pure science, and 
from the “truths of fact” He holds, as a 
mathematician must, that the range of scientific 


LEIBNITZ 


truth is wider than that of actual existence. 
Besides the existing system of Laws of Nature, 
other systems are equally conceivable or logic- 
ally possible, and the truths which hold for all 
possible constitutions of the universe form the 
body of “eternal truths.” But Leibnitz holds 
that all possibilities must be founded on some- 
thing actual, otherwise there would be no means 
of distinguishing the possible from the impos- 
sible, a doctrine which is also fundamental in 
the philosophy of Lotze. The requisite founda- 
tion in actuality is provided by the existence 
of God. The “possible worlds” are just those 
systems of things which are actually present 
to the understanding of God. Hence the ex- 
istence of God is logically necessary, provided 
only that it is possible, i.e., that the notion of 
a God or most real being involves no logical 
contradiction. With the addition of the proof, 
which Leibnitz believes himself to have given, 
that the existence of God is logically possible, 
the “ontological proof” of Descartes becomes 
completely valid. The existence of God may 
also be shown by a form of the “cosmological 
proof,» from the “truths of fact” which are 
concerned with the constitution of the actual 
world. There must be a sufficient reason why 
just this one, out of all the logically possible 
systems, is actual rather than any other, and 
this reason is found in the will of God. Voli- 
tion, it is assumed, is always directed to the 
choice of the apparent best, which in the case 
of an omniscient God, is also the real best. 
Now the system of the Pre-established Har- 
mony is the “best” of all possible systems for 
the universe, precisely because, owing to the 
complete adaptation of every monad in it to 
every other, the number of “compossibles,” 
that is, of substances which can co-exist as 
members of the same system, is greater than 
on any other constitution of the universe. The 
famous doctrine that the actual world is “the 
best possible world thus simply means that the 
quantity of existence in the actual world, as 
measured by the number of “compossibles” 
is a maximum. Hence God, in virtue of the 
principle of the choice of the best, chooses 
that this system rather than any other pos- 
sible arrangement should exist. It is not clear 
how this act of choice is to be understood, 
nor does Leibnitz help us much by the curious 
conception that every possible system tends or 
strives to become actual with a force propor- 
tionate to the amount of reality, i.e, the num- 
ber of “compossibles” it comprises, and that 
God’s creative activity consists in removing 
from the actual world the hindrance to exist- 
ence which would otherwise arise from: the 
rival tendencies of the possible worlds to ex- 
istence. If “existence” is logically a predicate, 
it ought, on Leibnitz’s principles, to be inherent 
in the nature of the subject to which it be- 
longs, and the actual world should thus exist 
eternally and necessarily. If itis not a predicate 
but an “external” relation imposed on the 
particular system of the Pre-established Har- 
mony by the will of God, the doctrine of the 
analytic character of truth, from which the 
system of Pre-established Harmony is a mere 
deduction, must be false, and, as a further 
complication, the “ontological proof of God’s 
existence must also be worthless. It must be 
noted that God is not a monad, but stands 
quite outside the system. The common state- 


LEIBNITZ 


ment that Leibnitz spoke of God as the “monad 
of monads” seems to originate with Hegel 
and to have no. foundation. 

In the “Monadology” and the writings con- 
nected with it the consequences of the system 
are developed with particular reference to their 
bearing upon the nature and destiny of the soul. 
Every monad, or simple substance, is an incor- 
poreal unit possessing a capacity of adaptation 
to the simultaneous condition of other monads 
which is called perception, and a tendency to 
spontaneous internal change of state, which is 
called appetition. An organism is a cluster of 
such monads, the states of which are more 
readily seen to be adapted to one another than 
they are to those of any other monads. In 
Leibnitz’s language, each member of the cliis- 
ter “perceives” or “represents” the rest more 
clearly and with less confusion than it does 
any other monads. In each such cluster there 
is a dominant monad, analogous to a soul, 
which “represents” the rest with special clear- 
ness, and in which it is, in consequence, particu- 
larly easy to discover the reasons for the suc- 
cession of states in the others. In virtue of 
the finitude of every monad, however, there 
is in every monad some element of confused 
perception, or “passivity,” i.e, there are some 
changes of state in every monad the reasons 
for which cannot be discovered by us in the 
monad itself, but have to be found by con- 
sidering other monads. Hence Leibnitz infers 
that no soul or dominant monad is ever com- 
pletely devoid of a body or system of asso- 
ciated inferior monads. This element of limi- 
tation or confused perception is called “meta- 
physical evil,» and is treated as the source 
both of suffering, or physical, and of wrong- 
doing or moral, evil. 

The system of monads now falls into a 
hierarchy of three grades, according to the 
degree of the monad’s clearness of perception. 
The perception and appetition of the monad 
are not necessarily conscious. The condition 
of the monads which compose the so-called in- 
animate world is similar to that of the soul in 
profound sleep or swoon; their perceptions 
are, aS we now Say, permanently “below the 
threshold” of distinct consciousness. Leibnitz 
is thus the author of the doctrine since so 
fateful in Psychology, of indefinitely minute 
“unconscious” mental modifications. In ani- 
mals, when fully developed, the formation of 
sense-organs, which are essentially an apparatus 
for the collection of stimuli, renders possible 
the summation of such “minute perceptions” 
to form a single intensified and therefore con- 
scious perception, and thus provides a_ basis 
for memory and association. Those “domi- 
nant monads” which have thus been furnished 
with heightened perceptions form the second 
stage in the hierarchy, that of animal souls. 
In accord with the biological ideas of his time, 
Leibnitz regards the process of conception 
and birth essentially as one of development 
in size; not only is there no generation of 
life from lifeless matter, but each living germ, 
even before conception, already contains, on a 
microscopic scale, the whole organization. of 
the future animal. Death is the converse proc- 
ess of reduction, by which the organism re- 
turns to a microscopic condition; hence, strictly 
speaking, not only all souls, or dominant 
monads of organisms, but all organisms them- 


265 


selves, are indestructible. Rational minds form 
the third and highest grade in the system of 
monads. Their distinguishing characteristic is 
that, in addition to memory and the power of 
forming associations of ideas, they possess the 
power of, discerning rational connections be- 
tween truths, and thus of rising to reflective 
consciousness of the se/f as a simple substance 
and of God, the infinite substance. Since the 
perceptions of every monad are internal states 
of itself, Leibnitz necessarily agrees with Des- 
cartes in regarding the fundamental notions of 
rational science as innate, but is more careful 
than Descartes to give prominence to the neces- 
sity for analysis and reflection before these in- 
nate ideas can be brought to light. Before the 
reflective process has disengaged them the fun- 
damental categories of rational thought are 
present in the mind as veins, which have not 
yet been laid bare, are present in the unshaped 
block of marble. In virtue of their capacity for 
rational thought, spirits may be said to be living 
mirrors not only of the universe, like all other 
monads, but of God, its cause. God is related 
to them not merely as to all created things, 
after the fashion of an inventor to his machine, 
but as a prince to his subjects or a father to 
his children. Thus they form, within the uni- 
verse, a more special society or “city of God» 
over which God presides not merely in accord- 
ance with natural but also in accordance with 
moral law. The universe thus presents, within 
the Pre-established Harmony itself, a second 
harmony between the physical and moral orders 
in consequence of which the mechanical se- 
quence of physical causes and effects tends of 
itself, without any need for special divine in- 
terposition, to an ultimate adjustment of the 
happiness of each spirit to its moral deserts. 
Leibnitz’s mathematical optimism thus culmi- 
nates in ethical optimism at the cost of a rather 
hazardous identification of goodness in the 
metaphysical sense of quantity of existence 
with goodness in a specifically moral sense. 

Two points still call for some further re- 
mark: (1) Letbnitz’s conception of matter; 
(2) his ethical theory. 

Matter.—Leibnitz’s theory of matter is con- 
ditioned by his discovery of the fundamental 
defect of Cartesian Mechanics. Descartes had 
assumed that “quantity of motion,” or mo- 
mentum, is independent of the direction of 
motion, and had consequently been led to base 
his Mechanics on the assertion that the quan- 
tity of motion in a dynamical system remains 
constant. Against this view Leibnitz contended 
that the capacity of a moving body for doing 
work, its wis viva or “iving force,” as measured 
by its effects in moving another body through 
a greater or a less distance, is proportional not 
to its momentum, but to its momentum multi- 
plied by its velocity. Hence the correct meas- 
ure of force is not my (momentum). but mv? 
(vis viva, the double of what we call the Ki- 
netic energy of the body). It is this which is 
really conserved in dynamical transactions be- 
tween bodies. (The controversies as to the 
true “measure of force” to which these ob- 
servations gave rise have long been admitted 
to be largely verbal. If we measure a con- 
stant force by the momentum it generates in a 
given time, Descartes’ formula is, of course, 
correct; if we measure it by the distance 
through which it propels a body, that of Leib- 


266 


nitz has to be adopted. Similarly, both the 
Conservation of Momentum. and the Conser- 
vation of Vis Viva, if properly formulated, 
are truths). The importance of the point in 
Leibnitz’s philosophy is due to the fact that 
it led him to regard force as a real entity, 
different from actual motion, and thus to hold, 
as against the Cartesians, that the phenomenal 
physical world cannot be analyzed into exten- 
sion and motion alone. _For Leibnitz’s own 
theory of phenomenal matter it is further im- 
portant to distinguish primary from secondary 
matter. Primary matter itself is something 
more than mere extension or occupation of 
space. It is extension plus resistance (a con- 
ception which seems to combine in one inertia 
and impenetrability). But for this quality of 
resistance any one state of the physical world 
would be indistinguishable from any other. 
Primary matter is however purely passive, and 
is never to be found existing alone. All physi- 
cal existents contain in addition force, in the 
sense of spontaneous tendency to change of 
state. It is the secondary matter thus consti- 
tuted by extension plus resistance plus force 
which is studied by the physicist, and held by 
Leibnitz to be infinitely divided and organized. 
Secondary matter thus stands, so to say, half- 
way between the monads and the pure abstrac- 
tion of primary matter, and is the matter of 
which Leibnitz speaks as a “truthful phenome- 
non” There is really no very close connection 
between these dynamical theories and the meta- 
physical. system of Leibnitz, though the two 
‘are made to look more intimately related than 
they actually are ‘by a confusion ‘between force 
in the dynamical sense of rate of change of mo- 
mentum and force in. the metaphysical sense of 
the inherent tendency of the monad to change 
of state. 

Ethical Views.— There is’ nothing very in- 
dividual in the ethics of Leibnitz (which may 
be generally described as a doctrine of rational- 
istic utilitarianism of a type common enough in 
the 17th and:early 18th centuries), except his 
treatment of the problem of moral freedom. 
As we have seen, the original source’ of. all 
change is appetition in the monad. «Conscious 
appetition is desire, and desire is always di- 
rected toward the apparent best. There is thus 
no such things as unmotived willing; a volition 
only seems unmotived when the motive im- 
pulse is “below the threshold © Leibnitz ‘is 
consequently a consistent determinist in his 
analysis of choice and volition, yet he regards 
it as one of the merits of his system: that it 
vindicates the reality of freedom: against the 
Spinozistic doctrine of universal necessity. In 
what sense, then, are we free?) Leibnitz replies 
by distinguishing two kinds of necessity, meta- 
physical. and) moral... That is metaphysically 
necessary, of which the contradictory is» im- 
possible. In this sense no volition is necessary. 


(This, however, is, of course, inconsistent with 


the theory that all true propositions are ana- 
lytical, since the contradictory of: an analytical 
proposition must be false). A thing is morally 
necessary when it is an indispensable means 
to the obtaining of the apparent best. In this 
sense all volitions:are necessary — though for 
reasons which merely incline, but do not com- 
pel the will. Spinoza, according to: Leibnitz, 
erred by confusing the two senses of necessity. 
Moral freedom, then, consists in spontaneity 


“Spinoza’s. 


. tions, 


LEIBNITZ 


plus ‘intelligence. Weare free in proportion 
as we have intelligence to discern the real best, 
a doctrine which is only nominally distinct from 
Leibnitz further agrees with Spi- 
noza in his) general conception of the moral 
good. Pleasure is assumed to accompany in- 
crease of activity; i.e, clear perception, and 
good and evil correspond to acts’ motived :re- 
spectively by clear and by confused perception. 
Hence Leibnitz ought to have regarded vice as 
equivalent to honest and unavoidable error. He 
tries to escape by his distinction between meta- 
physical and moral evil. The former is simply 
the element of passivity or confused percep- 
tion in the monads, and is not inconsistent with 
God’s goodness, since: a world which includes 
this element may contain a greater number of 
“compossibles,” and so be on the whole better, 
than one which does not. Moral evil, or vice, 
and physical evil, or suffering, are inconsist- 
ently regarded at once as being logical conse- 
quences of this metaphysical evil, and yet as 
contingent and non-necessary. The ethical sys- 


tem based on such ideas is naturally in the main 


one of enlighted egoism in which intelligence 
is exalted at the cost of ignorant good inten- 
But since, in ‘virtue of the harmony 
between monads, my own good and that of 
others are inextricably bound up together, Leib- 
nitz holds that doing good to others naturally 
gives us pleasure, and hence he agrees’ with 
Shaftesbury in recognizing the existence of dis- 
interested affection. To make the coincidence 
of my own good with the good of others com- 
plete he has further to assume, as we have 
seen that he does, immortality and the final 
proportionment of happiness to desert. 
Other works by Leibnitz are ‘Nouveau sys- 
teéme de la nature? (1695); ‘Essais de thé- 
odicée? (1710) ;.‘Principes de la nature et de 
la grace? (1714); ‘Nouveaux essais sur l’en- 
tendement humain? (1765). His philosophical 
works in French and Latin have appeared in 
several editions. The principal are those of 
Erdmann (Berlin 1840), of Jaret (Paris 1866; 
1900); and of, Gerhardt (Berlin 187590). 
Pertz undertook the publication of a complete 
edition four volumes of history (Hanover 
1843-47), seven volumes of mathematics (Ber- 
lin and Halle 1849-63) and one volume of 
philosophy have appeared. Some of the im- 
portant philosophical works have been trans- 
lated by G. M. Duncan (New Haven 1890) ; 
the “Nouveaux essais» by A: G. Langley (Lon- 
don 1894); ‘The Monadology? by R. Latta 
(Oxford 1898). 
Bibliography.— Cassirer, Ernst,  ‘Leibnizs 
System in seinen : wissenschaftlichen Grund- 
lagen? (Marburg 1902); Couturat; Louis, ‘La 
logique de. Leibniz? (Paris 1901); Dewey, 
John, ‘Leibnitz’s New Essays Concerning’ the 
Human Understanding? (Chicago 1888) ; Dill- 
mann, Eduard, ‘Eine neue’ Darstellung der 
leibnizschen Monadenlehre? (Leipzig 1891) ; 
Feuerbach; E. A., ‘Darstellung; Entwickelung 
und. Kritik der» leibnizschen Philosophie’ 
(Anspach 1837); Guhrauer, G: E., ‘Gottfried 
Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibniz? (1842; Eng- 
lish version abbreviated, Boston 1845); Har- 
nack, Adolf, ‘Leibniz Bedeutung in der Ge- 
schichte der Mathematik» (Stade 1887) ;: Heim- 
soeth, Heinz; ‘Die ‘Methode der’ Erkenntniss 
bei Descartes. und Leibniz” (2 vols., Giessen 
1914); Kirchner, F., “G. W. Leibniz? (Cothen 


LEICESTER — 


1876) ; Merz, J. T., ‘Leibnitz? (London 1884) ; 
Nourrisson, J. F., ‘La philosophie de Leibniz? 
(Paris 1860) ; Pfieiderer, Edmund, ‘G.. W. 
Leibniz als Patriot, Staatsmann und Bildung- 
strager? (Leipzig 1870) ; Russell, B. A. W.,, 
‘Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leib- 
nitz> (London 1900); Zimmermann, Robert, 
“Leibnizs Monadologie? (Vienna 1847). 
bee LAYLOR} 
Professor of Moral Philosophy, Saint Andrews 
University, Scotland. 


LEICESTER, Robert Dudley, Eart or. 
See DuDLEy, Rosert, EARL OF LEICESTER. 

LEICESTER, lés’tér, England, couwnty- 
town of Leicestershire, on the river Soar, a 
southern tributary of the Trent, 99 miles north- 


west of London, on the Midland Railway and . 


cn branches of the Great Northern and London 
and Northwestern railways and on the Leices- 
ter Canal. It was the Roman Rate and the 
ancient British and Roman Rate Coritanorum 
and has interesting Roman remains, including 
the Jewry wall and several pavements, while 
the bricks in the early Norman church of 
Saint. Nicholas are of Roman origin. There 
are several fine. churches with Norman and 
early English remains and the ruins of an ab- 
bey of the Black Canons, founded in 1143. The 
castle has parts of the original Norman hall, 
two gateways and an artificial mount upon 
which the donjon or keep stood. It was one 
of the “Five Boroughs” of the Danes in the 
Oth century. It was a municipality in 120-121 
A.D., was the seat of a bishopric in 680-874 and 
in the 13th century it instituted a government 
by a mayor and 24 jurats. It was taken by 
storm by Charles I in May 1645 and retaken 
by Fairfax in the following month. It was 
granted its first.charter by Robert of Meulan 
in 1103 or 1118 and later received charters by 
‘Henry VII in 1505, by Elizabeth in 1599, by 
James I in 1605 and 1610, by Charles I in 1630 
and by James II in 1684. It has been repre- 
-sented by two members in Parliament since 
1295. It has a prescriptive market dating from 
the 13th century, held on Wednesdays and 
Saturdays; a fair dating from 1228, and an- 
other dating from 1473. There are several 
other fairs of more recent origin. There are 
~excellent modern libraries, schools, hospitals, 
benevolent institutions, art museum, gymna- 
siums, churches and parks. It became a county 
borough in 1892 and was extended to consti- 
tute a civil parish in 1892. The manufacture 
of hosiery on knitting. frames was established 
about 1680 and still constitutes an important 
industry. The manufacture of boots was in- 
troduced in the 19th century and the brewing 
-and woolen industries were established in the 
13th century.. Other industries include the 
_manufacture of cotton, lace, elastic webbing, 
-iron-works. and _ brick-works. . Pop. about 
227,242. Consult Bateson, ‘Records of the 
Borough of Leicester? (1899); Johnstone, 
“History of Leicester? (1892). 

LEICESTER, Mass., village in Worcester 
County, six miles southwest of Worcester, at 


the sources of the Quinebaug River and on the 
‘Boston’ and Albany Railroad. It is situated in 


a fertile, well-wooded farming district and 
manufactures’ cards, clothing» and woolen 
goods. Pop. (1920) "3,635. 


LEICHHARDT 267 


LEICESTER, or THE FATAL DE- 
CEPTION, a tragedy written by William 
Dunlap (q.v.) in 1794 and credited with being 
the first tragedy of American authorship to be 
produced on the stage. 


LEICESTER SQUARE (formerly Letces- 
TER FreLcps), London, England, a square in the 
west end of the city; frequented by foreigners 
of the middle class, especially French and a 
refuge for the French Huguenot émigrés after 
the Edict of Nantes in 1685. It was unin- 
closed country until the time of Charles II. 
It was once the site of Savile House; and Lei- 
cester House, built for Robert Sidney, Earl of 
Leicester, formerly stood on the north side of 
the square. Here Queen Elizabeth of Bohe- 
mia, “the Queen of Hearts,” died 13 Feb. 1662, 
and Frederick, Prince of Wales, also died in 
Leicester House in 1737. Hunter, Hogarth, 
Newton and Reynolds once lived in the neigh- 
borhood. 


LEICESTERSHIRE, England, north mid- 
land county, bounded by Derby on the north- 
west, Nottingham on the north, Lincoln and 
Rutland on the east, Northhampton on the 
southeast and Warwick on the southwest, 
where it likewise touches Staffordshire. The 
area of the county is 819 square miles. The 
surface is undulating, the hills of the Charn- 
wood Forest in the northwest forming the high- 
est ground, Barden Hill having 912 feet eleva- 
tion. The county drains chiefly to the Trent 
through the Soar, Anker, Devon and Mease; 
but the south of the county drains to the Avon. 
The climate is mild and rainfall moderate; the 
soil of a loamy quality, of which nine-tenths 
is under cultivation. Dairying is an important 
industry and the famous Stilton Cheese is 
manufactured near Melton Mowbray. It is a 
famous fox-hunting county, Leicester and Mel- 
ton Mowbray being the principal centres, while 
the noted kennels of the Quorn Hunt are at , 
Quorndon, near Mount Sorrel... Coal mining 
is carried on extensively and there are quar- 
ries of limestone, freestone, blue slate and 
granite. The Leicester sheep are famous for 
their fine fleeces, the wool being largely used 
in local manufactories of wool hosiery. The 
district was penetrated by the Anglians in the 
6th century and Leicester fell to them. about 
556. It formed the kingdom of the Middle 
Angles in the kingdom of Mercia in 679, and 
in the 9th century was conquered by the Danes. 
The earliest inhabitants were the Celtic Cori- 
tani, who were conquered in turn by the Ro- 
mans, Anglians, Danes and Normans. The 
Domesday Survey of 1086 reveals the land- 
holders of the district to be chiefly Norman. 


.Leicester. was a Lancastrian stronghold dur- 


ing the Wars of. the Roses and was the scene 
of the battle of Bosworth in 1485. In the Civil 


_War of the 17th century Leicesteshire favored 


Parliament in the main, Lady Jane Grey was 
born at Bradgate, near Leicester. The woolen 
industry was important as early as Norman 
times and Leicestershire wool commanded a 
higher price than any in England in 1343. The 
manufacture of hosiery was inaugurated in the 
17th century and continues of prime import- 
ance. Pop. 432,019. 


LEICHHARDT, lik’hart, Friedrich Wil- 
helm Ludwig, German explorer: b. Trebatsch, 
Brandenburg, Prussia, 23 Oct. 1813; disap- 


268 


peared in Australia, 1848. He was educated at 
the universities of Gottingen and Berlin, spe- 
cializing in philology and natural history, and 
in 1841. went to Australia where he was en- 
gaged in making a geological survey, the re- 
ports of which were published after his death. 
His second visit to Australia was at the head 
of an exploring expedition in which he tra- 
versed Queensland and Arnhem Land in 1844 
45 and traveled some 2,000 miles. 
started from Moreton Bay in an attempt to 
traverse the continent and was lost, the last 
communication received from him being de- 
spatched from Macpherson’s Station on Co- 
goon River, 3 April 1848. Five relief expedi- 
tions were organized and sent in search of him 
in 1851-65 but no trace of him was found. A 
town and county were named in his honor in 
New South Wales as well as a district in 
Queensland. Author of ‘Journal of an Over- 
land Expedition in Australia, from Moreton 
Bay to Port Essington? (1847); ‘Contribu- 
tions to the Geology of Australia? (1855). 


LEIDENFROST, | li’dén-frést, Johann 
Gottlob, German scientist and professor of 
medicine: b. Rosperwenda, 24 Nov. 1715; d. 
Duisburg, 2 Dec. 1794. He studied at Giessen, 
Leipzig and Halle and from 1743 until his 
death he was professor of medicine at the Unt- 
versity of Duisburg. He was the originator of 
an experiment proving the spheroid shape of a 
drop of water by dropping it upon a hot plate 
and demonstrated the presence of a layer of 
_vapor between the plate and the water. Au- 
thor of ‘De Aque Communis Nonnullis Qual- 
itatibus? (1796); ‘Opscula Physico-Chemica et 
_ Medica? (1797). 

LEIDY, li’di, Joseph, American naturalist: 
b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823; d. there, 30 April 
1891. He was graduated M.D. at the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania in 1844 and in 1853 was 
elected to the chair of anatomy in that institu- 
tion, a post which he long filled, as well as that 
of professor of natural history in Swarthmore 
College, Pa., to which he was appointed in 1871. 
In 1881 he became president of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia and in 1885 
president of the Wagner Free Institute of Sci- 
ence in that city. He was the author of many 
valuable memoirs, chiefly published in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 
the Transactions of the American Philosophi- 
cal Society and the ‘Smithsonian Contributions 
to Knowledge.» -Among them may be cited 
‘Ancient Fauna of Nebraska? (1853); ‘Creta- 
ceous Reptiles of the United States? (1865) ; 
‘Fresh Water Rhizopods of North America? 
(1879) ; ‘Treatise on Human Anatomy? (1861- 
89). Consult the Memoir by Chapman, H. C., 
in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences (1891). 


LEIGH, 1é, England, market town and 
municipal borough in Lancashire, 11 miles 
northwest of Manchester, on the London and 
Northwestern Railroad. The town has a 
church dating from 1279 which, with the ex- 
ception of the tower, was restored in 1873. 


There is an amply endowed grammar school of - 


unknown age, but which received its heaviest 
endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The town 
was founded in the 12th century, but not incor- 
porated until 1899, Its officers consist of a 
mayor, 18 aldermen and 24 councilors. The 


In 1848 he ° 


LEIDENFROST — LEIGHTON ~ 


municipal equipment in gas, water, sewage dis- 
posal, hospital and fire departments is modern. . 
The town is situated in a coal-mining region, 
manufactures silk and cotton goods and has 
extensive collieries; it has also breweries, 
flour mills, glass works and foundries. Pop. 


, 


LEIGHTON, 14a’t6n, Alexander, English 
physician and clergyman: b. Scotland, 1568; d. 
London, 1649. He was educated at Saint An- 
drew’s University, became a Presbyterian cler- 
gyman and settled in London where he en- 
gaged in the practice of medicine in addition 
to his work as a preacher. He became in- 
volved in difficulties through his publication 
in 1624 of ‘Speculum Belli Sacri, or the Look- 
ing-Glass of the Holy War? and his petition 
to Parliament against episcopacy which the af- 
terward enlarged and published in Holland, 
‘An Appeal to the Parliament, or Zion’s Plea 
against the Prelacie? (1628). These writings 
were violent in their abuse of the bishops, the 
king and particularly of the queen. He was 
seized by the authorities 17 Feb. 1630, sen- 
tenced to be degraded from holy orders, pay a 
fine of £10,000 and to life imprisonment after 
being whipped, pilloried, branded and muti- 
lated. He succeeded in making his escape but 
was recapiured and part of the sentence of 
mutilation was executed with the utmost 
barbarity, although for some _ reason the 
second half of the punishment was remitted. 
He was then imprisoned until 1640 when 
the Long Parliament remitted his fine and 
voted him £6,000 for his losses and inju- 
ries. In 1642 he was made keeper of the state 
prison, Lambeth House, where in shattered 
health he spent the remainder of his life. 
Archbishop Laud is credited as chiefly responsi- 
ble for the inhuman persecution of Leighton. 


LEIGHTON, Frederick, Baron, English 
painter: b. Scarborough, 3 Dec. 1830; d. Lon- 
don, 25 Jan. 1896. He received some lessons 
in art at Paris as early as 1839, and then fol- 
lowed further instruction at Rome. At 14 he 
entered the Royal Academy of Berlin and 
subsequent art studies were made by_ him 
at Frankfort, Brussels and Paris (1850). From 
Rome he sent to the Royal Academy exhibition 
of 1855 his picture of ‘Cimabue’s Madonna 
Carried Through Florence?—a work which 
called forth general admiration and was pur- 
chased by the queen. He resided mostly in 
Paris for the next four years, studying and 
painting, and to this period belong, among 
other works, ‘The Triumph of Music? (based 
on the story of Orpheus and Eurydice) ; ‘The 
Fisherman and the Siren? and ‘Romeo and 
Juliet. Having finally settled in London, he 
was elected in 1863 an associate of the Royal 
Academy, and in 1869 a full academician. In 
1878 he succeeded Sir, Francis Grant as presi- 
dent of the Royal Academy, was knighted and 
was also named an officer of the Legion of 
Honor. In 1886 he was created a baronet and 
in 1896 was raised to the peerage: From 
among his numerous works may be singled for 
special mention ‘Paolo and Francesca? (1861) ; 
‘Jezebel and Ahab? (1863); ‘Orpheus and 
Eurydice? (1864); ‘Hercules Wrestling with 
Death? (1871); ‘Elijah in the, Wilderness? 
(1879) ; “Hero Watching for Leander? (1887) ; 
“Captive Andromache? (1888); ‘Greek Girls 


LEIGHTON — LEIPZIG 


Playing at Ball? (1889); ‘The Bath of Psyche? 
(1890) ; ‘Lachryme,’? now in the Metropolitan 
Museum, New York; as also the two large 
frescoes at the South Kensington Museum, 
representing respectively the ‘Arts of War? 
and the ‘Arts of Peace.» He achieved a high 
place as a sculptor by his ‘Athlete Strangling 
a Python» (1876) and his ‘Sluggard? (1886). 
The special merit of his work lies in the per- 
fection of his draftsmanship and design; his 


coloring, though possessing the unfailing 
charm of harmonious arrangement, is only 
thoroughly satisfactory from the decorative 


point of view. A fine poetic quality conjoined 
with elegance in drawing and great refinement 
in execution mark his whole work. His ‘Ad- 
dresses to the Students of the Royal Acad- 
emy? appeared in 1896. Consult ‘Lives? by 
Mrs. Lang (1885); Rhys (1895); Monkhouse, 
‘British Contemporary Artists? (1899). 


LEIGHTON, Robert, Anglican archbishop, 
son of Alexander Leighton (q.v.): b. prob- 
ably London, possibly Ulishaven, Forfarshire, 
hay hea bs London, 25 June 1684. He took his 
A.M. at the University of Edinburgh in 1631 
and afterward traveled in France, acquiring 
the language, and through his association with 
relatives of Roman Catholic faith, a broad re- 
ligious tolerance which remained a dominating 
characteristic all his life. He apparently re- 
turned to England after his father’s pardon in 
1640, and in 1641 he was ordained a Presby- 
terian clergyman at Newbattle, Midlothian. He 
resigned his charge in the following year, find- 
ing himself unable to co-operate with the fiery 
zeal of his associates. In 1653 he became prin- 
cipal of the University of Edinburgh and pri- 
marius professor of divinity, where he re- 
mained seven or eight years. His addresses 
and prelections of that period evidence an ex- 
ceptionally cultivated mind and a high spiritual 
elevation. When, after the Restoration, 
Charles II determined to bring Scotland again 
within the fold of Episcopacy, he selected 
Leighton as one of his bishops. While long 
severed from his connection with the Presbyte- 
rians, Leighton was averse to accepting the ap- 
pointment, but was persuaded in the belief that 
the Episcopacy contemplated: was of the liberal 
order advocated by Archbishop Ussher and 
which he was sure the more liberal non-con- 
formist leaders would: accept. He chose the 
diocese of Dunblane and administered its af- 
fairs with exemplary mildness. His associ- 
ates, however, were if anything more intoler- 
ant than those he had left in the Presbyterian 
ministry and the persecutions inflicted upon the 
Covenanters induced him to go to London in 
1665 with the purpose of resigning his bishop- 
ric. Receiving from Charles II the promise of 
milder methods Leighton returned to his 
charge, but finding no results from the prom- 
ises made he returned to London in 1669 again 
to plead for milder methods of spreading the 
religion he consistently believed to be the best 
but which was being injured by the usages in 
force. . Promises were again forthcoming and 
in the following year there appeared a slight 
effort to carry them out, so that Leighton, upon 
being promised co-operation in the conciliatory 
measures he deemed advisable, accepted the 
archbishopric of Glasgow. He occupied this 
post in 1670-74, when, despairing of inducing 


269 


his colleagues to depart from their immoderate 
courses, and finding himself with both the 
Episcopalians: and Presbyterians as antagonists, 
ihe resigned. He lived thereafter with his sis- 
ter at Broadhurst in Horsted Keyes, Sussex. 
His writings were collected and published after 
his death, but have suffered from ovér-editing. 
The best edition is considered that of Rev. W. 
West (7 vols., 1869-73), which includes a bi- 
ography of Leighton. Consult also Burnet, 
“History of His Own Times? (1723-24) ; Lang, 
Andrew, ‘History of Scotland? (1902). 


LEINSTER, lén’stér, Ireland, one of the 
four provinces of Ireland, occupying the mid- 
dle and southeastern portion of the island, ex- 
tending to the river Shanhon and bounded on 
the east by Saint George’s Channel and the 
Irish Sea. Its boundaries include counties 
Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King’s, 
Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen’s, West Meath, 
Wexford and Wicklow. The southern part 
formed the ancient kingdom of Leinster 
(Laighen), while the northern region was the 
kingdom of Meath. The area is 7,622 square 
miles and the population, which declined from 
1841, is now increasing. Pop. 1,162,044. 


LEIPA, or BOMISCH-LEIPA, bé’mish 
li’pa, Czecho- Slovakia, city of Bohemia, 23 miles 
southwest of Reichenberg and 42 miles north- 
east of Prague, on the river Polz. Its population 
is chiefly of German origin and it is important in- 
dustrially. It has woolen spinning-mills, sugar 
refineries, breweries and_ railroad machine- 
shops; and manufactures velvet, cotton cloth 
and pianos. Pop. 13,493 

LEIPZIG, lip’tsig, or LEIPSIC,. lip’sik, 
Germany, the largest town of Saxony and the 
third largest in the German Empire, situated 
in a broad, fertile plain at the confluence of the 
rivers Elster, Pleisse and Parthe.. The city 
comprises the inner town, the inner and outer 
suburbs (Vorstadte), the more outlying sub- 
urbs (Vororte), incorporated with the city in 
1889-92, and more recent extensions since 1910, 
all traversed and connected by electric street 
railroads. The former fortifications surround- 
ing the inner city have been replaced by fine 
streets and promenades. The old city still re- 
tains much of its ancient appearance, but the 
modern suburbs are characterized by broad 
streets and imposing buildings. Among the 
squares of the city are the Marktplatz, with a 
Siegesdenkmal; the Augustusplatz, one of the 
largest in Germany, with a splendid fountain; 
the Konigsplatz, the Johannisplatz, with a Ref- 
ormation monument (Luther and Melanch- 
thon) ; and the Rossplatz; and among the other © 
monuments worthy of mention are those of 
Gellert and Fechner in the Rosenthal, an ex- 
tensive park in the northwest, between the El- 
ster and the Pleisse; of Hahnemann, Leibnitz, 
Grassi, Mendelssohn and Bismarck; together 
with the more recent memorial of the Volker- 
schlacht. Besides the parks and open spaces 
just. mentioned, Leipzig includes, among many 
others, the Johannapark, the Grassipark; the 
Konig Albert Park, the scene of the 1897 ex- 
hibition; the Johannisthal, with an observa- 
tory; the botancal garden; the zoological gar- 
den, recently much extended; the palm garden, 
opened in 1899. The most noteworthy churches 
of the city are the Thomaskirche (13th cen- 
tury), rebuilt 1885-89, in which Bach. was or- 


270 


ganist; the Nikolaikirche (11th century), re- 
cently restored; the University or Pauliner- 
kirche (1240), restored 1896-99; the Matthai- 
kirche, restored 1879; the Johanniskirche (14th 
century), rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1897, and 
containing the remains of Sebastian Bach and 
Gellert; the Peterskirche; the Lutherkirche; 
the Andreaskirche; two modern Roman Cath- 
olic churches; an Anglo-American church; a 
synagogue; and churches of other denomina- 
tions. Of non-ecclesiastical buildings the most 
notable are those of the university, which was 
founded in 1409, is now the third largest uni- 
versity in the German Empire and has over 
5,000 students. The 500th aniversary was fit- 
tingly celebrated in 1909. These buildings are 
mostly modern, especially the Albertinum, 
erected in 1890-96 in accordance with the plans 
of A. Rossbach for completing and renewing 
the whole group. The university library (the 
Albertina) contains 600,000 volumes and over 
6,000 manuscripts. Other buildings and _ insti- 
tutions are the old Rathaus (16th century) ; 
the new Rathaus, in course of construction on 
the site of the Schloss Pleissenburg, a 13th cen- 
tury building, once the citadel of the town and 
famous as the scene of Luther’s disputation 
with Eck in 1519; the old exchange (1678), 
now the meeting-place of the town council; the 
new. exchange in Renaissance style; the Ko- 
nigshaus (17th century), the residence till 1829 
of the Saxon princes; the old Gewandhaus, 
where the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts 
were long held; the new concert hall; -the Im- 
perial Bank building, in German Renaissance 
style; the municipal library (1899), containing 
130,000 volumes and many manuscripts; the 
municipal museum, in Italian Renaissance style; 
the chief post-office; the new book exchange, 
the headquarters of the German book trade, in 
German Renaissance style; the Buchgewerbe- 
haus (1897), with a Gutenberg hall; the pano- 
rama building; the Grassi Museum (1896), now 
including the collections of the former mu- 
seums of industrial art and ethnology; the 
building of the Land und Amtsgericht, en- 
larged in 1895-96; the Imperial-Supreme Court; 
the new conservatory of music; the old and 
the new theatre; the Krystallpalast, including 
concert halls, etc.; the market hall; the large 
Johannis hospital; a deaf and dumb and a 
blind institution; the hospital of Sarnt Jakob; 
the Triersches Institut, for women; three gym- 
nasia, namely, the Thomasschule (1221), the 
Nikolaischule (1511) and the Royal Gymna- 
sium, a Real Gymnasium; several Realschulen 
and many other schools; a Handelshochschule, 
or High Commercial School (1898), the first 
in Germany; the new normal college for women 
(1912); a school of industrial art; a Royal 
Academy of Arts; and the new infantry bar- 
racks at Mockern. Chief among literary asso- 
ciations is the famous Auerbach’s Cellar, in- 
troduced in Goethe’s ‘Faust.2 Leipzig has 
railway communication with all the chief towns 
of Germany and its situation makes it of great 
importance as a trading centre. The new rail- 
way station covers the largest area of any in 
Europe. It has three large annual fairs, which 
have been held ever since the 12th century. It 
is the headquarters of the book trade in Ger- 
many, having no fewer than 100 book-selling 
and publishing firms, and takes a foremost 
place among European towns in the many in- 


LEIPZIG, BATTLES OF 


dustries associated with the publication and 
printing of books. Its other industries include 
iron-founding, cotton-spinning, wool-combing, 
the weaving of jute and linen, brewing, sugar- © 
refining, distilling and the manufacture of ma- 
chinery, electrical plant, agricultural imple-. 
meuts, ethereal oils, dyes, essences, soaps, per- 
fumes, wax-cloth, chocolate, tobacco, paper, 
leather, tapestry, cement, musical and other in- 
struments, etc. Leipzig is also a world: market 
for furs and all similar goods. 

The municipality, governed by an over- 
burgomaster,  burgomaster, police director, 
magistrates and councilors, is most progressive, 
gas, waterworks and electricity being in its 
hands, and there is a municipal bakery. The 
name Leipzig, from the Slavonic lipa, a lime- 
tree, is found applied to a Slavonic fishing vil- 
lage near the present site of Leipzig about 1017. 
The history of the town during many centuries 
is ‘one of gradually extending importance. | It 
suffered much during the Thirty Years’ War 
at the hands of both combatants. Its position 
of pre-eminence in the book trade dates from 
the latter half of the 17th century. During the 
earlier years of the 18th century the town be- 
came the centre of a literary movement under 
Gottsched. Leipzig and its neighborhood suf- 
fered greatly during the Napoleonic wars and 
on 16-19 Qct. 1813 a series of severe battles 
fought around the town resulted in a crushing 
defeat of Napoleon and the retreat of the 
French from Germany. This victory was com- 
memorated by the unveiling, on the centenary 
of the battle in 1913, of a colossal monument 
300 feet high, designed by Professor Bruno 
Schmidt and costing $1,500,000. During the 
war of 1866 Leipzig was occupied by Prussian 
troops for 18 months. In 1879 the Supreme 
Court of Justice for the empire was established 
in the city. Since 1880, when the population, in: 
which Protestants overwhelmingly preponder- 
ate, was 149,081, the population has remarkably. 
expanded, being 357,122 in 1890, 456,124 in 1900, 
589,850 in 1910 and (with recent suburban ex- 
tensions) was estimated in 1914 at 626,267. — 


LEIPZIG, Battles of, three important 
battles, two of whi h were in the Thirty Years’ 
War, and one in the Napoleonic Wars. (1) 
The first battle of Leipzig is also known as 
the battle of Breitenfeld: from the plain about 
a mile from the city, upon which it was fought. 
It was fought 17 Sept. 1631 between the 
Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the Im- 
perialists under Tilly. The forces of the Im-. 
perial army were estimated at 44,000: men; 
while the Swedes, with whom were allied the 
Protestant Saxons under Elector John George 
I, had altogether about 20,000 men. The Im- 
perialists were defeated with losses variously 
reckoned as from 7,000 to 10,000 men, while 
the allied Swedish and Protestant Saxon troops 
lost 2,700. The battle is important from the 
military point of view in its exemplification of 
the prime necessity for mobility; and from 
the historical viewpoint as constituting the first 
signal advance of Protestant forces against the 
hitherto impregnable forces of Catholicism. 
(2) The second battle of Leipzig was fought 
2 Nov. 1642, and is also called the second 
battle of Breitenfeld. The Imperialists of Aus- 
tria, under Leopold of Austria and Piccolo- 
mini, were defeated by the Swedes under Tor- 


LEIPZIG — LEISHMAN 


stenson. (3) The most important battle of 
Leipzig is the victory gained’ by the allied 
armies. of Prussians, Russians, Austrians and 
Swedes under the command of Prince Schwar- 
zenberg against the French forces under Napo- 
leon. The battle was fought 16-19 Oct. 1813 
and practically secured the liberty of Germany, 
where it is called “Volkerschlach (“the Battle 
of the Nations”), owing to the number of 
nationalities involved in the two armies 

At the outset of the battle the allied army 
numbered about 200,000, which was later in- 
creased to 300,000. Napoleon had, all told, 


about 180,000" Napoleon personally directed the’ 


battle, which at first went in his favor, and 
was lost only through the inability of Marshal 
Ney to furnish him with reinforcements; Napo- 


leon failed to make use of an opportunity to 


effect a retreat by way of Lindenau on 17 
-October, a Sunday, and in falling back on the 
two succeeding days was subjected to heavy 
losses. Of his forces 40,000 were killed or 
wounded and 30,000 taken prisoner. The allied 
losses were about 54,000. The battle, aside 
from its constituting a decisive victory is im- 
portant as marking the point from which the 
downfall of Napoleon became assured. Con- 
sult Gerlach, L., ‘Die Schlacht bei’. Leipzig? 
(1892) ; Maude, F. N., ‘The Leipzig Campaign, 
1813? (1908) : Jomini, H., ‘Life of Napoleon’ 
(Vol. IV, 1864). 


LEIPZIG, Colloquy Of ntuserics held in 
Leipzig by the German Lutherans and Calvin- 
ists 3-23 March 1631 for the purpose of secur- 
ing harmony between the two churches, and a 
resultant union to resist the execution of the 
Edict of Restitution. The Landgrave, William 
of Hesse, the Elector Christian William of 


Brandenburg and the Elector John George met . 


at Leipzig accompanied by their leading. the- 
ologians Johannes Bergius, Theophilus Neu- 
berger and Johannes Crocius of the Reformed 
faith, and Matthias. Hoé, Polycarp Leyser and 
Heinrich Hopffner of the Saxon Lutherans. 
The Reformed party. proposed the Confession 
of Augsburg as a basis of discussion, announc- 
ing their willingness to sign it as it stood in 
the Saxon form published by Elector John 
George of Saxony (1628). 
Confession were taken up _ separately and 
unanimity. of opinion was found to exist on 
articles v-vil_ and xii-xviii, and their differ- 
ences on i-it were declared immaterial. The 
third article, on Christology,. found a wide 
difference of 
on a definite statement of their separate be- 
liefs. The Lutherans maintained that the 
human and divine natures of Christ were iden- 
tical in possessing ommniscience and omnipo- 
tence, while the Reformed party denied that 
Christ as a man possessed these’ attributes. 
They agreed on the fourth article, the Re- 
formed theologians confirming the ‘Lutherans 


in their belief that Christ did not come to_ 
and on the ninth article, con-- 


save all men; 
cerning baptism, they also'agreed after making 
some additions. Upon the tenth, however, an 
agreement was found impossible and it’ was 
treated in the same manner as the third. The 
Reformed party maintained that participation 
of the blood and body of Christ in the Eu- 


charist is by faith while the Lutherans held to’ 


the belief of actual physical participation. ~ The 


The articles of the. 


opinion, and they compromised. 


271 


remaining articles were agreed to, and as the 
conference was private, only four copies of the 
protocol were made, one for the faculty of 
Leipzig and one for each of the princes pat- 
ronizing the meeting. Later, however, reports 
of the conference were published in England, 
France, Switzerland, Holland and Sweden. 
While the meetings were conducted in an 
amicable spirit and many close points of agree- 
ment found, the conference had no lasting re- 
sults in the way of closer understanding or 
union. 


LEIPZIG, University of, third largest 
and second "oldest university in. Germany, 
founded in 1409 by 400 students and 40 teach- 
ers, who seceded from the University _of 
Prague as an outcome of the Hussite agita- 
tion, and the decree which transferred the 
power of the university from the Germans to 
the Bohemians. The statutes and_ constitution 
closely follow those of Prague, and the univer- 
sity was founded under the patronage of Fred- 
erick the Quarrelsome of Meissen and _ his 
brother William. It flourished until 1559 when 
its standards were lowered, and failed to make 
much progress until 1830 when a reorganiza- 
tion was effected. The university thereafter 
became one of the most important in the 
world, and for a time it enrolled the largest 
student body in Germany, although those of 
Berlin and Munich have now exceeded it in 
that respect. It is fortunate in possessing large 
revenues from house property in Leipzig and 
great estates throughout Saxony in addition to 
substantial assistance from the state. Its pro- 
fessorial chairs are handsomely endowed. The 
buildings are in the main modern, a series of 
building operations in 1890-96 co-ordinating 
and renewing the entire group. Especially 
notable among them are the library with nearly 
600,000 volumes and more than 6,000 manu- 
scripts, the legal and the philosophical faculty 
buildings. A change was made in the govern- 
ing organization of the university in 1893, the 
new body being called the “syndicate.” Before 
the outbreak of the European War in 1914 it 
enrolled a student body of more than 5,000 in 
medicine, law, theology and philosophy. 


LEIPZIGER, Henry Marcus, American 
educator: b. Manchester, Eng., 29 Dec. 1853; 
d. New York, 1 Dec. 1917. Coming to New 
York in 1865, he was educated in the -City 
College and Columbia (Ph.D. 1878), taught in 
the public schools (1873-81), was assistant su- 
perintendent of schools (1891-96), superintend- 
ent of lectures for board of education (1890- 
96), and from 1896 to his death supervisor of 
public lectures. He was identified for some 
years with the Aguilar Free Library, Hebrew 
Technical Institute and the Y. M. H. A. 


LEISHMAN, John G., American diplomat: 
b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 28 March 1857; d:: Monte 
Carlo, 27 March 1924. He was orphaned at an: 
early age’ and entered the steel industry at. 
Pittsburgh, learning the business: in all its 
intricacies. He succeeded in accumulating a 
considerable fortune, was senior member : of 
the steel-brokerage firm Leishman and Snyder 
in 1881-86, and vice-president of Carnegie 
Brothers and Company from 1887 until 1897, 
when he became president of the firm in its 
reorganized form as the Carnegie Steel Coms: 


272 
pany. He shortly afterward retired from busi- 
ness. He accepted the appointment as Muinis- 


ter to Switzerland from President McKinley 
in 1897, where he remained until his transfer 
to Turkey in 1900. He particularly distin- 
guished himself for diplomatic tact and dex- 
terity in his negotiations with Turkey for full 
rights for American citizens and schools in that 
country, and in his pressing with equal suc- 
cess his insistence that the American Minister 
should have access to the Sultan. His office 
was elevated to the rank of Extraordinary 
Ambassador and Plenipotentiary in 1906 and he 
continued service in Turkey until President 
Taft appointed him to the Embassy in Italy 
in 1909. From 12 Aug. 1911 to 4 Oct. 1913 
he was Ambassador to Germany. 


LEISLER, lis’lér, Jacob, American colo- 
nial political leader: b. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Germany; d. New York, 16 May 1691. He 
came to America as a private soldier in the 
service of the Dutch West India Company, 
and was for a time engaged in trade at Albany, 
and later settling in New York, was appointed 
in 1683 one of the “commissioners” (judges) 
of the Court of the Admiralty. In 1689 he 
was the leader of the insurrection against Gov- 
ernor Nicholson, supported mostly by the 
militia and the lower classes; the fort and the 
public funds were seized on the 3lst of May, 
and Leisler a few days later declared for 
William and Mary, asserting his acts to be 
necessary for the “preservation of the Prot- 
estant religion.” A committee of safety was 
formed, who on 8 June commissioned Leisler 
as “captain of the fort” In this capacity he 
at once began to repair the fort, and strength- 
ened it with a “battery” of six guns beyond 
its walls, which was the origin of the public 
park still known as the Battery. Nicholson 
and the council of the province, with the au- 
thorities of the city, attempted by pacific means 
to prevent the uprising, but without effect. 
Becoming finally alarmed for their own safety, 
the liewtenant-governor sailed for England, and 
the mayor with the other officials retired to 
Albany. On 16 August the committee of safety 
appointed Leisler “commander-in-chief of the 
province,” with the full power of a governor 
in all matters civil and military. He next at- 
tempted to reduce Albany and the northern 
parts of the colony, which from the first had 
refused to recognize his authority, ‘but was for 
some time unsuccessful; Albany finally submit- 
ted to him after the Indian attack on Schenec- 
tady (1690). In December arrived a despatch 
from William and Mary directed “to Francis 
Nicholson, Esq., or in his absence to such as 
for the time being takes care for preserving the 
peace and administering the laws in his majes- 
ty’s province of New York” This Leisler con- 
strued as an appointment of himself as the 
king’s lieutenant-governor. He therefore dis- 
solved the committee of safetv, swore in a 
council, and assumed the style of a royal lieu- 
tenant-governor and commander-in-chief. Af- 
ter the massacre at Schenectady he engaged 
with great vigor in the expeditions against 
the French, and equipped and despatched 
against Quebec the first fleet of men-of-war 
ever sent from the port of New York. A 
few months later Major Ingoldsby arrived with 
the news of Sloughter’s appointment as gov- 


LEISLER — LEITER 


ernor, and demanded possession of the fort, 
which Leisler refused. On Sloughter’s own 
demand immediately upon his arrival in March 
1691, he likewise refused to surrender it, until 
convinced of Sloughter’s identity, and the lat- 
ter had sworn in his council. Leisler was im- 
mediately imprisoned, charged with treason and 
murder, and shortly after tried and condemned 
to death. His son-in-law and secretary Mil- 
borne was also condemned on the same charges. 
These trials were manifestly unjust; the judges 
were the personal and political enemies of the 
prisoners, and Sloughter for some time hesi- 
tated to sign the death warrants. ‘Leisler’s son 
secured from the English Parliament the re- 
versal of the bill of attainder in 1695; and the 
confiscated estates were also returned to the 
heirs. Consult Hoffman, ‘The Administration 
of Jacob Leisler (in Jared Sparks, “Library of 
American Biography,» Vol. XIII, Boston | 
1844); Brodhead, ‘History of New York? 
(New York 1853-71); ‘Documentary History 
of New York? (Albany 1842-51), and E. S. 
Brooks, ‘In Leisler’s Times? (a_ historical 
story). 


LEIST, list, Burkard Wilhelm, German 
jurist: b. Westen, Hanover, 12 July 1819; d. 
Jena, 31 Dec. 1901. He studied at Gottingen, 
Heidelberg and Berlin. He was appointed pro- 
fessor of civil law at Basel in 1846, at Rostock 
in 1847, and from 1853 he filled that chair at 
the University of Jena. He was a pupil of 
Savigny. His especial field of research was: 
in the hypothetical field of Indo-Germanic law. 
Author of ‘Die Bonorum Possessio? (1844-48) ; 
‘Mancipation und Eigentumstradition? (1865) ; 
‘Der Rodmische Erbrechtsbesitz? (1871); ‘AI- 
tarisches Jus Gentium? (1889); ‘Altarisches 
Jus Civile? (1892-96), etc. 


LEITER, li’tér, Joseph, American finan- 
cier: b. Chicago, 4 Dec. 1868. He was grad- 


~ uated from Harvard in 1891, and was agent for 


his father, Levi Zeigler Leiter (q.v.), in 1892- 
98. In the autumn of 1897 he began buying 
wheat on the Chicago Board of Trade in an 
attempt to corner the market. Wheat prices 
soared to double their normal height and at the 
opening of the year 1898 Leiter held the largest 
private ownership of wheat in the history of 
grain trade. Concerted action on the part 
of his competitors broke the corner and Leiter 
is reputed to have suffered losses to the amount 
of $10,000,000. He is president of the Zeigler 
Coal Company, Chicago, and of the Chicago, 
Zeigler and Gulf Railway Company; and a 
director of the American Security and Trust 
Company. 


LEITER, Levi Zeigler, American finan- 
cier: b. Leitersburg, Md., 1834; d. 1904. He 
worked his way up in the retail drygoods from 
a clerkship in a country store to a partnership 
in the Chicago firm Coolidge, Wadsworth and 
Company. In 1865, together with Marshall 
Field, he sold his interest in that concern and 
they purchased a controlling interest in the 


_drygoods establishment of Potter Palmer, the 


firm name then becoming Field, Palmer and 
Leiter. Upon Palmer’s withdrawal it became 
Field, Leiter and Company until 1 Jan. 1881, 
when Leiter retired from the company and de- 
voted himself to the management of his large 
real estate holdings and corporation interests. 


LEITH — LEITMOTIV 


One of his daughters was Mary Victoria, Lady 
Curzon of Kedleston. 


LEITH, iéth, Charles Kenneth, American 
geologist: b. Trempealeau, Wis., 20 Jan. 1875. 
He was graduated from the University of Wis- 
consin in 1897. In 1900-05 he was assistant 
geologist in the United States Geological Sur- 
vey. He was appointed assistant professor of 
geology at the University of Wisconsin in 
1902, and since 1903 has been professor there. 
He has also served as professional lecturer in 
structural and metamorphic geology at the 
University of Chicago since 1905. He is 
author of a number of scientific papers and ‘A 
Summer and Winter on Hudson Bay? (1912): 
‘Structural Geology? (1913); ‘Metamorphic 
Geology? (1915). 


LEITH, Scotland, a seaport and _ parlia- 
mentary burgh in the county of Midlothian, 
encircled on three sides by Edinburgh, on the 
south shore of the Firth of Forth, on the 
Water of Leith. It is connected with Edin- 
burgh by Leith Walk— originally a line of 
earthworks built during the Cromwellian occu- 
pation, and by branch lines of the railways 
centering in Edinburgh. It is the principal sea- 
port in the east of Scotland. Among the prin- 
cipal public buildings are the stately old parish 
church of Saint Mary’s, custom-house, Trinity 
House, corn exchange, the new and well-equipped 
Leith Academy, including the Leith Technical 
College, and there are fine parks and public 
golf links. The chief manufactures are ropes, 
sail cloth, oil cake, paints, colors, artificial 
manures, and there are shipbuilding yards, iron 
foundries, engine works, flour mills, oil mills 
and refineries, steam saw mills, large maltings, 
an ice factory, etc. The foreign trade is chiefly 
with the Baltic and the principal French and 
German ports, and there is a trade in grain, 
flour, etc., with the United States and Canada. 
There are extensive wet docks and a fine road- 
stead, and several public graving docks, cap- 
able of receiving the largest vessels. It is the 
first of the fishery districts of Scotland. The 
quaint fishing village of Newhaven, on the 
west, is part of the burgh. The municipality is 
one of the most progressive in the kingdom; 
the water and gas undertakings are conjoined 
with Edinburgh, and it owns and operates its 
own electric plant and cable car systems. 

Leith is a very ancient town its earliest 
charter dating from 1128. 

It was besieged by the Lords of the Congre- 
gation during the Reformation period, and of 
the landing of Mary Queen of Scots on 1 
Sept. 1561. Little of the old town remains, the 
narrow streets and alleys having ‘been swept 
away by a great municipal improvement scheme. 
Leith, Portobello and Musselburgh, known as 
the Leith Burghs, return one member to the 
House of Commons. Pop. over 80,000. Con- 
sult Stevenson, ‘Annals of Edinburgh and 
Leith? (1839): Irons, J. C., ‘Leith and Its 
Antiquities? (1898). 


LEITHA, lita, a river formed by the 
junction of two small streams near Neu- 
stadt, in Lower Austria, and flowing north- 
east on its course of 90 miles, a_ small 
part being along the frontier of Austria and 
Hungary, until it joins the Raab, a tributary of 
the Danube, at Altenburg. The Leitha Moun- 
vol, 17 — 18 


273 


tains rise between it and Lake Neusiedl, and it 
has a factitious importance in its application to 
Hungary as Trans-leithania and Austria as Cis- 
leithania. 


LEITMERITZ, lit'mér-its, Czecho-Slovakia, 
town and episcopal see of Bohemia, at the head 
of navigation on the right bank of the Elbe, 45 
miles by rail northwest of Prague. It possesses 
a fine cathedral founded in 1057, and built in 
1671, in which are some rare paintings. The 
episcopal palace was built in 1694-1701 and in - 
its lrbrary are maps of Bohemia made by 
Nicolaus Claudianus of Jung-Bunzlau in 1518. 
The church of All Saints was built in the 13th 
century; and the town-hall, which is noted for 
its bell tower, was erected in the 15th century. 
Mention is made of the town as early as 993 
and originally it was the site of the castle of 
a royal count. Its town charter dates from 
1248 and it reached its greatest prosperity 
under Charles IV. It suffered severely in the 
Hussite wars and in the Thirty Years’ War. 
The bishopric was founded in 1655. The town 
is situated in a rich agricultural region which 
is known as the “Bohemian Paradise.” Corn, 
fruit, hops, beer and wine are produced in 
abundance and the city has glass, leather, 
cement, chalk and brick industries. The river 
is spanned here by an iron bridge 1,700 feet 
long. Pop. 15,421. 


LEITMOTIV, lit’m6-téf, in music, the 
leading theme, the characteristic phrase, which 
occurs over and over again in the same com- 
position, in reference to the same_ person, 
phrase of feeling or scenic complication of in- 
tense passion or action. The phrase strikes 
the note of these several crises or conjunctures 
and recurs whenever they are repeated. While 
many operatic composers, such as Mozart and 
Weber, have employed the expedient of the 


‘leading theme, Wagner does so more than any 


other modern musician. In his Leitfaden, or 
analyses of his operas, in which he lays bare 
some of the secrets of his artistic workman- 
ship, he shows that he has consciously indi- 
vidualized every one of his characters, every 
change in the scenery or action of the drama, 
or in the emotions and moods of the dramatis 
persone, by the introduction of a specific musi- 
cal theme, which he employs throughout the 
opera to suggest the same thing. This theme 
is worked upon and varied with the masterly 
skill which Wagner possesses in fugue and 
part writing. Thus in his ‘Parsifal,» Kling- 
sor, Kundry, Parsifal, Amfortas and the Flower 
maidens are all ushered in with a special lead- 
ing theme for each. There is a special theme 
for the Eucharist, for the spear (Speermotiv), 
for the Holy Grail (Gralmotiv). The chil- 
dren’s voices raise a strain ‘Faith is still alive? 
to the notes of the Glaubensthema, or faith- 
motive. There is a Leidensmotiv, to express 
the grief of Amfortas; there is the Doormotiv, 
expressing the promise of help; the Zauber- 
motiv, suggesting the devlish power of witch- 
craft, while the mother’s sorrow is. suggested 
by the Motiv des Herzleids, the heart-grief’s 
theme. The Bell-theme, with its _pealing 
sound, the Ride-theme, suggesting the clatter 
of horsehoofs, the Good Friday theme, with its 
characteristic chords, each in its way, are 
powerfully suggestive, and when once _rec- 
ognized, their recurrence has a powerful effect. 


274> 


LEITNER, lit’ner, Gottlieb Wilhelm, 
Anglo-Hungarian Orientalist: b. Budapest, 14 
Oct. 1840; d. Bonn, 22 March 1899. He was the 


son of a physician who went to Turkey in 1849, : 


and, already well instructed in; the classics, he 
quickly acquired Turkish, Arabic and modern 
Greek; he studied English, French and Ger- 
man at the British College at Malta. At the 
age of 15 he acted as interpreter in the Crimean 
War. He entered King’s College, London, in 
1858, was naturalized as a British subject and 
in 1861 received the appointment to the chair 
of Arabic and Mohammedan Law at King’s 
College. In 1864 he went to Lahore as prin- 
cipal of the government college there and was 
instrumental in the establishment of. various 
schools and libraries throughout India. He 
made extensive researches in the origins of 
Indian art and in Graeco-Buddist art, and also 
engaged in exploration of Tibet and other 
northern Himalayan countries. He edited the 
Asiatic Quarterly Review for some years, and 
is reputed to have acquired. 25 languages. 
Author of ‘The Languages and Races of Dar- 
distan? (2 vols., 1867-71; 2d ed., 1877); ‘His- 
tory of Dardistan, Songs ‘and Legends? (1881) ; : 
“History of Indigenous Education in the Pun- 
jab since: Annexation” (1883). Consult Stoc- 
queler, J. H., ‘Life and Labours of Dr. Leit- 
ner? (1875). 

LEITRIM, 1é’trim, Ireland, county in the 
province of Connaught, bounded: on the north- 
west ‘by Donegal Bay, northeast by Fermauagh, 
east. by Cavan, southeast by Longford, south- 
west by Roscommon and west by Sligo. The 
principal river is the Shannon and the scenery 
is beautiful; but the land for the greater share 
is poor, the tilled land amounting to one-third 
and pastureland two-thirds. | Potatoes 
grown, and oats, the only grain crop, give a 
small yield. Cattle, swine and poultry are 
raised; the county has minor coal. mining in- 
terests, and there are manufactures of coarse 
linens and pottery. Leitrim was the ancient 
Hy Bruin-Brenny, forming the western part 
of Brenny, and was also called Brenny 
O’Rourke when in the possession of the de- 
scendants of Roderick, king of Ireland. It 
became County Leitrim in 1583. The popula- 
tion is 90 per cent. Roman Catholic and deple- 
tion by emigration is more serious than in any 
other county in Ireland. Pop. 63,557. 


LEIXNER-GRUNBERG, liks’nér_ griin’- 
bérg, Otto von, German poet and critic: b. 
Saar in Moravia, 24 April 1847; d. 1907. Among 
his poetical works are a volume of ‘Poems? 
(1868) ; the drama ‘Resurrection of Germany? 
(1870); ‘Twilight? (1886); ‘Proverbs. and 
Satiric Rhymes.».. He has also written short 
stories: ‘The Two Marys?; ‘Memento. Vi- 
vere; ‘Princess Sunshine? (1882). Still other 
works are “Marginal Notes by a» Hermit?; 
“Gossamer” (1886); “Gossipy Letters to a 
Young . Matron (1890) ; ‘Lay Sermons? 
(1894). His ‘History of German Literature? 
(1879-82; 7th ed., 1906) is a notable work. 


LEJEAN, 1é-zhan’, Guillaume, French ex- 
plorer: b. Plouégat-Guérand, Finistére, 1828; 
d. there, 1 Feb. 1874. He specialized in the 
study of Breton history and of geography, and 
traveled in the Balkans in 1857-58 and 1867-70 
in charge of an official mission for the study of 
geography. He made explorations in Egypt 


LEITNER — 


are. 


LELAND 


and Northern Africa in 1860-61; and in 1862 
he was named French consul in Abyssinia, but. 
with other. Europeans was driven out in Sep- 
tember 1863. He traveled in Kassala and the 
country of the Bogos in 1864, and in Asia 
Minor, Mesopotamia, along the Persian Gulf 
and the basin of the Indus in 1865. Author 
of ‘La Bretagne, son histoire et ses historiens? 
(1850); ‘Ethnographie der — europaischen - 
Tirkei? (in Petermann’s ‘Mittelungen? 1861) ;, 
“Voyage aux deux Nils? (1865); ‘Théodore 
II, le nouvel empire d’A’byssinie et les intéréts 
francais» (1805). He also published maps of 
European Turkey and the Nile regions. Con- 
sult Cortambert, ‘G, Lejean et ses voyages?.. 
(Paris 1872). 


LELAND, Charles -Godfrey, American 
author: b. Philadelphia, 15. Aug. 1824; . d. 
Florence, Italy, 20 March 1903. He showed 
poetic talent in youthful contributions to news- 
papers and a growing genius, marked by un- 
usual versatility, during his college days at 
Princeton, where he was graduated in 1846. 
He studied afterward at Heidelberg, Munich. 
and Paris, giving special attention to modern 
languages, philosophy and esthetics. In 1848 - 
he took part in the revolutionary uprising in, 
Paris; the same year. returned to Philadelphia 
and studied law; was admitted to the bar in 
1851, but gave up the legal profession and de-. 
voted himself to. literary pursuits, becoming 
prominent in various fields of journalism and 
authorship. For a time he: was editor of the 
New York Illustrated News; in 1861_estab- 
lished the Continental Magazine in Boston, 
and two years later returned to Philadelphia, 
where for several years he edited the Press. 
During the Civil War he published ‘The Book 
of Copperheads, a political satire, From 1869 
to. 1880 he resided chiefly in London. In Eng- 
land and on the Continent he studied gypsies. 
and gypsy lore, in which he became one of the: 
leading authorities of his time, His career as 
poet, ethnologist and traveler, with its. mingling. 
of literary avocations, .was invested with an 
element of romance, and his more serious work 
was lightened. by the interchange of humor. 
At the same time his achievements show the 
practical talents of a man of -business. When 
in 1880 he once more returned to Philadelphia 
he was instrumental in establishing industrial 
teaching in the public schools, in furtherance 
of which he wrote a number of manuals and 
gave his supervision to the work. From 1886 
he lived in Europe, mainly in Florence. He 
wrote and translated a large number of works, 
remarkable for variety as well as for literary 
value, the best known and most popular of. 
which are ‘Hans Breitmann’s Ballads? (1867-. 
70, 1895), written in “Pennsylvania Dutch,” his 
translations from Heine, including ‘Pictures of 
Travel» (1856) and ‘Heine’s Book of Songs?» 
(1862), ‘English Gypsies and Their Language’ 
(1873), eunen sh Gypsy Songs? (in collabora- 
tion, 1875), The Gypsies? (1882) and ‘Gypsy 
Sorcery and Fortune- Telling? (1892). Among 
his other writings are ‘The Poetry and Mys- 
tery of Dreams? (1855); ‘Meister Karl’s 
Sketch-Book? (1855) ; ‘Sunshine in Thought? 
(1862); ‘Legends of Birds? (1864); ‘The 
Music-Lesson of Confucius? (1870) ; beh 
Egyptian Sketch-Book” (1873) ; ‘Fu-Sang: 
the Discovery of America by Chinese Bu fdhist 


LELAND — LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 


Priests in the Fifth Century” (1875); 
kin and the Goblins? . (1876) ; ‘Pidgin- English 
Singsong? (1876); “Abraham Lincoln? (1879) ; 
‘The: Minor Arts? (1880) ; ‘Algonquin Legends 
of New England (1884); ‘Etruscan-Roman Re- 
mains ‘in Popular Tradition? (1892) ; “Autobi- 
ographical Memoirs? (1893); ‘Songs of the 
Sea and Lays of the Land (1895) ; “Mending 
and Repairing? (1896) ; “One Hundred Profit- 
able Acts» (1897) ; ‘The Unpublished Legends 
of Virgil? (1899) ; and ‘(his last work) ‘Ku- 
loskap the Master, and Other Algonkin Poems? 
(1903), a volume of Indian folklore in verse, 


‘Johnny- 


written in collaboration with John Dinely 
Prince. ‘Consult Pennell, E; R., “Charles God- 
frey Leland: A Biography? (2 vols., New 
York 1906). 


LELAND, or LEYLAND, John, English 
antiquary: b. London, about 1506; d. there,-18 
April 1552. He was educated at Cambridge, 
Oxford and Paris. Returning home he took 
holy orders and Henry VIII made him his 
chaplain and librarian... In 1530 he became rec- 
tor of Pepeling, near Calais; in 1542 he received 
the rectory of Haseley, Oxfordshire, and he 
was a prebend of Salisbury Cathedral. In 1533 
he received the title of royal antiquary and 
was empowered by a commission tnder the 
great seal to search for objects of antiquity in 
the archives and libraries of all cathedrals, 
abbeys, priories, etc., in consequence of which 
he spent six years in traveling and collecting 
materials for the illustration of the history and 
archeolagy of England and Wales, but died 
without having completed his undertaking. The 
great bulk of his collections was placed in the 
Bodleian Library. The first part to be puf- 
lished’ was the ‘Commentarii de Scriptoribus 
Britannicis,» issued in 1709 by Anthony Hall. 
In 1710 Hearne published the ‘Itinerary? in 
nine volumes and five years later the ‘Collec- 
tanea» ‘was issued’ by him in six volumes. 


Leland wrote Latin poetry with considerable 


elegance, and a collection of his miscellaneous 
Latin verse and epigrams was published in 
1589,'’ Some of his autographic manuscripts are 
preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, 
others in the British Museum. Consult Bur- 
ton, ‘Life of John Leland? (London 1896). 


LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNI- 
VERSITY, a coeducational institution at 
Palo Alto, California, about 30 miles southeast 
of San Francisco, in the Santa Clara Valley. 
The university campus comprises 9,000 acres of 
land, partly in the level of the valley and 
partly rising into. the. foothills: of the Santa 
Moreno Mountains, which separate it from the 
Pacific Ocean, 33 miles beyond. The Bay of 
San Francisco lies, in front at a distance of 
three miles and across it are the mountains 
of the Diabolo range. 

The university was founded by Leland Stan- 
ford ‘a-¥.2 and his wife, Jane Lathrop Stan- 
ford (q.v.), as a memorial to their only son 
who died in his 15th year. The founders de- 
sired that the university should give a training 
primarily fitted to the needs of young men. 
Both sexes are admitted to equal advantages 
in’ the institution, but the number of young 
women who may attend at any given time is 
limited to 500. Beginning with the academic 
year 1916-17 the number of first-year men 
students will be limited to 500 annually. The 


275 


object of the university, as stated by its found- 
ers, is “to qualify students for personal’ suc- 
cess and direct usefulness in life? and to 
“promote the public welfare by exercising an 
influence in behalf of humanity and civilization, 
teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by 
law, and inculcating love and reverence for the 
great principles of government as derived from 
the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty 
and the pursuit of’ happiness.” 

The endowment grant establishing the uni-_ 
versity was made in November 1885, under an 
act of legislature passed for this purpose; the 
cornerstone of the institution was laid in’ May 
1887; and the university was formally opened 
to students on 1 Oct. 1891. The attendance for 
the first year numbered 559 and included all 
college classes with a number of graduate stu- 
dents, the university graduating its first class of 
38 in "May 1892. The original faculty numbered 
35 professors and instructors, under the leader- 
ship of David Starr Jordan as president. In 
1913 John Casper Branner became president, 
the office of chancellor being created for Dr. 
Jordan. On 1 Jan. 1916 Dr. Branner retired 
and was succeeded by Ray Lyman Wilbur, a 
graduate of the university. 

The architecture of the university buildings 
is patterned after the old Spanish missions of 
California and Mexico. The buildings are of 
buff sandstone with’ red tile roofs. They form 
two quadrangles, one within another, with de- 
tached buildings grouped about them. ‘The 
inner quadrangle consists of 12 one-story build- 
ings, connected by an open arcade, facing a 
paved court of three and one-quarter acres in 
extent. Connected with this quadrangle at 
various points by corridors, and completely sur- 
rounding it, is the outer quadrangle of 12 
buildings, for the most part two stories in 
height above the basement. This outer quad- 
rangle is again surrounded by a continuous 
open arcade. In the inner quadrangle are the 
departments of law, of the different languages 
and mathematics, and the administrative offices. 
In the outer quadrangle are the scientific, engi- 
neering and geological departments, those of 
history, economics and English, and the library 
and assembly hall. In the rear of the quad- 
rangles are the laboratories and shops of the 
engineering departments.’ The dormitories, one 
for young men and another for young women, 
with their gymnasia and athletic grounds about 
them, are located to the east and west. In 
front to the right of the main drive are. the 
building of the department of chemistry and the 
art museum. A new and permanent library 
building, to replace one destroyed by the earth- 
quake of 1906, will soon be begun. 

Most striking among the architectural fea- 
tures of the university buildings were the Me- 
morial Arch and the Memorial Church. The 
former was 100 feet in height, 90 feet in width 
and 34 feet deep, with an archway of 44 feet 
spanning the main entrance. This arch was 
destroyed by the earthquake and has not yet 
been restored. A sculptured frieze 12 feet in 
height, designed by Saint Gaudens, and repre- 
senting the progress of civilization, surrounded 
it. The Memorial Church opens from the 
inner court and is opposite the main entrance. 
It is of Moorish-Romanesque architecture. 
The church, erected by Mrs. Stanford in mem- 
ory of her husband, is adorned within and 


276 


without wiih costly mosaics, representing, as do 
the beautiful stained windows, Biblical scenes 
and characters. It has a splendid organ of 46 
stops and 3,000 pipes and a chime of sweet- 
toned bells. The church is non-sectarian in 
character and method. Religious services are 
held each Sunday morning and _ afternoon. 
There is a week-day vesper service and the 
organ is played each day at the close of reci- 


tations. The church was greatly damaged by 
the earthquake, but has been _ practically 
restored. 


The students live in the dormitories, in club 
houses on the grounds or in private boarding- 
houses in the village, which is situated a mile 
distant from the university buildings. The 
professors live in homes_ provided on_ the 
grounds or in the village. Twenty Greek-letter 
societies for young men and 10 for young 
women occupy chapter homes on the campus. 

In the government of the students, “the 
largest liberty consistent with good work and 
good order is allowed. They are expected to 
show both within and without the university 
such respect for order, morality, personal honor 
and the rights of others as is demanded of 
good citizens. Students failing in these respects 
or unable or unwilling to do serious work 
toward some definite aim are not welcomed and 
are quickly dismissed.” 

The university council consists of the presi- 
dent, professors and associate and assistant 
professors of the university faculty. To it is 
entrusted the determination of requirements for 
admission, graduation and other matters relat- 
ing to the educational policies of the institution. 
It acts as an advisory body on questions sub- 
mitted to it by the president or trustees. The 
routine work of the faculty is divided among 
various standing committees with power to act 
and responsible primarily, some to the council 
and some to the president. Departmental 
affairs are in the hands of subordinate councils 
consisting of the instructing body in the de- 
partment, a member of which is designated by 
the president as presiding officer. 

The general control of the university’s 
affairs was by special provision in its: charter 
reserved to the founders or either of them 
during their lifetime, they to act in the capacity 
of a board of trustees the trustees themselves 
having only a nominal connection. This pro- 
vision remained in force until July 1903, when 
under a special act of legislature passed for 
the purpose, Mrs. Stanford finally turned over 
to the board of trustees full authority and con- 
trol over the university. The board of trustees 
numbers 15, members being elected for a term 
of 10 years. In educational matters the presi- 
dent of the university has the initiative, his 
acts being subject to the confirmation of the 
trustees. The board through a treasurer and 
business manager, one of their own number, 
administers directly the financial affairs of the 
institution, 

The endowment of the university comprises 
90,000 acres of land, including the Palo Alto, 
Vina and Gridley estates, and interest-bearing 
securities, the whole amounting to about $30,- 
000,000, two-thirds of which is productive of 
income. | 

In its entrance requirements the university 
recognizes 29 entrance subjects of different 
values according to the time devoted to them in 


LELEGES 


the secondary schools. The unit of value is a 
full year of high school work in the particular 
subject, and any 15 units, with certain limita- 
tions, chosen from this list constitute prepara- 
tion for full entrance standing. The university 
has no list of accredited schools, but considers 
on its merits the work of all reputable schools. 
The student chooses a major subject, the pro- 
fessor in which becomes his adviser and to 
which he is required to devote one-fourth of his 
time. His remaining time is filled up by courses 
chosen by the student under the advice and 
direction of his major professor. Fifteen hours 
of recitations per week constitute the regular 
course throughout a period of four years. Stu- 
dents are graduated when they have completed 
120 hours of work and the requirements of their 
major subject. Degrees are conferred in May, 
September and January. 

The university grants the undergraduate 
degree of A.B. in all courses; the degrees of 
A.M. and Ph.D. for one and three years’ work, 
respectively, beyond the undergraduate require- 
ments; the J.D. and LL.B. degrees in law, M.D. 
in medicine, and that of Engineer for gradu- 
ate work in engineering. The university grants 
no honorary degrees. 

The work of the university is grouped under 
the following departmental heads: 

Greek, Latin, Germanic languages, Romanic 
languages, English, philosophy, psychology, edu- 
cation, history, economics, law, mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, botany, ‘physiology, zoology, 
entomology, anatomy, bacteriology, geology and 
mining, civil engineering, mechanical engineer- 
ing, electrical engineering, medicine. 

e The university library contains 265,000 vol- 
umes. The attendance for the year 1915-16 
was 2,197, of which 500 were women. The 
faculty numbers 214, Tuition is free, but all 
undergraduate students pay an incidental fee 
of $15 per semester, also the customary labora- 
tory and class fees. A tuition of $100 a year 
in law and $150 in medicine are charged tn the 
professional courses of these departments. 

In recent years the most important develop- 
ment in the university has been the establish- 
ment and growth of the medical school in San 
Francisco, based on the Cooper Medical Col- 
lege foundation, which was taken over in 1908. 
The laboratories of anatomy, bacteriology, phy- 
siology, chemistry, etc., are located on the 
campus at Palo Alto. The professional courses 
are conducted in the city. The buildings of 
the school consist of a clinical and laboratory 
building, Lane Hospital, with a capacity of 180 
beds, a nurses’ home, and the Lane Medical 
Library building, containing 40,000 volumes. 
The university is about to erect a new hospital 
building at a cost of half a million dollars. 


LELEGES, 1él-é’géz’, in ancient history a 
people supposed to have lived on_ the 
coasts of Greece, Asia Minor and the Atgean 
Islands. Homer mentions them as _ allies of 
the Trojans, but does not catalogue them in 
the ‘Iliad,» nor is their dwelling-place given. 
Later writers confused them with the Carians. 
Pherecydes (5th century s.c.) describes them 
as inhabiting the coast of Caria from Ephesus 
to Phocza, the Carians themselves occupying 
the land to the south; but Philippus of Thean- 
gela (4th century) refers to them as slaves of 
the Carians, as does Plutarch. The Hesiodic 


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LELEWEL — 


catalogue has a reference to the Leleges as a 
primitive tribe living in Locris in central 
Greece. After the 4th century B.c. various 
writers placed them west of the A®gean; and 
they are often confused with the Carians, later 
writers assuming that they were partners with 
them in raids upon the coasts of Greece. They 
were reported from the 4th century to have 
been discovered as having lived in various 
parts of Greece and certain writers believed 
them to be aboriginal. Place names’ connected 
with their tribes are scattered through Greece 
and Caria and seem to substantiate the theory 
of migration; although some authorities be- 
lieve the Lelegian legends to have originated 
from the names of these places, such as 
Pedasus, Physcus, Larymna and Abae, rather 
than that they were founded by immigrant 
Leleges. The Greek accounts are considered 
better than the modern elaborations of them. 

LELEWEL, leél’év-él, Joachim, Polish his- 
torian, geographer and numismatist: b. War- 
saw, 22 March 1786; d. Paris, 29 May 1861. 
His family was of Prussian origin, but his 
father was naturalized as a Polish citizen. He 
was educated at Vilna, taught at Krzemieniec, 
Volkynia, and in 1814 became lecturer in his- 
tory at Vilna. In 1818-21 he was lecturer and 
librarian at the University of Warsaw, re- 
turning then to his old position at Vilna. He 
was highly popular among the students and so 
gained the disfavor of the Russian governor, 
Novosiltsevy, who in 1824 deprived him of his 
professorship. He removed to Warsaw, was 
elected to the Diet in 1829 and was connected 
with the revolutionary movement there, his 
activities making him so obnoxious to the 
government that he was forced to disguise 
himself to make his escape. He arrived in 
Paris in 1831, but was suspected by the Russian 
Ambassador .of complicity in Polish plots and 
the French government, upon request, ban- 
ished him in 1833. He then went to Brussels 
where he engaged in literary work, returning 
to Paris a few days before his death. His 
work evidences wide learning and careful re- 
search; and his maps, which he personally en- 
graved in order to assure the preservation of 
their remarkable accuracy, are also of im- 
portance. Author of ‘Bibliograficznych Ksiag 
dwoge,’ A Couple of Books on Bibliography 
(2 vols. 1823-26); ‘La Numismatique du 
moyen age? (2 yols., 1835) ; “Etudes Numisma- 
tiques? (1840) ; ‘La Géographie du moyen age” 
(with an atlas of 50 plates; 5 vols., 1852-57) ; 
‘La Pologne au moyen age? (3 vols., 1846-51) ; 
Polska,» an historical survey of Polish affairs 
(20 vols., 1853-76), etc. 


LELONG, le-lon’, Jacques, French bibli- 
ographer: b. Paris, 19 April 1665; d. there, 13 
Aug. 1721. He was educated at Malta and at 
Paris, was ordained a priest in 1689 and be- 
came librarian at the Oratory of Saint Honoré, 
Paris, in 1689, remaining in seclusion there 
until his death. His work was not completed 
at his death; but was carried on by Fevret de 
Fontette who revised and extended the 
‘Bibliotheque Historique? (3 vols., 1768-72), 
and it was completed by Barbaud de la Bruyére 
(2 vols. 1775-78). Lelong was author of 
‘Bibliotheca sacra,’ a catalogue of all the edi- 
tions of the Bible (1709); and ‘Bibliothéque 
historique de la France,’ containing 17,487 
items and many valuable notes (1719). 


LEMAITRE 277 


LELY, 1é'li, Str Peter, Dutch painter: b. 
Soest, Westphalia, 1618; d. London, 30 Nov. 
1680. His real name was Pieter van der Faes, 
but he assumed as his artistic title a nickname, 
Lely, or rather Le lys, which had been borne 
by his father. He was the pupil of Peter Greb- 
ber in his early manhood, but went to England 
in his 23d year and began his. career as a por- 
trait painter. His pictures were much admired 
and Charles I appointed him court painter. He 
painted the portrait of that sovereign and also 
of Cromwell, but he reached his greatest emi- 
nence after the Restoration. He was an imita- 
tor of Van Dyck, whom he almost equaled in 
the excellence of some of his earlier work. 
But as he fell in with the artificiality of 
Charles II’s licentious court his manner. lost 
much of its dignity and originality, and with a 
fatal facility he assumed that mannerism which 
detracts so much from the artistic worth of his 
portraits. His coloring as well as his drawing 
became weak and conventional. He was, how- 
ever, a great favorite with the king and his 
famous ‘Beauties of Hampton ‘Court? was 
painted at the request of his royal master, 
these “beauties” being the loveliest women of 
the court, including the Duchess of. Cleveland. 
His series of 12 ‘Admirals, painted for the 
Duke of York, is also well known. He is best 
represented at Hampton Court, National Por- 
trait Gallery, London, at Greenwich and Wind- 
sor, and there are also two interesting por- 
traits by him, one of Sir William Temple and 
one of Nell Gwynne at the Metropolitan 
Museum. Consult Baker, C. H. C., ‘Lely and 
the Stuart Painters? (2 vols., London 1912). 
Lely founded the school of*English portrait, 
and up to the time of Reynolds and. Lawrence 
was its ablest representative. His method of 
handling, as well as his conception of the por- 
trait, were long imitated, and even to-day have 
their influence. 


LEMAIRE DE BELGES, lé-mar’ dé 
bélzh, Jean, French poet and historiographer : 
b. Bavai, Hainault, 1473; d. about 1525. He 
was a nephew of Jean Molinet, of whom he 
called himself a disciple, but whose influences 
he outgrew. He studied at Paris and at Lyons, 
and about 1503 he became librarian to Margaret, 
Duchess of Savoy and subsequent regent of the 
Netherlands. He served the duchess on several 
missions to Rome, became canon of  Valen- 
ciennes and afterward entered the service of 
Anne of Brittany. His work is largely free 
from the affectations of his immediate prede- 
cessors and is marked by a fine sense of 
rhythm. He had a marked influence. over the 
succeeding poets of his country, Etienne Pas- 
quier, Ronsard and Du Bellay being among 
his followers. Author of ‘Epitre de l’amand 
verd?; and ‘Illustrations des Gaules et Singu- 
laritez de Troye? (1510-12). An edition of his 
work was prepared by J. Stecher (1882-85). 

LEMAITRE, 1é-ma’tr’, Francois Elie 
Jules, French author, poet and critic: b. Ven- 
necy, 27 April 1853; d. Paris, 6 Aug. 1914. On 
finishing his education he became a school- 
master, but in 1884 decided to devote himself 
to literature. He became editor of the Revue 
Bleue, in which some of his articles attracted 
considerable attention. But his wide reputation 
is based almost entirely on his dramatic 
criticism. He was appointed dramatic. critic 
on the Journal des Débats in 1886; and for 


278 


many years’ he wrote weekly articles on the 
drama of a type that revolutionized the 
methods of criticism. His. literary _ studies 
were collected under the title of ‘Les Contem- 
poraines» (1886-89), in which the studies of 
Flaubert, Zola, Victor Hugo and Ohnet created 
a great impression. His dramatic criticisms 
are collected in volumes entitled ‘Impressions 
du Théatre, of which some 20 have been pub- 
lished. He also published two volumes. of 
poetry and was the author of several. plays. 
His first was ‘Revoltée? (1889); “Le Député 
Leveau? (1890); ‘Marriage Blanc? (1891); 
‘L’Age Difficile ; “La Massiére’; ‘Bertrade? 
and ‘Le Pardon. He was one of the supreme 
masters of lucid, witty and intellectual French. 


LEMAN (la-man) LAKE, a name some- 
times given to the Lake of Geneva. See 
GENEVA, LAKE OF. 


LEMARE, 1é-mar, Edwin Henry, English 
organist and composer: b. Ventor, Isle. of 
Wight, 1866.. He studied at the Royal Acad- 
emy of Music, was organist and director of 
music at Sheffield Parish Church in 1886-92, 
later filling those offices at Holy Trinity, Sloane 
street, and at Saint Margaret’s, Westminster. 
He was organist in charge of the music at 
Carnegie Hall, Pittsburgh, in 1902-05; afterward 
twice gave recital tours in Australia and New 
Zealand; and was organist at the Panama Ex- 
“position in 1915. He has written numerous 
articles’ for musical periodicals on the subject 
of organ music and is author of more than 
100 organ and choral works, and about 200 
organ transcriptions from the great classical 
composers. 

LEMAY, 1lé-ma’, Léon Pamphill, Canadian 
poet and novelist: b. Lotbiniére, province o 
Quebec, 5 Jan. 1837. .He was educated at the 
University of Ottawa and became an advocate 
in 1865, but never engaged in practice. He 
was appointed: librarian to the Quebec legisla- 
ture in 1867, from which office he was retired 
on a pension in 1892. He was awarded an 
honorary Litt.D. at Laval University in 1888, 
where he also won two gold medals for poetry. 
He translated Longfellow’s ‘Evangeline? into 
French (1870). Author of ‘Essais Poetiques? 
(1865) ; “Le pélerine de Sainte Anne? (1877) ; 
“Picounoc le maudit?; “Poemes Couronnes? 
(1870) ; ‘Les Vengeances? (1875; dramatized 
1876) ; ‘Petits Péemes> (1883); ‘Rouge et 
bleu» (1891); ‘Les goutellettes? (1904). 


LEMBCKE, lémb’ké, Christian Ludvig 
Edvard, Danish poet: b. Copenhagen, 15 June 
1815; d,,there,.20, March 1897. He was edu- 
cated in theology, and in 1850 became rector of 
a Latin school at Hadersley. In 1864, after 
the Prussian invasion, he. removed to Copen- 
hagen, establishing a similar school there., He 
was well known as a translator from the Eng- 
lish poets, his work including Shakespeare (18 
vols., 1861-70; 3d ed., 1897-1900); Byron (2 
yols., 1873-76); . Thomas ~. Moore’s...."*Lalla 
Rookh? _ (1878), etc. His original verse in- 
_cludes. ‘Digte og sang? (1870); ©‘Vort moder- 
smaal er dejligt,. Our Mother Tongue (1859). 


LEMBERG, lém’bérg, Poland, the capital 
of the province of Galicia, and the third city of 
Poland, on the Peltew, 470. miles. by rail 
northeast “of Vienna. Founded in the 13th 
century and formerly surrounded«by walls, the 


LEMAN —LEMERY 


city notwithstanding has.a modern anneananer, 
the walls: having: been replaced by: boulevards 
and promenades. It is the seat of the crown- 
land government, and of the important courts 
and public offices connected with it, also of 
three metropolitan sees, Greek, Armenian and 
Roman Catholic. The Greek church of Saint 
Nicholas dates from 1292, and the cathedral is 
a basilica (1740-79); the Armenian cathedral, 
in the Armenian-Byzantine style, dates from 
1437; the Roman Catholic church of Saint 
Mary from 1363, and the cathedral is a Gothic 
structure of date 1480. The Dominican church 
contains a fine monument by Thorwaldsen. 
The university founded in 1784 and reorganized 
in 1817 is attended by over 5,000 students, and 
has a library of over 230,000, volumes; Since 
1871 the language of instruction hds been 
Polish; prior to that it was German. There is. 
a botanical garden anda school of: forestry. 
National Institute founded:in 1817 by-Ossolinsk 
has a library. of over 180,000 volumes and 
3,000 MSS. chiefly of Polish literature, and 
there is a museum of antiquities. The manu- 
factures are extensive and varied, and there 
is a large trade, mostly in the hands of Jews. 
There is. an electric, street railway. The fair 
of the Three Kings is held here each January. 
The . heterogeneous population. consisting of 
Jews (57,587), Poles, Ruthenians and Germans 
numbered approximately 206,113... Over 85. per 
cent of the population speak the Polish lan- 
guage. Lemberg was from, 1432-1772. the 
capital of the Polish province of. Reussen... It 
was captured by the Turks in 1672, and by the 
Swedes. in 1704, and. fell to Austria in. the 
first. partition of, Poland. At. the outbreak of 
the. European ,War.in, August’ 1914, a move- 
ment was made.by, the Russians to overrun 
eastern Galicia, and Lemberg was captured. by 
them on 3 September; but was retaken by the 
Austro-German. forces.on 22 June of the fol- 
lowing. year.. See War, EUROPEAN. ) 


LEMBERG, University of, Poland, situ- 
ated in the city of the same name, founded by 
Joseph ITI in 1784, and the third largest’ univer- 
sity in the country. It originated from a Jesuit 
school whose charter dated from 1661 but 
which did not receive papal sanction until 
1758, 26 years before it was transformed into 
a state institution. It became a lycée in 1803, 
but was restored to its former status and re- 
organized in 1817, its’ marked~ growth dating 
from 1850. Until 1824 the language of instruc- 
tion was Latin, German then succeeding’ it 
until 1871, since when Polish has been used. 
It has faculties of law, philosophy (including 
pharmacy), medicine and theology. There are 
more than 100 lecturers, about. 5,000.students, 
and the annual budget amounts to about $275,- 
000. The library contains: about 230,000 vol- 
umes, 900: manuscripts and) nearly 12,000 coins 
and medals:~ » | fn 


LEMERY, 1am’ré,’ Nicolas, French chem- 
ist: b,.Rouen, 17, Nov. 1645;,d. Paris, 19; June 
1715. At an,early age he displayed a taste, for 
chemistry, went to Paris in 1666, and) attached. 
himself to. Glaser..;He soon. left Glaser and 
took up his abode at’ Montpelier, where, he had 
the free use of..a laboratory, and began. to) give 
lectures which, excited great interest and were 
attended by many of the influential inhabitants 
of the place. In 1672:he returned.to Paris.and 


LEMIEUX — LEMMING 


gave courses of lectures on various parts of 
chemistry, the success of which seems to have 
been very great. His ‘Cours de Chimie? ap- 
peared in 1675. This book went’ through 
numerous editions — 31, it has been calculated 
—and was translated into the chief European 
languages. The book is plainly modeled upon 
the prior. treatises of Lefebvre and Glaser, the 
opening chapters being identical in manner and 
treatment, but shows proof of the author hav- 
ing profited by the work of his predecessors. 
In 1681 the religious troubles began to harass 
him; he was required to demit his office by a 
given time, and had ultimately, in 1683, to 
take shelter in England, where he was well re- 
ceived by Charles II, to whom he dedicated an 
edition of his book. He returned later to 
France, graduated as doctor of medicine at 
Caén, went to Paris, where he soon had a very 
large practice; but in 1685 the revocation of 
the Edict of Nantes forbade him, as a Prot- 
estant, the exercise of this profession. Against 
this he struggled for a little, but in 1686 joined 
the Roman Catholic Church. In 1699 he be- 
came an associate of the Academy of. Sciences. 
Besides the ‘Cours de Chimie,? Lémery. wrote 
and published other works and papers, among 
~which may be mentioned ‘Pharmacopée univer- 
selle? (1697); ‘Traité universelle des Drogues 
simples? (1698); ‘Traité l’Antimoine? (1707). 
It deserves to be remembered that he was one 
of the first to attempt the elucidation of natural 
terrestrial phenomena by referring them to 
chemical action, and to exhibit these on an 
experimental scale, as when he made what is 
still known as Lémery’s volcano, by placing a 
‘mixture of sulphur and iron in a hollow, heap- 
ing up the earth over the mixture, moistening 
and leaving it to itself. By-and-by combina- 
tion between the iron and sulphur begins, heat 


is evolved, the earth heaves and swells, steam 


escapes, and the resemblance of the miniature 
eruption to the larger original is very striking. 
He left two sons, both of whom were after- 
ward distinguished as chemists. 


LEMIEUX, lé-myé’, Rodolphe, Canadian 
lawyer and statesman: b. Montreal, 1 Nov. 
1866. He was educated at Laval University 
and became a barrister in 1891. He was elected 
to the Canadian Parliament in 1896, serving 
successive terms, was Solicitor-General of 
Canada in 1904-06, Postmaster-General in 1906- 
11 and Minister of. Marine in 1911. He served 
as.special envoy to Japan in connection with 
the immigration trouble in 1907, and in 1910 
he was Canadian delegate to the inauguration 
of the South African. Union.. He was ap- 
pointed professor of the history of, law at 
Laval University in 1907, and became a Fellow 
of the Canadian Royal Society in 1908.. Author 
of ‘De la contrainte par. corps? (1896); ‘Les 
origines du. droit Franco-Canadien? (1900). 


LEMIRE, 1é-mér’, Jules Auguste, French 
priest and social ‘reformer: b. Vieux-Berquin, 
Nord, 23 April 1853. He studied at the Col- 
lege of Saint Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, 
and was professor of philosophy and thetoric 
there from 1878-93... He. was elected tothe 
Chamber of Deputies in 1893 and was returned 
in 1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized the so- 
ciety La Ligue du coin de terre et du foyer, 
whose purpose. was. to secure a freehold. for 
every French family wishing to own one. .He 


lande en Australie (1892); 


{Manual of Strategy? 


279 


was a» conservative Republican and Christian 
Socialist in politics, and in 1893 vigorously op- 


-posed. the closing of the Bourse du Travail, 
considering it an: infringement of the rights of 


workers. He was appointed honorary canon 


‘of Aix in 1897, and of Bourges in 1900, In 


1893 he was seriously injured in the Chamber 
of Deputies by the throwing of a bomb by the 
anarchist Vaillant. Author of ‘Le «Cardinal 
Manning et son action sociale? (1889) ;.‘D’Ire- 
‘Que feront les « 

religieuse?? (1903). : 
LEMLY, Henry Rowan, American soldier: 
b. North Carolina, 12 Jan. 1851. He was grad- 


‘uated from West Point in 1872, and was ap- 


pointed second lieutenant of the Third Cavalry. 
In March 1898 he was promoted captain, and 
during the Spanish-American War commanded 
Battery’ C of the Seventh United States Artil- 
lery in the Porto Rico campaign. He took 
part in Indian combats on Tongue River, Rose- 
bud, Slim Buttes and Belle Fourche. He was 
retired at his own request 20 April 1899. For 
many years he was director of the National 
Military School at Bogota, Colombia, and was 
commander-general for Colombia at World’s 
Columbian Exposition 1893. He has published 
“What Was El Dorado??; ‘Among the Arapa- 
hoes? ;* “West ‘Point ‘Romance';’ ‘Padre An- 
selmo?; ‘A Queen’s Thoughts’; also Spanish 
translation of Upton’s ‘Infantry Regulations,’ 
and of an English translation of .a French 
(1887);  ‘Ejercicios 
Gimnasticos»? (1889); ‘El Hellégrafo; Tactica 
de Infanteria? (1901), etc. 


LEMMENS, lém’éns, Nicholas Jacques, 
Belgian organist and composer: b. Zoerle- 
Parwys, province of Antwerp, 3 Jan. 1823; d. 
near Mechlin, 30 Jan. 1881. He studied at the 
Conservatoire at Brussels and in 1846 re- 
ceived a government pension for the purpose 
of studying at Breslau under Adolf Hesse. 
He was appointed professor of the organ at the 
Conservatoire at Brussels in 1849, and for 
some years after 1857. resided much in Eng- 
land.. He established a college for training 
Catholic organists and ~©choirmasters ~ at 
Mechlin in 1879. He married Miss Sherring- 
ton, a noted English soprano, in 1857. His 
work as a teacher is considered of exceptional 
importance in the improvement of methods 
which it influenced throughout the country. 
He composed more than’ 60 compositions for 
the organ, a Te Deum, two symphonies for 
orchestra and. many pianoforte pieces. © His 
‘Ecole d’orgue? is used in the conservatoires 
of Paris, Brussels and other European cities. 


LEMMING, a short+tailed, rat-like animal, 
related to the European voles and’ American 
meadow-mice,’ which inhabits the high moun- 
tains of Scandinavia. Its technical name ‘is 
Myodes lemmus, and closely related species are 
found in ‘northern Siberia’ and in Arctic Amer- 
ica. In general appearance these animals‘ are 
more like miniature short-eared, yellowish rab- 
bits or pikas than like mice; they subsist wholly 
upon. vegetable. food, dwell in nests made of 
bark, grass, etc., in some sheltered nook, and 
do not hibernate but force their way about un- 
derneath the snow in. search of moss, lichens, 
sprouting woody plants and other edible things. 
They. are very prolific, rearing two. broods. of 
four to six young annually, and hence every few 


280 


years they become so numerous that the moun- 
tains can no longer support the hordes. At such 
times, occurring at irregular intervals of sev- 
eral years according to circumstances, an 
exodus takes place and great numbers of lem- 
mings descend from the mountains and spread 
over the lowlands. There the easier climate, 
more abundant food and absence of enemies, 
permit a still further multiplication, so that by 
the following season the little animals have in- 
creased into a plague. They wander more and 
more widely, overrun and damage, or some- 
times wholly devour crops, gardens and mead- 
ows, and make themselves a destructive nui- 
sance. Such an invasion is felt more severely 
in the narrow and fertile valleys of Norway 
than in the broader and more forested spaces of 
Sweden. At such a time concerted measures 
are devised to kill them off, carnivorous mam- 
mals and birds flock to the feast and epidemic 
diseases often break out among them. Spread- 
ing with a restless energy for travel, the lem- 
mings overcome or attempt to overcome all 
obstacles and heedlessly plunge into lakes too 
large or rivers too swift to be crossed. When 
the remnants of the host reach the sea many of 
them boldly swim out in their ignorance of its 
magnitude and are drowned, Such overrun- 
ing of the country by lemmings is not known 
in Arctic Asia or America, where different con- 
ditions exist. 


LEMMING-MICE, certain small, mice-like 
animals closely related to the lemmings and 
having similar traits, inhabit the region about 
Hudson Bay and the southern part of Green- 
land, of which the most prominent is Cuniculus 
torquatus, chiefly remarkable for its turning 
white in winter. Other species belong to the 
genera Synaptomys, Lemmus, etc. 


LEMMON, John Gill, American botanist: 
b. Lima, Mich., 2 Jan. 1832, He studied at the 
University of ‘Michigan, but left to enter the 
Federal army in June 1862, and was a prisoner 
at Andersonville, Ga., from August 1864 till the 
end of the Civil War. He has lived in Cali- 
fornia from 1866, where he was for four years 
botanist of the State Board of Forestry. He 
has published ‘Recollections of Rebel Prisons? 
(1874); ‘Ferns of the Pacific Slope? (1884); 
“Handbook of North American Cone Bearers? 
(1895); ‘Botanizing in Apache Land? (1901) ; 
“How to Tell the Trees? (1902), etc. 

LEMNIAN EARTH, a reddish earth found 
in the island of Lemnos, celebrated as a rem- 
edy for snake-bites and various diseases, and 
collected by the ancients in accordance with 
special religious observances on only one day in 
the year. Analysis shows it to be composed of 
silica, 67 percent; alumina, 14 per cent; water, 
8 per cent; iron oxide, 5 or 6 per cent; soda, 
about 3 per cent and traces of lime and mag- 
nesia. Its classical name “terra sigillata” 
(sealed earth) is due to the fact that it. was 
compressed and marked with the head of the 
Lemnian Diana. The earth is a fair substitute 
for soap, but has no medicinal properties. 


LEMNISCATE, a curve formed by a point 
moving so that the product of its distance from 
two given points shall be the square of half 
the distance between the points. It is a par- 
ticular case of the Cassinian oval. If the two 
fixed points be (Ja, 0), the equation of ‘the 
curve will be (2°+ y A) 2 a’ («?— y?), which be- 


LEMMING-MICE — LEMOINE 


comes in polar co-ordinates p22 cos 2 6, The 
lemniscate can be produced by a section of a 
torus or anchor-ring the external radius of 
which is three times the internal radius by a 
plane tangent to the torus internally and par- 
allel to its axis. It may also be generated as 
the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from 
the centre of an equilateral hyperbola to its 
tangent. The curve is shaped like a figure 8 
and has the centre for a double point of inflec- 
tion. The tangents at this point bisect the 
angles formed by the two perpendicular axes 
of symmetry of the figure. Curves formed 
from other curves after the manner’ by which 
the lemniscate is derived from the equilateral 
hyperbola sometimes receive the generic name 
of lemniscates. The one derived from the 
ellipse is especially interesting. The ordinary 
lemniscate was first discussed by Jacob Ber- 
bouilli in the Acta Eruditorum for 1694. The 
further development of the theory of the curve 
is due to Fagnano and Euler. Consult Bro- 
card, ‘Notes de bibliographie des courbes 
géométriques» (Bar-le-Duc 1897). 
LEMNIUS, lém’ni-ts, Simon (real name 
SIMON LeEMM MARGADANT; sometimes called 
Emporicus or MercatToritus), German classical 
scholar and poet: b. Miinsterthal, about 1510; 
d. Chur, 24 Nov. 1550. He is supposed to have 
studied at Munich and Ingoldstadt, and was 
under the direction of Melanchthon at Witten- 
berg. He early engaged in attacks upon the 
followers of Luther, written in Latin verse, 
and supporting Luther’s enemies and the 
Elector Albrecht. The controversy grew so 
bitter that’ he was forced to leave Wittenberg. 
From 1540 until his death he was a teacher in 
the newly-established Mikolaischule at Chur. 
Author of ‘Epigrammaton Libri Duo? (1538) ; 
‘Apologia contra decretum, quod imperio et 
tyrannide M. Lutheri et Justi Jonze Viteber- 
gensis Universitas evolgavit? (Cologne 1538); 
“Latii Piszi Juvenalis Monachopornomachia,? 
in which he surpasses himself in bitter invec- 
tive; ‘Bucolicorum Ecloge Quinque? and 
‘Amorum Libri Quatuor? (1542); ‘“Homeri 
Odyssea Heroico Versu Facta, Accedit Ba- 
trachomyomachia) (1549); a Latin translation 
of Dionysius’ ‘Periegesis? (1543), and oa 
“Rheteis? which remained in manuscript until 


1874. 


LEMNOS, the classical name fb ‘STALI- 
MENE, the northernmost island of the Grecian 
Archipelago, between the Hellespont and Mount 
Athos. It anciently contained a volcano, Mosy- 
chlus, which was regarded as the workshop 
of Hephaistos (Vulcan), and was worshipped 
by the Greeks as sacred. The island belongs to 
Turkey and consists of two peninsulas almost 
separated by the harbors of Paradiso and San 
Antonio. It has an area of 160 square miles 
and abounds in vineyards, wheatfields, olive and 
fruit groves. The chief town is Limno or Kas- 
tro, with 3,000 inhabitants, a fortified place: on 
the west coast. Pop. chiefly Greeks, about 
27,000. 


LEMOINE, 1é-mwan’, Emile Michel Hya- 
cinthe, Frencli mathematician : b. Quimper, 
Finistére, 22 Nov. 1840; d. 1912. He studied at 
the Ecole Polytechnique, and for some time 
was engaged in teaching. He was later for 
many years connected with the municipal gas 
department of Paris, and was distinguished for 


LEMON — 


his ability in both mathematics and music. In 
geometry he was notable for his contributions 
to the development of the theory of the tri- 
angle. He was‘a founder of the Société Mathe- 
matique de France in 1871, and in 1894 he 
founded the scientific periodical L’intermedtaire 
des Mathématiciens. 


LEMON, Mark, English humorist and 
playwright: b. London, 30 Nov. 1809; d. Craw- 
ley, Sussex, 23 May 1870. He made his first 
essays in the lighter drama, and the modern 
London stage was supplied by his facile pen 
with more than 60 pieces, farces, melodramas 
and comedies, among which were ‘The School 
for Tigers,’ ‘The Serious Family» and ‘The 
Ladies’ Club.» On the establishment of Punch 
in 1841 he became joint editor with Henry 
Mayhew, and two years later sole editor, con- 
trolling that periodical for 29 years. He was 
also literary editor of, and frequent contributor 
to, the Illustrated London News. Among his 
later productions are several novels: ‘Loved at 


Last,’ ‘Golden Fetters» and others. He also 
edited ‘Mark Lemon’s Jest Book.? Consult 
pe “Reminiscences of Lemon? (London 
1871 


LEMON, a small tree or spreading shrub 
(Citrus limonia) of the family Rutacee.. It 
is a native of India, but has been introduced 
into tropical and subtropical countries through- 
out the world, especially those of the Mediter- 
ranean region, whence it was imported into 
Florida and California. In Florida the cold 
wave of 1894-95 destroyed most of the orchards, 
leaving only those in the southernmost coun- 
ties, the soil of which is poorly adapted to the 
trees and must be carefully mulched, fertilized 
and managed to yield profitable returns. In 
California the lemon was introduced about 
1850, but did not become commercially import- 
ant until the closing quarter of the 19th cen- 
tury, during the last 10 years of which the 
annual shipments to Eastern markets averaged 
about. 1,200 carloads, although half of the 
400,000 trees had not yet reached bearing age. 
The climate is perfect, but the water supply is 
deficient, so that the orchards must be irrigated. 
The fruit is one of the most important grown 
in the United States, since, in addition to its 
value in food and drink, the citric acid of its 
juice is used upon a commercial scale by calico- 
printers, who by its aid remove iron from pat- 
terns stamped with certain dyes, and the oil or 
extract distilled from the rind is serviceable in 
perfumery, for flavoring, etc. 

Owing to its spreading habit the tree must 
be carefully pruned, else it will make the neces- 
sary cultivation impossible, and will result in 
bearing fruit at or near the ends of long 
willowy branches. The trees are usually set 
about 20 feet apart each way, given clean culti- 
vation and fertilization like the orange (q.v.). 
The fruit, which ripens during the winter, is 
cut, not pulled, green as soon as it is two and 
one-quarter inches in diameter, the picker carry- 
ing a gauge. These details have been found 
necessary since lemons ripened on the tree are 
of inferior quality and will not keep well, and 
since the market demands lemons in the sum- 
mer. The fruit is spread in shallow trays and 
stored in a well-ventilated curing-house where 
by careful management it develops the charac- 
teristic yellow skin, which also becomes tougher, 


* 


LEMPA 281 


thinner, more pliable and silky and less liable 
to injuty in handling. When properly man- 
aged, lemons are profitable, and because of the 
constant demand are more reliable than’ any 
other of the citrus fruits. 


LEMON GRASS (Andropogon nardus, a. 
schoenanthus and a. citratus), any of several 
varieties of perennial tufted grasses native to 
southern Asia. It is of abundant growth, both 
wild and cultivated. It is of no value for 
grazing purposes except when very young, but 
it has a commercial value for the distillation of 
essential oils used in perfumery. The variety 
known as andropogon schoenanthus yields the 
lemon-grass oil of commerce, which is often 
passed as verbena oil. Other varieties yield 
citronella oil, also used in perfumery. 


LEMON JUICE, the juice of lemons, a 
liquid usually opaque and turgid and exceed- 
ingly sour because of the presence of citric and 
malic acids. It is much used in the preparation ' 
of cooling drinks, usually combined with 
sugar and water, or with potassium bicarbon- 
ate. It is of value in the treatment of scurvy. 


LEMON OIL, a volatile oil obtained, by 
pressure, from lemon peel. It consists chiefly 
of a terpene, CH, known as limonene, which 
boils at 349° F., and closely resembles citrene, 
though differing from it in certain essential par- 
ticulars. Lemon oil has an agreeable odor, and 
is used chiefly as a flavor and perfume. ‘Tt is 
reputed to change spontaneously into turpentine 
upon keeping, but this belief probably has no 
foundation in fact. Lemon oil mixes in all 
proportions with glacial acetic acid and with 
absolute alcohol. 


LEMON VINE. 
BERRY. 


LEMONNIER, lé-m6n'nya’, Pierre Charles, 
French astronomer: b. Paris, 23 Nov. 1715; d. 
Heril, near Bayeux, 31 May 1799. He was ad- 
mitted to the Académie of Sciences when but 
20 years of age, having prepared an elaborate 
lunar map; and in the same year was chosen 
to- accompany Maupertis and Clairaut on a 
geodetic expedition to Lapland. He was largely 
instrumental in securing the introduction of 
English methods and instruments in French 
astronomical circles, and in 1741 introduced 
the use of the transit instrument at the Paris 
Observatory. He visited England and Scotland 
in 1748 for the purpose of observing the annular 
eclipse of 25 July. He made a careful observa- 
tion of the disturbances of Jupiter and Saturn 
which later investigations confirmed ; an import- 
ant series of lunar observations covering a period 
of 50 years; investigations of terrestrial mag- 
netism and atmospheric electricity, and suc- 
ceeded in determining the places of a large 
number of stars. He was a lecturer at the Col- 
lége de France during a large portion of his 
career, was admitted to the Royal Society in 
1739, and upon the founding of the Institute 
was one of the 144 original members... Author 
of ‘Histoire Céleste? (1741); ‘Théorie. des 
cométes,? .a translation with annotations of 
Halley’s ‘Synopsis? (1743); ‘Nouveau | zodi- 
aque? (1755); ‘Observations de la -lune, du 
soleil, et des étoiles fixes? (1751-75) ; ‘Lois du 
magnétisme? (1776-78), etc. 


LEMPA, lém’‘pa, San Salvador, a river, the 
largest of Central America, which rises in Lake 


See BARBADOS GOOSE- 


282 


Guija on the boundary of Guatemala and El 
Salvador, flows eastward through a broad and 
fertile valley for a distance of nearly 150 miles 
and: then: turning abruptly to the south breaks 
through the volcanic coast range of mountains 
and finishes its course of over 200 miles: in ;the 
Pacific in Jat. 13° 12’ N., long. 88° 41’ W., 35 
miles southeast of the city of San Salvador, 
It. has numerous large tributaries and is sub- 
ject to sudden floods. The mouth of the river 
is obstructed by a bar, but the river is reached 
by a natural channel connected with. the Jalte- 
peque estuary, and is navigable by small steam- 
ers for 100 miles. 


LEMPRIERE, John, English © classical 
scholar: b. Island of Jersey about 1765; d. Lon- 
don, 1 Feb. 1824. He was graduated at Oxford 
University in 1790, was ordained and began 
life as a schoolmaster. He afterward was ap- 
pointed to the livings of Meeth (1811), and 
Newton-Petrock (1821). He is the author of 
the well-known classical dictionary. (1788), 
which was founded on Sabatier’s ‘Diction- 
naire des Auteurs Classiques.? He also pub- 


lished ‘Sermons. (1791); »Translation . of 
Herodotus,” first volume only (1792), and 
‘Dictionary of Universal Biography’ (1808) ; 


enlarged and reprinted by Lord (New York 
1824). 


LEMURES, lem’i-réz, among the ancient 
Romans, a term applied to departed spirits, es- 
pecially those of ancestors: who hovered about 
during the night. Probably the word was 
derived from the festival Lemuria held 9, 11 
and 13. May, when at midnight the father of 
the family, with special ceremonies, nine times 
threw black beans over his head, thus,banishing 
the spirits from the household for another 
year. Consult Fowler, W. W., ‘Roman Festi- 
vals> (London 1899) and Wissowa, George, 
‘Religion und Kultur der Romer? (2d ed., 
Munich 1912). 


LEMURIA, a name given by. Haeckel to a 
vast area assumed to exist in past. ages over 
the area of the present Africa, Indian Ocean 
and Malayan Archipelago, on the. hypothesis 
that the existence of such a continent was nec- 


essary to explain the peculiar present. distribu-: 


tion of the lemurs and other phenomena. of 
geographical distribution. The discovery of 
the remains of lemurs in America and Europe 
rendered such hypothesis futile, and the idea 
was. soon abandoned. Consult Wallace, A..R., 
‘Geographical Distribution of Animals? (Lon- 
don.and New York 1876); Scott, ‘The Lost 
Lemuria?. (New. York 1904); Steiner, R., 
‘Submerged Continents of Atl_ntis and Le- 
muria: Their History and. Civilization? (Chi- 
cago, 1911). 


LEMURS, 1é’mérz, the curious monkey- 
like animals, or “half-apes» forming the group 
Lemuroidea within the order Primates, where 
they stand’ lowest in rank. They are divisible 
into three families, Lemuride, Tarstide’ and 
Chiromyide. The last contains only the aye- 
aye (q.v.); and the second only the Malayan 
tarsiers '(q.v.). The lemurs proper (Lemuride) 
are confined mainly to’ Madagascar, but a few 
are found upon the African continent, and a 
few others, of peculiar genera, in the Oriental 
region. They. are’ chiefly arboreal,*.and “more 
squirrel-like than monkey-like in their. man- 


LEMPRIERE — LEMURS 


ners, and quite harmless, gentle and tamable. 
They are usally. mouse-gray or. yellowish, not 
marked in ornamental ways, the hair’ is. long 
and often. woolly, and the tail usually long, 
bushy’ and never prehensile. ‘The. hind-legs 
are longer than the fore-legs in the true le- 
mures, which move about on all fours, not 
using their hands as do monkeys, although the 
thumbs are opposable; the second toe always 
has a-sharp claw, while the other digits bear 
nails. In the internal anatomy many features 
are different from the rule of structure else- 
where in. the order: The. simplicity of the 
brain, the fact that certain arteries form retia 
mirabilia, and especially the non-deciduate con- 
dition of the placenta, are prominent among 
these lemuroid peculiarities. In general, how-. 
ever, the lemurs show much resemblance to 
the Anthropoidea. 

The Lemuride@, or lemurs proper, are divis- 
ible into four groups or sub-families.. The first 
group (Indrisine) is limited to Madagascar, 
and includes several genera distinguished prom- 
inently by the great size of the hind-legs, as 
compared with the fore-limbs; and when upon 
the ground these lemurs walk erect, balancing 
themselves by holding their short arms above 
their heads. The largest is the indri (q.v.), 
which has no yistble tail, while the smallest 
are the avahis (genus Avahis) which are the 
size of gray squirrels, but have very long tails. 
A third important genus is Propithecus, con- 
taining ‘several large brightly colored species, 
called sifakas, which are mainly vegetarian, go 
about in large bands like the indris and seek 
food in the daytime, whereas the avahis are 
nocturnal; and are often tamed and taught 
to hunt like dogs. . rae 

The most typical Lemurs are in the sub- 
family Lemurine, which contains several gen- 
era, some of which inhabit the Comoro Islands 
aS well as Madagascar. Their limbs are of 
nearly equal length, and they have a fuller 
dentition (36 teeth). Among the best known 
are the so-called “gentle” lemurs; the noctur- 
nal grass-eating bokomboulis (Haplemur) ; 
and the handsome and_ highly arboreal species 
of the type-genus Lemur, which vary greatly 
in habits, food and appearance. One of these 
is familiar as the “Madagascar cat” or ring- 
tailed lemur (L. catta), since, unlike the rest, 
it remains upon the ground, especially about 
rocks, is easily caught and readily tamed. It 
is remarkable for the fact that the sexes differ 
in color, the male being black, while the female 
is reddish brown with white whiskers and ear- 
tufts, and the tail alternately ringed with 
brown and white. The ruffed lemur (L. var- 
ius) is still more strikingly diversified in black 
and white, and has a ruff of long hair about 
the neck.. All these lemurs survive captivity 
well and furnish interesting specimens for all 
zoological gardens. 

The third sub-family is that of the Gala- 
gine, represented in the continent of Africa 
and in Madagascar. The galagos (q.v.) have 
long hind-legs, causing them to hop like kan- 
garoos, when on the ground (but the most of 
their life is passed in trees), large, semi-naked 
ears and long tails. Important, genera are 
Galago (q.v:); the mouse-lemuts. or chirogales 
(q.v.) 3 and the diminutive, squirrel-like dwarf- 
lemurs. (Microcebus). . 


LEMURS 


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2 Ring-tailed Lemur 5 Great Galago 
3 Slender Loris 6 Common Loris 


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TRE LIORARY 


LENA — LENARD 


The: sub-family Lorisine contains a group 
of small lemurs, distributed widely in Africa, 
India| and. Malaysia. “In external -appear- 
ance,», remarks Beddard, “all the three genera 
of this sub-family agree in their small. size, 
their short or entirely. deficient tail, large star- 
ing eyes, and the rudimentary character, or 
absence, of the index: finger, which is never 
provided with a nail; in all of them the thumb 
diverges. widely from the other fingers, and 
the great toe is so divergent as to be directed 
backward... The ears are small and rounded; 
and the eyes are very large, and situated close 
together on the front of the head. They feed 
on small birds. and insects, and: are chiefly 
nocturnal: in habits. -They inhabit India, Cey- 
lon andthe. Eastern Archipelago. The genus 
* Nycticebus contains the remarkable “sloth mon- 
key» or sloth lemur  (N.:tardigradus), which 
is nocturnal, howls dismally at times and is 
the object of: many fears and superstitions 
among the Malays and southern Chinese. ‘The 
genus Perodictus contains the queer African 
pottos and angwantibos... The most typical 
species of the group is» the slender loris 
(Loris gracilis) ,a pretty little arboreal animal 
of the Malayan countries. It is. described as 
“smaller than a squirrel, of exceeding change- 
ness and grace, with beautiful eyes.” 

The geographical and geological distribution 
of the lemurs is very -interesting.. Their re- 
mains are found in the rocks as far back as the 
transition period» (Puercos beds) between the 
Cretaceous and Tertiary, the oldest occurring 
in the western United. States. These are 
small lemuroids, and ‘similar forms are found 
in the, early Tertiary: rocks of Europe; Asia 
and, Africa. Many genera are known. The 
most recent, which may have survived in Mad- 
agascar until the discovery of that island by 
Europeans, was Megaladapis, which must have 
been ‘three or four times bigger than any mod- 
ern species, The circumstance that existing 
lemurs and certain other animals occurs only in 
south-central Africa, Madagascar and the Ori- 
ental region, and nowhere between, was so 
_ extraordinary a fact in zoogeography that early 
attempts to account for it. resulted in the 
hypothesis of an ancient continental land-area, 
called Lemuria (q.v.) which was. supposed to 
connect . Africa and southern Asia. This 
theory had little other foundation, and the 
subsequent discovery’, of: remains of extinct 
lemurs in Europe, western Asia and the two 
Americas showed that it. was needless. It is 
eyident that the existing lemurs are the sur- 
vivors of a once. world-wide race which has 
died out except in certain islands and favor- 
able corners of the world where they are not 
exposed to cold climates nor to too many 
enemies. _The almost complete absence of pred- 
atory. animals in» Madagascar doubtless ex- 
plains, the comparatively .great number . of 
lemurs characteristic of that isolated country. 

Consult Beddard, ‘Mammalia?. (1902),; For- 


bes, ‘Allen’s Naturalists’ Library? (1894) ; 
Lydekker, “Royal Natural History,” “Vol. _I, 
(1893) ; Mivart and Murie, ‘Anatomy of the 


Lemuroidea, (in. Trans. -Zool. Soc. of London, 
Vol. VII 1872) ; Ingersoll, ‘Life of Mammals’ 
(New. York 1909). ; 


LENA, 1a-na’ or 1é'nay Siberia, one of the 
largest’ rivers’ in the world, draining about 


283 


1,000,000. square miles, rising on. the’ north- 
western side of the mountains which skirt the 
western shore of Lake Baikal, about 180 miles 
east-northeast of Irkutsk. It flows in a wind- 
ing but mainly semi-circular course,  north- 
northeast and northwest, receiving the Vitim, 
the Aldan, the Viliui and other tributaries. 
Then a mighty stream it flows generally north. 
About 800 miles from the ocean it is over five 
miles in width. Near its mouth it separates 
into branches, forms a great ‘number of del- 
taic islands and discharges itself into the Arc- 
tic Ocean by several mouths in lat. 73° N. and 
long. about 128° E., having thus passed over 
21 degrees of latitude and 22 degrees of longi- 
tude. Its direct course, through a generally 
barren country interspersed with a few dense 
forests, but in some parts with valuable min- 
erals, is about 1,480 miles; its actual course, 
windings included, about 2,850 miles. It is 
navigable through the greater part of its upper 
course, is» rich in fish, is frozen from October 
to May and disastrous floods are often caused 
by the melting of ice in its upper parts. 


aA 

LENAPE (lén’a-pa) STONE, in arche- 
ology, a name given by H. C. Mercer to an in- 
scribed gorget found in Bucks County, Pa., in 
1872, upon which was incised .a. spirited com- 
bat between men and a.mastodon;: lightning 
intervening and. aiding the men in the destruc- 
tion of the beast... The. stone told pictorially 
the legend recorded by Jefferson in his ‘Notes 
on -Virginia.» Since its discovery the stone 
has been condemned by most archeologists, and 
not always on the same grounds, and it is prob- 
able that’ it. will not be accepted generally as 
genuine until abundant corroborative. evidence 
has been obtained. If genuine, the stone estab- 
lishes two interesting facts concerning the In- 
dians of the Atlantic seaboard; that the mas- 
toden or mammoth was living when these peo- 
ple were at the climax of their cultural devel- 
opment, or, if not a feature of practically our 
present fauna, then that the advanced Indian 
lived at a much more remote period than is 
generally supposed. The evidence now_ had 
concerning the mastodon is that it was living 
about 2,500 years ago, and this antedates the 
Indian as so advanced an occupant of this re- 
gion. That man has been an occupant of our 
seaboard region since the Glacial. Epoch. is 
demonstrable and his contemporaneity with so 
recently extinct an animal as the mastodon is 
certain. The principal objection that can be 
brought against its genuineness is that it is so 
far in advance of all other known_ specimens 
of Indian pictographic art. Consult Mercer, 


ta ey <The Lenape Stone? (Philadelphia 
1885). 
LENARD,. le-nart’, Philipp, Hungarian 


physicist: b. Pressburg, 7 June 1862: He stud- 
ied at the universities of Budapest, \ Vienna, 
Berlin and Heidelberg. He became privat- 
docent at Bonn in 1891, taught at: Breslau in 
1894, at Aachen in 1895, was appointed pro- 
fessor at Heidelberg in 1896 and at Kiel in 
1898, returning to Heidelberg in 1907. -In:1909 
he was appointed head of the new radiological 
institute at Heidelberg. He received the- Nobel 
prize for physics in 1905. Author of “Ueben 
Kathodenstrahlen? ' (1906); ‘Ueber ' Aether 
und Materie” (1910), ‘ 


284 


-LENAU, 1a-nou, Nikolaus (pseudonym for 
NrkovAus FRANZ EpDLER voN NIEMBSCH VON 
STREHLENAU), Austrian poet: b. Csatad, near 
Temesvar, Hungary, 13 Aug. 1802; d. in the 
insane asylum at Oberdobling, Austria, 22 Aug. 
1850. Hus father, Franz, was an official of the 
Hungarian Treasury (d. 1807); his mother, 
who later (1811) married the Budapest physi- 
cian Karl Vogel, d. 1829. Lenau is perhaps 
the most melancholy and pessimistic poet in 
German literature; in fact he is frequently set 
up as a type of the denial of life, as opposed 
to Nietzsche, who is taken as an affirmation of 
life. His early education was irregular and 
evidently. guided by the tendency to encyclope- 
dic knowledge which is rather common among 
Germans and. which makes German writers fre- 
quently feel their kinship with Faust. He at- 
tended. the Piaristengymnasium at Budapest 
(1812-15), studied philosophy at the University 
of. Vienna (1819-20), then at Pressburg (1821) ; 
he then turned to law, at Vienna (1822-26), in- 
terpolating one semester of agriculture, at the 
Hungarian University of Altenburg; he later 
even pursued medical courses at Vienna. In 
the autumn of 1831 he was attacked, at Heidel- 
berg, by profound melancholy, from which he 
felt. there would be no deliverance except 
through a trip to America, which he under- 
took in 1832; his experiences, owing to his sen- 
sitive and over-delicate nature, must have been 
very unpleasant, for he returned to Europe in 
1833, settling down in many places in Bavaria 
- and Austria. Ferdinand Kirnberger’s novel, 
“Der Amerikamiide, is a free rendering of Le- 
nau’s American disillusionment, and a number 
of poems by Freiligrath, Heine and Herwegh 
were suggested by the same situation. Lenau 
became insane in October 1844 and spent the 
rest of his life in confinement. He is, as a ly- 
ricist, close to Goethe in importance, full of 
color and temperament; Austria’s greatest 
poet, presenting a powerful infusion of Slavic 
melancholy, together with ingratiating volup- 
tuousness and passionate fire. Many of his 
poems and ballads have become popular. His 
epic attempts are rather lyric and fragmentary 
in’ quality; ‘Faust? (1836); | ‘Savonarola? 
(1838) ; ‘Die Albigenser? (1843) ; ; “Don Juaw 
( posthumous) ; 

Jacop WITTMER HARTMANN. 


LENBACH, Franz von, frants fén lén’bah, 
German painter: b. Schrobenhausen, Upper 
Bavaria, 13 Dec. 1836; d. Munich, 6 May 1904. 
His father was a stone mason and in boyhood 
he followed his father’s trade. As a youth he 
painted portraits at a gulder (40 cents) each. 
At the suggestion of Hofner, the animal 
painter, he turned to the study of art and be- 
came a pupil of Geyer in Augsburg. He subse- 
quently. attended the Munich Academy for a 
short time and then for two years studied the 
technique of painting under Grafle. From 
1855 to 1857 he lived as one of the artistic co- 
terie of Schrobenhausen and painted portraits, 
landscapes and animals. He then attached him- 
self to Piloty and as the pupil of that artist ac- 
companied him to Rome. Here he applied 
himself to the study of the old masters and 
painted his picture ‘The Roman Forum,’ whose 
vivid coloring and grandeur of design made 
his reputation. After his return to Germany 
he painted several portraits, which were dis- 


LENAU — LENCLOS 


tinguished by a power of coloring rivaling that 
of the Venetian school, and a vivid character- 
ization and chiaroscuro which recalled Rem- 
brandt. He was for a few years teacher in the 
Weimar school of art, but eventually returned 
to Munich and attracted the attention of 
Baron von Schack, who engaged him to visit 
Italy and Spain for the purpose of making 
copies of the principal paintings of Giorgione, 
Velasquez, Titian, Rubens and others. The 
copies executed by the painter have all the in- 
dividual tone and color of each original and 
he developed immensely his’ own power and 
style by their production. This appears most 
plainly from an examination of his portraits 
which, original and fresh as they are, show 
plainly that the master had trained himself in 
the school of Titian, Rembrandt and Velas- 
quez. Though his drawing is sometimes weak 
and incorrect, his paintings nevertheless are 
characterized by powerful modeling, life-like 
expression, and as a portrait painter while he 
disregarded contour, his remarkable sense’ of 
character enabled him to see to the soul of his 
sitter with genial and sympathetic intuition. It 
is from his series of portraits of the makers 
of modern Germany that these men will be 
known to posterity—the force and vividness 
of which reflect their personalities. He 
painted the Emperor William I in the last year 
of that monarch’s life; he executed several 
portraits of Von Moltke and 100 portraits 
or sketches of Bismarck, their features becom- 
ing familiar to the world largely from the 
numerous reproductions of these inimitable 
pictures, now looked upon as classic examples 
of German art. Bismarck especially appears 
in these canvases in every attitude and cos- 
tume, civil and military, which he assumed. 
Many of these portraits are in the picture 
galleries of Berlin. He painted in his time 
every living man of eminence in Europe from 
Gladstone to Leo XIII. He was less success- 
ful with feminine types. He also executed 
many pastel portraits as well as single ideal 
figures (‘Sakuntala,» ‘Herodias, etc.). He 
was a Royal Bavarian professor. Honors were 
rained upon him. He was ennobled by the 
Prince Regent of Bavaria. He married’ a 
grand-niece of Von Moltke. <A collection of 
heliogravure reproductions of his paintings 
was published at Munich in 1891. 


LENCAN, or LENCAS, a group of na- 
tive tribes in southern Honduras and ‘northern 
Nicaragua, possessing a language distinct from 
that of neighboring tribes, but divided into 
several dialects. They are semi-civilized and 
of peaceful habits, although they fight on occa- 
sion. There is but scanty history concerning 
them available and their relation to the whites 
is largely unknown. They are among the tribes 
at one time designated as “Chontal,” a name 
covering several undistinguished groups in 
Central America, but which for the greater 
share are now known and named individually. 


LENCLOS, 16n-kl6, Anne, French cour- 
tesan, better known as Ninon de Lenclos:. b. 
Paris, 15 May 1615; d. there, 17 Oct. 1705. She 
was famed for her beauty and notwithstanding 
her reputation some of the most respectful 
ladies of the time cultivated her friendship, and 
in her old age her house was the rendezvous of 
the most distinguished. personages of the city 


LEND A HAND CLUBS —LENINE 


and court. Scarron consulted her on his ro- 
mances, St. Evremond on his poems, Mo- 
liére on his comedies, Fontenelle on his dia- 
logues and La Rochefoucauld on his maxims. 
Richelieu is said to have been her first lover, 
and Coligny, Condé, Sévigné, etc., were her 
lovers and friends. She retained the charms 
of her manners and conversation, and to some 
extent of her person, to extreme old age. She 
is the prototype of Mademoiselle de Scudéry’s 
‘Clelie? (Paris 1556-60). 

LEND A HAND CLUBS, organizations 
of young persons established in the United 
States in 1871, for religious, philanthropical and 
social purposes. The name is derived from a 
story by Edward Everett Hale, entitled ‘Ten 
Times One is Ten,’ published in 1870. Each 
club creates its own constitution, but follows a 
common motto: 

“Look up and not down, 
Look forward and not back, 
Look out and not in, 
Lend a hand.” 

The badge of the club is a Maltese cross, 
with the inscription “In His Name” A cen- 
tral federation called the Look Up Legion was 
formed at Chautauqua, N. Y., in 1874, and the 
Lend a Hand was founded, a journal of the 
societies. 


LENEPVEU, 1a-na-vé, Charles Ferdi- 
nand, French composer: b. Rouen, 1840. A 
pupil of Savard, Ambroise Thomas ‘and Chau- 
vet, he obtained the Prix de Rome in 1865, and 
was appointed professor of harmony. at the 
Conservatory in 1881 and of composition in 
1894. He became a chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor in 1887 and a member of the Institute 
in 1897. His works, which are lacking some- 
what in inspiration, include the sacred drama 
‘Jeanne d’Arc,? first given in the cathedral of 
Rouen in 1886, several operas, a requiem Mass, 
‘Méditation? for orchestra, and various choral 
and solo compositions. 


LENEPVEU, Jules Eugéne, zhul é-zhan, 
French painter: b. Angers, 1819; d. 1898. He 
was a pupil of Picot and at the Beaux-Arts, 
won the Prix de Rome in 1847, painted several 
canvases (‘Les Martyrs aux Catacombes? ; 
‘Pius IX in the Sistine Chapel? ; ‘Venetian 
Night?; ‘Hylas,? and. others), and executed 
many frescoes in public ‘buildings at Paris, 
Angers. and elsewhere. 

L’ENFANT, lon-fan, Pierre Charles, 
French-American engineer: b. France, 1755; d. 
Prince George’s County, Md., 4 June 1825. A 
lieutenant in the provisional service of France, 
in whose best military institutions he had been 
trained, he came to America with Lafayette in 
April 1777; built Fort Mifflin (on the Dela- 
ware), which successfully resisted one of the 
most vigorous attacks of the Revolutionary 
War, and by his skill as a designer of fortifica- 
tions attracted the attention of Washington, 
who made him chief of engineers, with brevet 
of major of engineers. He remodeled and re- 
fitted the City Hall in New York for the use 
of the first Congress, and later also the Federal 
House in Philadelphia. Washington and Jeffer- 
son selected him to draw the plan for the “new 
federal town,” and during the spring and sum- 
mer of 1791 he was employed in the elabora- 
tion of his plans. Jefferson wished the design 
to be that of a chess-board regularity of 


285 


squares, but L’Enfant broke the monotony of 
this arrangement by inserting numerous ave- 
nues running at acute angles. His plan was ap- 
proved by Washington, and he was retained to 
direct the execution of it. The commissioners 
in general charge of the work advertised a sale 
of lots for October 1791 and requested L’ Enfant 
to furnish his plan to be engraved and pub- 
lished. This he refused to do, asserting that 
speculators would purchase the best locations 
in the “vistas and architectural squares” and 
“permanently disfigure the city” by “huddles of 
shanties.» For this insubordination Washington 
ordered his dismissal, 1 March 1792. For plan- 
ning the “federal city” and devoting his time 
for months to the survey and other preliminary 
operations L’Enfant received only $2,500 and a 
lot. near the executive mansion, a compensation 
quite in accord with the general economy with 
which the work was prosecuted. He requested 
the commissioners to recall the order for the 
money and “not take any further trouble about 
the lot” Later, Madison appointed him pro- 
fessor of engineering at West Point, but he 
declined the post. He designed several public 
works at Philadelphia and was appointed to 
construct the present Fort Washington (on the 
Potomac). He partly executed the work, but 
disagreed with his superiors and was dismissed. 
He lived latterly at Chellum Castle, the resi- 
dence of Dudley Digges, near Bladensburg, 
Md., and frequented the halls of Congress seek- 
ing in vain for a reward for past services. The 
execution of his plan for Washington was con- 
tinued by his assistant, Andrew Ellicott, later 
professor of mathematics at West Point. 
L’Enfant’s design may be viewed in the Library 
of Congress. To L’Enfant is chiefly due the 
fact that to-day Washington is one of the most 
picturesque-cities of the world. See WASHING- 
TON. 


LENHER, lén’ér, Victor, American chem- 
ist: b. Belmond, Iowa, 13 July 1873. He was 
educated at Dickinson College and at the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania and engaged in teach- 
ing. He was assistant professor of chemistry 
at the University of Wisconsin in 1900-04, and 
associate professor there in 1904-07, since when 
he has been professor. Author of numerous 
papers on research in organic chemistry pub- 
lished in scientific journals; a translation of 
Moissan’s. ‘Electric Furnace? (1904), and 
‘Laboratory Experiments? (1902; 4th ed., 1906). 


LENINE, Nikolai (also known under his 
real name NrikoLal ILyircH Utyanov), Russian 
socialist: b. Simbirsk, 10 April 1870; .d. Gorky, 
near Moscow, 21 Jan. 1924. Like a brother, 
who was hanged when Lenine was 17. years 
old, for plotting to kill the Tsar, Lenine 
began his revolutionary — activity when he 
was still quite young. Most of Lenine’s life 
has been spent in exile, chiefly in Switzerland, 
where many of his economic and political writ- 
ings were produced. This exile was imposed 
upon him by the necessity of avoiding i imprison- 
ment in Russia for the propagation of anti- 
Tsarist and Socialistic views. Even before the 
opening of the European War in 1914, Lenine 
had long been occupied with the problems of 
the international Socialist movement; his works 
(printed in the Russian language in various 
parts of Europe) dealt with the problems of 
imperialism and opportunism and. revealed a 


286 


profound understanding of the function. of 
finance’ and industry in forcing imperialistic 
wars, as well-as a hatred of the political lead- 
ers who supported wars of this type. Among 
his works: published in Russian were ‘What 
Next? Burning Questions of Our Movement? 
(Stuttgart 1902) ; ‘Two ‘Tactics of the Social- 
Democratic Party in the Democratic Revolu- 
tion? (Geneva: 1905); ‘On Rural Poverty? 
(Geneva 1905); ‘The Dispersal of the Duma 
and the Tasks of the Proletariat? (Moscow 
1906) ; ‘Martov and Cherevanin in the Bour- 
geois Press? (Saint Petersburg 1906), and a 
Russian translation of Karl Marx’s ‘Civil: War 
in’ France? with Engels’ Preface (Odessa 
1905). His hatred of opportunism expressed 
itself in a pamphlet attacking Karl Kautsky 
(Saint Petersburg 1906), as well as in numer- 
ous subsequent attacks:on that leader of the 
Centre faction’ of the German Social-Demo- 
cratic party. Such also is the content of the 
periodicals edited by Lenine in Switzerland 
(Komanunist, 1915; Sbornik, 1916). After the 
outbreak of the Revolution in. Russia, March 
1917, while Leon Trotzky (q.v.) was attempt- 
ing to reach home from New York, Lenine suc- 
ceeded in passing into Russia through Ger- 
many. Immediately on his arrival in Petrograd 
he began to oppose the opportunist and coali- 
tion policy of the Menshevik faction of the 
Social-Democratic party in Russia (Lenine him- 
self wasia member of the Bolshevist, or “Max- 
imalist” faction, after the split that had .oc- 
curred at the party convention in 1903), which 
was aided by the right wing of the Social- 
Revolutionaries. : Kerensky, who had joined the 
latter party after the success of the March Rev- 
olution, was for a continuation of the war with 
Germany, which was opposed by the tortured 
and: wearied Russian population. After the 
July (1917) offensive, which threw thousands 
of ill-equipped troops into the slaughter, Keren- 
sky and the Menshevik faction became wn- 
popular, and this unpopularity grew until the 
Bolsheviki, under the guidance of Lenine and 
Trotzky, overthrew the Kerensky government 
and established a “dictatorship of the prole- 
tariat” (6 Nov, 1917, N.S.). Lenine, in a ses- 
sion of the Workers’ and Soldiers’ Council 
(Soviet), introduced his famous proposals on 
land and peace, which were both passed with 
a great majority on 7 November. Within a 
few days came the publication of the “Secret 
treaties” (reprinted January 1918 by the New 
York Post), the apportionment of land to the 
peasants and the opening of preliminary peace 
discussions with the German delegates at Brest- 
Litovsk. Lenine himself in numerous Articles 
defended the signing of a separate peace with 
Germany (consult the Class Struggle, New 
York 1918, and The Revolutionary Age, Bos- 
ton 1918). In February 1918 the German troops 
advanced further into Russia, contrary to the 
stipulations of the treaty, and imposed: still 
more ‘humiliating conditions upon that country. 
Consult Nuorteva, Santeri, “An Open. Letter to 
American Liberals®, (New York 1918); Reed, 
John, ‘The Sisson: Documents? (New York 
1918), also numerous articles in The Liberator, 
New York 1918-19. . Consult also, in» English, 
Lenine’s ‘Political Parties in Russia?) (New 
York 1917); ‘The Soviets at: Work?» (New 
York 1918); ‘A Letter’ to American’ Working- 
men? (New York 1918). 


LENNEP — 


LENNON 
LENINGRAD. See Perrocrap. 


LENNEP, lén’nép, Jacob van, Dutch 
dramatist, novelist and poet: b. Amsterdam, 24 
March 1802; d. Oosterbeek, near Arnheim, 25 
Aug. 1868. He took his degree in law at Ley- 
den and became a successful advocate at Am- 
sterdam. His first published work consisted of 
translations from Byron, and his first volume 
of original verse appeared in 1826. He began 
the publication of novels in 1828 and steadily 
gained in popularity, his position ‘in’ Dutch. 
literature being similar to that of Sir Walter 
Scott in English, ‘He was further: distin- 
guished for the production of several widely 
popular patriotic songs and plays at the time 
of the Belgian revolt. He wrote a Dutch his- 
tory for juveniles in a pleasing style and was a 
versatile journalist and critic.’ He served in 
a judicial capacity for several years and was 
a member of the Second Chamber in 1853-56. 
Several of his novels have been translated into 
French, German and English. Author of: 
Verse, ‘Academische Legenden” (1826); 
“Nederlandsche Legenden? (2 vols., 1828) ; the 
patriotic comedies, ‘Het Dorp aan de Grenzen? 
(1830), and ‘Het Dorp over de Grenzen? 
(1831) ; the historical romances, ‘De Pleegzoon? 
(1833) ; ‘De Roos van Dekama? (2 vols., 1836) ; 
‘Onze Voorouders” (5 vols., 1838) + De-Lot- 
gevallen van Ferdinand Huyck? (2 vols., 1840); 
‘Elisabeth Musch? (3 vol’. 1850); ‘De Lot- 
gevallen van Klaasje Zevenster> (5 vols., 1865) ; 
the juvenile history ‘Geschiedenissen van 
Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern verhaald> 
‘ vols., 1845). He was also author of several 

ramas. 


LENNGREN, lén’gran, Anna Maria 
(Mrs.), Swedish poet: b. probably at Upsala, 
18 June 1755; d. Stockholm, 8 March 1871. She 
was the daughter of Magnus Malmstedt, a pro- 
fessor at the University of Upsala, and received 
an excellent education. Her verse was success- 
ful from its first publication, when she was 18, 
and she also engaged in making translations of 
French and Latin plays for production at the 
court. She continued writing after her mar- 
riage to Karl Peter Lenngren, an editor of ‘the 
Stockholmpostem, in 1780, and her verse ap- 
peared anonymously in that. publication for 
some years. She wrote in a facile, natural 
style with a simplicity and truthfulness that 
made her widely popular among’ her country- 
men. Her. works were published in collected 
form, ‘Skaldef6rsok? (1819; with a ‘Life?’ by 
Carlén, 1856; with a “Life? by Warburg, 14th 
ed., 1907). . 


LENNI LENAPE, 1én’i lén’a-pe, an im- 
portant Algonquin tribe. See DELAWARE IN- 
DIANS. ; 


LENNO LENAPES, 1én’n6 lén’a-péz, the 
native name for the Delaware Indians (q.v.). 

LENNON, John Brown, American ‘union 
labor leader: b. Lafayette’ County, Wis. 12 
Oct. 1849; d. Bloomington, Ill., 17 Jan. 1923. 
He received a public school education and in 
1886-1910 he was general secretary of the 
Journeymen Tailors’ Union of! America, edit- 
ing in’ those years ‘The Tailor... From 1889 
he was treasurer of the American Federation 
of Labor.’ He was a member of the Commission 
on Industrial Relations appointed’ by President 


4 


LENNOX —LENORMANT 


Taft in 1912 and reappointed by President Wil- 
son; was. vice-president of the Illinois Anti- 
Saloon League, and lectured on social problems 


LENNOX, Charlotte Ramsay, Anglo- 
American miscellaneous writer: b. New York, 
1720; d. London, England, 4 Jan. 1804. She was 
the daughter of the lieutenant-governor of New 
York and was: educated in England. She mar- 
ried and being left a widow in narrow circum- 
stances took up literature for support. Her 
best work is ‘Shakespeare Illustrated? (1753- 
54). She also wrote ‘Memoirs of ‘Harriot 
Stuart? (1750) ; ‘The Female Quixote, popular 
in its day and somewhat injudiciously praised 
by. Fielding and Johnson (1752) ;. ‘Sophia, a 
novel (1763) ; ‘The Sisters, ‘a comedy (1769), 
etc. She was the friend of Dr. Johnson and 
Samuel Richardson, from the former of whom 
she received much encouragement. 


LENNOX, Patrick Joseph, American uni- 
versity professor: b. Nurney, County Kildare, 
Ireland, 12 Aug. 1862. He was educated at 
Rockwell College, Saint Patrick’s College, Car- 
low, and University College, Dublin. In 1886 
he became lecturer at University College, Dub- 
lin, and professor of classics and English at the 
Dominican Women’s College of the same city. 
Subsequently he became senior lecturer in the 
intermediate department of Blackrock College 
and chief professor of the evening courses at 
University College, Dublin. Since 1907 he has 
been ‘professor of the English language and 
literature at.the Catholic University of Wash- 
ington, D..C. He has made particular studies 
of economic and sociological questions and in 
1910 was sent to London by the Department of 
State to attend the International Congress of 
Chambers of Commerce. In the same year he 
investigated trade conditions in Europe as 
special agent of the United States Department 
of Commerce and Labor. In 1911 he was sent 
by President Taft to represent .the United 
States at the International Congress on Alcohol- 
ism. His works include ‘The Victorian Era in 
Ireland? (1887); ‘Mythology of the Ancients? 
(1888) ; ‘Early Printing in Ireland (1909) ; 
“Women Writers of English in the Fifteenth 
Century? (1910); ‘The National University of 


Ireland? (1911); ‘Addison and the Modern 
Essay? (1912). He is a contributor to ‘The 
Catholic Encyclopedia,» -the ‘Encyclopedia 


Americana,’ the North American. Review, the 
Catholic World, the Catholic Educational Re- 
view, etc. and ‘editorial writer on the Wash- 
ington Post. 


LENNOXVILLE, Canada, village in 
Sherbrooke County, province of Quebec, 105 
miles southwest of the city of Quebec, at the 
confluence of.,the _Massawippi and Saint 
Francis rivers, and on the Grand Trunk and 
Canadian Pacific railroads» Bishop’s~College 
and Bishop’s ‘School~are located here. Pop. 


LENOIR, 1é’nwar’, Alexander Albert, 
French architect: b. Paris, 21 Oct. 1801; d. 
there, 17 Feb. 1891. He was educated at the 
Collége Bourbon and under Debret at the 
Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Through: the publica- 
tion of ‘Projet d’un musée historique? (1883), 


he ‘secured the adoption of his: plan to unite | 


the Palais des Thermes and the Hotel de 
Cluny as the Musée de Cluny and. received the 
appointment as an architect to ‘execute the 


287 


work. He became life-secretary of the ‘Ecole 
des Beaux-Arts in 1862 and a member. of the 
Académie des. Beaux-Arts in 1869: His work 
in the reproduction of medizval buildings was 
particularly notable. Author of: ‘Instruction 
sur l’architecture monastique au moyen: age’ 
(2 vols., 1852-56) ; ‘Statistique monumentale de 
Paris? (1861-67), etc. 


LENOIR, 1é- -nor, N. C., town and county- 
seat of Caldwell County, 70 miles northwest of 
Charlotte, on the Carolina and Northwestern. 
Railroad. The Davenport. Female College is 
located here and Blowing Rock, whose eleva- 
tion is. 4,500 feet, is near. There are gold and 
mica mines and the surrounding country is in- 
terested in agriculture and fruit-raising. The 
town -has tanneries and planing-mills and manu- 


factures-of furniture and cotton stuffs. Pop. 
(1920) 3,718. 


LENOIR CITY, Tenn., city of Loudon 
County, 23 miles southwest of Knoxville, at 
the confluence of the Tennessee and: Little 
Tennessee rivers and on. the: Southern Rail- 
road. It has abundant water power, and: oper- 
ates carworks, lumber yards, a flour mill and cot- 
ton spinning and knitting factories. Pop. 4,210, 

LENOIR ENGINE. See INTERNAL Com- 
BUSTION ENGINE. 


LENORE, 1a-nd’ré, ballad by Birger 
(1773), named from its heroine and based on 
the old Slavic legend that the tears of a maiden 
shed over the death of her betrothed may 
cause’ him to return from the grave inthe 
guise of a vampire, carry her away to ‘the 
graveyard and destroy her, unless she should 
be rescued in some miraculous fashion. The 
name is also used: in two’ poems by:E. A. Poe, 
“The Raver and ‘A Pzan? (1831), afterward 
rechristened ‘Lenore.’ 


LENORMANT, § le-nor-man, Charles, 
French archeologist and art historian: b. Paris, 
1 June 1802; d. Athens, Greece, 24 Nov. 1859. 
He became inspector of fine arts in 1825, pro- 
fessor at the Sorbonne ‘in 1835 and«was_ pro- 
fessor of Egyptian archeology in the Collége 
de France from 1848 till his death.’ Among his 
writings are ‘Des. artistes’ contemporains» (2 


vols., 1833); ‘Questions historiques? (2 vols., 
1845) 5 ‘Musée des antiquités égyptiennes? 
(1842); “Le° trésor» de’ numismatique © et» de 


1836-50) ; ‘Elite des: monu- 


glyptique? (5 vols., 
(1844-57, with de 


ments ceramographiques? 


Witte). 


LENORMANT, Bh atiboia’ French ‘‘his- 
torian and archeologist, son of Charles. Le- 
normant (q.v.): b. Paris, 17 Jan. 1837; d. there, 
10 Dec. 1883. He was one of the foremost of 
French Assyriologists and from 1874 was-pro- 
fessor’ of) archeology at the Bibliothéque. 
Among. his’ very numerous works» iare’ ‘Re- 
cherches archéologiques a Eleusis? (1862) ; 
‘Essai sur organisation politique» et: .écon- 
omique de la monnaie dans l’antiquité? (1863); 
‘Manuel: d’histoire. ancienne' de; I’Orient? 
(1868); “Chefs-d’oeuvre de Jl’art antique? 
(1867-68) ; ‘Les Tableaux du musée de Naples? 
(1868) 5, ‘Histoire du. peuple juif? (1869); 
‘Les: sciences occultes en Asie? (1874-75) ; 
‘Les origines de.l’histoired’aprés la Bible’ et 
les traditions’des peuples orientaux>) (1880-82) ; 
“Monnaies et médailles?: RES ) 3) ‘La Grande- 
Gréce? (1881-83). 


288 


LENOX, James, American philanthropist: 
b. New York, 19 Aug. 1800; d. there, 17 Feb. 
1880. He was educated at ‘Columbia, and in 
1839, on the death of his father, a wealthy Scot- 
tish merchant of New York, he inherited a 
fortune of several millions and 30 acres of land 
between Fourth and Fifth avenues. After his 
father’s death he retired from business and de- 
voted his time to study and the collection of 
fine books, statuary and painting. After some 
years he became the possessor of the most 
extensive private collection of books and paint- 
ings in the United States. In 1870 he erected a 
large and costly building on Fifth avenue, be- 
tween 70th and 7Ist streets, to contain his col- 
lection, On 23 May 1895 the Lenox Library 
was consolidated with the Astor Library and 
the Tilden Trust to form the New York Public 
Library. He founded the Presbyterian Hos- 
pital, his gifts to it amounting to $600,000. He 
also: made important gifts to Princeton Col- 
lege and Seminary, and gave liberally to numer- 
ous churches and charities connected with the 
Presbyterian ‘Church. 


LENOX, Mass., town in Berkshire County, 
on the New York, New Haven and Hartford 


Railroad, about six miles south of Pittsfield © 


and the same distance from the boundary line 
between New York and Massachusetts. It was 
settled in 1750 and named in honor of Charles 
Lenox, Duke of Richmond. The town includes 
the villages of Lenoxdale and New Lenox.. It 
is noted for its beautiful scenery and healthy 
climate. Within the town limits are Laurel and 
Mahkeenac lakes and spurs of the mountains 
called the ledge, Perry Peak, Bald Head and 
Mattoon Hill. This locality is largely resi- 
dential; the industries which contribute to the 
wealth of Lenox are located mainly in the 
large cities. Many noted people have been resi- 
dents. of Lenox, among others Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne, Henry Ward Beecher and Fanny Kem- 


ble. The government is administered by town 
meetings. Pop. 3,060. 
LENS, lonz, France, city in the depart- 


ment of Pas- de-Calais,; nine miles northeast of 
Arras on the Détile and on the Lens Canal. It 
is an important coal-mining centre, has iron, 
steel and engineering works and manufactures 
sugar, steel cables and soap. It is an ancient 
town and was at one time fortified. It was the 
scene of a victory by the French under Condé 
over the Spaniards under Archduke Leopold 
William, 2 Aug. 1648. It was occupied by the 
Germans during the European War beginning 
August 1914, and was the scene of severe fight- 
ing at both the beginning and end of the strug- 
gle, being retaken by the Allies 3 Oct. 1918. 
Pop. 31,746. 


LENS, a transparent body, generally glass, 
which refracts the rays of light convergently or 
divergently. Converging lenses, properly speak- 
ing, are called positive (trade designation plus, 
+), because they bring rays of light to an 
actual focus, thus forming a real image. Con- 
verging lenses give, under suitable conditions, 
a magnified image of an object, and one or 
both of their bounding polished surfaces are 
convex. The fact of their being thicker in the 
middle than at the edges distinguishes them 
from diverging lenses. “Diverging lenses are 
called negative (trade designation, minus, —) 
because they tend to cause the rays of light to 


LENOX — 


LENS 


diverge and form, under all conditions, a virtual, 
reduced image of an object. One or both of 
their surfaces are concave and they can be dis- 
tinguished from converging lenses by their be- 
ing thinner in the middle than at the edges. 
These two classes of lenses are each divided 
into three leading types. Those of the positive 


A 


Fic. 1. 


or convex class are (1) double or bi- -COnVeX ; 
(II) plano-convex; (III) convex- meniscus 
(trade term, periscopic-convex). Those of the 
negative or concave class are (IV) double or 
bi- -concave; (V) plano- -concave; (VI) concave- 
meniscus ‘(trade term, periscopic-concave). 
(See Fig. 1). ‘Convex lenses converge parallel 
rays, as shown in Fig. 2, to a point (¢) called 


Eien, a H 


Fic. 2. 


the principal focus or focal point, and the dis- 
tance from a certain point (0), called a prin- 
cipal point, which is usually within the lens, to 
the focal point (c) is the equivalent focal 
length. The straight line (d b c) which passes 
through the middle of the lens, joining the 
centres of the curvature of the two surfaces, is 
called the principal axis. 


et. 2 ice. ~ — sees =i = 


Fic. 3. 

For brevity, the word “focus” is often used 
instead of focal length. In a concave, lens, the 
action on parallel rays is opposite to that of a 
convex lens; instead of converging the light, it 
diverges the rays away from the axis, as shown 


in Fig. 3.. The imaginary extension of the di- 
verging rays should meet at c, and when, as in 


LENS 


the case of the convex lens, the incident rays 
are parallel, the distance from the virtual focus 
c to the principal point b is the equivalent focal 
length. It will be noticed from the diagrams 
that the rays of light entering the substance of 
the lens are always ‘bent toward the thickest 
part of the lens, Generally speaking, the real 


or virtual focus increases with the increase of 
radius of curvature of the polished surfaces. 
The power of any lens is the quotient obtained 
by dividing unity by the equivalent focal length. 
A lens is said to ‘be neutralized when combined 
with one of equal and opposite power, giving 
the effect of a plane glass. The distinctness of 
the image formed by a simple lens depends 
mostly on the extent to which the spherical 
aberration and the chromatic aberration are 
present, the aberrations being greater as the 
ratio of diameter to focal length increases in a 
lens of any given type. Spherical aberration of 
a lens is caused by the rays meeting at different 
intervals along the axis instead of combining at 
one point. In Fig. 4, ol is the spherical aberra- 
tion. Chromatic aberration is due to the sepa- 
ration of the light into its different colors, thus 
causing, in the case of a convex lens, the violet 
rays to meet at a point v nearer the lens than 
do the red rays at point r. In Fig. 5 vr is the 
chromatic aberration. Both of these’ defects 
are corrected in achromatic lenses. The process 
by which this is accomplished is the combining 
of two or more lens forms of different kinds 
of glass which have differing angles of re- 
fraction. These are accurately fitted together 
and cemented into one piece. A very common 
combination is a convex crown glass with a 


Fie. 5. 


concave flint glass. A still better combination 
is a central disc of flint glass with a crown disc 
on each side of it —all being optically ground 
so as to correct both chromatic and spherical 
aberration. 

Up to the present we have only considered 
Jenses in which the curved surfaces are spherical, 
and for this reason are called spherical lenses. 
There are, however, other forms of lenses used, 
especially for the correction of defects in 


vision, principally astigmatism, of which the 


sometimes both, of 
cylindrical. These are 


most important has one, 
the curved surfaces 
VOL. 17 — 19 


289 


called cylindrical lenses, or cylinders. In these 
lenses a line drawn along the summit of curva- 
ture, parallel to the axis of the imaginary cylin- 


FT 


grvweeeceeeoe eweoeeescooeo= 


Fic. 6. 


Fic. 8. 


der, is called the axis, and must be distinguished 
from the principal axis of a spherical lens. (Fig. 
6). When the lens has two cylindrical sur- 
faces, with the axes at right angles, it is called 
a “crossed cylinder”; if one of the surfaces is 
spherical and the other cylindrical, the lens is 
called a “sphero-cylinder.”. Another form of 
lens which has come into use in recent years is 
the toric (toroidal). lens on which one surface 
is toroidal, the meridians of the surface are at 
right angles to each other and have radii of 


~ a 
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: . : 
® 4 ‘ 
r) 4 
& é ‘ 
hi e a 
x i: . 
se af 
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Se o? ‘s q 
StemO@S o ce ecw we cece ce se wee oes <= — Swece 
we cet cee 
Pia HIS 
e . 
= @a sey 
AS Sy 
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o nN 
eo . 
e 
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e 
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t] e LY 
r e a 
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: ’ 
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LY » e 
\Y oN o” 
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Fic.’ 7. 


different curvature. Its form is illustrated by 
a section of a bicycle tire. (Fig. 7). These 
lenses are much in use for lighthouses, being 


290 


usually built up by a series of concentric rings 
of almost prismatic form. 


Type lenses are combined: for economic use 


generally in four ways: (1) to produce an en- 
larged image, as in the reading-glass and mi- 
croscope;.(2) to produce a smaller image, as 
in the photographic camera; (3) to gather and 
project rays of light in a cylindrical beam, as 
in the lens of a lighthouse, or the condenser of 
a stereopticon; (4) to condense and project to 
‘a focal point, as in the burning glass. The 
lenses for telescopes, microscopes, cameras and 
‘stereopticons require to ‘be ground and polished 
with the most exquisite accuracy. In a some- 
what less degree accuracy of form and finish 
is required in spectacle lenses. The following 
list comprises the usual forms of lenses in 
commercial use: 

Achromatic Lens.— In its simplest form is 
a combination of a converging crown glass lens 
and a diverging flint glass lens so proportioned 
that the chromatic aberration™is corrected for 
two colors. These lenses are generally com- 
bined by a thin transparent cement which makes 
them together appear and operate as one lens. 
(See Fig. 8). They are also made up of three, 
four or five lenses cemented together. 

Aplanatic Lens.—A lens or a lens system 
which is free from spherical aberration. 

Apochromatic Lens.—An achromatic lens 
in which the chromatic aberration is corrected 
for three colors and the spherical aberration is 
also very perfectly corrected. 

Bi-focal Lens.—A double focus spectacle 
lens first introduced by Benjamin Franklin, and 
now commonly made by adding to or inserting 
a segment in the lower half of the lens. 

Bull’s-eye Lens.—A plano convex lens of 
relatively short focus used for illuminating pur- 
poses, generally in a hand lantern. 

Cataract Lens.—A_ short focus convex 
lens to aid vision after the removal of the 
crystalline of the eye for cataract. 

Coddington Lens.— Originally the central 
portion of a glass sphere but is now generally 
made a single lens of considerable thickness 
with convex surfaces, with a circular groove to 
cut out the marginal rays. 

Collective Lens.— In a microscope or tele- 
scope eyepiece the large lens nearest the 
objective. 

Compound Lens (a trade term).—A lens 
in which combinations of plano, spherical, cylin- 
drical or toric surfaces are made, sometimes to 
the extent of obtaining a prismatic effect. 

Condensing Lens.—A convex lens or a sys- 
tem of lenses for concentrating light to a point 
or on a surface. , 

Coquille Lens (trade term)—A piece of 
colored glass of uniform thickness and having 
concentric spherical surfaces. 4 

Crossed Lens.— Either a double convex or 
double concave lens with the radii of curvature 
in the proportion of 1 to 6, and giving the mini- 
mum amount of spherical aberration. ~» 

Crystalline Lens.— The natural double 
convex fluid-lens in the eye situated behind the 
iris and aiding to.form the image on the retina. 

Demonstration Lenses.—A _ series of 
lenses of pronounced curvatures to illustrate the 
various types of lenses. 

Doublet Lens.—A combination of two 
separate single lenses. These lenses may be 
either simple of compound. 


LENS 


_ Eye-lens.— The lens nearest the eye in 
eye-pieces (oculars) used for microscopes and 
telescopes. 

_ Eyeglass Lens.—A spectacle lens used to 
aid vision. Asa single lens it is held in position 
by muscular contraction. The eyeglass with 
lenses for both eyes is generally accepted to 
mean the form which is held in position by 
clamping upon the nose (French, pince-nez), or 
it may be. attached to a handle. 

Finder Lens.—A. lens or a combination of 
lenses attached to a camera to locate the bound- 
aries of the field of view. 

“Fluid Lens.—A lens produced by filling the 
space formed by two transparent surfaces with 
a suitable liquid. ~~ 

Fresnel Lens.—A: lens formed of a cen- 
tral plano convex or toric convex lens bounded 
by ring-shaped prisms and lenticular prisms, 
used to project the rays from a lamp, as in a 
lighthouse or railway signal light. 

Immersion Lens.—A. microscope objective 
of high power, the front lens of which is con- 
nected by fluid to the cover glass of an object, 
thus giving increased angular aperture. 

Kryptok Lens.—A spectacle lens com- 
pounded by countersinking the ordinary lens 
and filling the aperture with glass of a different 
angle of refraction and fusing the two into one 
in the electric furnace. Mi 

Magnifying Lens (Magnifier).—A lens ora 
series of two or three lenses used to increase 
the apparent size of an object, mounted so that 
one, two or three may be used separately 
or superposed one upon the others, and in con- 
venient form for the pocket. . 

Pebble. Lens (trade term).—A_ spectacle 
lens made of rock crystal which is harder than 
glass and has a different angle of refraction: 

Photographic Lens (also photographic ob- 
jective).— A lens or a combination of lenses | 
designed for photographic purposes. It is made 
in a great variety of types, the simplest being 
the single achromatic convex meniscus lens. 
The form in most common use is composed of 
two separated: achromatic menisci, with their 
concave surfaces toward one another, known 
commercially as symmetrical, rectilinear or 
aplanat. The portrait lens, another type, gen- 
erally of large diameter, having great light- 
gathering power, is composed of two separated 
achromatic lenses, one cemented and the other 
uncemented (Petzval type). The most modern 
photographic lens is the anastigmat, invented by 
P. Rudolph, which is free from astigmatism, a 
fault present in all earlier types. The new 
varieties of optical glass made in Jena were 
first successfully employed in these lenses, by 
means of which greater perfection in other di- 
rections was also attained. 

Punktai Lens.—A spectacle lens corrected 
for astigmatism over a field of 80 degrees. See 
SPECTACLES. 

Spectacle Lens.—A lens used to correct 
vision and when two are combined by a bridge 
which rests on the nose and provided with bows 
which clasp the temples is now generally termed 
spectacles. — 

’ History.— The early history of lenses is 
quite vague. While the magnifying property 
of glass globes filled with water and presum- 
ably of glass beads. was known, there is no 
authentic information that lenses were made 
and used, There is in the British Museum a 


LENS — LENTICEL 


piece of rock-crystal about the size of a modern 
spectacle lens, cut to a plano convex form which 
was found by Layard during the excavations 
at Nimroud. Instead of having a spherical sur- 
face, it is made up of a series of facets and 
the crystal is permeated by cloudy striz. 
Alhazen, who. died about 1052, first described 
the magnifying effect of simple lenses. Spec- 
tacle lenses were’ well known in the 13th cen- 
tury, and their invention is credited to Salvino 
d Armato degli Armati, about 1255. The com- 
bination of two single lenses, thus forming a 
compound microscope, for the purpose of 
magnifying objects, is believed to be due to 
Hans and Zacharias Janssen of Middleburg, 
Holland, about 1590. The discovery of the 
telescope, which is credited to Galileo, about 
the year 1610, was in its original form a com- 
bination of convex lens of long focus with a 
concave lens of short focus, and this form is 
still retained in the ordinary opera glass, which 
is designated as a Galilean telescope. The 
achromatic lens was the next important inven- 
tion and was made by Dolland in England in 
1758. The making of lenses was revolutionized 
in 1886 by the announcement of 19 new kinds 
of glass by the Jena Glass Works of Jena, 
Germany. In 1888, 24 other kinds were placed 
on the market; and eight more in 1892. Not all 
of these were suitable for making lenses, but 
some of them proved superior and new com- 
binations with former glasses were possible, 
resulting in some of the most remarkable in- 
strumental lenses theretofore produced. In 
July 1914 a practical glass maker was added to 
the force of the Bureau of Standards of the 
United States, and this bureau has since made 
some of the finest optical glass ever produced. 
See Grass; JENA GLAss; LIGHTHOUSE; MICcRo- 
SCOPE; Optics; PHOTOGRAPHY; STEREOPTICON ; 
TeLEscore. Consult Bolas, T., and Brown, G. E., 
‘The Lens» (New York 1902); Fraprie, F. R., 
“How to Choose and Use a Lens? (Boston 
1915) ; Hovestadt, H., ‘Jena Glass, and Its Scien- 
tific and Industrial Applications? (London 
1902) ; Prentice, C. F., “Ophthalmic Lenses and 
Prisms? (Chicago 1917); Thorington, J., ‘Re- 
fraction and How To Refract»? (Philadelphia 
1914) ; United States Bureau of Standards Re- 
print 122, ‘The Resolving Power of Objectives? 
(Washington 1909); Wood, R. W., ‘Physical 
Optics? (New York 1911). 

LENS, in geology. See Ben. 

LENSTROM, in’strém, Carl Julius, 
Swedish clergyman, poet and critic: b. Gefle, 9 
May 1811; d. Vester-Lofsta, 6 April 1893. He 
was educated at the University of Upsala and 
took orders in 1834. He was instructor in the 
history of literature at Upsala in 1836-43, and 
lecturer in philosophy at the Gymnasium at 
Gefle in 1843-45. From 1845 he was rector at 
Vester-Lofsta. His literary productions in- 
cluded history, fiction, poetry, philosophy and 
theology. Author of ‘Bidrag till den svenska 
aesthetikens historia? (1840) ; a Swedish church 
history, ‘Larobok i allmanna och svenska 
Kyrkohistorien» (1843); in verse. ‘Cromwell? 
(1860); and “Gustaf II Adolf? (1860); ‘De 
fyra Standen, taflor ur svenskt sedelif? (1865), 
etc. 

LENT (from Anglo-Saxon Lenct, spring), 
the spring or vernal fast of the Christian 
Church as observed, in preparation for Easter, 


201 


by members of the Greek, Roman and Anglican 
churches. The original fast of spring which 
preceded Easter was of 40 hours’ duration, 
this being the number of hours that intervened 
between the death and resurrection of Christ. 
Additional days were added, their number vary- 
ing in different churches. Cassian (420 A.D.) 
says six or seven weeks was the period in the 
several churches, but none exceeded 36 fasting 
days. He affirms that the observance of Lent is 
not primitive. The historian Sozomen (440 
A.D.) writes of the fast “The Quadragesimal 
fast before Easter some observe six weeks, as 
the Illyrians and Western churches; others 
make it seven weeks, as the Constantinopolitans 
and meighboring churches.” In the first three 
or four centuries much latitude was allowed in 
the observance of Lent; Chrysostom recom- 
mends, but does not enforce it, insisting on the 
prior necessity of good works and alms-giving. 
Distinction of foods was not made in primitive 
times, when the greatest ascetics ate meat in 
Lent, though they abstained from eating until 
the evening. In its present form it dates from 
the 9th century. See FAsTING; ASH WEDNES- 
DAY; Hoty WEEK. 

LENTHALL, William, English parlia- 
mentarian: b. Henley-on-Thames, June 1591; 
d. Besselsleigh, 9 Nov. 1681. He was educated 
at Oxford, was called to the bar at Lincoln’s 
Inn in 1616 and became a bencher in 1633. He 
was member of Parliament for Woodstock in 
the Short Parliament, -April 1640, and was 
selected by Charles I to be speaker of the Long 
Parliament, beginning 3 Nov. 1640. He was a 
man of much pliancy of nature and was bitterly 
criticized as a time-server in the troubles of 
his day; but on the occasion of the appearance 
of Charles I in the House of Commons, 4 Jan. 
1642, for the purpose of arresting five members, 
he won the gratitude of Parliament by his dig- 
nified refusal to disclose their whereabouts. 
He was shortly afterward granted the sum of 
£6,000 for expenses connected with “strict and 
long attendance” in the House. He was ap- 
pointed master of the rolls 22 Nov. 1643 and 
was a commissioner of the great seal in 1646- 
48, having sided with Parliament at the out- 
break of the rebellion, although he was prob- 
ably at heart a royalist. He put the question 
for the king’s trial from the chair, in the belief, 
he afterward maintained, that the majority 
were in favor of clearing him. While he con- 
fessed that much of his conduct was based 
upon personal cowardice he nevertheless had 
the courage to use his casting vote ta save the 
lives of the Earl of Norwich, 8 March 1649, 
and Sir W. D’Avenant, 3 July 1650, both royal- 
ists. He was speaker of the first Parliament 
under Cromwell in 1654 and was member from 
Oxfiordshire in 1656, and was again speaker of 
the Long Parliament 1659. He aided the resto- 
ration of the Stuarts, but was not returned to 
the House of ‘Commons and was deprived of 
his office of ‘master of the rolls by the king. 
He was permitted to appear at court after tes- 
tifying against the regicide, Thomas Scott. 


LENTICEL, in botany, a mass of round- 
ish cells characterized by having a greater or 
less likeness in shape to a double-convex lens. 
It is exemplified in the inner bark of trees and 
woody plants of mature age, where a lenticel 
underlies each of the many openings through 


292 


the bark, usually: denoted externally by wart- 
like excrescences, by which the air enters to 
furnish oxygen and other gases to the interior 
of the wood, where connected openings between 
the cells carry the gases to all parts of the 
plant —a provision very necessary to its health. 
These openings at the lenticels are partly closed 
in winter by a growth of corky, cortical cells, 
but reopen in spring and resume their supply 
of air to the reviving life of the plant. 

The same name is given, in physiology, to 
one of the follicles at the base of the tongue 
that secrete and supply to the tongue the 
moisture (mucus) that it requires in order to 
exercise the sense of taste, and to perform its 
function generally. 


LENTIL, a European leguminous plant 
(Ervum lens), closely allied to the tares and 
vetches. Lentils are cultivated in southern 
Europe in two varieties — the large garden len- 
til and the common field lentil, for the sake of 
their seeds contained in small pods. The straw 
of lentils is good food for cattle and sheep, and 
when mixed with vetches, and sowed as food, 
is. excellent fodder. As food for man lentils 
are very nutritious, and in Egypt, Syria, 
Mexico, etc., are an important article of diet. 
They are used in soups, etc., in England and 
the United States, but not to a great extent. 


LENTIL, in geology. See Ben. 


LENTINI, lén-té’né, or. LEONTINI (anc. 
Leontium), Sicily, city in the province of Syra- 
cuse, 18 miles southwest of Catania by rail, six 
miles from the coast, and on Lake Lentini, the 
largest ‘body of water in Sicily. The town was 
founded by Chalcidians, from Naxos, 729 B.c. 
It was captured by Hippocrates of Gela in 498 
B.C., appears to have been unimportant in Roman 
times, was destroyed by the Saracens, 848 A.D., 
and was practically leveled by the earthquake 
of 1698. It was the birthplace of Euclid. The 
modern town manufactures earthenware and is 
a market for grain, oil, wines, flax, fish and 
game, and cattle. The neighborhood is highly 
malarial. Pop. 22,904. 


LENTULUS, lén’tii-ltis, the name of a 
patrician family of Rome of the Cornelian gens. 
Several of its members distinguished them- 
selves by their virtues and services, while 
others were less honorably conspicuous. Pus- 
Lius LENTULUS SURA was questor under Sulla 
(81 B.c.), pretor (75 B.c.) and consul (71 B.c.). 
He was expelled from the senatorial order by 
the censors, but became pretor again in 63 B.c.,, 
while Cicero was consul: As one of the ac- 
complices of Catiline, Lentulus was indicted in 
the conspiracy and put to death in prison. 
LENTULUS SPINTHER, one of the most luxurious 
and ostentatious men of his age, was curule 
zedile (63 B.c.), pretor (60 B.c.) and consul in 
57, when he was instrumental in procuring 
Cicero’s recall. He was governor of Cilicia 
and Cyprus from 56-53 p.c. Later he became a 
partisan of Pompey, but was pardoned by Cesar 
and joined Brutus and Cassius when they took 
the field after the assassination of Czsar. L. 
CoRNELIUS LENTULES Crus, who was the chief 
accuser of Publius Clodius for violating the 
mysteries of the Bona Dea. He became prztor 
in 58 B.c.; consul in 50 B.c., and in this capacity 
bent all his efforts toward encouraging an 
armed resistance to Cesar. Upon Cesar’s 
victory, he fled to Greece; and when Pompey’s 


LENTIL —LEO I 


defeat at Pharsalus made it impossible for 
Lentulus to return, he embarked for Rhodes. 
After wandering through Cyprus, he went 
eventually to Egypt where he was put to death 
by Ptolemy. 


LENZ, Oskar, German explorer and geog- 
rapher: b. Leipzig, 18 April 1848. He studied 
at the University of Leipzig, was appointed to 
the Austrian Geological Institute and was en- 
gaged in expeditions to Croatia, Hungary and 
Bohemia. He was in West Africa on a scien- 
tific expedition for the German African Com- 
pany in 1874-77; and in 1880 he succeeded in 
crossing the western part of Sahara and reach- 
ing Timbuktu. The Mahdi revolt having cut off 
Junker, Casati and Lupton, he in 1886 organized 
and headed the relief expedition.. He was ap- 
pointed professor of geography at the German 
University of Prague in 1887, was rector there 
in 1902-03 and retired in 1909. He collaborated 
with Hochstetter in the preparation of ‘Die 
zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt? (1874). Author 
of ‘Skizzen aus Westafrica? (1878) ;° ‘Tim- 
buktu: Reise durch Marokko, die Sahara und 
den Sudan? (2 vols., 1884); ‘Wanderungen in 
Afrika» (1895); ‘Ueber Geld bei Naturvdl- 
kern? (1895); ‘Marokko, Geschichte, Land, 
und Leute? (1907), ete. 


LEO, the name of 13 popes, as follows: 


LEO I, Saint (surnamed THE GrREAT), 
Pope from 440-461: b. Rome or Tuscany; d. 
Rome, 10 Nov. 461.. Of the Roman popes only 
Leo I and Gregory I received the designation 
“Great.” .The earliest definite information con- 
cerning Leo reveals him in 429 a deacon of the 
Roman Church under Pope Celestine I, and al- 
ready a man of considerable repute for. learn- 
ing and sagacity. His connection with Gaul 
is shown by the fact that Cassianus wrote ‘De 
Incarnatione Domini contra Nestorium? (430 
or 431) at the suggestion of Leo and dedicated 
the work to him. In 440 Leo was temporarily 
in. Gaul, sent there by Emperor Valentinian 
III to adjust the dispute between the general 
Aétius and the chief magistrate Albinus, when 
Pope Sixtus III died, 19 August. While still 
absent Leo: was elected Pope and upon. his re- 
turn was consecrated, 29 Sept. 440. He set 
about securing unity in the Church and in 443 
began measures for the suppression of. the 
Manicheans and other heretics, succeeding in 
returning many to the Church and in banishing 
others. He greatly strengthened the central 
authority of the Church anda signed evidence 
of his success exists in the edict of the Emperor 
Justinian III which directed that the authority 
of the bishop of Rome was necessary for any 
innovations, and that “the decree of the 
apostolic see should thenceforth be law.” Leo’s 
correspondence with Turibius of Astorga in 
447 culminated in the denouncement of Prescil- 
lianism by the Church in Spain; in 449 he held 
a council in Rome against the Eutyches, whose 
council held earlier in the year Leo denounced 
as the “Robber Synod”; and in 451 he addressed 
to the General Council at Chalcedon, ‘over 
which he presided by legates, his famous “dog- 
matic letter? to Flavian, defining the doctrine 
of the Incarnation. His letters are of great 
importance in Church history and 143 of them 
are in existence, together with 30 written to 
him. When Attila threatened to invade Italy, © 
after the fall of Aquileia, Valentinian sent Leo 


LEO II—LEO VIII 


to dissuade the invader from his purpose and 
the persuasive powers of the Pope made the 
mission successful. Leo also saved Rome from 
being burned by Genseric in 455 and. secured 
the pledge of the vandal to refrain from 
murder and to spare the three oldest basilicas 
in his pillage of the city. His achievements in 
the direction of establishing the authority of 
the successors of Saint Peter:on a monarchial 
basis, and the strength of his administration of 
Church proceedings in Africa, Gaul and Spain, 
no less than in Rome, marked his rule as of 
exceptional importance. He was famous also 
for his sermons, which were brief but excellent, 
and upon which many of the lessons in the 
Roman ‘breviary are based. His name day is 


11 April. His sermons and letters were edited 
by Ballerini (Venice. 1753-57). Consult 
Arendt, ‘Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit? 


(1835) ; Gore, ‘Leo the Great? (1880). 


LEO II, Saint, Pope (August 682 to June 
683) : b. Sicily; d. Rome, 28 June 683. He was 
elected Pope a few days after the death of 
Pope Agatho, 10 Jan. 681, ‘but was not con- 
secrated until 17 Aug. 682. He confirmed the 
decrees of the Sixth CEcumenical Council, held 
in Constantinople in 680-81 under the presi- 
dency of the legates of Pope Agatho, and which 
condemned Pope Honorius I for not summarily 
suppressing heresy. Leo wrote several letters 
on the subject, explaining the decree and ab- 
juring his bishops to subscribe it; making it 
clear, however, that his anathematizing of 
Honorius was not an accusation of his teaching 
heresy, but of his showing too great leniency in 
dealing with it. The letters are particularly 
important in their bearing upon the infallibility 
of the Pope. He succeeded in settling the diffi- 
culties existing between the sees of Rome and 
Ravenna, the archbishops of Ravenna wishing 
to be independent of the direct jurisdiction of 
the Pope. Leo abolished the tax formerly im- 
posed upon the archbishops when they received 
the pallium; but, while insisting that they come 
to Rome for consecration, limited their exacted 
visit to eight days and permitted their yearly 
homage to the Pope to be presented through 
a delegate. His name is connected with the 
improvement of the Gregorian Chant and he 
was instrumental in raising the grade of church 
music. His day is 28 June. 


LEO III, Saint, Pope (December 795- 
May 816): b. Rome; d. there, 25 May 816. He 
succeeded Adrian I, 26 Dec. 795 and was con- 
secrated the next day. Upon his election he 
sent to Charles the Great (Charlemagne) the 
keys of Saint Peter’s and the standard of the 
city of Rome in acknowledgment of the 
suzerainty of the king. He received in return 
letters of congratulation and a rich share of 
the treasure captured by the king from Avars, 
and was. thereby enabled to deal generously 
with the churches and charitable institutions of 
Rome. A conspiracy formed by two nephews 
of Adrian I, to deprive Leo of the papacy by 
destroying his eyes and tongue, thus rendering 
him unable to fill the office, was brutally at- 
tempted during a papal procession in 799, but 
Leo succeeded in escaping with. minor injuries 
and afterward made his way to Charles at 
Paderborn. He was received with respect and 
later escorted in state to Rome where he was 
highly’ acclaimed. The conspirators against 


293 


him were banished. In 800 Charles returned 
to Rome and was crowned by the’ Pope em- 
peror of the Romans. While the subordinate 
position of Leo became thus clearly defined the 
result was to ensure the protection of the em-- 
peror for the Roman Church and Christendom 
against the heathen, and the arrangement con- 
tinued satisfactorily during Charles’ lifetime. 
Upon the accession of Louis conspiracies were 
again formed against him, but Leo was warned 
in time and the conspirators were seized and 
punished. However, the question of sovereign - 
jurisdiction in Rome was again revived and Leo 
died before a decision was reached. He was 
known as a benefactor of the poor and a 
patron of art. Among the mosaics made under 
his direction is one in the Lateran, Rome, 
showing Saint Peter giving the pallium to Leo 
III and the standard to Charles. 

LEO IV, Saint, Pope (April 847-July 
855): b. Rome; d. there, 7 July 855. He suc- 
ceeded Sergius II, and was consecrated 10 April 
847 without waiting for the consent of the em- 
peror because of an impending attack of the 
Saracens upon Rome. He thoroughly repaired 
the walls of the city, entirely rebuilding 15 of 
the great towers, and enclosed Vatican Hill by 
a wall, a precaution not previously taken. The 
fortified portion of the city was named Civitas 
Leonina in his honor. He rebuilt Portus for 
the benent of Corsican exiles driven from their 
homes by the Saracens, and fortified other 
Roman towns. He repaired the damage done 
to Saint Peter’s and other Roman churches in 
the Saracen raids of 846. He held three 
synods, at one of which Louis II was crowned 
emperor. His alleged miracle of extinguishing 
a fire by prayer is pictured in Raphael’s work 
in the Sala dell’ Incendio at the Vatican. 


LEO V, Pope: d. probably 6 Dec. 903. He 
was a Benedictine monk who, in 903, succeeded 
Benedict IV, but was imprisoned by his chaplain 
Christopher, and died soon after. 


LEO VI, Pope: d. probably 3 Feb. 929. He 
succeeded John X, 6 July 928, and is said to 
have been put to death by Marozia. 


LEO VII, Pope: d. 13 July 939. He suc- 
ceeded John XI, son of Marozia. He success- 
fully negotiated a peace between Hugo, king 
of Italy, and Alberic, Duke of Rome, the son 
of the celebrated Marozia, and is reported to 
have been an irreproachable man and zealous 
ecclesiastic. -His successor was Stephen IX. 
Consult Gregorovius, F., ‘History of the City 
of Rome in the Middle Ages? (Vol. III, London 
1895). ; 

LEO VIII, Pope (July 964-Feb.—April, 
965): d. 965. He was intruded in the pontifi- 
cate on the pretended deposition of John XII, 
in 963, under the patronage of Otho I, but on 
Otho’s withdrawal John re-entered Rome, and 
drove away Leo. John’s death occurring soon 
after, Benedict V was chosen Pope. The Em- 
peror Otho subsequently took Rome, and after 
the banishment of Benedict again intruded Leo, 
who shortly after died. He is regarded as the 
true Pope from the abdication of Benedict V 
in July 964 until his death between February 
and ‘April of 965. Documents purporting to 
vest in the emperor the nomination of popes 
and bishops, supposed to have been given by 
Leo, are generally considered forgeries. 


294 


LEO IX, Saint (Bruno), Pope (1049- 
54): b. Egisheim, near Colmar, on the borders 
of Alsace, 21 June 1002; d. Rome, 19 April 
1054. He came of a noble family and through 
his father was second cousin to Emperor Con- 
rad II. He was educated at Toul, became 
canon there and in 1026 bishop. He rendered 
valuable political services to his cousin Con- 
rad II, and to Henry III, and became famous 
for his wide learning and his zeal in correcting 
abuses. Upon the death of Pope Damascus 
II, in 1048, Bruno was elected Pope and was 
consecrated as Leo IX, 12 Feb. 1049. He put 
down an effort of ex-Pope Benedict IX to 
seize the papal chair, and immediately set about 
a reorganization of financial affairs. At the 
Easter synod of 1049 he initiated his warfare 
on two notorious evils, simony and clerical in- 
continence, continuing his efforts at later synods 
held in Rome and in the course of various 
progresses he made through Italy, Germany and 
France. In 1053 he moved against the Nor- 
mans in Italy with an army composed of Italian 
and German volunteers, but was defeated at 
Astagnum near Civitella 18 June 1053 and was 
taken prisoner by the Norman leader, Robert 
Guiscard. He was confined at Benevento for 
10 months, but treated with the utmost respect, 
and upon falling ill he was permitted to re- 
turn to Rome where he died shortly afterward. 
His life was distinguished by his purity and 
strength of purpose. His name day is 19 
April. Consult Hunkler, ‘Leo der Neunte und 
seine Zeit? (1851); Milman, ‘History of Latin 
Christianity? (Vol. III, 1903); Mann, ‘Lives 
of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages? (Vols. 
IV, VI, 1910). 


LEO X (Giovanni DE’ Mepicr), Pope (1513- 
21): b. Florence, 11 Dec. 1475; d. Rome, ‘1. Dec: 
1521. He was the second son of Lorenzo the 
Magnificent, and his father had him made a 
cardinal by Innocent VIII at the age of 13. 
When the Medici were expelled from Florence, 
in 1494, he spent some years in travel in Ger- 
many, France and Flanders, and made ac- 
quaintance with many eminent men, returning 
to Rome in 1503 and devoting himself to 
science and the fine arts. He was appointed 
by Julius II legate with the papal army, and in 
1512 was taken prisoner by the French at the 
battle of Ravenna, regaining his liberty only 
after the evacuation of Milan by the French. 
In 1513 on the death of Julius II, he was elected 
Pope, and made his entry into Rome on 11 
April, the anniversary of his capture at Ra- 
venna. His pontificate of nine years is one of 
the most eventful of modern history, when 
viewed in relation to great political changes, to 
the revival of literature and, above all, to the 
Reformation. He succeeded in putting an end 
to the dispute between Louis XII and the court 
of Rome; he continued and brought to a close 
the Council of the Lateran; and, at a confer- 
ence held at Bologna, concluded a concordat 
with Francis I of France. In 1517 he created 
the unexampled number of 31 cardinals, among 
whom were Cajetan, Campeggio, Trivulzio and 
other learned and eminent men. He planned a 
great war against the Turks, and resolved 
about the same time to complete the church of 
Saint. Peter at Rome, and in order to raise 
funds for these schemes he granted to all the 
faithful, who should contribute by their alms, 


LEO IX—LEO XIII 


certain indulgences, the preaching of which in 
Saxony was one of the forces which resulted in 
the Reformation. Leo published his first bull 
against Luther in June 1520, and Luther ap- 
pealed to a general council and publicly burned 
the bull at Wittenberg. A second bull appeared 
against Luther in January 1521, and the papal | 
anathema was echoed by the doctors of the 
Sorbonne. At the same period war was re- 
sumed between the Emperor Charles V and 
Francis I, the Pope allying himself first with 
Francis and soon after with Charles. As an 
intelligent patron of literature and the fine arts, 
he was surrounded with many of the most dis- 
tinguished men of his time. He stimulated the 
study of Greek and the collection of ancient 
manuscripts; restored the Roman University 
and the great. Laurentian Library of Florence. 
His worldliness was regarded with extreme dis- 
favor by the Church, although in matters of be- 
lief and personal moral conduct no criticism 
was brought against him. But he refused to 
recognize the serious nature of the dangers 
threatening the papacy, ignored the urgent need 
for reforms and, on the whole, was ever the 
prince rather than the Pope. His good quali- 
ties and many achievements were of a secular 
instead of a religious nature, and his pontifi- 
cate was regarded as unfortunate for the 
Church. Consult Roscoe, ‘Life and Pontificate 
of Leo X? (1805); Creighton, ‘History of the 
Papacy .During the Period of the Reforma- 
tion? (Vols. III-V, 1882-94); Niti, ‘Leone X 
e la sua politica? (1892) ; Conforti, ‘Leo X ed 
il suo secolo? (1896). 


LEO XI (ALLESSANDRO OTTAVIANO DE’ ME- 
Dic), Pope (1-27 April 1605): b. Florence 
1535; d. 27 April 1605. He was consecrated 
bishop of Pistoria 1573, became archbishop of 
Florence in 1574 and entered the college of 
cardinals. He was appointed legate to France 
by Clement VIII in 1596 and there aided in 
suppressing the Hugenot influence at the court 
of Henry IV. On 1 April 1605 he became 
Pope. He survived only 26 days after his elec- 
tion. 


LEO XII (ANNIBALE DELLA GENGA), Pope 
(1823-29): b. near Spoleto, 1760; d, 10 Feb. 
1829. He entered the priesthood in 1783, was 
made titular archbishop of Tyre 10 years later 
and became a cardinal in 1816. He was bishop 
of Sinigaglia until 1820, when he was appointed 
cardinal vicar at Rome. In 1823 he succeeded 
Pius VII. He was a strong opponent of secret 
societies, such as the Free-masons and the 
Carbonari. Consult Artand de Montor, ‘His- 
toire du Pape Leon XII (1843). 


LEO XIII (JoAcHImM VINCENT RAPHAEL 
Lopovico Prccr), Pope (1878-1903) : b. Carpinto, 
2 March 1810; d. Rome, 20 July 1903. His 
father was Count Domenico Lodovico Pecci, 
and this mother Anna Prosperi-Buzi. The 
palace in which Joachim was born was the coun- 
try house of the family. Count Lodovico Pecci 
confided. his sons, Joseph and Joachim (or 
Vincent) to the Jesuits of Viterbo, who very 
recently had been restored by Pius VII to the 
privileges of which Clement XIV had deprived 
them. In 1818, Joachim Pecci began his educa- 
tion in the Jesuit college of Viterbo. That de- 
votion to the Greek and Latin classics which 
later gave him fame as a poet, showed itself 
early, At the age of 12 he was skilled in 


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writing Latin verse. There still exists an 
epigram for the provincial of the Jesuits,— 


‘““Oh, utinam possem Pecceius ipse sequi.”’ 


In 1824, Leo XII carried further the plans 
of Pius VII and reopened the Roman College 
of the Society of Jesus. This college is like- 
wise known as the Gregorian. University. 
Young Pecci entered and applied himself to his 
studies with so much earnestness that his health 
gave way, and, in 1830, though he received the 
highest honor — that of being chosen for a pub- 
lic disputation in philosophy on theses taken 
from the whole course,— the Prefect of Studies 
was obliged reluctantly to excuse him. Still 
he strove for that perfect health which was 
denied him. He was a mighty hunter and his 
gun,— very old-fashioned, with a _ barrel 
decorated in the Arabian manner,— is still pre- 
served, and he walked great distances. 

In 1832, Joachim Pecci took the degree of 
doctor, with all possible honors, chiefly recorded 
in the annals of the Sapienza University. In 
the College of Noble Ecclesiastics he studied. 
canon and civil law. In 1837, Gregory. XVI 
named him domestic prelate, and he became 
known as Monsignor Pecci. On the last day 
of the year 1837, he was ordained priest by 
Cardinal Odescalchi, the vicar-general of 
Gregory XVI. One of the most important 
epochs in the history of Monsignor Pecci is his 
administration of the duchy of Benevento. It 
was the haunt of smugglers and_brigands, 
licensed by public opinion and supported by 
noble families. It had given Gregory XVI, 
who was a lover of justice and order, pro- 
found anxiety. At the age of 28 Monsignor 
Pecci was made delegate and. sent to do what 
the Neapolitan neighbors of Benevento sneer- 
ingly said was “impossible.” Monsignor de 
Z’Saeclaes well says that his government of 
Benevento is “a little epic.” He was. then 
called to Spoleto. From there he went to 


Perugia, where he busied himself in perfecting - 


measures for the economic and _ educational 
progress of the place. The capital of Umbria 
still reveres him as its benefactor, and his 
records at Benevento and Perugia, indicated 
what his future was to be. Early in January 
1843, he was chosen for a difficult diplomatic 
post, the Nunciature at Brussels, and on 19 
February he was consecrated archbishop of 
Damietta. In Belgium the educational ques- 
tion was burning, and in March 1843, when 
Archbishop Pecci presented himself to the 
court of Brussels, the veteran diplomats smiled 
at the prospect of a struggle between the Papal 
Nuncio and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who 
held the winning cards. The queen’s sym- 
pathies were with the Nuncio; she believed in 
religious education, but the feeling against the 
“Ultramontanes” ran high; notwithstanding, 
the Nuncio succeeded in gaining the goodwill 
of all classes and gradually overcoming ran- 
cour. This made it all the more astonishing 
that he should have been recalled from: Brussels 
in 1845. In 1846 he visited London and Paris. 
He was destined to be archbishop of Perugia; 
Gregory XVI died shortly after his arrival in 
Rome. Pius VIII, the predecessor of Gregory, 
was followed by another Pius,— Cardinal 
Mastai Ferretti— who appreciated the value 
of Pecci so greatly that he felt that as arch- 
bishop of Perugia the late Nuncio to Brussels 


295 


could be of more service in healing internal 
discord than in placating foreign kings and 
cabinets. He was preconized,— solemnly pro- 
claimed in conclave,—the archbishop of Peru- 
gia, on 19 Jan. 1846, and on 26 July he made 
his solemn entry into the capital of the country 
of Saint Francis d’Assisi. From 1846 to 1878 
he ruled in Perugia. In the Consistory of 18 
Dec. 1853, he was created cardinal. During 
his long episcopate, he found the world in 
miniature in Perugia. The growing antagonism 
against the Church haunted him. He was all | 
for the things of the spirit,— the things of the 
mind, postulating the truth of the divinity of 
Christ and the reality of his birth, death and 
resurrection. In this line, he refutes the claims 
of Renan, in his “Life of Jesus, as eagerly as 
he refutes false Socialism later, in a Papal Let- 


ter: 

On.7 Feb. 1878 Pius IX died. On Monday, 
18 February, the cardinals met in conclave. 
Pecci, as Cardinal Camerlengo, walked last in 
the procession. On Wednesday, 20 February, 
by a vote of 45-out of 61, Cardinal Pecci be- 
came Pope. From 20 Feb. 1878 to 20 July 1903, 
Leo XIII was constantly active. He restored 
the Catholic hierarchy to Scotland, early in 
1878, and issued his first Encyclical, Inscru- 
tabile, against the forces at work for the disin- 
tegration of society — putting strong accent on 
the disregard of the sacramental character of 
marriage. In 1878-79 Leo XIII was in a most 
difficult position with the government of Ger- 
many. This later year marks the beginning of 
the decay of the Kulturkampf which strength- 
ened the Centre party in Germany and which 
made the name of Bismarck detested by Ger- 
man Catholics at home and abroad. In 1879 
came the Encyclical, Quot Apostolici, followed 
by the £terni Patris—all encyclicals taking 
their names from the opening words. The 
first was aimed at that Socialism “which at- 
tacks all that has been wisely decreed by human 
and divine laws for the protection and orna- 
ment of life?; the second is an exposition 
of the claims of Saint Thomas Aquinas as 
a philosopher. 

Another important encyclical,— it is not pos- 
sible to name them all,— appeared on 12 Feb. 
1880. It was the Arcanum, on Christian mar- 
riage. Another, 29 June 1881, was the encycli- 
cal Diuturnum in favor of rightful authority. 
“The Church,» he said, “was everywhere the 
friend of honest liberty; she detested tyranny.” 
In 1882 he strove to keep the Irish movement 
within legal bounds. The encyclical Etsi Nos, 
of February 1882, gave rise to the rumor that 
he would leave Rome, so “intolerable had the 
situation become. In 1890, the world gradually 
learned that for six years every historical docu- 
ment in. the Vatican had been at the service of 
scholars. He omitted nothing that could add 
to the progress of historical science. The en- 
cyclical, Humanus Genus, was aimed at Free- 
masonry, which assumes an atheistical and anti- 
religious aspect in Latin countries. 

Leo XIII was aroused to intense enthusiasm 
for the work of Cardinal Lavigerie in breaking 
down the slave-trade in Africa, and his encyc- 
lical, In Plurimis, 5. May 1888, is evidence of 
his detestation of slavery. It is addressed to 
the bishops of Brazil. The prudence with 
which Leo XIII handled the question of the 
Knights of Labor was due to the tact he pos- 


296 


sessed of discovering the best advisers. There 
were forces at work urging the condemnation of 
this society; but, owing. to the sanity and 
energy of Cardinal Gibbons, Cardinal Manning 
and Monsignor O’Connell, rector of the Catho- 
lic University, a disaster by which. suspicion 
and dislike to the Church might have: been 
excited was avoided. 

The relations between the late Pope and the 
United States of America were very close. He 
established the Catholic University at Washing- 
ton, and constantly expressed. interest’ in it. 
His solicitude for the Church in America was 
profoundly shown in the Apostolical etter, 
Testem Benevolentie, on. “Americanism, > in 
which he paternally determines and ‘settles a 
point for some time in controversy among 
American Catholics. In the beginning of the 
year 1893, Monsignor Satolli, afterward Car- 
dinal, became the first Apostolic Delegate to 
the United States. This is not a diplomatic 
but a purely ecclesiastical office. Cardinal 
Satolli was succeeded by Monsignor, later Car- 
dinal, Martinelli, and (1903) by Monsignor, 
later Cardinal, Falconio. 

The efforts of Leo XIII to direct attention 
to the study of the Scriptures are historic. 
Perhaps of all his letters which have a diplo- 
matic character, that written to the French 
in 1892 caused the greatest discussion. It was 
received by French Royalists with ill-concealed 
disgust. There is no question that the pontifi- 
cate of Leo XIII was of vital value in the 
history of the last quarter of the century. 

As a poet, Leo XIII wrote exquisite Latin 
verse, a translation of which has been made by 
the Jesuit fathers at Woodstock, Md., and a 
later and fuller one by Dr. Hugh Henry, of 
Overbrook Seminary, in Pennsylvania: Con- 
sult biographies by Bonghi (Citta di Castello 
1884); Wienand (2d ed. Cologne 1892); 
Furey (New York 1904) ; and also Goetz, ‘Leo 
XIIDP (Gotha 1899). His encyclicals have been 
published in Latin and’ German (Freiburg 
1878-1904) ; and in English (New York 1902). 

Maurice Francis EGAN, 
Former Envoy Extraordinary and Minister 
Plenipotentiary to Denmark. 


LEO, 1é’6, the name of six rulers of the 
Byzantine empire, as follows: 


LEO I (surnamed THrax, Macnus and 
MAKELLES), Byzantine emperor: b. Thrace, 
about 400; d. 474. He was a military tribune 
at the death of Marcian in 457, was raised to 
the throne through the influence of Aspar, com- 
mander of the military forces, and was recog- 
nized as emperor by both Senate and clergy. 
Aspar, despite his great power, could not be- 
come emperor because of his being an Arian, 
but thought to rule through Leo. Leo, how- 
ever, refused to be dominated. He steadily 
followed the leading of his predecessor in an 
effort to decrease the powers of the great 
nobles; defied Aspar, changing his bodyguard 
from the Germanic one formed to uphold 
Aspar’s power to Isaurian; confirmed the de- 
crees of the Council of Chalcedon and sternly 
suppressed the Eutychian heresy in Egypt. He 
repelled the Hun invasions of Dacia'‘in 466 and 
A468, and in 467 had one of his generals, 
Authemius, elected emperor of the West. To- 
gether they equipped an expedition to conquer 
the pirate Vandals of Africa, sending™ 1,100 


LEO — LEO III 


ships and 100,000 men; te the fleet was. sur- 
prised by the Vandal king, Genseric, and nearly 
half of it destroyed. Leo seized upon. the 
defeat as an excuse for having Aspar put to 
death as a traitor, the Vandals also being of 
Arian stock. The Goths, to revenge the fate 
of Aspar, laid waste the country as far as the - 
walls of Constantinople. He was sometimes 
called Leo the Elder to distinguish him from 
his infant grandson, who succeeded him; and 
his surname Magnus was given him by the 
Orthodox, while the Arians called him Makelles 
(butcher). Consult Gibbon, ‘The Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire?; ‘Cambridge 
Medieval History? (Vol. I, 1911). 


LEO II called the YounGgErR, grandson of 
Leo. I, Byzantine emperor. He succeeded his 
grandfather under the guardianship of his 
father, who caused himself to be proclaimed 
emperor a few months afterward. He is said 
to have been put to death by his own father 
pete reigning from January to November 
474 


LEO III (surnamed the 1dhGarey, By- 
zantine emperor: b. probably in Isauria, but by 
some authorities in Germanicia, in the Syrian 
province of ‘Commagene, about 680; d. 18 June 
741. He entered the army of Justinian IT, rose 
to distinction and under Anastasius II became 
supreme commander of the army in Asia. In 
716 he marched against Theodosius III, who 
had been proclaimed emperor on the deposition 
of Anastasius II, and himself seized the crown 
in 717. His accession was immediately followed 
by ‘the siege of Constantinople by the Saracens 
under the caliph Solyman, and his stubborn 
resistance not only compelled the enemy to 
withdraw after a siege variously estimated at 
from one to two years, but. removed from 
eastern Europe the danger of a Saracen in- 
vasion. He then proceeded to consolidate his 
empire, strengthening his frontiers by the en- 
couragement of settlers in the war-ravaged dis- 
tricts, and so thoroughly reorganized his armies 
that he was able to visit heavy defeats upon 
the Saracens when in 726 and 739 they again 
attempted invasion. He instituted civil reforms 
in taxation, marital and maritime laws and 
raised the serfs into a class of free tenants. 
An uprising against Leo, headed by the deposed 
Anastasius II, soon after the siege of Con- 
stantinople, resulted in the capture and execu- 
tion of Anastasius. One of the most notable 
acts of. Leo’s reign was the order, in 726, that 
all image-worship in the churches must cease. 
(See IconocLasts). He was supported by the 
aristocracy and a portion of the clergy, but op- 
posed by most of the theologians and_ the 
monks. The edict caused a general revolution 
throughout the empire, and resulted in the loss 
of Ravenna, Rome and other portions of south- 
ern Italy and the separation of the Greek from 
the Latin Church. While partially unsuccessful 
in his attempt at religious reform the reign of 
Leo is on the whole noteworthy for its solid 
achievements. He is credited with so stabilizing 
the empire as to have been the means of its 
survival for the succeeding 500 years. Con- 
sult Gibbon, ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman 


Empire? ; Bury, ‘The Later Roman Empire? 
(1889) ; Hodukint F., ‘Italy and Her Invaders’ 
(1892), . 


LEO IV —LEO 


LEO IV (surnamed CHozar, or CHAZARUS), 
Byzantine emperor: b. 25 Jan. 750; d. 8 Sept. 
780. In his time the controversy raged fiercely 
between the Iconoclasts, or image breakers, and 
their adversaries, both of whom he protected 
by turns. He repulsed the Saracens in Asia. 
He was succeeded by his infant son Constantine 
VI, who had been crowned the year after 
Leo’s succession, under the guardianship of 
Leo’s wife, Irene (q.v.). See IcoNoc Lasts. 

LEO V, Byzantine emperor, called the 
ARMENIAN, from the country of which he was 
a native: d. 25 Dec. 820. He rose to the rank 
of general by his valor, but was accused of 
treason, disgraced and imprisoned. Michael 
Rhangabus, on ascending the throne in 811, re- 
stored him to his rank, but Leo, profiting by 
the misfortunes of his master, headed a mili- 
tary revolt and was elected emperor by the 
troops in 813. While tthe chief instigator of 
the disaffection among the soldiers which led to 
his elevation Leo justified himself in so far as 
to meet and crushingly defeat the Bulgarians 
who were planning a siege of Constantinople. 
So thoroughly did he break their armies that 
a peace of 74 years ensued. He was one of 
the most violent of the Iconoclastic princes and 
was severely criticized although he was ac- 
knowledged a useful emperor. A plot devised 
for the benefit of Michael I caused the former 
emperor to be condemned to death in a fiery 
furnace, but his friends rescued him by as- 
sassinating Leo V before the altar on Christmas 
Day, and reseated him on the throne. Consult 
Bury, J. B., ‘History of the Eastern Roman 
Empire? (New York 1912). 


LEO VI (the PuHILosopHER), Byzantine 
emperor: b. 865; d. 911. He was the son of 
Basilius, the Macedonian, and in 886 succeeded 
to the throne jointly with his younger brother, 
Alexander, who, however, took no share in gov- 
erning. His reign was marked by various wars 
with barbarian states, including the Hungarians, 
Bulgarians and Saracens. Thessalonica was 
sacked and practically destroyed and Sicily and 
lower Italy were overrun. Leo VI appears to 
have possessed small claim to his surnames, the 
“Wise and the “Philosopher.”. He banished 
his early tutor, Photius, patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, upon his succession to the throne; and 
upon his own excommunication from the Greek 
Church, following his fourth marriage — an act 
forbidden by the Church — he deposed Nicho- 
las, the patriarch who had pronounced the ban 
upon him. His authorship of the literary pro- 
ductions credited to him has been questioned. 
Among the works bearing his name are 
‘Oracula,» a poem; ‘Orationes? ; ‘Basilica, the 
completion of a digest of laws begun by his 
father; and an important treatise on military 
tactics, believed by some authorities to be the 
work of Leo III (Leyden 1612). Consult Gib- 
bon, ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire? ; 
Bury, ‘Later Roman Empire? (1887); Oman, 
‘Byzantine Empire? (1892). 

LEO, Friedrich, German classical philolo- 
gist: b. Regenwalde, 10 July 1851; d. 1914. He 
was educated at the universities of Gottingen 
and Bonn, and was afterward professor at the 
universities of Kiel, Rostock, Strassburg, Bonn 
-and Gottingen. .For many years he edited. the 
philological journal Hermes. He also edited 
‘Senecee Tragedie? (1878-79); ‘Venantii For- 


297 


tunati Opera Poetica? (1881), and was author 
of ‘Plautinische Forschungen? -(1895); ‘Die 
griechisch-romische Biographie nach ihrer lit- 
érarischen Form? (1901); ‘Saturnische Vers? 
(1905) ; “Geschichte der ‘R6mischen Literatur: 
Erste Band, Die Archaische Literatur? (1913), 
etc. 


LEO, Heinrich, German historian: b. 
Rudolstadt, 19 March 1799; d. Halle, 24 April 
1878. He was educated at the Rudolstadt Gym- 
nasium and at the universities of Breslau, Jena 
and Gottingen, and in his student days was con- 
nected with the radicals of the German Bursch- 
enshaft or “Black Band,” but was early alien- 
ated from them because of their extreme meas- 
ures and became a conservative. He became 
privat-docent at Erlangen in 1820, and in 1823 
made a_journey devoted to historical investiga- 
tion in Italy. He was docent at Berlin in 1822- 
27, and for 40 years after 1828 he taught at 
Halle, gaining a remarkable reputation for his 
ability as a teacher through his powers of ex- 
position and his unusual memory. During the 
closing years of his life his mind was affected. 
He was a collaborator on the Jahrbiicher fur 
Wissenschaftliche Kritik during its existence, 
1827-46. Author of ‘Lehrbuch der Geschichte 
des Mittelalters? (1830); ‘Geschichte der 
italienische Staaten? (5 vols., 1829-32) ; ‘Zwolf 
Biicher niederlandischer Geschichten? (2 vols., 
1832-35) ; ‘Die Hegelingen? (1838) ; ‘Lehrbuch 
der Universalgeschichte? (6 vols., 1835-44); 
‘Vorlesungen tiber die Geschichte des deutschen 
Volks und Reichs? (1854-66); ‘Meine Jugen- 
zeit? (1880), etc. 


LEO, Leonardo, or, correctly, LIO- 
NARDO:»ORONZO SALVATORE DE 
LEO, Italian musical. composer: b. San Vito 
degli ‘Schiavi, now San Vito dei Normanni, 
near Brindisi, 5 Aug. 1694; d. Naples, 31 Oct. 
1744. Hie was educated at the Conservatorio 
della Pieta dei Turchini, Naples, studying un- 
der Provenzale and Nicola Faga. hile re- 
puted to have studied under Scarlatti and 
Pitoni it is considered improbable, although his 
work obviously was influenced by them. He 
was maestro at the cathedral at Naples and at 
Santa Maria della Solitaria, became court 
organist and taught at the ‘Conservatorio Saint 
Onofrio, Naples. He ‘first attracted attention 
through his compositions for the stage, writing 
both comic and serious operas, but achieving 
his greatest success with his comic operas. His 
reputation as a composer, however, rests upon 
his sacred compositions, among which his 
(Miserere? and ‘Dixit: Dominus? best illustrate 
his masterly style and the magnificent effects he 
obtained with comparatively simple means, He 
was the first of the Neapolitan school to gain 
a complete mastery over modern harmonic 
counterpoint. The most famous of his pupils 
were Pucini and Jommelli. He wrote about 60 
operas of which the best known was the comic 
opera ‘Amor Vuol sofferenze,? also known as 
‘La Finta Frascatana? (1739). Among his 
serious operas are ‘Demofoonte? (1735) and 
‘L’Olimpiade? (1737). 

LEO (“the lion”), im astronomy, the name 
given to one of 12 zodiacal constellations and 
denoted by the symbol Q. It contains about 
100 stars visible to the naked eye, the chief star 
being Regulus, also called Cor Leonis, or the 
Lion’s Heart. The sun enters the sign Leo about 


298 


21 July., Leo Minor, the Lesser Lion, is a 
constellation found by Hevelius about 1691. 
None of its stars reach the fourth magnitude. 
Leonides are meteors radiating from _ the 
vicinity of Leo, usually seen about 14 Novem- 
ber. 


LEO AFRICANUS (known variously as 
JOHANNES LEO; JUAN LrEo; GIOVANNI LEo, or 
LEONE; ELIBERITANUS; and, among the Moors, 
as AL HAssAN IBN MAHOMMED AL WEzAz AL 
Fasi), Moorish traveler and geographer: b. 
probably Granada, about 1485 or 1494; d. Tunis, 
about 1552. He came of a noble Moorish fam- 
ily, was educated at Fez, and as early as 1512 
he traveled in Morocco, Tunis, Bugia and Con- 
stantine. He traveled in the Sudan and Sahara 
regions in 1513-15; later visited Constantinople, 
passing through Egypt, and afterward visited 
the three Arabias, Armenia and “Tartary” 
(probably Tabriz). He also ascended the Nile 
from Cairo to Assuan. In 1517 or 1520, on his 
return journey by sea from Egypt, he was cap- 
tured by pirates and eventually presented as a 
slave to Pope Leo X. The pontiff soon learned 
of his captive’s. wide explorations, bestowed a 
ension upon him, converted him to Christianity 
and stood sponsor at his baptism, giving him 
his own name. The captive, known as Leo 
Africanus, acquired Latin and Greek, and in 
turn taught Arabic, Cardinal Egidio Antonio 
being numbered among his pupils. At the sug- 
gestion of 'the Pope he wrote his ‘Description 
of Africa.’ The work is stated originally to 
_ have been written in Arabic, but that. manu- 
script is lost. However, the author himself 
wrote an Italian version (1526) which still ex- 
ists. It was: printed by.G. B. Ramusio (1550), 
and for long was regarded as the best author- 
ity on Africa. He returned to Tunis some time 
after the death of the Pope. Of his other writ- 
ings, his poems, a Spanish Arabic glossary and 
a collection of Arabic epitaphs are lost. There 
remains. his ‘De viris quibusdam illustribus 
apud Arabes? (consult Fabricius, “Bibliotheca 
Greca,?. Vol. : XIII, 259-298, Hamburg 1726). 
The ‘Descrizione dell’ Affrica? was ek ota 
in French by Jean Temporal (Lyons 1556); 
German by Lorsbach (1805) ; in English’ ey 
Francis Moore in ‘Travels into the Inland 
Parts of Africa? (1738). Several Latin editions 
and English translations thereof are highly i in- 
accurate. 

LEO DIACONUS, 13’o dPatcotna (LEo 
THE DEACON), Byzantine historian and court 
priest: b. Caloé, Ionia, about 950; d. about 1000. 
He settled in Constantinople and witnessed the 
era of national recovery under, the emperors 
Romanus II, Nicephorus Phocas and John 
Limisces, saw Crete reconquered, the invasion 
of Syria and the expulsion of the Russians 
from Bulgaria. His history covers the period 
959-75, and while not well written it is regarded 
as trustworthy. It constitutes a valuable sup- 
plement to Byzantine history. It was printed 
eso Historiz Byzantinische? (Bonn 
1 


LEOBEN, 1a’o’bén, Austria, town in Styria, 
44 miles by ‘rail northwest of Graz, on the 
Mur. It was at one time a walled town and 
parts of the wall. and towers remain. The 
old parish church has stained glass of the 
14th century. It has technical schools and a 
widely-known academy of mining. The lignite 


LEO AFRICANUS — LEOMINSTER 


( 

deposits of upper Styria and the iron mines 
and furnaces of Vordernberg and Eisenerz give 
it an important trade in iron, and it has ex- 
tensive iron-works. Here, 18° April 1797, Na- 
poleon signed the secret provisional peace treaty 
which gave Austria the greater portion of the 
mainland of Venice in return for the Nether- 
lands, which was succeeded by the Campio- 
Fornio Treaty. Pop. 11,504. 


LEOBSCHUTZ, 1a’dp’shuts, _ Germany, 
town in the province of Silesia, Prussia, 20 
miles by rail northwest of Ratibor, on the © 
Zinna River. The town dates from the 10th 
century and was the capital of the principality 
of Jagerndorf in 1524-1623. It has an extensive 
trade in flax, grain and wool and is engaged in 
glass- making, mal ine, wool-spinning and textile 
industries, and the manufacture of machinery, 
bricks and large bells. Pop. 13,081. 


LEOCHARES, 1é-6k’a-réz, Greek sculp- 
tor of the 4th century B.c. He was a pupil of 
Scopas, and Pliny ascribes to him the sculptures 
on the west side of the Mausoleum at Hali- 
carnassus. He was one of the artists privileged 
to make portraits of Alexander the Great. 
Three statues of Zeus are known to have been 
executed by him, and his “Ganymede carried 

off by an Eagle? was famed throughout the 
ancient world. With Lysippus he produced a 
colossal bronze group representing Alexander 
at a lion-hunt. The works of Leochares are all 
lost, but there are numerous copies of the 
Ganymede, the best being that of the Museo- 
Pio Clementino, Rome, and another larger copy 
in the library ‘of Saint Mark, Venice, and a 
bust of Alexander may be a copy of one of his. 


LEOMINSTER, lém’stér, England, mar- 
ket town and municipal borough in Hereford- 
shire, 157 miles northwest of London, on the 
Lug and on the Great Western and London and 
Northwestern railways. It is situated in a rich 
agricultural district and has some fine old tim- 
ber houses.. There is a parish church with a 
Norman nave and some of the finest examples 
of window tracery in England, restoration at 


different periods, however, making it an edifice 


of mixed architecture. The district produces 
wool, hops and fruit, and brewing and the 
manufacture of agricultural implements form 
the principal industries. The town received its 
first charter in 1554, but dates from before the 
Conquest, when it was the seat of a religious 
house. Pop. 5,737. 


LEOMINSTER, lém’in-ster, Mass., a - 
town of Worcester County, 40 miles west- 
northwest of Boston, on the Nashua River, and 
on the New York, New Haven.and Hartford 
and the Boston and Maine railroads. The town 
is well laid out, has handsome residential sec- 
tions, six churches, 20 schools, a public library 
and over 18,000 volumes anda fine park. Leom- 
inster is well lighted with gas and electricity 
and has a good water supply and abundance of 
water power, the waterworks being municipal- 
ized. It is a busy industrial centre, the home 
of the comb-manufacture of the State, of piano 
cases and piano-fortes, has large cabinet works, 
paper mills, tanneries and extensive manufac- 
tures of cement, bricks, yarn, jewelry, toys, but- 
tons, paper boxes, chemicals and hairpins. The 
town is surrounded by some of the most fertile 
farm land in the county, and horticulture and 


LEON 


floriculture are growing industries. Leominster, 
settled in 1725, was part of Lancaster until 1740 
when it received a charter of incorporation. A 
disastrous fire occurred in 1873. Pop. 19,789. 


Consult Emerson, ‘Leominster, Massachusetts? 


(Gardner, Mass., 1888). 


LEON, 1a-én’, Antonio, Mexican soldier: 
b. Huajuapam, Oaxaca, 1794; d. 1847. Having 
abandoned the side of the royalists for that of 
the insurgents under Iturbide, he distinguished 
himself in 1821 by the capture of Tehuantepec, 
for which he was made _lieutenant-colonel. 
When, however, Iturbide proclaimed himself 
emperor, the support of Leon was given to Gen- 
eral Bravo, the Republican leader. In 1824, as 
deputy from Oajaca, he served in the Constitu- 
ent Congress, and later he aided in quelling in- 
surrection against the authority of the republic. 
He was killed at the battle of Molina del Rey 
in the war with the United States. 


LEON, Fray Luis Ponce de, Spanish 
mystic poet: b. Belmonte de Cuenca, 1527; d. 
Madrigal, 23 Aug. 1591. On graduating from 
the University of Salamanca he entered the 
Augustinian order, where his talents soon 
brought him prominently to the front. In 1561 
he was appointed to the chair of Thomistic 
philosophy, and 10 years later he was also ap- 
pointed professor of sacred literature. But his 
keen, investigating intellect got him into trouble 
the following year, when he was charged with 
expressing doubt as to the validity of the Vul- 
gate, and also with having published unauthor- 
ized versions of the Bible or parts thereof. The 
story is that he had rendered into Spanish the 
“Song of Songs’? (of Solomon) for a friend, 
and that this was published without his knowl- 
edge or consent. However, the affair cost him 
over four years’ imprisonment. During this 
period much of his best literary work was done. 
On his release from prison in 1576, with a 
warning to be more careful in the future, his 
chair in the university was restored to him and 
he was assigned the subject of Biblical exegesis. 
But, owing to his brilliancy, his reputation as a 
poet, mystic and theologician, he had numerous 
enemies who watched ‘him closely and some of 
them made other charges against him in 1582. 
These, however, were not sustained, thanks 
probably to his growing power in the order to 
which he rose to be vicar-general shortly after- 
ward. This seems to have silenced his enemies, 


and he was raised to the high dignity of pro- . 


vincial of Castile; but he lived only 10 days 
afterward. Among his prose works are “Los 
Nombres de Cristo,? consisting of three books, 
the result of his literary activity during his four 
years’ imprisonment; ‘La Perfecta Casada? ; 
‘Exposicién del Libro de Job?; ‘Song of Solo- 
mon and Commentary.” These were long popu- 
lar. His mystical treatment of the various 
names given to Christ in the scriptures appealed 
strongly to the mystical-loving age in which he 
lived. In fact to all of his works belongs that 
mysticism that distinguished ‘his poetical efforts. 
But popular though his prose was in his own 
day, it was as a mystic and lyrical poet that he 
distinguished himself above the writers of his 
age. His poetry is sympathetic and pleasing, 
scholarly and marked with a lyrical ring unsur- 
passed by any Spanish poetry of his century. 
He was widely read in the classics and his 
poetical works include translations from many 


299 


of the Latin poets, among them Horace and 
Virgil. He also made translations from the 
Greek poets. In nearly all of these transla- 
tions he has caught the spirit of the original. 
He successfully imitated Petrarch. Ledén’s 
countrymen are accustomed to divide his orig- 
inal poetry into four distinct classes and 
to accord him a very high place in each of 
these classes which are religious, moral, phil- 
osophical and patriotic. The moral and phil- 
osophical however are often classed under 
one head. So highly was his work ad- 
mired that he has been proclaimed, by his 
admirers, the greatest poetical genius of Spain. 
Leén himself rather underestimated his own 
rare poetical gifts, and he used them, as 
he himself has explained, for the greater glory 
of God, and not to feed his own personal 
vanity. There is a fervor and sincerity about 
his religious poetry that bear out his confession. 
No Spanish author has approached him in the 
purity of thought and language of his sacred 
poems. Many of them read like the inspirations 
that he himself seems to have believed them to 
be. There is a sweetness about them united with 
a wondrous beauty of expression and brilliant, 
ever-pleasing imagery, that makes their simplic- 
ity stand for the breathing of the breath of 
life. His subjective mysticism is more engag- 
ing, more beautifully expressed and more truly 
poetical than that of any other Spanish writer 
in an age of mysticism. As was quite natural, 
he exercised a strong and far-reaching influence 
on the development of Spanish language in liter- 
ature. He confirmed the love of the Classics 
and the ancient literature in Spain, and he has, 
therefore, been rightly looked upon as the 
greatest of 'the Spanish Classical poets. Leén’s 
poems, which were not published during his 
lifetime, were issued by Quevedo in 1631, 40 
years after his death. Merino published his 
collected works in six volumes in Madrid in 
1816. This is still the best edition. 
Bibliography.— Ford, J. D. M., ‘Luis de 
Leon, the Spanish Poet, Humanist and Mystic? 
(Vol. XIX, No. 2, publications of the Modern 
Language Association of America); Gonzalez 
de Tejada, J., ‘Vida de Fray Luis de Led 
(Madrid 1863); Gutiérrez, M., ‘Fray Luis de 
Leén y la filosofia espafiola> (Madrid 1885); 
Menéndez, de Pelayo, M., ‘Estudios de critica 
literaria» (Madrid 1893); Merino, ‘Obras de 
Luis de Leén? (Madrid 1804-16); Reusch, 
“Luis de Leon und die Spanische Inquisition” 
(Bonn 1873); Wallace, E., ‘Translation into 
English of the Perfecta Casada? .(Chicago 
1903) ; Wilkins, C., “Fray Luis de Leén” (Halle 
1866). 
Joun Husert Cornyn, 
: Editorial Staff of The Americana. 


LEON, Juan Vdsquez de, Spanish con- 
quistador and companion of Cortés during his 
first venture in the land of the Aztecs. He 
was one of the half a dozen or more com- 
panions of the conqueror who were of noble 
blood; and Leén, who was a near relative of 
the governor of Cuba, Velasquez, was probably 
the most highly connected of all the party, 
having a:legal right to use the title “hidalgo.” 
He aided Amador de Lares (q.v.) in enabling 
Cortés to make his preparations to leave Cuba; 
and he was among the small band of cavalry 
with which Cortés invaded the uplands of Mex- 


300 


ico. He’ was somewhat proud, valiant, re- 
sourceful and an excellent leader, and for this 
reason was trusted by Cortés who gave him 
high command in his forces and invariably de- 
pended upon him when something dangerous 
and difficult had to be done. . When Cortés 
marched from the City of Mexico in 1519 to 
Vera Cruz, Léon, who did not approve of his 
action, tried to raise trouble; and. he and his 
companions were promptly arrested by Cortés 
and confined aboard ship. Ledn soon repented 
of his action and was admitted once more into 
the confidence of his leader. From that time 
on he was ever among the most faithful fol- 
lowers of Cortés, who considered him the most 
level-headed of his officers. He was fre- 
quently found making a protest against bigotry 
in an age when practically every Spaniard was 
a bigot; and he strongly objected to the useless 
massacres of the natives of Mexico. He was 
one of the guard of five men selected by 
Cortés to effect the arrest of Montezuma I], 
emperor of the Aztecs, and it was by his pre- 
cipitate action that the arrest was made good 
at that time. He was also the commander of 
the body of troops that maintained the guard 
of the royal prisoner from the vantage point 
of the ante-chamber of his old palace where 
he was under arrest. He was a good com- 
panion and had. the courtly manner of the 
Spanish court, and for this reason Montezuma 
took a great liking to him. Ledn seems to have 
had more respect for the Aztec emperor than 
had any of his companions, and he did his best 
to entertain him during his captivity. Leon was 
sent by Cortés to plant a colony on the Coatza- 
colcos River on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
but the latter was forced to recall him before 
he had time to finish his commission, owing 
to trouble in his own affairs; and Leon, obey- 
ing the call, joined him at ‘Cholula and was 
with Cortés in his famous capture, at Vera- 
Cruz, of the forces of Narvaez, who had been 
sent from Cuba by Velasquez, the governor, to 
replace him. At this eventful time Leon was 
sent by ‘Cortés, with an armed force, to secure 
the province of Panuco. On his return to Mex- 
ico City he modified the anger of Cortés against 
the imprisoned Aztec emperor Montezuma, 
who was not able to force his people to supply 
the Spaniards with provisions. Shortly after 
this the Spaniards were forced to leave the 
capital of the Aztecs, and they attempted to do 
it secretly at the dead of a moonless night. But 
they were discovered, and a desperate battle 
ensued which resulted disastrously for the 
Spaniards, the greater part of whom were killed 
or severely wounded in this retreat, which is 
known in Spanish history as the “Dismal 
Night” Leén, with the famous Pedro. de Al- 
varado, was given command of the rearguard, 
the most dangerous position in the retreat. The 
Spaniards carried along with them a bridge 
which had been previously made to span the 
openings in the causeways which served as 
roads for the city of the Aztecs. At the first 
opening this bridge stuck fast and could not be 
removed in the hurry of the retreat to be used 
at the following openings. The place where 
Alvarado is said to have made a famous leap, 
some say on his horse, others affirm with his 
long lance as a vaulting pole, is still pointed 
out to the visitor to Mexico City. At any rate 
the latter came out of battle safe and sound 


LEON 


and lived to be one of. the important figures in 
the colony of New Spain as Mexico was called, 
while Leon lost his life on the “Dismal Night. » 
It is said that Cortés wept when he heard of 
his death. 


LEON, 1é’6n, Iowa, town and county-seat 
of Decatur County, 87 miles by rail south of 
Des Moines, on the Chicago, Burlington and 
Quincy Railroad. It is situated:in an agricul- 
tural region devoted to dairying, stock and 
poultry raising. Pop. (1920) 2,193 


LEON, or LEON DE LOS ALDAMAS, 
Mexico, state of Guanajuato, the first city in 
population and second in commercial import- 
ance in the state. The distance from Leon to 
the United States border at El Paso, Tex., is 
996 miles, to Guanajuato, 34 miles and to Mex- 
ico City 258 miles by the Mexican Central Rail- 
way. The altitude of the city is 5,864. feet 
above sea-level. The situation, in the ‘midst of 
a fertile and highly cultivated agricultural dis- 
trict, is most favorable to the industries to 
which the city is devoted. It was founded in 
1576 and has always maintained a condition of 
even and locally satisfactory prosperity. While 
there are no great manufactories in the place, 
it is emphatically one of the most important 
manufacturing cities in the republic, a consid- 
erable proportion of its simple homes being 
given over to the making of rebosos, zerapes, 
leather clothing embroidered in gold and silver, 
saddles, harness, bridles and numerous other 
articles of necessity, in which labor practically 
all the members of the family take part. There 
are also numerous other and more pretentious 
industrial establishments, including cotton and 
woolen mills, but the greater part of the manu- 
facturing is in the modest homes of the work- 
ing people. Here are located the headquarters 
of the northern. military zone of the republic. 
A cathedral, a public library containing over 
2,000 volumes, a church library with 9,000 vol- 
umes, a number of imposing church edifices, 
numerous creditable business blocks, well- 
paved streets and several attractive parks add 
to the advantages of the community as a place 
of residence. The banking. facilities are pro- 
vided by branches of the National Bank and 
the Bank of San Luis Potosi and an agency 
of the Bank of Zacatecas. Pop. 57,722. 


LEON, la-6n', Nicaragua, city situated in 
a large and fertile plain 13 miles from the Pa- 
cific coast. It is laid out on a regular plan, in 
spacious streets, with intervening squares. The 
public buildings are considered among the finest 
in Central America and include a large and 
massive cathedral, crowned by. a lofty central 
dome and flanked by two towers. It is also 
the seat of a university. Other buildings are 
the old episcopal palace (built 1678), sur- 
rounded by fine gardens; the new episcopal pal- 
ace (1873), the churches of La Merced, Reco- 
leccion and Calvario, remarkable for their size 
and fine facades, and various other churches; 
the Tridente College of Saint Ramon, once a 
flourishing establishment, with professorships of 
law and medicine and numerous students, but 
now possessed only of a nominal existence; 
the government house, Cuartel General or head 
barracks and the hospital, occupying the old 
convent of San Juan de Dios. The manufac- 
tures of Leon are honAnell chiefly to articles in 


LEON — LEONARD 


dressed leather and cutlery; and the trade, ow- 
ing to its inland situation, does little more than 
supply its local wants, but the railway between 
Leon and Corinto on the coast has somewhat 
improved it. The markets display fruits and 
vegetables in great variety and almost bound- 
less profusion. Leon was founded in 1523 by 
Francisco Hernandez on the shore of Lake 
Managua and was removed to its present site 
in 1610. It was at one time the capital of the 
republic and is still the largest city. Pop. about 


LEON, 14’6n’, Philippine Islands, pueblo of 
Iloilo province, Panay, about 14 miles north- 
west of Iloilo. Pop. about 10,000. 


LEON, Spain, city, capital of, the province, 
as formerly of the ancient kingdom of the 
same name, 82 miles by rail northwest of Val- 
ladolid. Its trade is chiefly domestic; its im- 
portance is historical, dating from a strong 
military station under the Romans, part of 
whose fortified walls are still standing. Situ- 
ated on an open plain below the neighboring 
mountains, Leén has two great monuments, 
both of deep significance in the history of 
Spanish civilization. Attached to the collegiate 
church of San Indor el Real is the Pantedn 
de los Reyes which preserves unharmed in’ 
their original state the burial places of the an- 
cient kings, queen and princes. The cathedral 
of Leén, dedicated to Santa Maria de la Regla, 
is one of the three great Gothic churches com- 
menced during the reign of Saint Ferdinando 
III and is noted for its beautiful 13th century 
French blazoned glass and sculpture. The 12th 
century convent of San Marcos restored in 
1514 is also noted for its fine architecture and 
ornamental facade. Pop. 18,000. 


LEON, Spain, a northwestern province, 
area 5,936 square miles; population 400,000; 
density 66.6 to the square mile; capital Ledén 
(q.v.). It is part of the former kingdom of 
Leon (area 21,038 square miles; population 
1,478,000) which was divided into the modern 
provinces of Ledn, Palencia, Zamora, Valla- 
dolid and Salamanca.. See SPAIN — History. 


LEON, Isla de (known also as the Ista 
GADITANA; the Greek GapEs and Roman Ga- 
DERIA), an island off the southwest coast of 
Spain, in the Atlantic Ocean, separated from 
the mainland by the Channel of San Pedro. It 
is-about 10 miles long by 2 miles broad, has 
a flat, marshy surface and many sand dunes. On 
it are the cites of Cadiz and San Fernando, and 
there is connection with the mainland by means 
of two bridges, one of them a railroad bridge. 
The island was the seat of the remotest west- 
ern colony of the Phcenicians, founded 1100 
B.C. Pop. 60,873. 


LEON PINELO, Antonio de, Spanish 
writer: b. Peru, between 1585 and 1590; 
about 1660. He held various offices of import- 
ance under the Council of the Indies and the 
Spanish government. As he was born of 
Spanish parents, in the American colony of 
Peru and educated, at least in part, in Spain, 
where his parents were highly connected, he 
seems to have always enjoyed the confidence 
of the Spanish authorities. At an early age he 
gave much attention to collecting documents 
and information bearing on the history of the 


301 


New World and especially of Spain’s connec- 
tion with it. Not satisfied with the result of 
his investigations in Peru and Mexico, both of 
which countries then contained notable archives, 
he returned to Spain to search there the rec- 
ords and other documents relating to the 
Americas. It was due to these labors that he 
became historian to the Council of the Indies. 
This position he filled so well that he became 
known as the best chronicler of the affairs of 
the New World up to his time. He wrote nu- 
merous works, some of which were published 
during his lifetime and others of which long 
lay in manuscript. Among these works are 
“Epitome de la Biblioteca Oriental y Occiden- 
tal, Nautica y Geografica? (Madrid 1629) ; 
‘Tratado de confirmaciones reales de encomi- 
endas, oficios y casos en que se requieren para 
las Indias occidentales? (Madrid 1630); ‘Re- 
copilacién de las leyes de Indias? (Madrid 
1628 and 1680); ‘Aparato politico de las Indias 
occidentales? (1653); ‘El paraiso en el Nuevo 
Mundo? (1656)-; ‘Consejo Real y Supremo de 
las Indias, su origen y Jurisdiccion, y los presi- 
dentes, consejeros, fiscales y secretarios que 
desde su fundacion ha tenido? (Madrid 1658) ; 
‘Relacion de las fiestas de la Congregacion de 
Lima y la limpia_ Concepcion de Nuestra 
Sefiora? (Lima); ‘Historia natural de las In- 
dias occidentales> (Madrid); ‘Fundacion y 
grandezas historicas y politicas de la Ciudad de 
los Reyes Lima»? (Madrid); ‘Historia de la 
Villa Imperial del Potosi? ; ‘Poema de la Con- 
cepcién Purisima de Nuestra Sefiora’?; ‘Velos 
antiguos y modernos en los rostros de las 
mujeres, sus conveniencias y dafios, ilustracion 
de la Real. Pregmatica des las Tapadas? 
(Madrid); ‘Questiédn moral si el chocolate 
quebranta el ayuno eclesiastico: tratase de 
otras bedidas y confecciones que se usan-en 
varias provincias? (Madrid); ‘Oracion pane- 
girica a la presentacidn de Nuestra Sefiora? 
(Madrid);.. ‘Por la pintura y esencidn de 
pagar alcavalas? (Madrid); ‘Vida del ilus- 
trisimo y reberentisimo D. Toribio Alfonso de 
Modrouejo arzobispo de la Ciudad de los Reyes 
Lima? (Madrid 1653); ‘Discurso sobre la 
importancia, forma y disposicion de la Reco- 
pilacién de las leyes de Indias” ; ‘Acuerdos del 
Consejo de Indias? (Madrid 1658) ; ‘Gobierno 
espiritual eclesiastico de las Indias”; ‘Anales 
6 historia de Madrid desde el nacimiento de 
Christo hasta 1658.> A very considerably larger 
list of titles of works by Leon Pinelo is pre- 
served by the ‘Biblioteca Nova de Nicolas 
Antonio.2 Consult any good history of Spanish 
literature. ; 


LEONARD, lén’érd, Abiel, American 
Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Fayette, Mo., 
26 June 1848. He was graduated at Dartmouth 
College in 1870 and at the General Theological 
Seminary, New York city, in 1873. Entering 
the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, he served in Missouri and Kansas until 
1888, when he was consecrated bishop of Salt 
Lake. That bishopric he continues to retain. 


LEONARD, Adna Wright, American 
clergyman: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 Nov. 1874. 
He is the son of the late Rev. Adna B. Leonard, 
who was for many years secretary of the 
Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. He was graduated from 
New York University in 1899 and from Drew 


302 


Theological Seminary in 1901. He was a stu- 
dent in the American School of Archeology in 
Rome, 1901-02. He entered the ministry of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, joining the New- 
ark (N. J.) Conference. After a pastorate in 
Porto Rico and the pastorate of the American 
Methodist Episcopal Church in Rome he be- 
came pastor of important churches in Ohio, 
and finally in 1910 pastor of First Church, Seat- 
tle, Wash. The General Conference of 1916, 
of which he was a member, elected him bishop 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He is the 
author of ‘The Roman Catholic Church at the 
Fountain Head? (1910); and ‘The Shepherd 
King? (1911). 

LEONARD, Daniel, American jurist: b. 
Norton, Mass., 29 May 1740; d. London, Eng- 
land, 27 June 1829. He was graduated from 
Harvard in 1760 and after studying law be- 
came a Whig member of the General Court. 
Disapproving of the extreme measures of the 
Whigs, his sympathies were with the Loyalists 
and nie papers, signed “Massachusettensis” and 
published in a Boston newspaper in 1774-75, 
were replied to by John Adams over the signa- 
ture “Novanglus.” Leonard’s articles ably de- 
fended the position of the English government 
and they constituted the strongest statement of 
that position put forth in the colonies. In 1776 
he went with the English army to Halifax, 
N. S., and was among those named in the Ban- 
ishment Act of 1778, while his property was 
confiscated by the act of 1779. He went to 
- England from Halifax and was subsequently 
for many years chief justice of the Supreme 
Court of Bermuda. In 1819 John Adams pub- 
lished the ‘Novanglus and Massachusettensis? 
with a preface. Consult Tyler, ‘Literary His- 
tory of the American Revolution. 


LEONARD, H. Ward, American in- 
ventor and electrical engineer: b. Cincinnati, 
Ohio, 8 Feb. 1861; d. New York, 18 Feb. 1915. 
He was graduated from the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology in 1883, and in the fol- 
lowing year became associated with Thomas A. 
Edison’s staff of engineers. In 1887 he be- 
came general superintendent of the Chicago 
Western Electric Light Company, and in 1888 
he organized the firm Leonard and Izard, en- 
gaging in the installation of central stations 
and electric railways. The firm was bought 
out by the Edison Company in 1889 and Leon- 
ard was appointed manager for the company’s 
combined interests in United States and Can- 
ada. He later founded the H. Ward Leonard 
Manufacturing Company at Bronxville. He 
patented more than 100 inventions connected 
with electrically-driven machinery and vehicles, 
among them an automatic electric-lighting sys- 
tem for railway trains and motor cars, and a 
system of motor control, which was adopted 
by the United States navy. His system of mo- 
tor control was also used at the Paris Exposi- 
tion in 1900 in operating the moving sidewalk 
and was one of the features of the exposition. 
He was awarded gold medals at the Paris 
(1900) and Saint Louis (1904) expositions, 
and also received in 1903 the John Scott Leg- 
acy medal of the Franklin Institute. He was a 
contributor to electrical engineering periodicals. 

LEONARD, James Francis, American 
telegrapher: b. Kentucky, 1804; d. 1862. He 
was practically the earliest telegrapher to read 


LEONARD — LEONHARDT 


messages by sound and for his time was the 
swiftest telegraph operator in the world. In 
the summer of 1848 he began to receive mes- 
sages by sound and soon afterward received 
and wrote out 55 words a minute for Pro- 
fessor Morse, as a test of the invention. He is 
buried in Frankfort, Ky., where his grave is 
marked by a monument erected by telegraphers. 


LEONARD, William Andrew, American 
Protestant’ Episcopal bishop: b. Southport, 
Conn., 15 July 1848. He was educated at Phil- 
lips Academy, Andover, Mass., and at Saint 
Stephen’s College, Annandale, N. Y.; was 
graduated at the Berkeley Divinity School, 
Middletown, Conn. He was ordained deacon in 
May 1871, and priest in July 1873; became 
assistant at Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, 
N. Y., 1871; rector of the church of the Re- 
deemer, Brooklyn, 1873; then rector of Saint 
John’s ‘parish, Washington, D. C., 1880; was 
chaplain of the 23d Regiment, N. Y. N. G. 
(1876-80) and is now chaplain of the Ohio 
Society of New York, and of the Sons of 
Colonial Wars, Ohio. He was consecrated 
bishop of Ohio, 12 Oct. 1889; is president of 
the Fifth Province of the American Church, 
and of the trustees of Kenyon College, Gam- 
pier, Ohio. His writings include ‘Via Sacra, 
or Footprints of Christ? (1875); ‘Brief His- 
tory of the Christian Church? (1878); ‘New 
York Church Club Lectures? (1893); ‘Faithful 
Life? (1888); ‘Life of Stephen Banks Leonard 
of Owego, N. YD (1909); ‘Witness of the 
American Church to Christianity? (Bedell Lec- 
tures, 1894). - 


LEONARDO DA VINCI, 14-6-nar’do da 


vén'ché. See VINCI. 
LEONCAVALLO, Ruggiero, rid-ja’rd 
14-6n-ka-val’lé, Italian composer: b. Naples, 


Italy, 8 March 1858; d. Rome, Italy, 9 Aug. 
1919. He was educated at the Naples Con- 
servatory of Music and for many years resided 
as a teacher in Paris. Under the influence 
anil encouragement of Wagner he wrote 
his trilogy ‘Crepusculum, a drama _ of 
Italian history, of which ‘Medici? is the first 
part. He is best known by his operas ‘I Pag- 
liacci? (1892); ‘La Bohéme? (1897); ‘Zaza? 
(1900) ; and ‘Der Roland? (1904). Other works 
by him are ‘Tomaso Chatterton? (1896), a 
popular opera; ‘Serafitus-Serafita,? a symphonic 
poem. 


LEONFORTE, 14’6n-for’ta, Sicily, city in 
the province of Catania, 2,133 feet above sea 
level, about 40 miles west of Catania. It is 
situated in an agricultural district, producing 
cereals, fruit and wine, and there are exports 
of sulphur and salt. Pop. 19,751. 


LEONHARDT, 1a’on-hart, Gerard Adolf 
Wilhelm, German jurist: b. Hanover, 6 June 
1815; d. there, 7 May 1880. He was edu- 
cated at Gottingen and Berlin, became an ad- 
vocate and in 1837 was appointed to the Han- 
overian government service. He was appointed 
Minister of Justice in Hanover in 1862, served 
as chief justice of the High Court of ‘Appeals 
after Hanover was annexed to Prussia, and 
in 1867 received a seat in the Prussian Upper 
House and was appointed Minister of Justice 
in Prussia. He was an authority on criminal 
law and was instrumental in introducing many 
reforms in Germany’s criminal code. He re- 


LEONI— LEOPARD 


tired in 1879. Author of ‘Kommentar. tber 
das Kriminalgesetzbuch ftir das Konigreich 
Hanover? (1846-51); ‘Die Justizgesetzebung 
des K6nigreichs Hanover? (1859-60); ‘Zur Re- 
form des Ay liprozesses in. Deutschland? (1865). 


LEONI, 14-d’né, Leone (sometimes called 
In CAVALIERE ARETINO), Italian sculptor. and 
medallist: b. near Arezzo, or at Menaggio, 
about 1509; d. Milan, 22 July 1590.- He first 
appears in Venice where he was associated 
with Titian and Pietro Aretino, and he met 
Benvenuto Cellini at Padua in competition for 
the medal of Bembo. He was an engraver in 
the mint under Pope Paul III in 1538-40, and 
was afterward similarly employed at Milan 
under Alfonso d’Avalos. Through the influence 
of Ferrante Gonzaga he was appointed medal- 
list and sculptor in the household of Charles V. 
He executed many busts, statues and bas-re- 
liefs of the royalties and members of the court, 
a notable example of his art being ‘Charles V 
Repressing Violence,» now itt the Musée de 
Prado, where many other specimens of his work 
are exhibited. He is: represented also in the 
museums at Madrid, Vienna and Windsor 
Castle. He possessed a valuable art collection, 
and his house in Milan, still in existence, was 
famous for its sculptural decorations, He was 
ees aa in his work by his son, Pompeo Leoni 
(g.v 

LEONI, Pompeo, Italian sculptor, son of 
the preceding: b. probably Milan; d. Madrid, 
1610. He worked with his father, who greatly 
influenced his style. Together they ’ executed 
the famous bronze groups of Charles V and 
Philip II and their families in the Escorial. 
Most of his life was spent in Spain, and he 
continued in the favor of the court after the 
accession of Philip II]. Among his other work 
is the monument to Don Fernando de Valdes, 
at Salas, Asturias; and the mausoleum of the 
Marquis Poza at Valencia; together with many 
busts and statues of the royal family and of 
the nobility. 


LEONIDAS  (lé-6n'i-das) I, king of 
Sparta: b. 480 np.c.. He was a son of King 
Anaxandrides, and ascended the throne about 
489 p.c. ~When Xerxes invaded Greece, the 
Greek Congress assigned to Leonidas the de- 
fense of the pass of Thermopyle. His force, 
according to Herodotus, amounted to over 
6,000 men, of whom 300 were Spartans, After 
the Persians had made several vain attempts 
to force the pass, a Greek named Ephialtes 
betrayed to them a mountain path, by which 
Hydarnes led a body of Persians to attack 
Leonidas in the rear. Before this manceuvre 
could be completed, Leonidas, dismissing most 
of his allies, undertook to hold the pass with 
a forlorn hope of 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians 
and 400 Thebans. Here they resisted the main 
body of Xerxes’ army, being attacked both in 
front and rear. No quarter was given or 
taken and it was not until the entire Spartan 
and Thespian corps were wiped out, that the 
remaining small body of Thebans surrendered, 
Leonidas fell early in the action, and a desper- 
ate struggle afterward took place over his 
body, which was rescued by the Greeks, but 
after the surrender Xerxes ordered the head 
cut off and the remains crucified. The details 
of the gallant resistance are lost in a maze of 
myths, but numerous writers have paid their 


303 


tribute to Leonidas and the brave band_ be- 

trayed at Thermopyle. Consult Herodotus, 
39-41; Cicero, ‘Tusc. Disput.,? v. I, 42-49; 

Grundy, ‘The Great Persian War (1901). 


LEONIDES, or LEONIDS. See Leo. 


LEONINE VERSE, a form of Latin 
verse, originating during the Middle Ages, con- 
sisting of hexameters and pentameters of which 
the final and middle syllables rhyme. They are 
so called from Leonius, a poet of the 12th 
century. An instance of Leonine verse is 
found in the lines by Tennyson: 


“The long light shakes across the lakes, 
And the wild cataract leaps-in glory.” 


LEONNATUS, 18a’6n-na’tuz, Macedonian 
general of Pella: d. Thessaly, 322 n.c. He was 
considered one of the ablest commanders under 
Alexander the Great, and accompanied him in 
his invasion of Persia in 334 pc. He was kept 
in positions close to the emperor’s person and 
at Malli he and Peucestas saved the life of 
Alexander. He received the satrapy of the 
Hellespontine Phrygia after the death of Alex- 
ander, but soon afterward was killed in battle 
against the Athenians and their allies, who were 
besieging Antipater at Lamia. 


LEONTIUS OF BYZANTIUM, 1é-6n’- 
shi-tz ov bi-zan’shi-tim (called also SCHOLAS- 
Ticus. and MHrerosoLymiranus), Byzantine 
ecclesiastic: flourished in the 6th century.  Lit- 
tle is known of his life. He mentions having 
in early years belonged to a Nestorian com- 
munity, and he is reputed to have introduced 
Aristotelian definitions into theology. There is 
much confusion concerning the authorship of 
various manuscripts bearing the name “Leon- 
tius” with different surnames, but he is gen- 
erally credited with being author of the polem- 
ical treatises ‘Contra Nestorianos et Euty- 
chianos?; ‘Contra Monophysitas?; ‘Contra 
Severum?: and ‘De Sectis.» His collected 
works are published in J. P. Migne’s ‘Patro- 
logia Greca? (Vol. LXXXVI). 


LEONTODON. See Hawgsir. 
LEONZIO PILATO, 14-6n’tsé-6 pé-1a’'té, 


or LEO PILATUS, ‘Greek or Calabrian 


pseudo-scholar: d. at sea, on the Adriatic, 
about 1366. It is supposed that he met 
Petrarch in Padua and Boccaccio at Milan, and 
upon the invitation of Boccaccio to become 
his guest he went to Florence where the influ- 
ence of his patron secured him the chair of 
Greek in the university. His knowledge of 
Greek was in no way scholarly and he was 
practically a barbarian. He made the first mod- 
ern translation of Homer into Latin under the 
immediate care of Boccaccio and with more 
distant counsel from Petrarch. The ignorance 
of the Calabrian, cloaked in an assumption of 
knowledge and defended by a surly indifference, 
led Boccaccio into many errors in his own work. 
Pilatus appeared to have accompanied Boc- 
caccio on his visit to Petrarch at: Venice in 
1363, and later went to Constantinople. On 
his return journey to Italy he was killed by 
lightning at sea. Consult Hodius, ‘De Grecis 
illustribus?; Petrarch, ‘Epistole® (Vols. V, 
Lacs Hutton, ‘Boccaccio? (1909). 


LEOPARD, or PANTHER, one of the 
great cats widely distributed over Africa and 
Asia, and prehistorically prevalent in southern 


304 


Europe. The general color is yellowish fawn, 
which becomes white on the under aspect of 
the body, marked with black spots of various 
sizes, irregularly dispersed; these spots are 
often rosette-like, but do not. enclose a central 
spot as is the case with its American analogue, 
the jaguar (q.v.). Black examples often occur, 
In general appearance and conformation the 
leopard is tiger-like, but is considerably the 
inferior of the tiger in size and weight, meas- 
uring on the average about 3 feet and 10 
inches from the nose to the root of the tail, 
which is almost as long as the body. This 
beautiful cat is, however, the peer of the tiger, 
making up in agility, quickness and wit for his 
lack of weight and power. Its prey con- 
sists of any animal it is able to pounce upon or 
overcome, and among the native villages: and 
herdsmen of both India and Africa it is dreaded 
as a destroyer of cattle and sheep, since, like 
the American puma, when it invades a cattle- 
pen or sheepfold it kills many times more 
animals than it can eat or carry away. Never- 
theless, leopards have always been among the 
partly tamed and trained animals of. shows, 
and they thrive well and breed in captivity. 

The leopard—which is more commonly 
called “panther” in India— frequents mainly 
wooded and rocky regions, where it can take 
refuge in trees, or seek among their limbs the 
birds, monkeys and other arboreal creatures 
that form a fair share of its food. It does not 
hesitate to attack large prey, but can rarely 
overcome a buffalo or one of the larger Afri- 
can antelopes unless the animal is taken at a 
great disadvantage. Not more than one pair 
is usually found in a given district; and they 
make their lair in some rocky jungle, where 
once a year two to four kittens are born to 
them, which remain with their mother until 
they are well grown. One hears less of man- 
eating leopards than of lions and tigers with 
the habit of attacking human beings; but the 
leopard is more widespread, numerous and sub- 
tle than either of the others and doubtless is 
the real perpetrator of many homicides attribu- 
ted to the larger cats. At any rate the leopard 
is regarded by those familiar with him as quite 
as formidable a beast to encounter, and sports- 
men adopt the same methods and use the same 
precautions as when they are pursuing the tiger. 
A most excellent summary of leopard-hunting 
experiences may be read in Porter’s ‘Wild 
Beasts? (New York 1894). For the leopard 
in India consult Sanderson, ‘Thirteen Years 
among Wild Beasts in India? (1893); Forsyth, 
“Highlands of Central India? (1889); Horna- 
day, ‘Two Years in the Jungle,» and similar 
writers. The Persian leopard is described at 
length in Blanford’s ‘Zoology of Persia? 
(1876); and the ‘African? by Baker, ‘Wild 
Beasts and their Ways? (1890); Drummond, 
‘Large Game and Natural History of South- 
east Africa? (1875); Ingersoll, ‘Life of Mam- 
mals? (1906) ; Roosevelt and Heller, ‘Life His- 
tories of African Game Animals) (1914); and 
many other sportsmen-travelers. in that conti- 
nent. See CHEETA; SNOW-LEOPARD. 


LEOPARD, The. See CHESAPEAKE AND 
LEoPpARD AFFAIR, 


LEOPARD-CAT, a _ highly variable, 
tawny, much-spotted cat about two feet long 
in body, and with a long tail, which dwells in 


~northern India but ‘is not well known. 


LEOPARD -—- LEOPARDI 


It is 
called Felis bengalensis ‘by Elliot and also by 
Mivart, but its identity is doubtful. Consult 
Lydekker, ‘Game Animals of India? (1907). 


i! LEOPARD-FLOWER. See BLACKBERRY 
ILY. 


LEOPARD-FROG. See Froc. 


LEOPARD-MOTH, a large European 
tussock-moth (Zeuzera pyrina), white spotted 
with black, whose caterpillars bore into the 
limbs. of forest and shade trees, and so weaken 
them that they die or are easily broken by the 
wind. This moth has been introduced to 
America in the neighborhood of New York 
where it is one of the pests in the parks. 


LEOPARD (lép’ard) SEAL (Sea Leop- 
ARD), a spotted Patagonian seal, Ogmorhinus 
or Hydrurga leptonyx of the family Phocide. 
It is widely distributed in southern, temperate 
and Antarctic seas. The males sometimes at- 
tain a length of 12 feet. The fur is short and 
lustrous, spotted yellowish white and dark gray 
on the back, and yellowish beneath. The fur of 
the females is somewhat darker than that of 
the males. 


LEOPARD-SHARK, a handsomely varie- 
gated small shark (Triakis semifasciatum), of- 
ten seen along the coast of southern California. 


LEOPARDI, 1a’o-par’dé, Alessandro, 
Italian sculptor: b. Venice, last half of 15th 
century; d. there, about 1512. His earliest 
known work is the magnificent mausoleum of 
the Doge Andrea Vendramini in the church of 
San Giovanni e Paolo at Venice. Some of the 
figures are missing, two of which authorities 
agree are in the museum at Berlin. He was 
charged with forgery and banished from Ven- 
ice in 1487, but the necessity for finishing the 
statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, begun by Ver- 
rocchio, caused the Senate to recall Leopardi 
in 1490. The pedestal of this work is his own 
creation and he cast the bronze statue. The 
bronze sockets for the three standards in the 
square of Saint Mark’s were designed and cast 
by him, and he worked on the tomb of Car- 
dinal Zeno at Saint Mark’s in 1503-05, the 
tomb being finished by Pietro Lombardo. 
Among the works believed to be his but not 
fully verified are ‘Elijah in the Fiery Chariot? 
in the Morgan collection, New York, a bronze 
relief; and the three bronze reliefs of the 
‘Assumption of the Virgin» in the Museo- 
Archeologico, Venice. 


LEOPARDI, Giacomo, Count, Italian 
scholar and poet: b. Recanati, in the marshes 
of Ancona, 29 June 1798; d. Naples, 15 June 
1837. He devoted himself from an early age 
to study in the fine library of his father, 
and when he reached his 15th year was master 
of Latin and Greek, and had soon read most 
of the literary masterpieces of antiquity. In 
1815 his translation of Porphyry’s “Life of 
Plotinus>? was followed by his ‘Saggio sopra gli 
Errori degli Antichi.» He was of profound 
poetic genius and mourned over the degraded 
political condition of his native land, a feeling 
which found utterance in his magnificent ‘Ode 
to Italy, a poem which proclaimed him the 
first of modern Italian singers. In 1822 he went 
to Rome and attracted the attention of Niebuhr 
by his criticism of a new edition of the “Chront- 
con of Eusebius’; and the great historian at- 


LEOPARDS 


1 The Leopard or Panther 2 Snow Leopard or Ounce 3 Hunting Leopard or Cheetah 


LEOPOLD I 


tempted in vain to settle him as professor in 
the University of Berlin. Leopardi was broken 
in health, as well as in spirit, and his unhappi- 
ness was intensified by an unhappy love affair. 
Bunsen offered him such a professorship, and 
it was declined. He left Rome to travel in 
Italy, his tour embracing many of the great 
northern cities, and ending with Naples. He 
developed the most absolute skepticism, and the 
unhappiness of his lot made him a pessimist. 
His sight failed, and he was forbidden to take 
up a book, and though he was a linguist of rare 
accomplishments, wrote in Greek and Latin with 
equal ease, had mastered French, Spanish and 
English, he could apply his attainments to no 
practical end. His classic training had, how- 
ever, given him a power and precision in the 
use of his native tongue, which was unprece- 
dented in his day. His early lyrics were written 
between 1816 and 1824, and are distinguished 
for lucidity, genuine feeling and brilliant com- 
mand of metre and rhyme. His most famous 
poem, however, is ‘La Ginestra? (1836), in 
which he gives full expression to his hopeless 
creed; and of his poetic productions some 39 
remain to this day the finest and most imperish- 
able utterances of the Italian lyre. His other 
works include translations and critical treatises, 
and after his death were published his prose 
- works, a miscellany of peculiar interest. His 
‘Epistolario,. a collection of his letters, records 
in the most intimate manner his personal life. 
Consult Autard, ‘Essay sur les Idees philoso- 
phiques et V'inspiration poetique de Glacomo 
Leopardi? (1877); Ranieri, ‘Sette anni di so- 
dalizio. con. Giacomo Leopardi? (1880) ; Cap- 
pelletti, ‘Bibliographia Leopardiana? (1882) ; 

Ceaseo, ‘Nuove ricerche su Giacomo Leopardi? 
(1893), and ‘La Vita di Giacomo Leopardi? 

(1905) ; Serban, ‘Leopardi sentimental? (1913). 
See DIALOGUES ; ODES. 


LEOPOLD (1lé6-péld) I (GrorcE Saree 
TIAN FREDERICK), king of the Belgians: b. Co- 
burg, 16 Dec. 1790: d. 10 Dec. 1865. He was 
the fourth son of Francis, Duke of Saxe- 
Coburg, and after receiving a careful literary 
and scientific education and spending some 
years in foreign travel, he entered the Russian 
service, in which he rose to the rank of a 
general and commanded corps at the battles of 
Liitzen, Bantzen and Leipzig. On the return 
of Napoleon from Elba he joined the army of 
the Rhine and with it entered Paris. While 
in England after the peace of 1815 he married 
(2 May 1816) Princess Charlotte, daughter of 
the Prince Regent and heiress to the throne, 
and was naturalized by act of Parliament and 
created Duke of, Kendal. The princess died 
in childbed on 5 Noy. 1817. In February 1830 
he was Offered the crown of the new kingdom 
of Greece; was proclaimed; but as conditions he 
had specified regarding a rectification of 
frontier and his entire acceptability to the 
Greek people were not fulfilled, he renounced 
the sovereignty. On 4 June 1831 he was elected 
by a national congress king of the Belgians. 
Difficulties were encountered for the first eight 
years of his reign with the king of Holland, 
out of whose territory Belgium had been 
carved, and these were settled by the Treaty 
of Twenty-four Articles in 1839. In August 
1832 he married Louise, eldest daughter of 
Louis Philippe of France (d. 1850). During 

VOL. 17—20 


305 


the revolutionary troubles of 1848 he offered to 
abdicate if his rule was unacceptable to his sub- 

jects; but all classes rallied round the king. 
He ruled with great prudence, was one of the 
wisest monarchs of his time, was frequently 
called on to arbitrate on international disputes 
and was called the Nestor of Europe. His 
daughter, Carlotta, was the wife of Maximilian, 

emperor of Mexico. He was succeeded by his 
son, Leopold II. Consult Juste, ‘Les Fonda- 
teurs de la Monarchie belge, Leopold, Ier Roi 
des Belges” (1868), an English translation of- 
which appeared, entitled ‘Memoirs of Leopold 
I (1868); Taillandier, ‘Le roi Leopold et la 
reine Victoria» (1878). 

LEOPOLD II (Louts Puitiprpe Marie 
Victor), king of the Belgians: b. Brussels, 9 
April 1835; d. Brussels, 17 Dec. 1909. He was 
the eldest son of Leopold I, and married in 
1853 Maria Henrietta, Archduchess of Austria 
(d. 1902), daughter ‘of Archduke Joseph of 
Austria. He early manifested great interest in 
the opening up-of central Africa, and in 1876 
organized at Brussels the African International 
Association, the purpose of which was to utilize 
African discoveries for commercial purposes. 
He aided, and to a large extent financed, Stan- 
ley’s explorations on the Kongo in 1879-82, 
By the Berlin Congress of 1885 the Kongo Free 
State was formed, its territory neutralized and 
its sovereignty conferred on King Leopold. In 
1889 the king willed this domain to the Belgian 
people. ‘Certain grave scandals in connection 
with its administration and the commercial ex- 
ploitation of the natives—in the profits of 
which. the king shared — were brought to light 
in 1903 and action taken by the British Parlia- 
ment to have an inquiry into the abuses com- 
plained of. The result was that reforms were 
effected, and in 1908 the Kongo Free State be- 
came a Belgian colony. King Leopold was a 
man of notoriously immoral life. But he was 
an able monarch, who governed as well 
as reigned, and initiated many schemes for the 
commercial advancement of his country. Dur- 
ing his reign its foreign commerce increased 
sixfold and its merchant fleet fivefold, and: it 
began to take its place as a colonial power. His 
only son, Leopold, died in 18609; his second 
daughter, Stephanie, was married to Prince 
Rudolf of Austria who died mysteriously in 
1889. He was succeeded by his nephew, Albert 
I (q.v.). Consult MacDonnell, J. de C., ‘King 
Leopold II» (London 1905); Rappoport, A. S., 
engl King of the Belgians’ (New York 
1910). 


LEOPOLD I, Holy Roman emperor: b. 
Vienna, 9 June 1640; d. there, 5 May 1705. He 
was second son of the Emperor Ferdinand III 
of the house of Hapsburg and of Maria Anna. 
of Spain, and was educated for the Church, 
when the death of his brothers made ‘him heir 
to the throne of his father. Previous to the 
death of the latter in 1657, Leopold had (1655) 
been crowned king of Hungary, still mainly in 
Turkish hands; in 1656 he was elected king of 
Bohemia, and in 1658, in spite of the opposition 
of Cardinal Mazarin, emperor. The war with 
the Turks having been renewed in 1660, Monte- 
cuculi won the battle of Saint Gothard on the 
Raab (1 Aug. 1664), which was followed, how- 
ever, by a peace which the Hungarian partisans 
of the emperor regarded as ignominious. In 


306 


1678 occurred the great insurrection under 
Tokoly, due to the emperor’s persecution of the 
Hungarian Protestants, who in 1683 obtained 


the help of the Turks by their invasion of Aus- | 


tria under Kara Mustapha. Leopold fled from 
Vienna, but John Sobieski’s great victory saved 
his capital and thrones. Buda was retaken after 
a memorable siege in 1686, and the victories at 
Zalankemén (1691) and Zenta (1697), won by 
the military genius of Prince Eugene, led to 
the peace of Carlovitz (1699), which also se- 
cured the possession of Transylvania. But 
neither the wholesale executions of Hungarian 
patriots at Eperies, nor the acquiescence of the 
Diet of Presburg in the proposition to make the 
male line of the Hapsburgs hereditary in Hun- 
gary (1687), could make peace permanent in 
that long-distracted country. Leopold also had 
to wage three protracted wars against Louis 
XIV; the last, the War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion, which he did not live to see concluded. 
In the German Empire the long reign of Leo- 
pold witnessed the growing power of the house 
of Brandenburg, under Frederick William, the 
great elector, whose son assumed the royal title 
under the name of Frederick I in 1701. 


LEOPOLD II, Holy Roman emperor: b. 
Vienna, 5 May 1747 ; d. there, 1 March 1792. 
He was the 3d son of the Emperor Francis I, 
and succeeded him in 1765 on the throne of 
Tuscany, where he effected reforms in the 
land laws and confined ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
to purely ecclesiastical matters. The death of 
_ his brother Joseph II in 1790 called him to the 
greater cares of the vast Austrian dominions 
and soon after of the German Empire. He 
hastened to make terms with Frederick William 
II at Reichenbach (27 July 1790), was unani- 
mously elected German emperor, pacified Hun- 
gary by taking the royal oath to observe strictly 
the constitution and by various concessions, 
proclaimed a full amnesty and restored all their 
ancient privileges to the Belgians, gave Tus- 
cany to his son Ferdinand, concluded a peace 
with Turkey at Sistova (4 Aug. 1791), con- 
certed ‘with Frederick William, Frederick 
Augustus of Saxony and others, at Rilnitz, pre- 
liminary measures for meeting ‘the aggressions 
of the French Revolution, and finally made a 
formal defensive and offensive alliance with 
Prussia (February 1792). Francis, his oldest 
son, succeeded him on the throne. 


LEOPOLD, Karl Gustaf af, Swedish 
poet: b. Stockholm, 3 April 1756; d. there, 9 
Nov. 1829. He attained distinction in Swedish 
letters, his first work to attract wide attention 
being his “Ode on the Birth of the Prince- 
Royal Gustavus Adolphus? (1778). He was 
appointed secretary to Gustavus III in 1778 
and stood high in the regard of that monarch. 
His odes on the martial achievements of the 
Swedes were among his most popular produc- 
tions, and his tragedies ‘Odin (1790) and 
Virginia? (1802) were highly successful. In 
1818 he was appointed Secretary of State. His 
“Samlade Skrifter? were published (Vols. I-III, 
1800-02; Vols. IV—VI, 1831-33). 


LEOPOLD, Order of, name of two orders, 
one of Austria- ‘Hungary and one of Belgium. 
(1) The Austrian Order of Leopold was 
founded by the Emperor Francis I, 7 Jan. 1808, 
in honor of his father, Emperor Leopold II. It 


LEOPOLD II — LEPANTO-BONTOC 


is bestowed for “personal merit». There are 
three classes: Grand Cross; Commanders and 
Chevaliers. The two first carry the title of baron 
and the third receive hereditary nobility. The 
Grand Mastership is vested in the Crown and 
the officers of the order are the prelate, chan- 
cellor, treasurer, registrar and herald. The 
decorations comprise a badge, collar and star, 
and the habit is of the national colors. The 
motto is “Integritate et Merito.” (2) The Bel- 
gian Order of Leopold is a civil and military 
order, founded 11 July 1832 by Leopold I. It 
is divided into five classes: Knights Grand 
Cordons ; Grand Officers; Commanders; Officers 
and Chevaliers. The Grand Mastership is 
vested in the Crown and the three inferior 
grades carry pensions. The decorations con- 
sist of a badge, a collar and a star. The motto 
is “L’union fait la force.” Consult Laurence- : 
Archer,,.J..::H.,..*Dhe ,Osders” of oChivalma 
(1887). 


LEOPOLD II, Lake, a lake in the admin- 
istrative district of that name in the Belgian 
Kongo, West Africa. It is 90 miles long from 
north to south and varies in width from 2 to 
30 miles. Its banks are low and subject to 
inundation. It empties into the Mfini, an afflu- 
ent of the Kwa or Kassai, which flows into the 
Kongo. It was discovered by Stanley in 188]. 


LEOPOLDVILLE, Belgian Kongo, West ~ 
Africa, a station on the left bank of the Kongo 
near the Stanley Pool, 235 miles in a direct 
line northeast of the mouth of the Kongo, - 
connected by rail with Matadi. It is the western 
terminus of navigation on the upper Kongo. 
It was founded by Stanley, February 1882, and 
the native population largely preponderates over 
that of the whites: There is a pipe line for the 
conveyance of crude oil from Matadi and there 
is a wireless station. Pop. about 15,000. 


LEPANTO, Battle of, a famous naval en-— 
gagement fought near the town of Lepanto in 
Greece, on the Gulf of Corinth, 7 Oct. 1571, 
between the Ottoman and the combined Medi- 
terranean fleets of the Christian allies, princi- 
pally Venetian and Spanish craft. Under the 
command of Don John of Austria they ob- 
tained an overwhelming victory. Cervantes 
(q.v.), the author of ‘Don Quixote,’ distin- 
guished himself in this battle, receiving three 
wounds. This was the concluding battle of the 
Crusades, destroying the Turkish fleet and 
ending their supremacy in the Mediterranean. 
Considering the primitive bow-gun weapons 
then in use, the loss of life was remarkable, 
being estimated as 20,000 for the Ottomans and 
8,000 Christians. The allies brought into the 
fight 200 galleys and 8 galeasses (large three- 
masters, carrying cannon), while the Turkish 
fleet numbered 273, but of smaller sizé on the 
average and fewer. cannon. The Turks em- 
ployed Christian prisoners as galley-slaves and 
10,000 or more were liberated by the Christian 


victory. Consult Maxwell, ‘Don John. of 
Austria? (1883); Prescott, “Reign of Philip 
IP (1902). “d 


LEPANTO-BONTOC, 14-pan’t6b6n-tok, . 
Philippines, a province of Luzon formed by the 
union of the three subprovinces of Lepanto, 
Bontoc and Amburayan, occupying the western 
central part of northern Luzon; area 1,232 
square miles, The province mostly is rugged 


LEPCHAS — LEPIDOPTERA 


and mountainous; it is thinly settled and there 
are no roads, communication being by trails, 
The only industry of importance is copper min- 
ing. ‘Civil government was established in May 
1902. Pop. 60,000, mostly Iggorotes and Ifugaos. 


LEPCHAS, lép’chaz, a Tibetan stock of 
Sikkim, India. They are a peaceful people who 
have suffered considerably from the incursions 
of more warlike neighboring tribes, and both 
their ancient customs and their language are 
falling into disuse. Their language is of Indo- 
Chinese origin and through the efforts of 
Colonel Mainwaring and others who appre- 
ciated its beauty, the knowledge of it has been 
preserved. The literature of the Lepchas, how- 
ever, has been practically destroyed, resulting 
in the loss of many of their traditions. Their 
language possesses an extensive nomenclature 
in zoology and botany, and the people are well 
versed in beast and bird lore. They are mostly 
Buddhists in religion. ‘They were once pros- 
perous and independent but are now poor and 
largely of the coolie class. Consult Mainwar- 
ing, ‘Grammar of the Rong (Lepcha) Lan- 
guage in the Darjiling and Sikkim Hills? (Cal- 
cutta 1876); Von Schlagintweit, “Results of a 
Scientific Mission to India and High Asia? 
(London 1863); Donaldson, F., ‘In Lepcha 
Land (1900). 


LEPELETIER DE SAINT-FAR- 
GEAU, leé’pel’tya dé san far’gyo’, Louis 
Michel, French politician: b. Paris, 29 May 
1760; d. there, 20 Jan. 1793. He came of a 
prominent family and inherited great wealth. 
Originally a conservative he was chosen presi- 
dent of the Parliament of Paris in 1789 and 
was a deputy for the nobility in the States- 
General. His opinions gradually changed, 
however, and he became an adherent of the 
Revolution. On 13 July 1789 he moved to 
demand of the king the reinstatement of 
Necker. He was elected president of the Con- 
stituent Assembly 21 June 1790, and at the Con- 
vention he was a deputy from Yonne, voting 
for the execution of the king. The Royalists 
had understood him as pledged to defend the 
king, and a member of the king’s bodyguard 
assassinated him the evening before the king’s 
death. He was given a splendid funeral by the 
Convention and his death was commemorated 
in a painting by David, which, however, his 
daughter destroyed: Lepeletier had been deeply 
interested in public education and many ideas 
from his notes were incorporated in later plans. 
Consult ‘CEuvres de Michel Lapeletier Saint- 
Fargeau, with a biographical sketch by his 
brother Felix (Brussels 1826). 


LEPER. See Leprosy. 


LEPERDITA, le’par-ditysa, a genus of 
fossil ostracode crustaceans of the family 
'Leperditiide, extending from the lower Silu- 
rian to the Carboniferous Age. The shells have 
oblong unequal valves with a straight dorsal 
edge, the right valve having an overlapping 
ventral edge; there is a small eye tubercle and a 
subcentral interior muscular imprint. The ex- 
terior is smooth and rounded. They occur in 


abundance in eastern United States and in 
Europe. 
LEPIDIUM, leé-péd’yiim, a _ genus of 


plants of the family Crucifere and the tribe 
Sinapee. They are usually known as_ pepper- 


arranged in geometrical patterns. 


307 


wort, peppergrass and cress and number about 
65 species scattered throughout the warm re- 
gions of the earth. There are about 25 species 
in North America, some of them of European 
origin, but naturalized. They are characterized 
by white flowers and have dehiscent pods 
which are almost invariably two-seeded. 


LEPIDODENDRON, a fossil plant oc- 
curring in rocks of the Carboniferous Age, sup- 
posed in some cases to have been important in 
the constitution of coal. They are usually 
identified by fossil-botanists with the living 
club mosses, although the fossil forms are of 
far greater size, attaining at times a growth of 
75 to 100 feet in height. They are widely dis- 
tributed over the world and are abundant in the 
middle and lower divisions of the productive 
coal measures. 


LEPIDOLITE, or LITHIA MICA, an 
important member of the mica group of min- 
erals, aS it is now one of the chief sources of 
the lithia salts so valuable in medicine. The 
specific gravity is 2.8 to 2.9, the hardness 2% 
to 4 and the optic axial angle 50° to 70°. Its 
name, derived from the Greek, lepis, a scale, 
alludes to its usual occurrence in fine, scaly- 
granular masses. It rarely occurs in distinct, 
monoclinic crystals. It has a pearly lustre and 
a gray, lilac or peach-blossom pink color. It 
occurs in small quantities in many parts of Eu- 
rope and Asia, but by far the most important 
locality is in San Diego County, Cal., where it 
is now extensively mined. It is also found in 
Maine and Massachusetts and has been mined 
near Haddam, Conn. It is very frequently as- 
sociated with pink and green gem tourmalines. 


LEPIDOMELANE, a species of iron pot- 
ash mica. In appearance it is black and either 
cpaque or clear, scaly and adamantine. It crys- 
tallizes in the monoclinic system. It occurs in 
eastern United States and northern Europe. 


LEPIDOPHYTA. Sce PALEoBOTANY. 


LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. Aezic, scale; mTEpdr, 
wing): An order of the class Insecta, compris- 
ing the butterflies and moths. The name was 
given to the order because the wings are covered 
with little scales, or flattened hairs. The Lepi- 
doptera undergo in their development a com- 
plete metamorphosis, passing through the stages 
of the egg, larva and pupa, before appearing as 
the perfect insect, or imago. 

Eggs.— The eggs of the Lepidoptera are 
minute objects, though generally large enough 
to be seen with the naked eye. When examined 
under the microscope they are found to vary 
greatly in form according to the species. They 
may be spherical, hemispherical, oval, conic, 
cylindrical, spindle-shaped or flattened. The 
eggs of the Cochlidiide, or slug-moths, are cir- 
cular, or elliptical, and greatly flattened, resem- 
bling microscopic pancakes. The egg of the 
common cabbage-butterfly is spindle-shaped. 
The eggs of both butterflies and moths are 
generally beautifully fluted with raised lines, or 
ornamented with a net-work of sculpturings 
They are 
always provided with a minute opening in the 
shell known as the micropyle, permitting them 
to be fertilized. This is located at the apex in 
most forms, but in the case of those eggs which 
are flattened the micropyle is located on the side. 
The female deposits the eggs upon the plant on 


308 


which the caterpillars feed, or in close prox- 
imity to the food which is to nourish them, in 
the case of those few species which do not 
subsist in the larval stage upon vegetable 
matter. 

Larve,— When the eggs hatch the insects 
appear as larve, or caterpillars. These undergo 
successive molts as they increase in size, shed- 
ding their skins from time to time until they 
have attained the development at which ‘the next 
transformation, known as pupation, occurs. The 
bodies of larve consist normally of 13 segments, 
or somites, of which the first is the head. The 
forms of the larve are very various, though in 
the main they are vermiform and cylindrical. 
The larve of butterflies are for the most part 
smooth, though in some genera they are curi- 
ously ornamented with lateral or dorsal projec- 
tions, which may be spinous, club-shaped. or 
filamentous. The larve of moths are often 
hairy, or spinose, and in some genera of the 
Lasiocampide, the Cochlidude and the Satur- 
nud@, these spines possess stinging, or poison- 
ous, properties. Lepidopterous larve possess 
three pairs of true feet located upon the three 
segments immediately following the head, and 
corresponding to the six thoracic feet which 
are found in the winged form of the insects. 
In addition to these true feet the bodies of these 
larve are supported by from two to eight pairs 
of abdominal prolegs, or false feet, which are 
fleshy and do not recur in the imago. The head 
is always more or less conspicuous in the larval 
stage, and is provided with eyes and mouth 
“parts adapted to cutting and deglutition. 

One of the most remarkable portions of 
the anatomy of lepidopterous larve are the two 
long glands located in the dorsal region, which 
secrete a milky fluid, which is vented through a 
nipple-shaped organ upon the lower lip known 
as the spinneret, and which upon exposure to 
the atmosphere is transformed into the sub- 
stance known as silk. 

Pupz.— When the larva has attained ma- 
turity it is transformed into a pupa. Pupz may 
be naked, or they may be enclosed in a structure 
of silk known asa cocoon. The pupe of butter- 
flies are usually attached by their anal extrem- 
ities to twigs, the under side of rails or stones. 
The attachment is effected by means of a button 
of silk into which the hook-like cremaster is 
thrust. In some families chrysalids are in addi- 
tion held in place by a girdle of silk. The larve 
of many moths undergo pupation in a cocoon 
which may be densely woven or very loosely 
constructed of a few strands of silk mingled 
with hairs from the body of the caterpillar, or 
loose particles of adherent earth or fragments 
of leaves. Many of the hawk-moths and almost 
all of the owlet-moths undergo transformation 
in underground cells which the caterpillars mold 
for themselves in the soil before changing 
into pupe. The duration of the pupal stage 
varies in length according to the species, or the 
season. Many species in temperate climates 
pass the winter in the pupal form. Where there 
are two or more generations in a season the 
pupal period is short for the summer: broods, 
and the fall brood hibernates in the pupal state. 
The pupz of butterflies are often ornamented 
with silvery or golden spots, hence the name 
chrysalis has been applied to them, the word 
being derived from the Greek (y¢,pv06 gold). 
The pupx of moths are generally some shade 


LEPIDOPTERA 


of brown or black. “The pupa contains the 
imago and in almost all cases an examination 
will show in the pupa the location of the vari- 


ous organs of the perfect insect in a rudimen- 


tary form. 

The Imago.— When the period ) pupation 
is ended the butterfly or moth breaks through 
the pupal shell and emerges a four-winged, six- 
footed insect, known as the imago. The females 
of some species of moths are apterous, or pro- 
vided with wings so poorly developed that they 
cannot be used in flight. 

Classification.— The classification of the 
Lepidoptera has afforded opportunity for much 
divergence of opinion among naturalists, but the 
division into two great suborders, the Rho palo- 
cera, or butterflies, and the. Heterocera, or 
moths, is well established in usage, 

The Rhopalocera contains six families: 

1. Nymphalide (“Brush-footed Butterflies”). 
— The front pair of legs greatly reduced in size, 
tarsi of the male with but one joint, of the 
female with five, but without claws, the pupa 
suspended by the cremaster. There are eight 
subfamilies in this group, more than 250 genera 
and about 5,000 species known at the present 
time. Among these are some of the largest and 
most splendidly colored butterflies, which are 
known, as well as some of the smallest and most 
obscurely colored forms. The family is repre- 
sented in all parts of the globe. 

II. Erycinide (“Metal-marks»).— The fe- 
male has the first pair of legs weakly, though 
perfectly developed. The coxa of the foreleg of 
the males is spined, and the tarsi are unjointed 
and without claws. There are over 60 genera 
and fully 1,000 species in this group. The but- 
terflies composing it are generally small, but 
gaily and curiously colored. The metropolis of 
the family is found in the hot lands of the New 
World, though it is also represented in the 
Eastern Hemisphere. 

Ill. Lycenide (“Blues,»” “Coppers” and 
“Hair-streaks” ).— The fore legs of the male are 
aborted, the tarsus having but a single joint 
terminated by a single claw. There are over 
2,000 species known. The butterflies are gen- 
erally small. The upper sides of the wings 
are prevalently some shade of blue, bronzy 
green or copper, though there are some species, 
especially in Africa, yellow, red or white. 

IV. Pieride ( “Whites, » Sulphurs” and 
“Orange-tips”).— The six ‘legs are well devel- 
oped in both sexes and the feet have two hooks 
or claws at the end. There are about 1,200 
species known to science. The “cabbage butter- 
fly» and the “common sulphur” of the clover 
fields are fair representatives. 

V. Papitlionide (“Swallow-tailed” Buttter- 
flies» ).— The six legs are well developed. The 
claws are simple. About 1,000 species belong to 
this family, among them some of the largest 
and most splendid tropical insects. 

VI. Hesperuide (“Skippers”).— The six legs 
are perfect. The claws are short and thick. 
The bodies are relatively robust. In flight the 
insects are very quick and powerful, hence the 
common name. The butterflies are generally 
small, though there are some quite large species. 

There are about 13,000 species of butterflies 
which have been named and described. . It is 
probable that when we shall have explored the 
entire earth the total number of existing species 
may be found to be 18,000. 


LEPIDOSIREN — LEPRA 


The Heterocera, or moths, may be divided 
into about 60 families, of which 43 are repre- 
sented in North America. The families which 
have the largest number of species in North 
America are the Noctuide, or “owlet-moths,” 
the Geometride, or “measuring-worm moths,” 
the Saturnitde, or “wild silk-moths,» the Arc- 
tude, or “tiger-moths,» the Sphingide, or 
“hawk-moths,” the Tortricide, or “leaf-rollers,” 
and the Pyralide. More than 7,000 species, of 
moths are known to occur in the United States 
and Canada, and probably more than 100,000 
species at present exist upon the globe. 

The most important of all the Lepidoptera 
from a commercial standpoint is the silk-moth 
(Bombyx mori), which was introduced into 
Europe from China by way of India, and at an 
early date was brought to the New World. 

Bibliography.— Beutenmiiller, ‘Monograph 
of Sesiide of North America? (Memoirs 
American Museum of Natural History) ; Dick- 
inson, ‘Moths and Butterflies? (Boston 1905) ; 
Dyar, ‘A List of North American Lepidoptera? 
(Bulletin, United States Natural Museum, No. 
52) ; Edwards, ‘The Butterflies of North Amer- 
ica?; Felt, E. Re “Gypsy and Brown Tail Moth 
(Bulletin, New York State Museum, No. 103, 
Albany 1906);.Hampson, ‘Catalogue of. the 
Lepidoptera Phalenz in the Collection of the 
British Museum?; Holland, ‘The Butterfly 
Book? (1898; 2d ed., 1904); id., ‘The Moth 
Book? (1905); Packard, ‘Monograph of Geo- 
metride’ (Hayden’s Survey, Vol. X);. id, 
“Monograph of Notodontide? (Memoirs Na- 
tional Academy of Science, Vol. VII); Roths- 
child and Jordan, ‘A Revision of the Lepidop- 
terous Family Sphingide? ; Scudder, ‘Butterflies 
of New England? (1889) ; Smith, “Catalogue of 
the Noctuide (Bulletin, United States Natural 
Museum, No. 44); Transactions of the Amer- 
ican Entomological Society (published quarterly 
since 1867); Entomological News (published 
monthly since. 1890); Psyche (published bi- 
monthly since 1877). 

W. J. Hotianp, 


Director of ectabe Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


LEPIDOSIREN, the American genus of 
Dipnoi (q.v.), or lung-fishes, closely resembling 
the African genus Protopterus, but having a 
more eel-like form, smaller scales and the 
paired limbs reduced to mere filaments of no 
use in locomotion. The single species Lepido- 
siren paradoxa was discovered by the Austrian 
naturalist Natterer in the tributaries of the up- 
per Amazon in 1837. For 50 years the species 
was known from only two or three museum 
specimens, but in 1887 was rediscovered in 
abundance in Paraguay by an Italian zoologist 
and since then has been the object of. several 
expeditions which have made it well known. 
It lives in the sluggish, vegetation-choked 
streams and lakes of that region, the natives of 
which spear it in large numbers for food. Its 
large eggs, more than a quarter of an inch in 
diameter, are deposited in wnderground nests 
where they are guarded by the males, whose 
ventral fins become densely villous and. serve 
as accessory respiratory organs at this time. 
On the approach of the dry season the muscles 
of the tail.undergo fatty degeneration and the 
fish retires to.a mucus-lined “cocoon” in the 
mud at the bottom of a burrow sealed at inter- 
vals of three or four inches by plates of mud 


309 


perforated by two or three small openings. In 
these retreats the “lolachs,” as they are called 
by the Indians, remain until the rains again 
convert the baked earth into mud. The lepido- 
siren feeds on large aquatic snails, conferve 
and roots. 


LEPIDOSTEUS. See Gar. 
LEPIDOSTROBUS (Gr. “whirling scale”), 


a fossil cone from the coal measures, usu- 
ally found in seams or nodules of clay- 
ironstone, and often compressed. They con- 
sist of. a central axis surrounded by imbri- 
cated scales or bracts, each containing a spo- 
rangium (spore-case). They have been found 
united to the tip of the branches of Lepidoden- 
dron, and this shows that they were the fruit 
of that genus. 


LEPIDOTUS, a genus of fossil ganoid 
fishes of the family Semionotide, occurring in 
abundance from the Keuper to the lower Creta- 
ceous in Europe, Siberia, India and Brazil. 


LEPIDUS, Marcus Amilius, Roman 
triumvir: d. Circeii, 13 B.c. He became pretor 
49 z.c., consul with Julius Cesar in 46, and in 
44 was appointed by Cesar to the government 
of Narbonese Gaul and Nearer Spain. He 
came of a distinguished patrician family, and 
possessed great wealth and influence, but seems 
to have held little power, and to have been a 
poor. commander. He was in Rome at the 
time of Czsar’s death, and joined Mark An- 
tony. In 43 he united with Antony and Octa- 
vianus to form the triumvirate, obtaining 
Spain and Narbonese Gaul in the division. of 
the empire. After the battle of Philippi (42) 
a redivision took place, in which Lepidus 
received Africa, where he remained till 36, when 
he was summoned by Augustus to assist him 
against Sextus Pompey. He then tried to seize 
Sicily, but was overcome by Augustus, who 
deprived him of his triumvirate, and banished 
him to Circeii, where he lived under strict 
surveillance. 


LEPORIDA, a family of rodents com- 
prising the rabbits and hares. With the Lago- 
myid@ it constitutes the suborder Dupliciden- 
tata, distinguished from all other rodents by 
having two pairs of upper incisors, of which 
the second is much reduced in size and placed 
immediately behind the first and larger pair. 
The hind-legs are much longer than the fore- 
legs and are well adapted by their structure 
for the leaping mode of locomotion affected 
by these animals; the tibia and fibula are, com- 
pletely ankylosed and articulate with the cal- 
caneum by a pulley-like surface, thus combin- 
ing great strength with great freedom of move- 
ment in one plane. The family is now. cos- 
mopolitan, some 75 species and sub-species be- 
ing recognized in North America. The genus 
Lepus. is practically coextensive with the 
family. See Hare. 


LEPRA, in botany, a plant disease char- 
acterized by the exudation upon the surface 
of the leaves of a white mealy or scaly sub- 
stance. In pathology: (1) Same as leprosy 
(q.v.).. (2) Formerly applied as descriptive of 
a scaly affection of the skin now classified as 
psoriasis, and also known as lephra alphos and 
lephra Grecorum. 


310 


LEPRECHAUN, lép’r@han, LEPRE- 
CAWN, LUPRACHAUN, or CLURI- 
CAUNEH, in Irish folklore a pygmy sprite sup- 
posed to make shoes, grind meal and assist 
in other ways humans who are kind to him. 
He is supposed to reach to a man’s knee in 
height and when not engaged in other helpful 
deeds is believed to be making shoes, the sound 
of his hammering being one of the principal 
means of discovering him. He is reputed to 
possess the secret of wealth and to be power- 
less to conceal it under the steady gaze of the 
human eye, but if the gaze be relaxed even 
momentarily he escapes. In some versions he 
possesses a purse which “always has a shilling 
in it” regardless of how often a shilling is 
spent. The word is used in Ireland in de- 
scribing a dwarfed person, as “leprechaun- 
looking.” 


LEPROHON, 1é-prén’, Rosanna Eleanor 
Mullins, Canadian poet and novelist: b. Mont- 
real, 1832; d. there, 20 Sept. 1879. She was 
educated at the Convent of Notre Dame, Mont- 
real, and began her literary career at 14 with 
contributions to the Montreal Literary Garland. 
She married Jean Lukin Leprohon, a Canadian 
physician, in 1851. From 1860 she was con- 
nected with the Montreal Family Herald and 
she also wrote for the Boston Pilot. Many of 
her novels were serialized and several were 
translated into French. Most of her novels 
deal with social happenings about the time of 
the English occupation. Her novels include 
‘EFveleen O’Donnell? (1859); ‘Antoinette de 
Mirecourt? (1864); ‘Armand Durand? (1868). 
Her collected poems were published after her 
death (Montreal 1881). 


LEPROSY, a term very vaguely used by 
medical and other writers to denote a disease, 
Lepra tuberculosa, which appears to have pre- 
vailed from the earliest time down to the 
present. The bacillus lepre was discovered by 
Hansen in 1868. The most prominent symp- 
toms of the disease are as follows: a constant 
but intermittent fever, dusky red or livid 
tubercles of various sizes on the face, ears and 
extremities; thickened state of the skin with 
diminution of its sensibility; falling off of the 
hair, except that of the scalp; hoarse, nasal or 
lost voice; ozena; ulcerations of the surface, 
a periodical exaggeration of perspiration, con- 
nected with nervous disturbances, and a feeling 
of anxiety with sense of impending disaster 
and extreme fetor. The tubercles vary in size 
from that of a pea to an olive. Hands, feet 
and-face are generally first affected. 

In modern times three main forms of 
leprosy are recognized. In the first the 
whole body becomes white and _ scaly, 
without much interference with the general 
health. This is the type of the Biblical leprosy, 
and it is rare nowadays. The second variety 
causes a loss of feeling in the hands and feet in 
its earlier stages, and later on in the arms and 
legs. It is known as anesthetic leprosy. It is 
a form of neuritis (q.v.). The sufferer from 
this form of the disease is much troubled with 
dysentery, and when the disease is advanced 
his hands and feet are liable to slough = off. 
The third variety of leprosy is known as the 
tubercular form. It is distinguished by horrible 
swellings of loose skin, which becomes dis- 


LEPRECHAUN, LEPRECAWN, LUPRACHAUN — LEPROSY 


colored. This is the commonest modern variety 
of the disease and the one most repulsive. 
Leprosy was recognized 1500 s.c. in India 
and in the Orient and in Palestine and the 
countries immediately east of it leprosy existed 
until the dispersion of the Jews in the Ist cen- 
tury of the Christian Era. As the power of 
the Roman Empire declined in the west of 
Europe a strong tide of emigration from the 
Levant set in. The plague of leprosy spread 
with the teaching of Christianity until no coun- 
try in Europe was free from it. It is also said 
that the returning Crusaders spread the disease 
all over Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. 
Between the 6th and the 15th centuries leprosy 
was by far the most dangerous and infectious 
disease of which any account has come down to 
us. 
To be a leper was to be an outcast beyond 
hope of any solace but the grave. All the 
larger towns in Europe had a place specially set 
apart for its lepers. This reservation was 
shunned as if it were the mouth of a burning 
hell. A boundary line was made, beyond which 
no leper could venture, except at the risk of in- 
stant death. If a healthy stranger unwittingly 


- wandered too near the leper’s camp he was re- 


morselessly thrust into it and made to share the 
lot of those previously afflicted. Food was 
furnished to these leper camps by the town au- 
thorities. The provisions intended for the use 
of the lepers were left on some exposed hill, 
selected for that purpose, during the daytime, 
and removed by the inmates of the camp at 
night. No office, no matter how exalted, served 
to keep a sufferer from leprosy from universal 
ostracism. 

In the sparsely settled country districts, 
solitary lepers abounded. Each one wandered 
about by himself in the unfrequented woods 
and uninhabited waste places. The rigorous 
compulsion of the villagers compelled him to 
wrap himself in a sheet so that only his eyes 
were exposed. He must carry a bell in his hand 
and ring it in order te warn wayfarers of his 
approach. Whenever the dismal tinkling of the 
leper’s bell was heard, the inhabitants fled in 
terror of their lives. The unfortunate victim 
supported life as best he might by roots and 
berries, and by the occasional offerings of char- 
itable persons left where he could find them. 

At an early period in the history of the 
Christian Church efforts were made to alleviate 
the sufferings of lepers. An order of Saint 
Lazarus was formed as early as 72 a.p., taking 
its name from Lazarus, the beggar who ate the 
crumbs which fell from the rich man’s table. 
Later on, in the 12th century, a military order 
of Lazarus was founded by the Knights Hos- 
pitallers. When these knights were driven out 
of Palestine they made France and afterward 
Sicily their headquarters. Numerous lazarettos 
were established by them in the principal cities 
of Europe. For many years the grand master 
of this order was required to be a leper. In 
civil law the leper was treated as one dead. His 
property passed to his heirs, his wife was free 
to marry again, and on his departure for the 
lazaretto prayers for the dead were repeated 
over him, and a shovelful of earth was thrown 
after him to make the ceremony complete. 

With the progress of civilization leprosy 
gradually disappeared from every part of 
Europe except Norway. Lazarettos gradually 


LEPSIUS — LERIDA 


fell into disuse, and only the name of leper re- 
mained as a by-word to express social and 
moral contamination. Great Britain was one 
of the last countries to cut clean of leprosy. 
As late as the 15th century, 250 leper hospitals 
were in existence there. The government, as 
well as other European governments, has 
practically banished the disease, by careful 
surveillance. In British America the disease 
still lingers in New Brunswick. In the hospi- 
tal for lepers at Tracadie there have been a 
score of cases regularly for many years. 

In the United States leprosy has existed 
since the Revolution and probably will continue 
to exist. Leprosy hospitals in secluded spots 
are maintained in San Francisco, New Orleans, 
Boston and New York, and cases are always 
found here in numbers from two or three to a 
score. In the Philippines at the time of the 
American occupation there were 15,000 cases in 
the islands, but by the census of 1902 only 
about 5,000 cases were reported. The disease 
was brought to Manila originally from Japan 
about 200 years ago. The number of lepers in 
the world is estimated to be about 3,000,000, 
two-thirds of which are in China. 

The most celebrated leper colony or settle- 
ment in the world is that on the island of 
Molokai in Hawaii; but the conditions there 
have been much exaggerated. Molokai lies 
about 25 miles from the island of Oahu, and 
about 56 miles from Honolulu. The leper set- 
tlement on the elevated, grassy plain of Kalau- 
papa has an area of 8,000 acres. 

The whole number of lepers at the Molokai 
settlement in 1902 was officially reported at 
1,191, viz., 741 males and 450 females. There 
would be, therefore, nearly seven acres of pro- 
ductive soil for every member of the settle- 
ment. There are _ hospitals, dispensaries, 
churches and comfortable cottages for the ac- 
commodation of families; these cottages are 
well ventilated, abundantly supplied with fresh 
water and kept in good condition. Cottage 
residents requiring medical treatment are at- 
tended at their own homes by the resident phy- 
sician. Every man, woman and child may 
draw 21 pounds of fresh beef every week, a 
liberal supply of taro, flour or bread, rice, tea, 
sugar, salt, tobacco and matches, and as much 
good clothing as required. A sum of money 
is paid to those who do not draw the full ration, 
which enables them to purchase articles not 
included in the regular supply. 

It is reasonably certain that leprosy can ‘be 
cured by competent skin and nerve specialists. 
See “Neuritis” in Jelliffe and White, ‘Dis- 
eases of the Nervous System? (1917). 

LEPSIUS, lép’sé-oos, Karl Richard, Ger- 
man Egyptologist: b. Naumburg, 23 Dec. 1810; 
d. Berlin, 10 July 1884. After studying philol- 
ogy at Leipzig, G6ttingen and Berlin, he pub- 
lished his first work, ‘Le Tabulis Eugubinis? 
(1833) and therupon removed to Paris. In 1835 
he visited Italy and took up his residence at 
Rome. He subsequently went to London and pro- 
jected with Bunsen a large work on ancient 
Egypt. He started in 1842 and spent three 
years exploring in Egypt from the Sudan north 
of Khartum to the coast of Syria, obtaining an 
enormous amount of data. His life henceforth 
was that of an ardent Egyptologist, and honors 
were showered upon him. He was professor in 
the Berlin University, director of the Egyptian 


311 


section of the Royal Museum, director of the 
Royal Institute, head of the Royal Library, etc. 
In 1866 another trip to Egypt resulted in his 
famed discovery of the Decree of Tawis, or 
Table of Canopus. He was author of a large 
number of important works on Egyptian 
antiquities, one being the ‘Nubische Grammatik? 
which is perhaps the best contribution to 
modern knowledge of the Nubian language. 
His ‘Chronologie der Agypter? is also a stand- 
ard authority. 


LEPTOCARDII. See Icuruyotoey. 


LEPUS (“the hare”), in astronomy, one 
of the 48 constellations south of Orion, contain- 
ing several bright stars, among them Alpha and 
Beta Leporis. 


LERAY, 1é-ra’, Francis Xavier, American 
Roman Catholic bishop: b. Chateaugiron, 
France, 1825; d. France, 1887. He was edu- 
cated at Rennes, but in 1843 crossed the Atlantic 
and settled at Baltimore. He went through the 
ordinary theological course under the direction 
of the Sulpicians and was admitted to the 
priesthood 1852. He was a chaplain in the 
Confederate service during the war and after- 
ward returned to Vicksburg, and while the 
plague of 1867 raged was always at hand to 
comfort and assist the sufferers. In 1873 he 
was consecrated to the see of Natchitoches, La., 
and 10 years later promoted to the archbishop’s 
chair of New Orleans. 


LERDO DE TEJADA, Sebastian, sa- 
bas’té-an iar’do da ta-ha’da, Mexican states- 
man: b. Jalapa, Mexico, 25 April 1825; d. New 
York, 21 April 1889. He was educated at the 
College of San Ildefonso, Mexico, was admitted 
to the bar in 1851 and was appointed a judge of 
the Supreme Court in June 1857. He was 
Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1857; member of 
Congress in 1861-62 and in 1862-63; and ac- 
companied President Juarez in 1863-67, during 
which time he was successively Minister of 


Justice and Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
He was elected chief justice of the Su- 
preme Court in December. 1867, -and on 


the death of Juarez, 18 July 1872, succeeded 
to the Presidency, and in the following Novem- 
ber was elected to that post. In 1876 he was 
again candidate to succeed himself, and after a 
doubtful election was declared re-elected by 
Congress. This action resulted in a revolution 
headed by Diaz, and Lerdo’s adherents were 
signally defeated at Tecoac, 16 Nov. 1876, 
while Lerdo was forced to leave the-country. 
He lived in retirement in New York City till 
his death. : 


LERIDA, 1a’'ré-da, Spain, city, capital of 
the province of the same name on the river 
Segre, an affluent of the Ebro, 82 miles by rail 
northwest of Barcelona. It consists of an upper 
and a lower town, distinctive features of which 
are the two cathedrals.’ The 13th century 
cathedral exhibiting Byzantine, Moorish and 
Gothic architecture, perched on the hill, is sur- 
rounded by fortifications and serves as a mili- 
tary storehouse. It is a beautiful church, full 
of fine ornamental sculpture and the “Porta 
dels Fillols” is an excellent example of a re- 
markable Catalan type. In the new cathedral 
of Corinthian style in the lower town there is 
a magnificent cope of 13th century Moorish 
silk. There are also noteworthy Romanesque 
houses, old convents, a former palace of. the 


812 


kings of Aragon, the episcopal palace, schools 
and educational institutions. The streets are 
narrow and gloomy. Cotton, woolen, silk, 
leather and glass goods are manufactured. As 
Ilerda, an aboriginal settlement, it is noted for 
its resistance to the Roman invaders. © Its 
episcopal see dates from the Visigoth occupa- 
tion, and in 546 a council assembled here. 
Pop. 24,500. 


LERIDA, Spain, a northeastern province 
of ancient Catalonia; area, 4,690 square miles; 
pop. 291,850; density. 60.4 to the square mile. 
Capital Lérida (q.v.). 

LERMONTOF, Mikhail Yaryevitch, Rus- 
Sian poet and novelist: b. Moscow, 1814; 
15 July 1841. He was descendant of a Scotch- 
man, named Learmont, who emigrated to Rus- 
sia. The Lérmontof family were small land- 


owners in the government of Tula. His mother _ 


died at the early age of 21 when he was only 
two-and-a-half years old and this father, of 
whom nothing is known beyond the fact that 
he was an army officer, confided. the child to 
the care of his grandmother, an aristocratic 
lady who owned the village of Tarkhanui not 
far from the town of Penza. She did every- 
thing in her power for his education so that he 
might take a high position in the world of 
fashion. 

When he was in his 13th year he was put 
into a boarding school for boys of noble birth, 
in Moscow, to prepare for the university and 
there spent five years, recognized even then 
for his brilliant mind and attractive qualities. 
He was admitted into the university but was 
soon involved apparently without direct fault 
in a trivial escapade which the stern discipline 
then in vogue punished by expulsion. As this 
cut him off from his chosen career, he went to 
Saint Petersburg and in March 1832 enrolled 
himself in the Yunker School where he re- 
mained two years. During this time he de- 
voted himself assiduously to poetical composi- 
tion and produced his ‘Ulansha,’ ‘Mongo? (in 
which he described himself under the name of 
“Myoshka”), and ‘Peterhofsky Prazdnik? (‘A 
Festival at Peterhof?) as well as several Cau- 
casus poems, such as Izmail-Bey and Hadji- 
Abrek. In these he showed a tendency to be 
cynical and was openly an imitator of Byron, 
who exercised a great influence over the young 
writers of Russia. In 1834, shortly after he 
had left the Yunker School, he wrote his drama 
“Maskarad? and a semi-epic poem, ‘Boyarin 
Orsha.? But his definite career as a writer be- 
gan two years later, when at the cold-blooded 
murder of Pushkin in an enforced duel, he 
published a monody ‘On the Death of a Poet? 
which created a sensation. In March of the 
same year Lérmontof was attached as ensign 
in the Nizhigorodsky Regiment of Dragoons 
and was sent to Georgia. Through the efforts 
and influence of ‘his grandmother he was 
speedily recalled, however, and was transferred 
to a regiment of the guards. His first im- 
portant work on his return was his celebrated 
“Song of the Tsar Ivan Vasilyévitch, The 
Young Life-guardsman, and the Bold Merchant 
Kolashinkof? which was immediately recognized 
as introducing a new spirit into Russian litera- 
ture. In this he seems definitely to have 
found himself, or at least to have discovered 
what wealth there was in the folklore of 


LERIDA — LEROUX 


the. Russian people. No longer is there any 
trace of the cynical romanticism of the Byronic 
epoch. In its way, though not so extended a 
work, it was a considerable improvement of 
his clumsily constructed but nevertheless beauti- 
ful epic, ‘Demon, with which his name is more 
familiar to foreign readers, perhaps partly be- 
cause portions of it were set to music by 
Rubinstein. ‘Demon? was written between 
1829 and 1834, and when published attracted at 
first little attention. In 1839, after a period of 
comparative inactivity, he brought out a series 
of tales which were afterward united under the 
title, ‘Heroi Nasheva Vrémeni? (‘A Hero of 
our Time). Its chief character, Petchérin, was 
meant to be a type of the Russian practising 
the vices of. that generation, and judging from 
the author’s descriptions in his private letters 
of his own mode of life, it is evident that, like 
Byron, he painted a portrait of himself. 
Petchérin, like Tchitchikof in Gogol’s ‘Dead 
Souls? and Oblomof in Gontcharof’s great 
novel, became a household word. In February 
1840, in his capacity as a hero of his time, he 
fought a duel with the son» of the famous 
French historian, De Barant, then ambassador 
at the Russian court, and as a punishment was 
transferred without loss of rank to the Tengin- 
sky Infantry Regiment and for the third time 
sent to the Caucasus. On the way he wrote 
his famous poem, ‘Tttchki nyebyésnuiya, 
vyétchnuiye stranniki? (‘Heavenly clouds, per- 
petual wanderers»). The same year appeared 
his ‘Hero in book form and the first com- 
plete edition of his poems, most of which had 
been printed in Otétchestnyennuiya Zapiski 
(“Annals of the Fatherland»). On 15 July 
1841 he picked a quarrel with one of his 
comrades, by the name of Martuinof, and was 
killed. His friends buried him in a grave 
over which poured the bright sun of the Cau- 
casus which he loved so well; but later his 
body was transferred to an arched tomb in the 
little village of Tarkhanui where he had spent 
his childhood. He was only 27 years old and, 
like Pushkin, in the prime of his genius. His 
death was an irreparable loss to Russian let- 
ters; but even during his brief life, which was 
one year longer than Keats’ and only three 
years less than Shelley’s, he won for himself 
a position not much inferior to that of Pushkin. 
NATHAN HASKELL DOLE. 


LERNA. See FISH-LICE. 


LEROUX, lé-roo, Frédéric Etienne, 
French sculptor: b. Eccouché (Orne), 3. Aug. 
1836; d. 1906. He studied with Jouffroy and at 
the Beaux-Arts, became an exhibitor at the 
Salon in 1863, obtained.a medal of the second 
class at the Paris Exposition of 1878, and a 
silver medal at that of 1889. Among his best- 
known works are ‘Demosthenes on the Shore’ ; 
‘Joan of Arc?; ‘Marchand de Violettes? ; 
‘“Bouquetiére.? 

LEROUX, Hector, French painter: b. Ver- 
dun, 27 Dec. 1829; d. 1900. He was a pupil of 
the Beaux-Arts and of Picot, in 1857 obtained 
by his ‘Lazarus? the second Prix de Rome, 
traveled in Greece and Asia Minor, and be- 
came known for his reposeful and dignified 
scenes from the ancient life of Greece and 
Rome. Among his works are ‘A New Vestal? | 
(1863), now in the museum of Verdun; 
‘Funeral in the Columbarium of the House of 


LEROUX — LES CHATIMENTS 


the Czsars? (1864); ‘Messalina> (1868); ‘The 
Vestal Tuccia? (1874) in the Corcoran Gal- 
lery, Washington; ‘The Burial of Themistocles> 
(1876); ‘The Fall of Herculaneum? (1881) ; 
“News from Outside? (1891); ‘Hagar and 
Ishmael? (1892); ‘Joan of Arc at Domremy? 
(1900 

LEROUX, Louis Eugéne, French painter: 
b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1833. He studied with Picot, 
became known for his genre-scenes derived 
from Breton life, and painted, among his more 
important works, ‘Le Nouveau-Né? (in the 
Luxembourg Gallery); ‘Avant 1’Ensevellise- 
ment? ; ‘La Priére? ; and ‘Avant la Confession.” 


LEROUX, Robert Henri (called HuGuEs), 
French journalist and author: b. Havre, 1860. 
He became a journalist at Paris where he wrote 
for the Temps, Matin, Figaro, Journal and 
other newspapers, and published two works on 
Russia, ‘La Russie Souterraine? (1885) and 
‘L’Attentat Sloughine,? a story of the Nihilists. 
‘He has visited the United States as lecturer 
before the Cercle Francais de l’Harvard. His 
further works include ‘L’Autre France? 
(1900), a drama, with Decourcelle; the works 
of fiction, ‘Un de Nous? (1886); ‘Le Maitre 
de Heure? (1897); ‘Le Fils.a Papa? (1900); 


and the studies and sketches, ‘Au Sahara? 
(1891); “Portraits de ‘Cire’ (1891); “En 
Yacht? (1892); ‘Marins et Soldats’ (1892); 


‘Notes sur la Norvége? (1894) and ‘Nos 
Filles: Qu’en Ferons-Nous?? (1898). 


LEROY, lé-roi’, William Edgar, American 
naval officer : b. New York, 24 March 1818; d. 
there, 10 Dec. 1888. In 1832 he entered the 
navy as midshipman and served as a lieutenant 
on the Princeton during the Mexican War. He 
served in the United States navy during the 
Civil War also, doing good service, especially 
at Charleston in 1863 and Mobile Bay in 1864, 
became a. commodore in 18/70 and a_rear- 
admiral in 1874., He commanded the South 
Atlantic squadron 18/6-79 and retired from 
active service in 1884.. On. account. of his 
courtly manners and general fastidiousness he 
was often styled “the Chesterfield of the Navy.» 


LEROY-BEAULIEJ, lé-rwa bo-lé-é, Henri 
Jean Baptiste Anatole, French historical 
writer: b. Lisieux, Calvados, 1842; d. 16 June 
1912.. He was a brother of Pierre Paul Leroy- 
Beaulieu (q.v.). In 1881 he was appointed to 
the chair of modern history in the Ecole Libre 
des Sciences Politiques, and in 1887 was elected 
to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. 
He became director of the former institution 
in 1906. He contributed extensively to the 
Revue des Deux Mondes and published in 
1882 the: important work, “L’Empire des Tsars 
et les Russes,? a study of Russian history, poli- 
tics and civilization. Others of his publications 
are ‘La France, la Russie, et l’Europe? (1888) ; 
‘La Révolution et le Libéralisme? (1890) ; “Les 
Congrégations religieuse et l’expansion de la 
France?; ‘Etudes russes et européennes? ; 
“Christianisme et Socialisme? (1905). 

LEROY-BEAULIEU, Pierre Paul, French 
economist: b. Saumur, Maine-et-Loire, 9 Dec. 
1843; d. Paris, 10 Dec. 1916. He was edu- 
cated at the Lycée Bonaparte and the Ecole de 
Droit of Paris and the universities of Bonn and 
Berlin; became a journalist at Paris; wrote his 
‘L’Influence d’Etat Moral et Intellectuel des 


313 


Populations Ouvriéres, (1868), crowned by the 
Academy ot Moral and Political Sciences; as- 
sisted in founding the Ecole Libre des Sciences 
Politiques and was appointed professor of 
finance there in 1872.  In.1880 he became pro- 
fessor of political economy in the College de 
France. He established in 1873. L’Economiste 
Francais, which he continued to edit. In 1878 
he was elected to the Academy of Moral 
and Political Sciences. He came into promi- 
nence in 1912 by an arresting appeal to the 
French people, in which he pointed out the - 
grave dangers of the depopulation and dena- 
tionalization of France owing to the declining 
birthrate.. Among his further writings are 
‘La Colonisation chez les Peuples Modernes? 
(1873) ; ‘Précis d’Economie Politique? (1888) ; 

Traité Théorique et Practique d’Bconomie 
Politique? (1895); ‘La Rénovation de |’Aise, 
Sibérie, Chine, Japon? (Eng. trans. 1900) ; 
“La Sahara, le Sudan et les chemins-de- fer 
transsahariens? (1904) ; ‘The United States in 
the Twentieth Century? (1906) ; ‘Le Question 
de Population? (1913). 


LERY, Jean de, zhén dé 14- -ré, French Cal- 
vinist preacher: b. La. Margelle, France, 1534; 
d. 1601. In 1556 he was sent from Geneva to 
preach at Rio Janeiro, Brazil, where French 
colonies had been established by the Huguenots, 
and was the first Protestant minister to preach 
on the American continent. He and the preach-: 
ers who accompanied him were obliged to re- 
turn to France owing to a bitter misunder- 
standing regarding their salaries. Léry has left 
an account of his travels in the west under the 
title “Histoire d’un Voyage fait en la Terre du 
Brésil (1578). 


LES CHATIMENTS, 14 shat’é-man’. 
Chatiments, 


“Les 
one of the important poetical 
works of Victor Hugo, was written during his 


exile after the coup d’Etat of 2 Dec. 1851. A 


partial edition published in Brussels prompted 
the author to give a complete edition from the 
Channel Island of Jersey where he was then 
residing (1853). It was only in 1870, after the 
fall of Napoleon III, that a final edition could 
be publicly issued in France. ‘Les Chatiments? 
is a collection of poems protesting against the 
political crime of Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, 
in which lyrical satire assumes the most varied 
forms, from sublime eloquence to abusive, al- 
most coarse, personalities. This protestation of 
right against might, of justice against violence, 
gives to the author full opportunity to display 
the qualities which characterize his poetical 
works: power of imagination, suggestion and 
association, combined in this case witha per- 
sonal feeling of indignation against what he 
considers as a public calamity and a step back- 
ward in the road of social and political prog- 
ress. Although the book is divided into seven 
parts, there is no real sequence nor order in 
this collection of satirical poems, but this defect 
is more than balanced by the admirable com- 
bination of poetical forms, the variety of tones, 
rhythms and metres, the richness of the vo- 
cabulary, the harmony of words well suited to 
the expression of the thought or to the char- 
acter of the subject. Hugo’s fondness for 
antithesis in words as in composition is seen 
throughout the work and some of the poems 
consist of two symmetrically balanced parts. 
Probably the best known of them is ‘L’Expi- 


314 


ation,» in which occur the epic descriptions of 
Napoléon I’s retreat from Russia and of the 
battle of Waterloo. Consult Swinburne, ‘Essay 
on Victor Hugo? (London 1886) ; Rigal, ‘Vic- 
tor Hugo, poéte épique? (Paris 1900). 

L. A. LorsEAux. 


LES LETTRES PERSANES. The Per- 
sian Letters (1721) of Montesquieu was a 
lively political satire, spiced with rather warm 
imaginings of life in an Oriental seraglio. 
Behind the transparent veil of a setting for- 
eign to French ways, the Letters offer a keen 
and trenchant criticism of the whole social 
and political structure of France, scourging the 
insatiable cupidity of the courtiers, the privi- 
leged idleness of the nobility, the impudence in 
business of parvenu financiers. In exposing the 
meaner side of the decaying years of Louis 
XIV, Montesquieu is as pitiless as Saint-Simon, 
But he is constructive also. Much of the future 
“Spirit of the Laws” is here in embryo, and in 
the myth of the troglodytes he touches the 
origin and bases of all society. This myth 
tells how a people by surrender to their natural 
instincts brought about their own destruction 
and how two families, escaping the general 
ruin, founded a stable society on the domestic 
and military virtues and the sanctions of an 
official religion. In this aspect the Letters 
range themselves with such tales of Voltaire 
as ‘Candide? and ‘Zadig?; in their ethical and 
artistic aspect the connection is closer with 
Prévost’s ‘Manon Lescaut? or Du Clos’ ‘Liai- 
sons dangereuses.» The position is that of a 
dilettante sceptic, without ideals, with scientific 
curiosity, a very lukewarm interest in art and 
letters and a peculiar libertine precocity, a 
coquettish Rabelaisianism, one of the beginnings 
of the refined indecency that was to character- 
ize nearly all the century. In more serious 
portions of the Letters the agility and variety 
of the thought recalls La Bruyére and fore- 
shadows Voltaire and Beaumarchais. In the 
history of fiction the Letters are significant for 
the stimulus that they gave to the novel by 
correspondence soon to be made very popular 
by the translations of Richardson and the 
novels of Rousseau. There are two English 
versions, 
BENJAMIN W. WELLS. 


LESAGE, lé-sazh, Alain René, French 
novelist and playwright: b. Sarzeau, . near 
Vannes, 8 May 1068; d. Boulogne-sur-mer, 17 
Nov. 1747. He studied law in Paris and be- 
came an advocate, but soon afterward turned 
all his attention to literature. He made many 
fruitless efforts after recognition and success, 
principally by translating from the Greek and 
Spanish. At length two plays of his, ‘Crispin 
Rival de Son Maitre? (1707), adapted from a 
Spanish piece of Mendoza’s, and ‘Turcaret? 
(1708), a satire on the financiers of his day, 
had a genuine success. But he gained even 
greater praise’ and reputation from his comic 
romance, ‘Le Diable Boiteux? (1707). This 
was indeed merely an imitation of a Spanish 
tale of Guevara, which the completely Gallicized 
so as to direct its point against the pietism 
which characterized the last period of Louis 
XIV’s reign. But his greatest work was ‘Gil 
Blas de Santillane? (1715-35). To his eternal 
disgrace Voltaire as well as many Spaniards 
jealous for their country’s honor asserted that 


LES LETTRES PERSANES — LESGHIANS 


this novel was a bare-faced plagiarism from a 
Spanish original. In ‘Gil Blas? the wit of the 
author is triumphant and the surprises and ad- 
ventures of ‘human life, with all the ups and 
downs of fortune, are made to rouse our sense 
of humor as well as our keenest interest, and - 
to dazzle our fancy by the swiftness and variety 
of their changes. The work is, of course, desti- 
tute of high ideal and all moral aim, but it has 
been compared with those of Rabelais and La 
Fontaine, and its hero was certainly the pre- 
cursor, of Figaro. The most memorable of 
Lesage’s other romances are ‘Les aventures 
de Guzman d’Alfarache? (1732), an imitation of 
a Spanish romance of Mateo Aleman; ‘Este- 
vanille Gonzales? (1734); ‘Les aventures du 
chevalier de Beauchesne? (1732), founded on 
contemporary. memoirs; and .“Le Bachelier de 
Salamanque’ (1736), the latter the production 
of his declining years, and highly valued by 
him. But his most numerous works were 
vaudeville and comic operas (101 in all). 
Lesage was the forerunner of the realistic 
school and while not a creator he was a keen 
observer, painting life as he found it with a 
keen understanding of its foibles. The Acad- 
emy revenged itself on him for the graceless 
levity and irreverence toward the learned pro- 
fesstons which he exhibited in his works, by 
refusing to elect him to their number. But 
they failed to check the growth of his fame. 
His influence was first spread in England 
through Smollett and in France through Balzac. 
Although popular in his lifetime he was little 
appreciated, but his place in French literature 
now appears more secure than ever. A full 
edition of his works was published in Paris 
in 1828. Consult Claretie, ‘Le Roman en 
France an début du XVIII. Siécle, Lesage 
Romancier? (1890); Barbaret, ‘Lesage et le 
Théatre de la Foire? (Dijon 1887) ; Brunetiére, 
F., “Critiques? (Vol. III, Paris 1880); Faguet, 
E., ‘Dix huitiéme siécle? (ib. 1885); Lintilhac, 
Eugene, ‘Grands écrivains francais? (ib. 1893) ; 
Saintsbury, G. E., ‘Essays on French Novelists? 
ee 1891). See Git Bras; Lame Deviz, 
HE. 


LESBOS, léz’bés. See MITYLENE. 


LESCHETIZKY, lésh-é-tits’ki, Theodor, 
Austrian pianist: b. Lancut, near Lemberg, 
Austria, 22 June 1830; d. 15 Nov. 1915. 
He received his first instruction from his 
father, a prominent teacher in Vienna, and 
after a successful concert tour in 1864 was 
made professor of the pianoforte at the 
conservatory of Saint Petersburg, where he 
turned out many illustrious pupils. In 1878 
he returned to Vienna with an ever-increasing 
reputation. As a pianist he was remarkable 
for delicacy of touch and a magic power of, 
expression. As a composer he published some 
very elaborate pieces for the piano, some songs 
and an opera, ‘Die erste Falte? (1867). Among 
his more famous pupils are Helen Hopekirk, 
Mark Hambourg and Paderewski. Consult’ 
Annette Hullah, ‘Theodor Leschetizky> (Lon- 
don 1906). 

LESGHIANS, 1és‘gi-anz, a group of semi- 
savage tribes of the eastern Caucasus, inhabit- 
ing the region of Daghestan. They have been 
called Lehi by the Persians, Kists by their 
neighbors, the Georgians, while their own gen- 


LESLEY — 


eral name is Naktchuoi. They include the 
Avars, Lakions, Dargis and Chechezians. Their 
origin is prehistoric and their relationship to 
each other is not clear, but probably chiefly re- 
ligious, they being mainly followers of Murad 
(q.v.), a Mohammedan prophet. They came 
under Russian dominion in 1859, when their 
chief Shamyl was defeated. Their men are 
large and powerful, though not as handsome as 
the Circassians, having prominent noses anda 
Mongolian cast. Some of the tribes are fair, 
however, showing Circassian mixture. They 
are very independent and fought 30 years 
against Russian supremacy. They raise goats 
and cattle on the slopes of the hills, operate 
primitive forges and manufacture coarse cloth- 
ing. Consult De Morgan, ‘Recherches sur les 
Origines des Peuples du Caucase? (1889) ; 
Hutchinson, ‘Living Races of Mankind? (1901). 


LESLEY, lés’li, J.. Peter, American geolo- 
gist: 'b. Philadelphia, 17 Sept. 1819; d. Milton, 
Mass., June 1903. He was graduated at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1838, for the 
mext three years was engaged as assistant in 
the first geological survey of Pennsylvania. In 
1844 he was graduated at the Princeton Theo- 
logical Seminary and licensed as a minister. 
Visiting Europe, he made foot-journeys through 
several countries and for a while studied at the 
University of Halle. From 1845 to 1848 he 
labored for the American Tract Society among 
people in the mountain districts of Pennsylvania 
and then served two years as minister of a 
Congregational church at Milton, Mass., re- 
signing on account of a change in his -religious 
views. Returning to Philadelphia, he resumed 
his geological researches, extending his inves- 
tigations throughout the coal, oil and iron re- 
gions of this country and Canada. In 1855 he 
became secretary of the American Iron Asso- 
ciation; in 1858 secretary and librarian of the 
American Philosophical Society; and State 
geologist of Pennsylvania in 1874. He was also 
professor of geology at the University of Penn- 
sylvania 1872-78 and there in 1886 was ap- 
pointed emeritus professor. In 1863 he went to 
Europe to examine the Bessemer iron works 
for the Pennsylvania ‘Railroad Company, and 
in 1867 was appointed by the United States 
Senate a commissioner to the Paris Exposition. 
He was president of the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science in 1884. He 
edited many works, published numerous scien- 
tific papers in various journals and reports, and 
also wrote ‘A Manual of Coal and Its Topog- 
raphy? (1856); ‘The Iron Manufacturer’s 
Guide? (1858); ‘Man’s Origin and Destiny 
from the Platform of Sciences?; ‘Historical 
Sketch of Geological Explorations in Pennsyl- 
vania? (1876); and ‘Paul Dreifuss, His Holi- 
day Abroad? (1882). Consult Ames, M. L., 
‘Life and Letters of Peter and Susan Lesley? 
(2 vols., New York 1909). 


LESLEY, John, Scottish prelate and histo- 
rian: b. Scotland, 29 Sept. 1527; d. near Brus- 
sels, Belgium, 31 May 1596. He was educated 
at King’s College, Aberdeen, and in 1554 be- 
came professor of canon law there. He 
strongly opposed Knox and everything pertain- 
ing to the Protestant movement in Scotland. 
A firm friend of Mary, Queen of Scots, and by 
her appointed bishop of Ross, he was concerned 
in the scheme for her marriage to the Duke of 


LESLIE 315 


Norfolk, and in the consequent rebellion in the 
north of England, with the plan for Spanish 
intervention, and was imprisoned in the Tower. 
While there he wrote ‘Piz Consolationes.’ 
Finally he was led to confess and as a conse- 
quence the Duke of Norfolk was executed. 
When released in 1573 he crossed to the Con- 
tinent and in 1593, as a reward for his efforts 
in encouraging the populace to resist a siege 
in the Civil War, was created bishop of Cou- 
tances in Normandy. His chief production is 
a history of Scotland (1578), in 10 books, 
seven in Latin and the last three Scottish dia- 
lect. He was also the most active in the group 
of commissioners who revised the laws of 
Scotland. and oversaw the printing of ‘Actis 
and Constitutionis of the Realm of Scotland? 
(1566). . 


LESLIE, Charles Robert, American genre 
painter: b. London, England, 19 Oct. 1794; d. 
there, 5 May 1859. His parents were Ameri- 
cans, the father being a watchmaker of Phila- 
delphia, and to that city they returned with 
the boy in 1800. There he completed his educa- 
tion at the University of Pennsylvania and was 
afterward apprenticed to a bookseller. A por- 
trait drawn from memory of G. F. Cooke, the 
actor, caused a mild sensation among certain 
business men in Philadelphia, and by means of 
a subscription, headed by his employer, he was 
sent in 1811 to England and studied under 
Allston, West and others; became the intimate 
friend of Coleridge, Washington Irving and 
Constable, the artist; began to exhibit in 1813; 
was elected associate of the Royal Academy 
in 1821 and in 1826 to full membership. He 
first adopted a style in large historical subjects, 
but his genius led him into historical genre 
of a humorous character, in which he excelled 
alike in conception and execution, and in which 
his gentle humor was as pervasive as_ his 
finished manner. He was first brought into 
wide notice by his ‘Sir Roger de Coverley 
Going to Church? (1819). To this period be- 
long his portrait of Washington Irving? and the 
illustrations which he designed for that au- 
thor’s ‘Sketch-Book? and his ‘Knickerbocker’s 
History of New York. Leslie’s election as an 
associate of the Academy was secured by ‘May- 
day Revels in the Time of Queen Elizabeth. 
In 1824 he visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbots- 
ford and painted his portrait. He was elected 


professor of drawing at the United States Mili- 
tary. Academy, West Point, in 1833, accepted 
the position, but in a few months gave it up and 
returned to England. In 1838, at Windsor, he 
painted “The Queen Receiving the Sacrament 
after the Coronation.» From 1848 to 1852 he 
was professor of painting at the Royal Acad- 
emy. His principal pictures illustrate scenes 
from the works of great authors. His draughts- 
manship and composition are both good; but 
he was lacking in the gift of color —indeed in 
this respect his-later work declined. His great- 
est qualities are his delicate perception of char- 
acter, intense feeling for the domesticities, his 
humor which is always in good taste and the 
beauty and grace of his delineations of woman- 
hood. His best-known © paintings include 
‘Sancho Panza in the Apartment of the 
Duchess? (1824); ‘Uncle Toby and the Widow 
Wadman? (1831); ‘The Dinner at Mr. Page’s 
House? (1831); and ‘The Taming of the 


316 


Shrew? (1832). He published a -volume of 
lectures as a ‘Handbook for Young Painters? 
(1855); ‘The Memoirs of Constable? (1845); 
an unfinished ‘Life of Reynolds? (1865); and 
‘Autobiographical Recollections? (1860). 


LESLIE, Eliza, American author: b. Phila- 
delphia, 18 Nov. 1787; d. Gloucester, N. J., 1858. 
Her girlhood was spent partly in London, Eng- 
land, where her brother, Charles Leslie (q.v.), 
afterward became distinguished as an English 
artist. She returned to the United States in 
1799 and the rest of her life was nearly all 
passed in her native city. She first became 
famous by her ‘Seventy-five Receipts for Pas- 
try, etc.? (1827), followed by ‘The Domestic 
Cookery Book? (1837), 40,000 copies of which 
were sold; ‘The Home Book? (1840); and 
“The Ladies’ Receipt Book? (1846). She had, 
however, soon after the success of her first 
work, begun to write juvenile and other works, 
and for a generation was one of the most popu- 
lar of American prose writers. Her books are 
mainly, though not invariably, written to en- 
force moral instruction, and among them are 
“The American Girls Book? (1831); ‘Stories 
for Helen?; ‘Kitty’s Relations?; ‘Leonilla 
Lynmore?; ‘The Maid of Canal Street; ‘The 
Dennings and their Beaux) (1851); ‘Mrs. 
Washington Potts?; and ‘The Behavior Book? 
(1853). She edited for many years The Gift, 
a popular annual for young women. 


LESLIE, Frank (assumed name of Henry 
Carter), American publisher and journalist: b. 
_ Ipswich, England, 1821; d. New York, 10 Jan. 
1880. He was educated at Ipswich; entered a 
mercantile house at 17; developed artistic abil- 
ities, and under the name of Frank Leslie con- 
tributed sketches to the Illustrated London 
News. The success of these led to his giving 
up commercial pursuits. to become superin- 
tendent of engraving for that paper. In. this 
position he produced valuable inventions, and 
made himself master.of technicalities... Coming 
to the United States in 1848, he followed his 
profession. here, and in 1854 founded the 
Gazette of Fashion and the New York Jour- 
nal. In 1855 he began. the publication | of 
Frank Leshe’s Illustrated Newspaper (now 
Leslie’s Weekly), following these with the 
Chimney Corner, the Boys’ and Girls’ Weekly, 
the Budget of Fun and others. In 1867 he was 
appointed commissioner to the Paris Exposition, 
where he received a prize for his services to 
art. He married Miriam Florence Folline, of 
Louisiana, and she, having taken at his death, 
by legislative act, the name of Frank Leslie, 
successfully continued the business, from which 
she finally withdrew in 1902. 


LESPINASSE, Julie Jeanne Eléonore de, 
zhii-lé zhan él-4-6-nGr 1a-pi-nas, French letter 
writer: b. Lyons, November 1732; d. Paris, 22 
May 1776. She was an illegitimate daughter 
of Madame D’Albon, and on the death of her 
mother she went to live with the Marquise De 
Vichy, the legitimate daughter of Madame 
D’Albon, and in 1754 became the companion of 
Madame Du Deffand (who had already become 
blind), at the urgent request of the latter. 
This position she occupied for about 10 years; 
but the jealousy and selfishness of Madame 
Du Deffand rendered her situation very uncom- 
fortable. She gained the friendship of all the 
élite of Madame Du Deffand’s society, such as 


LESLIE — LESSEPS 


Marmontel, D’Alembert and Turgot; and 
when the separation between the two ladies at 
last occurred her friends all adhered to her. 
Her earliest letters are addressed to a Spanish 
marquis, Gonsalvo de More, and the later ones 
to Count de Guibert, a mediocre poet and 
essayist. They are infused with passionate de- 
votion and were published by the widow of 
Guibert in 1800, and appeared in English in 
Boston in 1903. Mrs. Humphrey Ward has 
made her character more famous by reproduc- 
ing her career in ‘Lady Rose’s Daughter? 
(1903). Consult Asse, ‘Mlle. de Lespinasse et 
Mme: du Deffand? (1877). » 


LESQUEREUX, 1a-ké-ré, Leo, Swiss- 
American paleontologist: b. Fleurier, Neu- 
chatel, Switzerland, 18 Nov. 1806; d. Columbus, 
Ohio, 25 Oct. 1889. He was educated at the 
Academy of Neuchatel, at Weimar and at the 
University of Berlin; was principal of the Col- 
lege of Chaux-de-Fonds (Switzerland) in 
1829-34; made a special study of peat; and was 
appointed by the Neuchatel authorities to ex- 
amine the peat bogs of that canton. In 1844 
he received from the Neuchatel government a 
gold medal for his treatise, ‘Directions for the 
Exploration of Peat Bogs.» In 1848 he came 
to the United States; was for a short time as- 
sistant to Louis Agassiz at Cambridge; and 
later became assistant to W. S. Sullivant in 
the study of American bryology, at: Colum- 
bus, Ohio, where he resided until his death. 
He made particular investigation of the coal 
formations of the United States, more 
especially of the Pennsvlvania coal flora, and 
he became the chief American authority on 
fossil botany. He published with Sullivant: 
“Musci Americani’ Exsiccati? (1856; 2d ed., 
1865), and ‘Icones Muscarum (1864); and 
with T. P. James ‘Manual of the Mosses of 
North America? (1884). He also contributed 
(1880-84) three volumes on the coal flora to 
the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, which has 
been considered one of the chief American 
works on carboniferous plants; and three re- 
ports to the volumes published by the Hayden 
survey. He wrote more than 50: memoirs on. 
scientific subjects. In 1864 he became a mem- 
ber of the National Academy of Sciences, and 
in 1888 of the Geological Society of London. 


LESSEPS, lés’éps (Fr. lé-séps), Ferdinand, 
VICOMTE DE, French diplomat: b. Versailles, 19 
Nov. 1805; d. 7 Dec. 1894. _He entered the 
diplomatic service in 1828, and after being con- 
sul at various places was Ambassador. to Mad- 
rid in 1848-49, In 1854 he went to Egypt at the 
invitation of the viceroy, Said Pasha. This 
gave opportunity for the development of a plan 
that had been developing. in his mind for 20 
years. He there sketched a. plan for canalizing 
the Isthmus of Suez, obtained a concession 
from the viceroy for building the same and in 
1856 ptiblished a report on the subject. He 
encountered all sorts of opposition, chiefly from 
the English, who feared that the new waterway 
would be under antagonistic control. Prom- 
inent engineers questioned its feasibility, and 
the Turks, under English influence, refused 
permission to utilize Turkish territory. The 
work was at last begun in 1859, and carried to 
completion under De  Lesseps’ supervision in 
1869. (See Suez CANAL). He also planned the 
unfortunate Panama Canal (q.v.), and after the 


LESSING 


company was dissolved in 1889, judicial proceed- 
ings were taken against De Lesseps and other 
directors for maladministration of funds and 
bribery, and he was condemned to imprisonment. 
As he was then much advanced in years, it is 
probable that the errors of this enterprise, were 
mainly chargeable to others, and that his reputa- 
tion was borrowed for this work after he had 
passed his active usefulness. .The plans were 
changed from time to time, much money was 
wasted, until it became evident that the work 
could not be completed with available funds, and 
the crash came in 1888, when De Lesseps was 83 
years old. (See PANAMA CANAL). He was 
elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and 
to the Académie Francaise. in 1884. Among 
his writings are ‘Mémoire a l’Académie des 
Sciences sur le Nile Blanc et la Soudan; 
‘Principaux Faits de Il’Histoire d’Abyssinie?; 
‘Letters, Journal et Documents relatifs a l’His- 
toire du Canal de Suez? (1875-81), crowned by 
the Academy; ‘Souvenirs de Quarante Ans? 
(1887), and ‘Origines du Canal de Suez? 
(1890). Consult biographies by Bertrand and 
Ferrier (1887) and by Smith (2d ed., 1895). 


LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, German 
dramatist and critic: b. Kamenz, Upper Lusatia, 
Saxony, 22 Jan. 1729; d. Brunswick, 15 Feb. 
1781. In 1741 he was sent to the School of 
Saint Afra at Meissen. He was a diligent 
student, who, according to his tutor, was a 
horse that needed double fodder. He went to 
Leipzig ostensibly’ for a theological training; 
but he gave his chief attention to gen- 
eral literature, and contributed ‘some inter- 
esting articles. to literary journals. His 
academic: studies haying been concluded 
at Wittenberg, he went to Berlin, where 
he was active as journalist and critic, 
was employed by Voltaire, but soon quarreled 
with him, and whither he returned (1758) after 
a two-years’ sojourn at Leipzig. He brought 
out ‘Vademecum fiir Herrn Samuel Gothhold 
Lange, in 1754, a criticism of a translation of 
Horace by Lange which had appeared some 
time before. The year following saw the is- 
suing of a six-volume edition of his critical and 
dramatic works, including the first bourgeois 
trauerspiel in German, ‘Miss Sara Sampson.? 
On his return in 1758 to the capital he instituted 
the famous series of ‘Letters,» which were con- 
tinued in 24 volumes down to 1765. In 1760 
he became secretary to General von Tauentzien, 
governor of Breslau; and in that post continued 
for more than four years. His independence 
and fine sincerity led him to reject. several 
opportunities of material advancement; as 
when he refused the chair of eloquence at 
K6nigsberg, because the tenure of it involved 
an annual eulogy of the king. In 1767 he be- 
came critic and director of the theatre at. Ham- 
burg which an association of wealthy merchants 
purposed establishing for the promotion of the 
national drama. The scheme shortly failed, 
and from 1770 until his death Lessing was 
librarian to the Duke of Brunswick at Wolfen- 
buttel, where he was valued only for the 
prestige he lent the little state. Lessing was 
the one who reformed German literature and 
set it on the way of national growth and prog- 
ress. He became the. foremost German writer 
of his time, and one of the more remarkable 
writers of all time, through his ‘Minna von 
Barnhelm? (1767), the first national drama of 


317 


Germany, and ‘LaokoG6n? (1766), the best work 
of German criticism. ‘Minna von Barnhelm? 
was.an artistic presentation of contemporaneous 
life, and liberated the German drama from the 
slavish imitation of the French so exclusively 
preached by Gottsched. In it Lessing wished to 
rebuke not only the disposition toward aping 
the French, but also the indifference of the 
rulers to the soldiers that had won the Seven 
Years’ War; and to eliminate the provincial 
hate which then so often existed in Germany, 
especially that between Prussia and Saxony. 
In ‘Laoko6n) Lessing appears as one of the 
greatest of critics. His eagerness for truth is 
remarkable; his revelation of hypocrisies and 
falsehoods, fearless. His chief argument is 
that for the establishment of a clear distinction 
between the plastic arts and poetry, the basic 
difference being determined to be that while art 
presents objects in space, poetry presents ac- 
tions in time. Not all its contentions may be 
admitted; but Herder, who published a criticism 
in disagreement with many of its points, yet 
read it through three times in an afternoon and 
following evening, and praised it in high terms. 
Macaulay said it made him wonder and despair; 
and Goethe, who was greatly indebted to its 
teachings, declared that by it “all previous criti- 
cism was thrown away like an outworn coat.” 
Early in 1757 appeared the first of the 22 
dramatic criticisms called the ‘Hamburgische 
Dramaturgie,? which made way for the new 
national drama free of all French influence. 
His ‘Nathan der Weise? (1778; in a good Eng- 
lish rendering by E. Frothingham 1868) is the 
most celebrated of his dramas, and indeed per- 
haps the most generally familiar of all his writ- 
ings. It was his ultimate answer to the theo- 
logical controversialists who had begun their 
attacks with the publication by Lessing of an 
edition of portions of a manuscript work, ob- 
tained by him while in the ducal library, on the 
origins of Christianity and written by one Sam- 
uel Reimarus. To these ‘Wolfenbittler Frag- 
mente? (1774-78) Pastor Goeze of Hamburg 
made the chief objection, and to Goeze Lessing 
gave his most elaborate rejoinders, such as 
“Fine Parabel,? ‘Axiomata? and ‘Anti-Goeze. 
He does not defend Reimarus, but he does de- 
fend free inquiry, and opens up the field for 
later Biblical criticism and the study of the 
growth of Christian institutions. Lessing hav- 
ing been directed by the Brunswick government 
to discontinue the controversy, made a poetic 
statement of his views in ‘Nathan der Weise,» 
a remarkable plea for religious tolerance, and a 
declaration that true religion is one of charac- 
ter, not formula. The work has been criticised 
from the strictly dramatic viewpoint, but as a 
dramatic poem has been called one of the finest 
works of the 18th century. Others of Lessing’s 
works are ‘Emilia Galotti? (1772), a skiliul 
tragedy; ‘Briefe die Neueste Literatur Betreff- 
end? (1758), with Nicolai, which first directed 
German thought to the study of Shakespeare, 
and ‘Ueber das Wesen der Fabel? (1760). He 
married Eva Konig in 1776. She and their son 
died two years later and the author’s last days 
were passed in sad contrast to his former gav 
and: pleasant life. The only work of this period 
is ‘Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts,’ 
an exposition of his religious doctrine. “Les- 
sing,” said Goethe, “wished to disclaim for him- 
self the title of poet, but his immortal works 


318 


testify against himself. His battle against 
error in all domains had notable effect in Ger- 
many, and has not yet failed of an even wider 
stimulative interest. 
collected editions of Lessing’s works but the 
best is probably that begun by Lachmann in 
1838 (3d ed. by Muncker, 22 vols., Stuttgart 
and Leipzig 1886-1910). Good translations are 
Bell’s ‘Dramatic Works of Lessing? (2 vols., 
1878) and Beasley and Zimmern’s ‘Laokoén, 
Dramatic Notes, and the Representation of 
Death by the Ancients? (1879). 

Bibliography.— Blumner, H., ‘Lessings 
Laokoén? (Berlin, 1879) ; Braun, T W., ‘Les- 
sing in Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen? (ib. 1884— 
97) : Consentius, Ernst, ‘Lessing und die Vos- 
sische Zeitung? (Leipzig 1900) ; pore JH. 
J., ‘Lessings Leben? (ib. 1882) ; ‘Erlanter- 
ungen zu Lessings Werken? (ib, a 882) ; Dan- 
zel and Guhrauer, ‘Lessing, sein Leben und 
seine Werke? (ib. 1850-54; 2d ed. 1880); 
Fisher, E. K.. B.,: “G. E. Lessing, als Ref- 
ormator der deutschen Literatur? (Stuttgart 
1881); Goedeke, Karl,  ‘Grundriss 9 zur 
Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung? (3d ed., 
Dresden 1913); Meyer, R. M., ‘G. E. Lessing? 
(Leipzig 1908) ; Pabst, C. R., ‘Vorlesungen 
iiber Nathan ‘der Weise? (Berlin 1881); 
Rolleston, T. W., ‘Life of G. E. Lessing» (Lon- 
don 1889) ; Sime, James, ‘Life of Lessing? 
(New York 1877) : Schmidt, Erich, ‘Lessing 
Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften? 
(3d ed., 2 vols., Berlin 1910). See German 
LITERATURE; MINNA VON BARNHELM ; LAOKOON ; 
NATHAN THE WISE. 


LESSING, Karl Friedrich, karl fréd’rih, 
German painter, grand-nephew of G. E. Lessing 
(q.v.): b. Wartenberg, Silesia, 15 Feb. 1808; 
d. Karlsruhe, Baden, 5 June 1880. He was sent 
about 1822 to the architectural school of Ber- 
lin, to fit himself for an architect. After a 
severe struggle between duty and inclination, 
he yielded to his artistic inclinations and by 
the production of his ‘Churchyard with Grave- 
stones and Ruins? (1825) fixed his profession 
irrevocably. This picture produced a. strong 
impression, and for a year or two the artist de- 
voted himself to landscape; but coming under 
the influence of Schadow, established himself 
in Diusseldorf, and studied historical painting 
with enthusiasm and success. ‘The Court 
Yard. of the Convent—a_ Snow Scene,?. is 
perhaps the most_striking of all his landscapes. 
‘The Tyrant Ezzelin in Captivity refusing the 
Exhortations of the Monks? (1838), was his 
first important historical picture in -the new 


style. It was followed by ‘Huss before the 
Council of Constance? (1842), the ‘Seizure of 
Pope Pascal II,? the ‘Martyrdom of Huss? 
(1850), now in New York, and many others, 
under the influence of which the school of 
Diisseldorf divested itself of the strictly cath- 
olic spirit by which it was previously character- 
ized, and adopted a bolder and more dramatic 
manner, and a greater freedom in the choice of 
subjects. Lessing, however, is distinguished 
from his associates by depth of thought, energy 
of expression, and vivid dramatic conception, at 
the same time that his pictures exhibit the hard- 
ness of outline and defective coloring peculiar 
to the Diisseldorf. school; Consult Jordan, 
‘Ausstellune der Werke Karl Friedrich Les- 
sings? (1880). 


There are very many 


LESSING — LESTRANGE 


~LESSON. See Lectionary. 


LESTER, Charles Edwards, American 
author: b. Griswold, Conn., 15 July 1815; d, De- 
troit, Mich., 29 Jan. 1890. He studied law in 
Mississippi, "and was admitted to the bar, but 
afterward spent two years at the Auburn Theo- 
logical Seminary, and was duly ordained. The 
pulpit, however, proved not more congenial to 
his tastes than the bar, and ‘he employed his time 
chiefly with the pen. He was appointed United 
States consul at Genoa, 1842-47, and was after- 
ward prominent as a journalist and political 
speaker. He published ‘Glory and Shame of 
Higlind? (1841) ; ‘Condition and Fate of Eng- 
land? (1842); ‘The Artist, Merchant and 
Statesman? (1846) ; ‘Life and Voyages of 
Americus Vespucius> (1846); ‘Artists of 
America? (1846); ‘My Consulship? (1851) ; 
‘Our First Hundred Years? (1874-75); and 
translations of Alfieri’s ‘Autobiography? 
(1845); Massimo d’Azeglio’s ‘Challenge of 
Barletta? (1845), and Macchiavelli’s ‘Floren- 
tine Histories? (1846); ‘The Napoleon 
Dynasty? (1852) ; “America’s Advancement, or 
the Progress of the United States during their 
First Century? (1878); ‘The Mexican Be ob- 
lic? (1878) ; ‘Life of Charles Sumner? (1874). 


LESTOCQ, lés-tdk, Jean Hermann, French 
physician and. adventurer: b. Celle, Hanover, 
29 April 1692; d. Livonia, 23 June 1767. He 
was the son of a French Protestant surgeon 
who had left his native country on the revoca- 
tion of the edict of Nantes, and when 21 went 
to Russia to seek his fortune. He was first 
employed by Peter the Great, but on account 
of his dissolute morals, was exiled to Kasan in 
1718. Catharine I, on ‘her accession in 1725, re- 
called him, and appointed him physician in the 
household of her second daughter, Elizabeth. 
He soon gained an influence over the mind of 
this princess, and when the imperial title de- 
volved upon Ivan VI, he persuaded ther that the 
only way of saving her own life was to seize 
upon the crown. She yielded to his sugges- 
tions, made the young tsar prisoner and seated 
herself on his throne. Lestocq was then ap- 
pointed privy councillor, which gave him the 
rank of general, physician in ordinary to her 
majesty, and president of the medical college. 
His prosperity lasted but a few years. Charged 
with treasonable projects, he was arrested, tor- 
tured and exiled to Siberia. Peter III, on his 
accession, gave orders for his recall, and 
Catharine II gave him an estate in Livonia. 


LESTODON, a genus of fossil animals of 
Patagonia, allied to Mylodon, and distinguished 
by the possession of canine teeth. See GrounpD- 
SLOTH. 


LESTRANGE, lés-tranj, Str Roger, Eng- 
lish journalist and pamphleteer: b. Hunstanton, 
Norfolk, 17 Dec. 1616; d. London, 11 Dec. 
1704. He was probably educated at Cambridge. 
In 1629 he accompanied Charles I in his expedi- 
tion against Scotland. In 1644 he formed a 
plan for surprising Lynn Regis, but was seized 
and condemned as a spy. He was, however, 
respited from time to time until he had been in 
prison four years, when he escaped to the Con- 
tinent. In 1653 he returned to England, was 
licenser of the press from the Restoration until 
the close of the reign of James II, and edited 
the Public Intelligencer in 1663, the London 


LESUEUR — LETHBRIDGE 


Gazette in 1665,.and the Observator in 1681, the 
latter existing till 1687. In 1685 he was 
knighted, and given a seat in Parliament. He 
fell into disfavor in 1688, and his license was 
revoked, while he languished for a time in jail. 
He was author of a great number of coarse and 
virulent political pamphlets and_ translated 
Josephus, Cicero’s ‘Offices,’ Seneca’s ‘Morals, 
Quevedo’s ‘Visions? and other works of .an- 
sient and modern. writers. 


LESUEUR, Eustache, és-tash  1é-sii-ér, 
French painter: b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1617; d. 
there, 30 April 1655. He was taught drawing 
by his father, a sculptor, and was afterward 
placed at the school of Vouet, where the Italian 
masters became his models. His masterpiece 
is the series of paintings executed for the 
Carthusian monastery in Paris in 1645-48. 
These pictures are now in the Louvre, and in 
22 panels depict the principal scenes in the life 
of Saint Bruno. In 1650 he painted for the 
corporation of goldsmiths the ‘Preaching of the 
Apostle Paul at Ephesus,? which was presented 
to the chapter of Notre-Dame, but has been 
now removed to the Louvre. He did much in 
decorating the old parish churches of Paris and 
among his later productions are some mytho- 


logical scenes in the Hotel Lambert. His works - 


are distinguished by purity of line, careful 
execution and are conceived in a mood of pro- 
found feeling.’ 


‘LETCHER, John, American politician: 
b. Lexington, Va., 29 March 1813; d. there, 
26 Jan. 1884. By his own efforts Letcher edu- 
cated himself at Washington College and at 
Randolph-Macon. He then (1839) began the 
practice of law and at the same time entered 
politics as editor of the Lexington Valley Star. 
In all campaigns he took an active part on the 
Democratic side. In 1850 he was a member of 
the Virginia Constitutional Convention and 
from 1851 to 1859 Letcher was a member of 
Congress where his devotion to the public. in- 
terest won him the title “Honest John Letcher.” 
From 1860 to 1864 he was governor of Virginia. 
He opposed secession but after the war began 
he organized the resources of Virginia for 
strong resistance and turned the State forces 
and equipment over to the Confederates. He 
was imprisoned. for several months after the 
war and then returned to his profession. In 
1876-77 he was a member of the State legisla- 
ture. : 


LETCHWORTH PARK AND ARBO- 
RETUM. Letchworth park comprises a tract 
of land of 1,000 acres in extent, lying on either 
side of the Genesee River in Livingston and 
Wyoming counties, New York. The property 
was acquired in 1907, by gift from William 
Pryor Letchworth to the State of New York, 
and placed by the deed of gift by the donor in 
the permanent custody of the American Scenic 
and Historic: Preservation Society. The park 
is a place of rare beauty and grandeur har- 
moniously blended, through which the Genesee 
River cuts its way. Within its boundaries are 
the three falls long known as the Upper Falls 
of the Genesee, or sometimes as the Portage 
Falls. 

The custodian society, recognizing the need 
in America of.a practical demonstration in the 
growing of forest trees, and with the purpose 
of increasing the timber resources of America, 


319 


formulated plans for a forest arboretum soon 
after the property came into its hands. Re- 
specting the function of the arboretum, the 
director stated, “The principle upon which 
the Letchworth Park Arboretum is established 
is that it shall consist of a permanent collec- 
tion of the various species of the world’s tim- 
ber trees, likely to thrive in this northern 
climate, planted scientifically to test their value 
and illustrate the processes of development, so 
supplying not only knowledge for knowledge’s - 
sake but also knowledge. for practical use.” 
The possibilities of the arboretum for extend- 
ing exact knowledge of tree growth will be 
fully developed. The growth of the trees is 
measured periodically, their liability to disease 
is noted and their capacity for seed bearing; 
their behavior in pure stands and in mixture, 
their influence upon the forest floor, and other 
practical considerations bearing upon their 
value for commercial tree-planting is carefully 
observed and recorded. By this means. the 
Letchworth park arboretum will aid materially 
in laying an exact scientific basis for the suc- 
cessful extension of practical forestry in the 
United States. Every step is taken, not only to 
ensure results of the highest scientific value 
from forest work at Letchworth park, but also 
to develop its usefulness as an object lesson to 
all park visitors. 

In 1912 the custodian society planted the 
first tree in the arboretum. The nursery where 
the seeds are sown is an interesting educational 
feature of the arboretum work, for here the 
early stages in the development of timber 
trees may be observed — from the germination 
of the seed to the removal of the plants to the 
field plantations. Something over 500,000 
plants have been transferred from the nursery 
rows to the fields, where they are grouped in 
blocks of an acre or more each, with a view, 
so far as possible, of showing color effects. 
All the important native and foreign trees that 
may thrive in that locality have been or will be 
planted, and will be made conveniently acces- 
sible by walks and drives through. this living 
tree museum for means of study and observa- 
tion of visitors to Letchworth park. In. all 
297 different species have been planted in the 
arboretum. It is expected by the custodian 
society that this living tree museum will be to 
the tree planter what the laboratory is to the 
student, a tangible, available demonstration of 
processes and results. 

Cuar_Les M. Dow, 
Director of Letchworth Park and Arboretum. 


LETHARGY. See Consciousness, Dis- 
ORDERS OF. 


LETHBRIDGE, Canada, a city in Alberta, 
capital of the Medicine Hat District, 700 miles 
west of Winnipeg and 145 miles southwest of 
Calgary. It is in lat. 49° 42’ N. and long. 112° 
51’ W., and is 2,990 feet above sea-level. It 
lies ow the Old Man (Belly) River, the valley 
of which, 320 feet deep and a mile and a half 
wide, is there crossed by a trestle bridge 307 
feet high and 1 mile 47 feet long. Situated 
in the centre of the part of the province lying 
south of the main line of the Canadian Pacific, 
it is the chief distributing point for that dis- 
trict. The original settlement, “Coal Banks,” 
sprang from the discovery by Sir A. T. Galt 
in 1882 of coal along the river banks and the 


veaAwY 


320 


opening of the Galt mines in 1883. The effort 
to market the coal by barges failed and in 1885 
the “Turkey Trail» (narrow gauge) railway to 
Dunmore was constructed. The name Leth- 
bridge, after the president of the company 
operating the mines and railway, was then 
adopted. The town, incorporated 1890, re- 
mained for 15 years or more a small coal min- 
ing and cattle ranching centre. The great influx 
of immigration then brought farmers who 
demonstrated that the land, despite assertion 
of the ranchers that it was too dry, was excel- 
lent for wheat growing and other agricultural 
activities. The extensive introduction of irri- 
gation has greatly stimulated farming. Since 
1900 its development has been chiefly as a 
wholesale and distributing centre to the sur- 
rounding farming country. Over 30,000,000 
bushels of the 1915 grain crop passed through 
the Lethbridge Railway yards. But coal mining 
remains an important factor, the output of the 
immediate district being 3,000 tons daily. In 
1906 Lethbridge was incorporated as a city. In 
1913 it secured a unique charter from the pro- 
vincial government, establishing the commission 
form of government. The city is governed by 
three commissioners, the mayor who is com- 
missioner of finance and public safety, and the 
commissioner of public works and the com- 
missioner of public utilities. An election for 
one of these (by proportional representation) 
is held every year, and each retains office for 
three years. The charter also provides for a 
system of initiative, referendum and recall 
whereby, upon a petition of a fixed percentage 
of the electors, an election is held to decide 
upon a new by-law or the recall of any of the 
commissioners. The city is supplied by a private 
company with gas from Bow Island, but the 
waterworks system, the electric-light and power 
systems and the street railway are owned and 
operated by the municipality. The city also 
owns and operates its. own coal mine from 
which it draws all fuel required at its power 
plant and for heating municipal buildings. The 
water is taken from the river and a mechanical 
filtration plant has been installed. The sewage, 
first purified in a sewage disposal plant, is emp- 
tied into the river lower down. The streets are 
wide and have been well planted with trees. 
The buildings in the business section, which 
overlook Galt park, are of reinforced con- 
crete and brick. The private residences are 
mostly of wood construction. There are three 
parks, one of which has an artificial lake of 
9T acres. Pop.. (1921). 11,055, 


LETHE, 1é’thé (Greek, Léthé, forgetful- 
ness), the mythological River of Oblivion in 
the lower regions. The water had the power 
of making those who drank it forget their 
former existence. Souls before passing into 
the Elysian Fields drank that they might have 
no recollection of their earthly sorrows; those 
who were destined to return to the upper 
world in new ‘bodies drank that they might 
forget the pleasures enjoyed in Elysium. The 
name is also given to a daughter of Eris, as 
the personification of Oblivion. 


LETTER OF CREDIT. 
LETTER OF. 


LETTER OF MAROUE. > See MARQUE, 
LETTER OF. 


See Cnrenirt, 


LETHE — LETTERS 


LETTERN. See Lectern. 
LETTERS. See Lerrers In LITERATURE. 


LETTERS, The, of Marie de Rabutin- 
Chantal, Marquise de Sévigné (1626-96), pre- 
sent a correspondence of rare historical, social 
and personal interest in a style seldom ap- 
proached in vivacity, limpidity and deftness. | 
Some letters from others are included and the 
collection is extended beyond Madame de Sé- 
vigné’s life, but of her» own there are more 
than 1,100, extending from 1644 to within a 
few days of her death. Far the greater pari 
of the letters are addressed to her daughter, 
Francoise Marguerite, Comtesse de Grignan 
(1646-1705), who handed down the collection 
to her own daughter, Madame de Simiane. 
Meantime many of the letters had appeared in 
connection with the correspondence of Madame 
de Sévigné’s cousin, Bussy-Rabutin, in 1696 and 
1697. Seven unauthorized and partial editions 
appeared between 1725 and 1728. Madame de 
Simiane, destroying her mother’s letters, which 
she feared savored of Jansenism, committed 
her grandmother’s to Chevalier de Perrin, who 
issued six volumes of them between 1734 and 
1737, a seventh in 1751 and a second edition 
in eight volumes in 1754. He is thought to 
have used more editorial zeal than restraint. 
Most of the original letters were destroyed. 
The few that remain are now printed as they 
were written. The interest of the correspond- 
ence centres in the letters to Francoise, who 
married the Comte de Grignan in 1669. He was 
made lieutenant-general of Provence in 1670. 
Francoise followed him there in 1671. Mother 
and daughter visited one another in Paris and 
at Grignan from time to time, sometimes for 
long periods. Madame de Sévigné died and 
was buried at Grignan. When separated from 
Francoise she wrote copiously and often, in 
a hand that suggests an easy writer. Most of 
the letters are long, and 15 a month is in the 
early years nothing extraordinary. Love for 
this daughter was the absorbing passion of 
her life. But she was, as M. de Grignan said 
after her death, “a delightful companion” and 
her letters are companionable still. She had 
been carefully educated. Chapelain and Ménage 
were among her tutors. She had meditated 
Tacitus and had Italian and Spanish poets at 
command for apt citation. She was wealthy. 
She thhad and appreciated shrewd business coun- 
sel and had no illusions whither the extrava- 
gances of Versailles and the courtier nobles 
were leading the Old Régime. She was fond 
of society and moved’ easily in its highest 
circles, with La Rochefoucauld, Fouquet, the 
Cardinal de Retz and Madame de La Fayette 
among her intimates. She was exceptionally 
well informed of all that was going on before 
and behind political and military scenes. Her 
letters are thus of great value to the student 
of French character, for the attitude toward 
monarchy and the Church in the early years 
of Louis XIV and for the economic origins 
of the French Revolution. Wishing to tell all 
she thought, felt, heard and saw, she brought 
to the pleasant task a unique gift of style 
in which art blends subtly with nature. Writ- 
ten from Paris, from her uncle’s abbey at 
Livry, from the baths of Vichy or her country 
house, Les Rochers, near Vitré in Brittany, 
the letters show sides of life and manners, of 


LETTERS — LETTERS IN LITERATURE 


court and people, that elude the formal histo- 
rian. They are also wonderfully entertaining, 
full of ns witty sayings, sprightly gossip 
and genial fancies, They had become noted 
before her death and, long before official pub- 
lication, had been held up as epistolatory models 
in a Latin poem ‘Ratio conscribendz epistole.? 
They are best edited by Monmerqué, Regnier, 
Mesnard and Sommer (14 vols., and an album 
of portraits, pictures of houses and facsimiles 
of letters, Paris 1862-68); more conven- 
iently by Silvestre de Sacy (11 vols., Paris 
1861-63). Among many partial editions a vol- 
ume of translations by Mrs. Ritchie (Phila- 
delphia, n. d.), Masson’s ‘Selections> (Oxford, 
n.d.) and ‘Lettres Choisies> (New York 1905), 
may be mentioned. Edward Fitzgerald’s post- 
humous ‘Dictionary of Madame de Sévigné 
(2 vols., London 1914) is very helpful. Good 
brief appreciations are given in biographies 
by Gaston Boissier (Paris 1888) and Miss 
Thackeray (Edinburgh 1881). The fullest 
memoir is by Walckemaer (5 vols., Paris 
1845-52), the best is by Mesnard (in Vol. I of 
Monmerqué’s edition, pp. 1-316). Consult also 
Puliga, ‘Madame de Sévigné, her Correspond- 
ents and Contemporaries? (2 vols., London 
1873) and Aldis, J., ‘Madame de Sévigné, 
Queen of Letter Writers» (New York 1907). 

BENJAMIN W. WELLS. 


LETTERS, Proportionate Use of. Among 
printers experience has taught the frequency of 
use of letters, so that the following tables have 
been compiled: 


Le ee reno ert he 1,000 a ee eee 272 
ES pliner cic alae to. Fe 770 feem orig aes Be eae sea 236 
A nig) Re ge Be 728 MSA as OS at Ab 190 
A sew as cory Shee & eb~ 2% 704 iY Ay See ot. a 184 
SBD chtial ch hie kB te ay ss dle 680 Ae ee ee 168 
OMe? Ritts ais be ot 672 i recieren op each tie 168 
oR MROTe, -ViLeD.. 670 WR. PS. 158 
Bii2s,. asGFins lic 5: 540 Beaerasaiiet ale 120 
Ricpavets bik ® + due te 528 1 MSS GRAS a ee 88 
TO eral sat ere a acca 392 AiR Re ge Ae Ana eee ns 55 
ERG “PREM. A. 360 Oe Aire ol 50 
We. clayey Seat + 5 296 20 Be taitess. on 46 
SRT Pe Ee, ts eee 280 {a Fa BGye c<de'ods The hein 22 


The following table shows the frequency of 
use of initial letters: 


ro] eo Sts ileal aie ere 1,194 aes 4 aoe: ees 291 
Oxia! a5 3 ite 8 ee Ae irae 937 ANE. AGO? ; SE 288 
Deep ses etsy cs] Po. 804 C>..ghiep. 2055-4 SE 266 
ye ene eo Co ee 574 8 ee Oe ee en 228 
thet hice es eee 571 Ds diate aes sir eg 206 
DE SNA» Nii le ade 505 Wise to he”, PS. os, 172 
B apie oat Liat he 463 N ube. wie k I - 153 
DA oe eta ct ae og (AT 430 TEE een ee ee 69 
DOM Oeics on xe + 5 388 no eit ee Rare ken 58 
IOS. OE ie i eRe oP 377 BE Ed NE Se, 47 
EGC Assia. od: 340 ee a ae eee 23 
| ES ee: ee 308 ES TO ee ae ee 18 
j ognll Peo het Bite ee ae 298 + ger gay er a? 4 


LETTERS TO DEAD AUTHORS. Of 
all the volumes of literary criticism in Eng- 
lish published within the past generation per- 
haps none is saner in content and more cap- 
tivating in style than Andrew Lang’s ‘Letters 
to Dead Authors.? Written, as the author 
states, at the request of the editor of the Saint 
James Gazette, and published in 1886, this 
little book originally included 22 “letters,” to 
which were added four others in the American 
edition of 1891.. “For some reason,» says the 
brief. preface to the latter edition, “the kind- 
ness of readers has favored a volume which 
is not the author’s favorite” But the reason 
is plain. Lang has in the main addressed his 
own favorite authors, and hence writes con 

VoL. 17—21 


321 


amore; yet personal as is his criticism, it yet 
expresses the attitude of the majority of read- 
ers; and while his estimates, both literary and 
personal, are in the main “appreciative, » they 
are discriminating and sane. This excellent 


matter is couched in a style that varies with 


the subject but is always apt for its purpose — 
now grave, now gay, now lively, now severe; 
that ranges from rollicking humor, quiet mirth, 
sharp satire, to tenderness and pathos, and at 
times attains a really noble eloquence. In all - 
this is sheer literary craftsmanship of a high 
order; and here is sufficient reason why “the 
kindness of readers has favored the volume.” 
But the abiding charm of the book lies in the 
fact that one actually feels identified with the 
writer of it as the talks with many old favorites 
—Herodotus and Horace, Rabelais and Moliére, 
Scott and Dumas, Byron, Shelley and Poe, 
tersely sums up the fundamental qualities of 
their work and adequately expresses our grati- 
tude for their contribution to the world’s store 
of pleasure, beauty and truth. The warm, 
human, captivating “literary criticism” in these 
brief familiar studies is o itself literature of 
permanent interest and value. 
Marion TUCKER. 


LETTERS OF JUNIUS. See Junius, 
LETTERS OF. 


LETTERS IN LITERATURE. The let- 
ter, primarily a personal and utilitarian com- 
position, passes over into the field of literary 
interest by processes often gradual and difficult 
to define; so that, although we commonly dis- 
tinguish separate types, such as informal letters 
intended only for the eyes of those directly 
addressed and formal epistles composed with a 
view to ultimate publication, the dischchion 
cannot be made with clearness in the actual his- 
tory of the subject. Out of the private art 
of personal correspondence there must have 
arisen, at a very early period, the more public 
art of the literary letter. It was formerly 
supposed that the earliest extant collection of 
formal letters was the series (about 150 in 
number) of Greek epistles professing to have 
been written by the tyrant Phalaris, of the 
6th century B.c. Around these, near the close 
of the 17th century, there developed a consider- 
able controversy, connected with the so-called 
“Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns? ; and 
Richard Bentley, the philologist, in his famous 
‘Dissertation on the Letters of Phalaris” 
(1699), demonstrated —as is now universally 
admitted — that they are of comparatively late 
origin, perhaps of the 2d century <p. Among 
the early genuine letters of the Greek period 
are those of the rhetorician Isocrates (d. 338 
B.c.), nine in number; these are distinctively 
public rather than personal in character, being 
addressed to public persons and dealing largely 
with political themes. In like manner the philos- 
opher Epicurus (d. 270 p.c.) made use of the 
epistle for the summary exposition of his doc- 
trines. In the literature of the Romans the 
letter holds a large place, largely owing to the 
charm of the numerous letters of Cicero (d. 
43 s.c.) and Pliny the Younger (d. 113 a.p.). 
In both these cases the letters were in the first 
place genuinely personal in character, but were 
in part written with a view to publication, — 
Pliny actually editing nine books of his. Of 
Cicero’s one series is made up of letters ad- 


www 


322 LETTERS IN 


dressed to his friend Atticus, another to his 
brother Quintus, another ad familiares — to 
various personal friends. These epistles intro- 
duce us to the social and political life of the 
great Roman period with an intimacy afforded 
by no other records of the age, and their form 
and style set the standard for letter-writing for 
many centuries. Pliny’s letters are perhaps 
even more attractive than Cicero’s because of 
the greater simplicity of his character; two of 
them, describing the eruption of Vesuvius 
in the year 79, are especially famous. Mean- 
time the philosopher Seneca :(d. 65 a.p.) ‘had 
made use of the epistolary form for composi- 
tions of the nature of moral essays, in his 124 
letters to Lucilius. Not to pursue the story of 
Roman letter-writing in detail, we may note 
that Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, near the 
close of the 4th century, wrote well-known 
letters in the manner of Pliny, of which 10 
books were published by his son; that Apol- 
linaris Sidonius, prefect and Christian bishop 
in Gaul in the 5th century, left a large and 
interesting correspondence descriptive of the 
provincial life of the empire; and that Cassio- 
dorus, churchman and statesman under Theo- 
doric in the 6th century, left 12 books “vari- 
arum epistolarum, which are perhaps the best 
source of modern knowledge of the Ostro- 
Gothic dynasty. The Church fathers, too, both 
in the East and the West, made large use of 
the letter, whether personal or pastoral; and 
there were preserved and circulated epistles 
(to mention only a few names) of Basil and 


Chrysostom in the Eastern Church, and of 


Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine and Popes Leo I 
and Gregory I in the Western. In the mediz- 
val period the traditions of both sacred and 
secular epistles were maintained, with em- 
phasis on the former until we approach the 
time of the Renaissance, when there was a 
marked revival and cult of the latter. Doubt- 
less for their human interest the letters of 
Abelard and Heloise in the 12th century, com- 
memorating their ill-fated love, excel all other 
epistolary compositions of the age. These, of 
course, were purely personal; but already, as 
has been hinted, there was growing up an art 
of rhetorical letter-writing, commonly called 
ars dictaminis, due in part to the revival of the 
Ciceronian tradition and in part to the new 
humanism.: The composition, especially, of 
public letters written by state officers and sec- 
retaries became the subject of treatises and of 
study in schools. One of the leaders in this 
art was Alberich (or Alberico) of the monas- 
tery of Monte Cassino (d. 1088), who wrote 
a Breviarium de Dictamine, followed, early in 
the following century, by the model letters 
(called Rationes Dictandi) of Hugo of Bologna. 
The rules governing epistolary composition, as 
formulated by these authorities, were elaborate 
and severe; thus Alberich taught that every 
epistle must have five chief divisions, — the 
salutatio or greeting, the benevolentie captatio 
or introduction designed to produce a favor- 
able impression, the narratio, the petitio, and 
the conclusio. Later works also classified the 
types of letters to be studied, as Didactic, 
Deliberative, Demonstrative, Judicial, or Famil- 
iar, with many sub-types after the manner of 
rhetorical pedantry. It is obvious that the epis- 
tolary art would be among those sedulously 
cultivated in Italy, from the 13th to the 16th 


wires? 


LITERATURE 


centuries; and in fact the collections and 
treatises representing it during that era are 
countless. Especially precious are the letters 
of Dante (such as those addressed to the em- 
peror, Henry VII, to the Italian cardinals, etc.) 
and of Petrarch; the latter collected his, and 
prepared them for publication, classifying them 
as “Familiar Correspondence,” “Correspond- 
ence in Old Age,» “Letters without a Title,” 
etc., with a curious appendix called “Epistle 
te Posterity.». Somewhat later, the letters of 
Bembo (d. 1547) and Aretino (d. 1556) were - 
especially valued for their elegance, and were 
widely collected and republished. At the same 
period in Spain, Antonio de Guevara’ distin- 
guished himself as an epistolarian, and his 
Epistolas Familiares (1539), which came to be 
called the “Golden Epistles,» were even more 
largely circulated and imitated than any of the 
Italian school; they were published in English 
in both the 16th and 17th centuries. Another 
Spanish collection of note was that of the iet- 
ters of Antonio Perez (d. 1611). Of the early 
Reformers the chief epistolarian was Erasmus, 
who recorded the fact that his enormous cor- 
respondence sometimes required him to write 
40 letters a day. Though his letter-writing 
was often informal enough, he also studied 
the art of the rhetoricians, and himself wrote 
a manual De Conscribendis Epistolis. The let- 
ters of Melanchthon and of Luther have also, 
of course, a high place in the personal litera- 
ture of the Reformation; and Ulrich von Hut- 
ten, with collaborating friends, turned the epis- 
tolary art to the uses of satire in his famous 
‘Letters of Humble Men (Epistole Obscu- 
rorum Virorum), published 1515-17. 

In France the impulse of the Renaissance 
had effects similar, though less notable, to those 
in Italy. Among the chief early models of 
French letter-writing are the collections of the 
letter, of Voiture (d. 1648) and Jean Balzac 
(d. 1654). Those of Balzac in particular were 
often reprinted. Pascal soon made use of the 
form for serious philosophic purposes in the 
famous Lettres Provinciales (1656-57). It was 
in the 18th century, however, that French 
letter-writing became distinguished as one of 
the forms most representative of the spirit of 
the age; notable examples are the correspond- 
ence of Voltaire (d. 1778), of Rousseau (d. 
1778), of Marianna Alcoforado (d. 1723), of 
the Marquis du Deffand (d. 1780) and of 
Madame de Staél (d. 1817). Pursuing the sub- 
ject hastily into the 19th century, we may note 
such attractive epistolarians as Sainte-Beuve, 
Prosper Mérimée, George Sand, and the broth- 
ers Edmond and Jules de Goncourt. The Ger- 
mans have never distinguished themselves 
strikingly in letter-writing viewed as an art, 
though from the days of Luther to those of 
Wagner they have furnished examples of let- 
ters important for their substance. Especially 
notable for literature is the correspondence of 
Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn, in the 18th 
century, and that of Goethe and Schiller. 
Other interesting epistolarians are Herder, the 
brothers Schlegel and the brothers Grimm. 

Few examples of the letter-writing of Eng- 
land survive from the pre-Elizabethan period, 
aside from official correspondence in state 
papers and the like. The outstanding excep- 
tion is the collection of Paston Letters, written 
by various members of a Norfolk family, be- 


‘LETTERS IN LITERATURE 


tween 1424 and 1509, arid first published (in 
part) in the late 18th century (not fully until 
1875); their value is historical, not literary. 
With the Renaissance the conception of letter- 
writing as a literary art naturally entered Eng- 
land, being marked, for example, by the pub- 
lication of such collections as the Letters of 
Guevara, translated into English by Edward 
Hellowes in 1574 and Sir Geoffrey Fenton in 
1575 (Fenton added ‘Letters of other Authors, 
Latin, French and Italian?). Still earlier, in 
1568, had appeared William Fullwood’s ‘Enimie 
of Idlenesse: Teaching the maner. and. stile 
how to endite, compose and write all sorts of 
Epistles and Letters,» a work which became 
exceedingly popular and was often reprinted; 
it included translations of letters by Latin and 
Italian writers. Of a humbler and more utili- 
tarian character were collections of the “com- 
plete letter-writer” order, such as a work of 
1618, probably compiled by Gervase Markham, 
called ‘Conceited Létters, newly laid open: or 
a most excellent bundle of new wit, wherein 
is knit up together all the perfections or art 
of Episteling.» Far more value, of course, 
attaches to the personal correspondence of cer- 
tain of the great personalities of the period. 
Thus we have a considerable body of Bacon’s 
letters, first published in 1702 and in subse- 
quent collections, and another of Sir Philip 
Sidney’s; of special interest is the Latin cor- 
respondence of Sidney and Hubert Languet, 
translated into English in 1845. A minor 
Elizabethan writer, of no little interest to stu- 
dents of the period, was Gabriel Harvey, who 
was fond of preserving and publishing his 
letters; and it is to him we owe the publica- 
tion of some of Spenser’s, in a collection called 
‘Letters to and from Edmund Spencer? (1579- 
80). John Donne’s fascinating ‘Letters to Sev- 
eral Persons of Honor,? written between 1600 
and 1630, were published by his son in 1651. 
The chief developer of the English letter 
as a literary form was James Howell, a trav- 
eler, diplomatist-and pamphleteer, who in 1645 
published the first series of his ‘Epistole Ho- 
elianz: Familiar Letters, Domestic and Foreign, 
Divided into Sundry Sections, partly Historical, 
Political, Philosophical.» These letters were 
represented as having been addressed to various 
persons, but appear to have been really of the 
nature of essays in epistolary form, and they 
have a place of some significance in the de- 
velopment of the essay in the 17th century. 
Three later volumes followed, and many re- 
prints. Of the same period are the. private 
letters exchanged by Sir William Temple and 
his betrothed, Dorothy Osborne; Mistress Os- 
borne’s letters represent a delightful blend of 
propriety and spirited informality. Those of 
Sir Henry Wotton, diplomatist and man of 
letters (d. 1639), were published with his other 
manuscripts in the interesting collection called 
‘Reliquiz Wottoniane» (1651). Other collec- 
tions of the same period were ‘Loveday’s 
Letters, Domestic and Foreign,’ published by 
the writer’s son in 1659, and Sir Richard Bul- 
strode’s ‘Original Letters written to the Earl 
of Arlington? (1674). The versatile Duchess 
of Newcastle published in 1664 a fictitious or 
ideal series called ‘Two Hundred and Eleven 
Sociable Letters.’ Milton’s ‘Letters of State; 
translated from the Latin, were published by 
his nephew, Phillips, in 1694; while in. 1743 


Pope. 


323 


appeared an additional volume, called ‘Original 
Letters and Papers of State... found among 
the Political Collections of Mr. John Milton. 

In the 18th century the field of English 
letters becomes still more rich and varied, 
though the tendency is by this time toward 
more and more informality. Most intimate of 
all the collections are the letters of Swift to 
Esther Johnson, commonly called the ‘Journal 
to Stella?; these were written from 1710 to 
1713. The chief letter-writer of this age, how- 
ever, was the poet Pope, who returned to the 
Roman practice’ of composing letters which 
should serve the purpose of the hour and at 
the same time be preserved as works of epis- 
tolary art. His habit of altering the original 
text, and of professing to have addressed 
other correspondents than the real ones, to- 
gether with the extraordinary duplicity he prac- 
tised in arranging for their publication, form 
a melancholy story, first fully revealed in our 
own time in the Elwyn-Courthope ‘Life of 
Two of his correspondents, Lord Bol- 
ingbroke and Lady Mary Montagu, also won 
separate distinction in the epistolary art. Bol- 
ingbroke’s best-known letters are in fact essays 
on politics or philosophy, addressed to one or 
another friend,—such as the ‘Letters on the 
Study and Use of History,? written about 1735 
but published 1752, the ‘Letter to Sir William 
Wyndham, and various letters to Pope. Lady 
Montagu solaced a prolonged residence in Con- 
stantinople by much letter writing, represented 
by the ‘Turkish Letters» of 1716-18, published 
only after her death. Various other collections 
were made from manuscripts in the hands of 
her family and friends, the number of letters 
in the end reaching some 450. Other ladies, 
less learned and. brilliant than Lady Mary, 
were nevertheless able to win a reputation as 
epistolary recorders of court gossip and the 
like; among the resulting collections are ‘Let- 
ters to and from Henrietta, Countess of Suf- 
folk, and her Second Husband, the Hon. George 
Berkeley, from 1712 to 1767,» and ‘Correspond- 
ence between Frances, Countess of Hertford 
and Henrietta Louisa, Countess of Pomfret, 
173841,’— both series being published only in 
the 19th century. Far more famous were the 
letters of Lord Chesterfield to his natural son, 
Philip Stanhope, published in 1774, the year 
following his lordship’s death; these were re- 
printed at intervals for at least a century, 
being viewed in some quarters as models of 
advice to the young, in others as shocking ex- 
amples of cynicism and worldliness. Most of 
the men of letters of this age devoted their 
leisure to prolific, often brilliant, correspond- 
ence; among those whose letters still well repay 
the reader are Sterne, Gray, Smollett, Garrick 
and Cowper. But the prince of the episto- 
larians was Horace Walpole, “trifler and fop,” 
who devoted the huge leisure of a long life to 
the most tireless and animated body of cor- 
respondence in our literature. The first volume 
of his letters appeared in 1798, the year. fol- 
lowing his death; subsequent collections in the 
19th century have brought the number of let- 
ters beyond 3,000. Frances Burney (later 
Madame d’Arblay), a lady of the queen’s bed- 
chamber and novelist, was a close rival to 
Walpole in the power of sprightly representa- 
tion of contemporary life; her letters, though 
primarily of the 18th century, were published 


324 


with her ‘Diary? in 1842-46. .With reference 
to this period it must also be recalled that it 
was the demand «f a publisher for a collection 
of model letters for the use of young persons 
of moderate attainments which led Samuel 
Richardson to embark on his epochal career as 
epistolary novelist with ‘Pamela? (1740); and 
that Gilbert White’s ‘Selborne? (1789), dis- 
tinguished as a classic both in literature and 
natural history, was made up primarily of per- 
sonal letters addressed to the writer’s fellow- 
naturalists, Pennant and Barrington. In the 
19th century the art of letter-writing tended 
to decline, owing to diminished leisureliness of 
life and the progressive loss of the old courtly 
dignities and formalities of manner and style. 
Nevertheless many English men of letters 
maintained the epistolary tradition among their 
friends. The chief of these is Charles Lamb, 
whose letters are inferior to none of the pre- 
ceding era in charm of wit and wisdom; in- 
deed it was through them that he may be 
said to have practised the art of the familiar 
essay, in which he stands supreme among the 
moderns. Other brilliant letter-writers of the 
century are Byron, De Quincey, Macaulay, 
Sydney Smith, Edward Fitzgerald, Thackeray 
and Stevenson; and—din more serious vein — 
Ruskin, George Eliot and Carlyle. The Emer- 
son-Carlyle correspondence is a noble monu- 
ment of philosophic and international friend- 
ship. Besides Emerson, among the Americans, 
James Russell Lowell and Charles Eliot Norton 
have won distinction for their letters. Others 
who have preserved the tradition of the art, 
even in the days of typewriter and telephone, 
will doubtless be revealed by time. 
Bibliography.— Roberts, W., ‘History of 
Letter-Writing from the Earliest Period to the 
Fifth Century? (London 1843); Ellis, Henry, 
‘Original Letters of Eminent Literary Men 
of the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries? (Camden 
Society Publications, 1843); Holcombe, J. P., 
‘Literature in Letters? (New York 1866); 
Scoones, W. B., ‘Four Centuries of English 
Letters? (London 1880) ; Williams, H., ‘English 
Letter-Writers of the 18th Century? (London 
1886) ; Mason, E. T., ‘British Letters Illustra- 
tive of Character and Social Life? (New York 
1888) ; Rannie, D. W., ‘Letter-Writing as a 
Form of Literature? (pamphlet, Oxford 1895) ; 
Johnson, R. B., ‘Eighteenth Century Letters? 
(London 1898); ‘The Gentlest Art? and ‘The 
Second Post, collections, edited by E. V. Lucas 
(New York 1907 and 1910); Dawson, W. J. 
and C. W., ‘Great English Letter-Writers? 
(New York 1909). See also a bibliography in 
a dissertation of the University of Pennsylvania 
by M. By’ Hansche, ‘The Formative Period of 
English Familiar Letter-Writers? (1902). 
RayMonp M. ALDEN, 
Professor of English, Leland Stanford Jumior 
University. 


LETTERS PATENT. See PATEnts. 


LETTIC LANGUAGE AND LITERA- 
TURE, the speech and literary production of 
the Letts, who inhabit Courland, Livonia, 
Kovno, Pskov and Vitebsk, also in’ East Prus- 
sia, Brazil and in the Lettish colonies in the 
United States. The language is spoken by 
1,750,000 people. It forms with Lithuanian and 
the now extinct Old Prussian, the Baltic sub- 
division of the Indo-Germanic linguistic family. 


LETTERS PATENT —LETTIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


Lettic is distinguished from Lithuanian by a pho- 
nology further removed from the Indo-Euro- 
pean standard, and by its accent, which always 
falls on the first syllable. In a few points it 
is more archaic than Lithuanian. For instance, 
it retains the Indo-Germanic s and g which in 
the sister language has been modified to sz and 
%, and the original brief vowels, which in many 
cases have become long vowels in Lithuanian. 
It is divided into numerous dialects, the chief 
of which are the following: East Lettic, the 
Mitan dialect, which is the standard literary 
form, the North Lettic, spoken in north and 
northwestern Courland and in the Riga districts 
of ‘Livonia. Lettic has only two genders and 
two numbers, although there remain traces of 
the dual number. It also retains seven of the 
eight cases of the Indo-Germanic family, has 
only the three tenses of the verb (past, present 
and future) and the indicative, conditional and 
imperative moods. A reflexive form is added 
to the verb by the addition of s. Periphrastic 
forms are numerous. The vocabulary contains a 
great number of German, Russian, Esthonian, 
Finnish and Seandinavian words, and the in- 
fluence of these languages is discernible in 
much of the native vocabulary. 

Until the last century the language was 
greatly neglected and a few German scholars 
were the first to describe and investigate it. 
Within recent decades the Letts themselves 
have given more attention to their language 
and the movement has resulted in an increased 
and greatly improved literary output. The 
earliest literary works in Lettish were transla- 
tions. of Luther’s ‘Catechism? (Kidnigsberg 
1586). Undeutsche Psalmen” and ‘Gesange? 
(1587), a translation of the Bible (Riga 1685- 
89) and other works almost exclusively of a 
religious or didactic character, and translations 
from the German. G. F. Stender (d. 1796) 
wrote a grammar and a compendious diction- 
ary of Lettish, which gave a new impetus to 
the study of the language. He wrote also 
‘Augustas gudribas grahmata? (1776), a work 
containing the elements of astronomy, geogra- 
phy, history, etc., and also stories and tales 
which helped to popularize the language and 
at once arrested its decline. The first Lettish 
comedy was written by his son, Alexander 
Stender. The close of the 18th and the open- 
ing decades of the 19th century saw a great 
literary revival among the Letts, who began to 
take pride in cultivating their language as a 
literary medium. Periodicals were founded, in- 
cluding the Latweeschu Awise (1822—) and 
Magasin (Mitau 1827—), and a vigorous effort 
was made to develop a national literature free 
of German and Russian influences. The 
classics of the western European tongues were 
translated and exerted a marked influence on 
the literary development of Lettish. Lettish 
poems, novels and romances issued from the 
press in increasing numbers, and works on eco- 
nomics and sociology ushered in a new era in 
national culture. Among the literary figures of 
the 19th century stand forth pre-eminently Jur 
Allunan, the Kaudoit brothers, Neikens, Pum- 
purs, Kronwald, Lautenbach, Rosenberg- 
Aspasia, Blanman, Rainis-Pleekschan, Janson, 
Zeifert and Lap. By the year 1900 there existed 
in Lettish about 2,500 works and 10 periodicals. 
The folksongs of the Letts are numerous and 
some are very beautiful. The best are con- 


LETTRES DE CACHET — LEUCAMIA 


tained in the first numbers of ‘Latweeschu 
tantas dfeesmas? (Leipzig 1874 et seq.). 
Schleicher published a collection of tales and 
proverbs (Weimar 1857). 

Bibliography.—Andreianov, ‘Lettische Volks- 
lieder und Mythen? (Halle 1896); Bezzen- 
berger, ‘Lettische Dialekt-Studien? (Gottin- 
gen 1885); id, ‘Ueber die Sprache. der 
preussischen Letten? (ib. 1888); Bielenstein, 
August, ‘Die lettische Sprache? (Berlin 1864) ; 
id., “Lettische Grammatik? (Matau 1863) ; id., 
‘Die Elemente der lettischen Sprache? (ib. 
1866) ; id., “Tausend ‘lettische Rathsel, iibersetzt 
und erklart? (Mitau 1881); id. ‘Grenzen des 
lettischen Volkstammes und der _lettischen 
Sprache? (Saint Petersburg 1892); Brentano, 
(Lehrbuch der lettischen Sprache? (Vienna 
1906); Kalning, ‘Kurzer Lettischer Sprach- 
fithrer? (Riga 1910); Klaushush, “Latweeschu 
vakstrieezibas wehsture? (Riga 1907); Leh- 
golnis, “Latweeschu literaturas wehsture? (Riga 
1908); Ulmann and Brasche, ‘Lettische Wor- 
terbuch> (Riga 1872-80); Thomsen, ‘Bero- 
ringer melem de Finske og de Baltiske Sprog? 
(Copenhagen 1890). 

LETTRES DE CACHET, lét-r-dé-ka-sha, 
in France, a name given to the warrants of 
imprisonment issued by the kings before the 
Revolution. All royal letters (lettres royauxr) 
were either Jettres patentes or lettres de cachet. 
The former were open, signed by the king, and 
countersigned by a minister, and hhad the great 
seal of state appended. Of this kind were all 
ordinances, grants of privilege, etc. But these 
checks on arbitrary power did not exist with 
regard to lettres de cachet, also called lettres 
closes, or sealed letters, which were folded up 
and sealed with the king’s little seal (cachet), 
and by which the royal pleasure was made 
known to individuals or to corporations and the 
administration of justice was often interfered 
with. It was not always for political reasons 
that lettres de cachet were obtained; sometimes 
private persons got troublesome members of 
their families brought to reason in this way. 
The lieutenant-general of the police kept forms 
of lettres de cachet ready, in which it was only 
necessary to insert the name of the individual 
to be arrested. 

LETTS, léts, a Slavonic people’ closely 
akin to the Lithuanians, inhabiting a portion of 
Russia. Their language, along with the Lithu- 
anian and Old Prussian (extinct), forms the 
Lettic or Lithuanian branch of the Indo- 
European family of tongues. The Letts num- 
ber about 1,000,000. 


~ LETTSOMITE, or CYANOTRICHITE, 

a mineral consisting of hydrous copper alu- 
minum sulphate, 4 CuO. AlLOsSO3. 8 H.0. A 
einen ore of copper in the Tintic district, 
Utah. 


LETTUCE, lét’is, a genus (Lactuca) of 
hardy annual and perennial herbs of the order 
Composite. Less than 10 of the 100 recognized 
species, which are distributed mainly in the 
northern hemisphere, are in cultivation, and 
some botanists consider these to -be merely 
forms of three or perhaps two species. They 
are characterized by opposite leaves of various 
forms, and white, yellow or blue flowers in 
heads which are arranged in small panicles. 
The only species used in America, the common 
garden lettuce (L. sativa), is an annual whose 


329 


natural prototype is unknown, but is supposed 
to be L. scariola, an Asiatic species. 

Lettuce is one of the oldest food-plants, 
having been used, it is said, by Persian royalty 
more than 2,000 years ago. To-day it is un- 
questionably the most widely used of all our 
materials for salads, and has developed an in- 
numerable host of varieties of great diversity 
of form. They are somewhat roughly divided 
into two general groups: heading, in which the 
leaves. form a cabbage-like head; and cutting, 
in which the leaves are more loosely arranged... 
In each of these groups are forcing and out- 
door varieties. A third group, the cos or 
romaine varieties, which may be considered a 
subdivision of the cabbage group, consists of 
long, narrow-headed kinds, whose outer leaves 
must be tied above the head to properly blanch 
the inner ones. They are specially valued as 
summer lettuces, because of the ability to pro- 
duce leaves of good flavor in spite of consider- 
able heat. 

Lettuce grows best in cool weather. It re- 
quires a rich open soil and clean cultivation; 
plenty of sunlight in the cool seasons and par- 
tial shade in the warm. The seed may be sowed 
in a hotbed, where the plants may be either 
allowed to develop, or from which they may be 
transplanted to the garden, 8 to 12 inches be- 
ing allowed between them. Immense quantities 
of lettuce are forced in greenhouses during the 
winter, and from the trucking regions of the 
South, where the plants are grown with only 
sun heat in canvas-covered beds, the markets 
are supplied during the winter with thousands 
of carloads. 

When grown under glass lettuce is some- 
times attacked by so-called plant diseases — 
leaf-spot, rust, mildew and drop or rot. These 
may be very largely if not wholly controlled by 
good management, especially with respect to 
ventilation, the temperature being kept lower 
than that which is favorable to the growth of 
the fungi. Sterilizing the soil with live steam 
for an hour or more is practised and believed 
by many large growers to destroy the spores. 
The operation is performed a day or so before 
planting. 


LEUCADIA, 1éf-ka-dée’a, or LEUKAS. 
See SANTA MAuvRA and Care DUCATO. 


LEUCZEMIA, an incurable but rarely oc- 
curring disease of unknown origin, character- 
ized by enlargement of the spleen and lym- 
phatic glands, and the changes in the blood con- 
sisting in a decrease of the number of the red 
cells, diminution of the amount of hzma- 
globin in each cell, and great increase in the 
number of the leucocytes or lymphocytes’. The 
disease may come on rapidly, with anemia and 
loss of flesh and strength; usually the onset is 
insidious, the deterioration of the general 
health or the swelling of the spleen or glands 
being first noticed. The least uncommon form 
of the disease shows peculiar changes in the 
bone-marrow; next in frequency is the form in 
which only the spleen and marrow are changed, 
and rarest of all is the form in which the 
glands are changed (the lympatic). Besides 
the increase in the number of the leucocytes, a 
form of the cell found only in the bone-marrow 
appears in the blood. The symptoms, which 
almost invariably include a fever of about 102°, 
difficulty in breathing, occasional hemorrhages, 


326 


etc, are due to the loss of nutrition of the 


tissues, to the anemia, to the pressure of the. 


enlarged spleen on the vital structures in the 
abdomens and to the pressure of the enlarged 
glands. The glands most commonly enlarged 
are the chains along the neck, those in the 
axilla, the abdominal glands, the glands of the 
groin and those of the thorax. They may be 
barely large enough to be felt or may form 
bunches in these parts that are plainly visible. 
The disease progresses for months or years 
with intervals of considerable improvement 
sometimes obtained from arsenic in large doses. 


LEUCIN (Greek, “white”), a white sub- 
stance, resembling cholesterin, first discovered 
by Proust in putrefying cheese and afterward 
shown by Braconnot to be formed (together 
with other products) by the action of sulphuric 
acid upon animal matters. It is best prepared 
by the prolonged boiling of horn shavings in 
sulphuric acid, neutralizing with lime, precipi- 
tating excess of lime with oxalic acid and then 
evaporating to crystallization. Leucin and ty- 
rosin are thrown down together, but they may 
_ be separated by redissolving in water and re- 
crystallizing, the tyrosin then coming down 
first. Leucin has the chemical formula CsHi:Oz. 
NH, and is known to the chemist as “amido- 
hexoic acid.» (See AmiIpDE and Hexoic Acip). 
It may be sublimed, but if it be heated to 338° 
F. it melts, becoming simultaneously converted 
into amylamine, carbon dioxide and ammonia. 
It is insoluble in ether, but soluble to some ex- 
tent both in water and in alcohol. Leucin is 
said to occur in healthy calf’s liver, and in 
certain other healthy tissues, such as the brain 
of the ox. It occurs also in certain of the 
products eliminated by the human skin, but its 
presence in the urine or in any of the internal 
organs of man is regarded as indicative of a 
serious pathological condition. Thus leucin is 
found in the liver in phosphorus poisoning and 
in acute yellow atrophy, and also in typhus 
fever and smallpox. In the healthy body 
leucin and tyrosin are probably converted into 
urea and eliminated as such. 


LEUCIPPUS, li-sip’ts, Greek philosopher, 
flourished between the 4th and 5th centuries 
B.c. To him is attributed the first idea of the 
atomic system afterward perfected by his dis- 
ciple Democritus. Kepler and Descartes were 
much indebted to the doctrines of these mas- 
ters for the explanation of the planetary 
vortices. 


LEUCITE, a native silicate of aluminum 
and potassium, having the formula KAI(SiOs)2, 
and crystallizing in forms that are isometric 
at 900° F., but pseudo-isometric at ordi- 
nary temperatures. Its anomalous double re- 
fraction has been the subject of much study 
and discussion. The mineral is white or gray 
in color, and has a hardness of from 5.5 to 6, 
and a specific gravity of 2.50. It occurs more 
particularly in recent volcanic rocks, and Vesu- 
vius is the best-known locality for it. It is also 
found in considerable quantity in the Green 
River Basin, Wyoming, Leucite may be con- 
verted into the mineral analcite by the action of 
a soda solution, and the inverse transformation 
of analcite into leucite is also possible. 


LEUCOCYTES. See Btoop. 


LEUCIN — LEVANT MOROCCO 


LEUCOMAINES (Gk. Acixopa, white of 
egg), certain nitrogenous organic basis found 
as products of metabolism in living organic tis- 
sues. They may be extracted from fresh beef 
by warm water and oxalic acid, together with 
a little oxygen. The solution is boiled, filtered, 
evaporated and extracted with alcohol several 
times. The alcoholic solution is precipitated 
with ether several times, and its several com- 
ponents are isolated by various means. The 
bases thus obtained are xanthocreatinine, 
CsHiN.O; chrusocreatinine, C;sHsN.O; amphi- 
creatine, CoHieN1Oi: pseudocreatine, C.H;N;O; 
CuHaNioOs, and Ci2HesNuOs. Some of the 
leucomaines are toxic. They correspond to the 
alkaloids (q.v.) in plants, See MeEtanorism. 


LEUKOPLASTS. See CHROMATOPHORES. 


LEUTHEN, loi’ten, or LISSA, Poland, a 
village nine miles west. of Breslau, Lower 
Silesia, which gives its name to the battle 
gained here by Frederick the Great, 5 Dec. 1757, 
over Prince Charles of Lorraine; The Aus- 
trians numbered about 90,000 and the Prussians 
34,000. The Austrians lost 10,000 in killed and 
wounded, 12,000 were taken prisoners, besides 
considerable war munitions, and Silesia was re- 
gained. Pop. 800. See SEVEN YEARS’ WAR. 


LEUTZE, loit’sé, Emanuel, American ar- 
tist: b. Gmtind, Wirtemberg, 24 May 1816; d. 
Washington, D. C., 18 July 1868. He was 
brought to the United States in infancy and 
early displayed a talent for portrait painting. 
He studied at Dusseldorf under Lessing and 
lived abroad for many years after 1841. Among 
his works, which are largely historical, are 
“Columbus before the Council of Salamanca? ; 
‘Columbus in Chains’; ‘Columbus before the 
Queen; ‘Landing of the Norsemen in Amer- 
ica; ‘Washington Crossing the Delaware,” 
perhaps his best-known work; ‘Washington at 
Princeton? ; ‘Lafayette in Prison at Olmiuitz 
Visited by his Relatives.» In 1860 he was em- 
ployed by the United States government to 
make a large mural' painting entitled ‘West- 
ward the Star of Empire takes its Way” on one 
of the stairway walls in the national Capitol. 
His detail has been criticized and some of his 
work pronounced crude, but it is always strik- 
ing and effective. His principal figures always 
suggest power. 

LEVANT, le-vant’ (“sunrise,” “orient”), in 
geology, a term applied by Henry Rogers to 
the fourth series of the Appalachian Paleozoic 
strata, called in New York the Medina group, 
and of equivalent age to the May Hill Sand-. 
stone or Upper Llandovery of England. The 
name is given to signify metaphorically the sun- 
rise period of the Palzozoic day. Its maximum 
thickness is above 2,000 feet, and most moun- 
tains of the Appalachian series are outcroppings 
of the Levant. There are few organic remains, 
chiefly marine shells and fucoids. 

Geographically the word is a name applied 
to designate the coast of the Mediterranean 
immediately east of Italy, including the islands 
of the AZgean, Egypt, Asia Minor and Syria. 

LEVANT, The. See Constitution, THE. 

LEVANT MOROCCO, a superior quality 
of Morocco leather, originally imported from 
the Levant, being made from the skin of 
Angora goats. See LEATHER. 


LEVASSEUR — LEVER 


LEVASSEUR, lé-va-sér, Pierre Emile, 
French political economist and geographer: 
b. Paris, 8 Dec. 1828; d. July 1911. He was 
educated at the College Bourbon and the Ecole 
Normale Supérieure, and after holding several 
important educational posts became in 1876 
professor of geography at the Ecole Libre des 
Sciences in Paris. He was especially prominent 
in regard to geographical study in French 
school and in addition to a series of geogra- 
phies was author of ‘Public Moneys among 
the Romans? (1854); ‘The Gold Question? 
(1858) ; ‘The French Population? (1889-91) ; 
‘Agriculture of the United States? (1894) ; 
‘The American Workman? (1900); ‘Summary 
of Political Economy? (1905) ; ‘History of the 
Commerce of France? (1911- 12). He was a 
member of the Academy of Moral and Political 
Sciences and a commander of the Legion of 
Honor. He visited the United States in 1893 
in connection with the Columbian Exposition. 


LEVEE, lé-vé’ or lév’é (from the French 
word lever, to rise, and the time of rising). 
(1) In social usage, levee is a word used in 
high life or court language for the ceremonial 
visits which great personages receive in the 
morning, as it were at their rising. The levee is 
distinguished from the drawing-room, inasmuch 
as at the levee of a gentleman, gentlemen only 
appear, and at the levee of a lady, only ladies, 
while at the drawing-room, ladies and gentle- 
men both are admitted. The meaning is now 
more extended and the term is applied chiefly 
to the stated occasions on which the king or 
queen of Great Britain publicly receives those 
subjects whom their rank entitles to the honor. 
On the first presentation of daughters of dukes, 
marquises and earls, it is customary for the 
queen to kiss them_on the cheek. The term is 
little used in the United States. (2) In _hy- 
draulic engineering, an embankment raised on 
the margin of a river to prevent inundation. 
That part of Louisiana which lies on the lower 
Mississippi was formerly subject to the annual 
overflow of the river, by which immense dam- 
age was done to the land. To guard against 
these inundations, levees of earth have been 
thrown up for more than a thousand miles 
along the river banks to a height sometimes of 
15 feet, with a breadth of 30 feet at the base. 
This construction began about 1720 in New 
Orleans and was carried on locally and irregu- 
larly until 1882, when the Mississippi River 
Commission began its work under the United 
States government. In front of New Orleans 
the levee is very broad and serves as a wharf, 
steamboats and other vessels being moored to 
it. Breaches sometimes occur in the levees, 
when the water rushes through and does great 
mischief; these breaches are called crevasses. 
Consult Humphreys, ‘Floods and Levees of 
the Mississippi River? (1914). See Mississippi 
LEVEE SYSTEM; NATURAL LEVEE. 


LEVEL. (1) In mining, a horizontal gal- 
lery or passage. The workings at different 
depths are said to be at the different levels — 
the 50 or 60 fathoms level, and so on. A level 
which opens to the surface at the side of a 
valley is called a day level, and being graded 
affords a means of natural drainage without 
pumping. A drowned or blind level is.a drain- 
age gallery which has the form of an inverted 
siphon. A dip-head level is one which proceeds 


327 


from the foot of the engine-shaft right and 
left, and from which the rooms diverge. (2) 
In surveying and engineering, an instrument 
for indicating a horizontal line or determining 
the position as to horizontality of an object 
or surface to which it is applied, and then de- 
termining the true level; or the difference of 
rise or ‘fall between two or more places. There 
are numerous levels, varying in form, size, 
arrangement or construction, according to the 
purpose for which each is intended ; as, for in- 
stance, the carpenter's, mason’s, gunner’s or . 
surveyor’s levels, the mercurial, water and 
spirit levels, etc. All may be divided into three 
classes: (a) The \simplest, such as the mason’s 
or carpenter’s level, in which the vertical line 
is determined by a plumb line and the horizon- 
tal by a line perpendicular to it. (b) Those in 
which the horizontal line is determined by the 
surface of a fluid at rest; as in the water and 
mercurial levels. (c) Those in which the hori- 
zontal line is determined by a bubble of air 
floating in a fluid contained in a glass tube, as 
a spirit level. 


LEVELERS, the name of an ultra-reform 
party in Great Britain, which arose in the army 
of the Long Parliament about the year 1647 
and was put down by Fairfax. The movement 
was partly political and partly religious; they 
aimed at the establishment of an equality in 
titles and estates. throughout the kingdom. 
While they condemned all religious strife and 
differences, they mutinied on various occasions 
and a number were killed before the party was 
suppressed. 


LEVELING. Sce Surveyina. 


LEVEN, Loch, 16h 1é’vn or lév’n, Scot- 
land, a lake in the county of Kinross, of oval 
shape, four miles long, two miles broad; great- 
est depth, 90 feet. It contains several islands, 
on one of which are the remains of the historic 
castle of Loch Leven, in which Mary Queen of 
Scots was confined after her separation from 
Bothwell and where she escaped shortly before 
the battle of Langside. The trout fishing of 
the lake is famous. 


LEVER, lé’vér, Charles James, Irish nov- 
elist: b. Dublin, 31 Aug. 1806; d. Trieste, 
Austria, 1 June 1872. He was educated at 
Trinity College, Dublin, and after studying 
medicine, partly at G6ttingen, he obtained the 
degree of bachelor of medicine from Trinity 
College in 1831. During the prevalence of 
cholera in 1832 he gained considerable reputa- 
tion for his skill and devotion in the treatment . 
of that disease. In March 1834 he contributed 
his first paper to the new Dublin University 
Magazine, of which he was editor 1842-45. 
The first chapter of ‘Harry Lorrequer, a desig- 
nation which he afterward made famous as 
his nom de-plume, appeared in the February 
number for 1837. He removed to Florence in 
1847, where he held a diplomatic position, was 
English consul at Spezzia in 1858 and at Trieste 


1867-72. He published ‘Harry Lorrequer? 
(1837) ; . “Charles O’Malley> (1840); ‘Tom 
Burke of Ours? (1844); ‘Jack Hinton’; 
Arthur O’Leary? (1844); .‘Roland Cashel? 


(1850); ‘The Bramleights of Bishops Folly? 
(1868); ‘Lord Kilgobbin® (1872), etc. The 
rollicking character of the earlier of these was 


828 


intensely national, but his later novels were 
more thoughtful and artistic. 

LEVER, lév’ér or lé’vér, a mechanical de- 
vice for the transmission and transformation o 
power. It is essentially a rigid structure, in 
which case it acts as a straight bar, no matter 
what its conformation, pivoting upon a fixed 
point called the “fulcrum.” By means of the 
lever a great force operating over a short dis- 
tance is obtained at the expense of a small 
force operating over a long distance. The 
crowbar is the commonest simple example in 
practice. With it a stone weighing 500 pounds 
may be raised two inches by moving the handle 
end of the bar downward 20 inches, the ful- 
crum being so placed that the distance from 
the hand to the fulcrum is 10 times as long 
as from the fulcrum to the stone. It will be 
noted that the fulcrum has to carry the sum 
of the weights at the two ends of the lever — 
in the example quoted, 550 pounds. The lever 
is operated under three different conditions: 
(1) Where the fulcrum is between the power 
and the resistance, as in lifting the stone with 
a crowbar; (2) where the resistance is between 
the power and the fulcrum, as in a nutcracker; 
(3) where the power is between the resistance 
and the fulcrum, as in a sugar-tongs or a 
sheep-shears. In the last instance the power 
has to be larger than the resistance, as it oper- 
ates on the small section of the lever to pro- 
duce a less power over a longer distance at 
the resistance end. The equation of the lever 
is: The power multiplied by its end of the 
lever equals the resistance multiplied by its end. 


LEVERETT, lév’ér-ét, Frank, by family 
tradition descendant of John Leverett, Ameri- 
can colonial governor (q.v.), American geol- 
ogist: b. Denmark, Iowa, 10 "March 1859. He 
was educated at Denmark Academy and the 
Iowa Agricultural College. In 1886 he entered 
the United States Geological Survey; was as- 
sistant geologist 1890-1900, and since 1901 has 
been geologist; also since 1909 lecturer on geol- 
ogy, University of Michigan. His special lines 
of investigation are glacial geology and water 
resources. He is a member of many scientific 
societies, both national and international. His 
publications include ‘Water Resources of Illi- 
nois? (1896) ; ‘Water Resources of Indiana and 
Ohio? (1897); ‘The Illinois Glacial Lobe? 
(1899) ; “Glacial Deposits of the Erie and Ohio 
Basins? (1901); ‘Flowing Wells and Municipal 
Water Supplies of the Southern Peninsula of 
Michigan? (1906); ‘Comparison of North 
American and European’ Glacial Formations? 
.(1910); ‘Surface Geology of Michigan? 
(Northern Peninsula 1911; Southern Peninsula 
1912); ‘Surface Geology of Minnesota? 
(northwest quarter 1915); ‘Pleistocene of 
Indiana and Michigan and History of the Great 
Lakes,’ with Frank B. Taylor (1915); and 
various shorter reports and papers. 


LEVERETT, Sir John, American colonial 
governor: b. England, 1616; d. Boston, Mass., 
16 March 1679. At 17 he emigrated to America 
with his father and settled in Boston. He re- 
turned to England in 1644 to take part in the 
struggle between the Parliament and the king, 
and as commander of a company of foot sol- 
diers gained military distinction and the friend- 
ship of Cromwell. He subsequently resided 
some years at the court of the Protector as 


LEVER— LEVI 


agent of Massachusetts. On his return to 
America he held successively some of/the most 
important civil and military offices in the gift 
of the colony, and finally in 1673 was elected 
governor. His administration is important in 
colonial history as the era of the war with King 
Philip, which his skill and energy were instru- 
mental in conducting to a fortunate issue. Two 
years previous to his death he was knighted 
by Charles II in acknowledgment of his serv- 
ices to the New England colonies during this 
contest. 


LEVERETT, John, grandson of Sir John 
Leverett (q.v.): b. Boston, 25 Aug. 1662; d. 
Cambridge, 3 May 1724. He was an eminent 
lawyer and judge, speaker of the colonial legis- 
lature and president of Harvard College from 
January 1707 until his death. He was a man of 
unusual attainments and received the honor, 
then rarely bestowed upon colonial subjects, of 
membership in the Royal Society. 


LEVERRIER, lé-va-ré-4, Urbain Jean 
Joseph, French astronomer: b. Saint-L6, 11 
March 1811; d. Paris, 23 Sept. 1877. He was 
educated at the Collége Louis Le Grand and 
the Ecole Polytechnique, and devoting himself 
to astronomy, made observations which pro- 
cured him admission to the Academy of Sci- 
ences in 1846. About this time he began inves- 
ligating the perturbations of Uranus. He made 
calculations with the view of determining the 
mass and orbital elements of an unknown 
planet supposed to cause the disturbances and 
was able to assign within one degree the re; 
gion where it might be looked for. John 
Couch Adams (q.v.), then a student at Cam- 
bridge, had been making investigations in the 
same track, and the honor of discovering Nep- 
tune (q.v.) is regarded as belonging equally to 
both. He received the grand cross of the Le- 
gion of Honor and other recognitions of his 
achievement. In 1854 lLeverrier succeeded 
Arago as director of the Observatory of Paris, 
in which post, except an interval from 1870 to 
1873, he remained until the end of his life. 
Here he distinguished himself by his thorough- 
ness and system, reforming the management, 
getting rid of political barnacles and making it 
the equal of any observatory of its time. He 
was the originator of the planetary and solar 
tables that became ‘standard in the Nautical Al- 
manac. He spent many years elaborating La- 
place’s theories and in his ‘Mechanique Celeste? 
presented to the astronomical world the best 
summary then extant on the planetary motions. 


LEVI, 1é’vi, one of the 12 patriarchs, 
a son of Jacob and Leah. The prince of the 
Shechemites having wronged his sister Dinah, 
he, with his brother Simeon, attacked their city 
and murdered all the males. Jacob reproaches 
them on his death-bed for this act of cruelty 
and foretells the dispersion of their descend- 
ants: “I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter 
them in Israel” (Gen. xlix, 7). Three sons 
went down with Levi to Egypt — Gershon, Ko- 
hath and Merari .(Gen. xlvi, 2). Moses and 
Aaron were of this tribe. See LEVITES. 


LEVI, 14-vé, Sylvain, French Oriental 
philologist: b. Paris, 28 March 1863. Professor 
in the College of France, director of the sec- 
tion of philology, history ‘and religions, viewed 
from the scientific point of view. He was in 


LEVIATHAN — LEVIS, LEVIS TOWN 


charge of the course in Sanskrit in the same in- 
stitution from 1889 to 1894; and he was sent on 
a special scientific mission to Indian and Japan 
(1897-98). He has written extensively for 
scientific publications and among his published 
works are ‘Le Téatre Indien» (1890); ‘La 
Doctrine du_ sacrifice dans les Brahmanas? 
(1898) ; “Le Népal> (1906-07). 
LEVIATHAN (Hebrew) is compounded 
of two words meaning a great fish and fas- 
tened; hence it probably means a huge fish cov- 
ered with close scales. The Septuagint renders 
it drakén (a dragon), and kétos (a whale). 
From the description of it given in the book of 
Job (xli) it is usually, and probably correctly, 
considered to mean the crocodile, though in 
some places it has been interpreted the whale. 
See Tristram’s ‘Natural History of the Bible.? 


LEVIATHAN, The.’ Hobbes’ ‘Levia- 
than? appeared in 1651 at the end of the civil 
war which left Cromwell in power. In many 
ways it was the child of these rebellious times, 
_ though it was not, as is sometimes charged, a 
defense of the Stuart monarchy. Far from be- 
ing a mere political tract the ‘Leviathan? 
stands as the first original treatise on politics 
and ethics since Aristotle. 

Hobbes undertook the task of deducing a 
-naturalistic theory of the state as an integral 
part of his naturalistic philosophy, an under- 
taking which marks him as the only English 
philosopher, with the exception of Spencer, who 
produced a system of philosophy. 

The first part, “On Man,” may be said to 
lay the foundation of modern psychology. It 
proceeds from a discussion of elementary sen- 
sation to an analysis of the “interior beginnings 
of voluntary motions commonly called the pas- 
sions,» whereby we may conceive the natural 
condition of mankind from which the state has 
been generated through the “laws of nature.” 
The political doctrine for which Hobbes is best 
known is briefly that man is by nature in a 


state of war where there exists no distinction. 


of right and wrong. Such a state, however, is 
intolerable and reason directs that man give up 
his natural liberties for the sake of peace and 
security. Mankind accordingly transfer their 
natural rights to an absolute sovereign power 
whose decrees are the measure of justice and in- 
justice. The inconvenience of such absolute 
rule is, for Hobbes, not to be compared with 
the evils of civil war. Not only civil custom 
but also divine worship are regulated by the 
sovereign. though “Hobbes himself laid the 
foundations of a philosophy of religion. 

The fourth and last division of the book is a 
spirited attack on the Roman Catholic Church 
under the pleasing caption ‘Of the Kingdom of 
Darkness? and brought the author into disfa- 
vor with the Royalists. 

Hobbes considered himself the founder of 
social science and certainly the “Leviathan” had 
a most potent influence in stimulating thought 
for a century and more. It attracted unusual 
attention during Hobbes’ lifetime, even to the 
calling down of an investigation by Parliament. 

There are no special treatises on the ‘Levia- 
than? of any outstanding merit. The best gen- 
eral account of his philosophy in English is to 
be found in Sir Leslie Stephen’s volume on 
“Hobbes? in the English Men of Letters Series. 

WaLTER B. VEAZIE. 


329 


LEVIEN, 1a-vén’, Ilse, German authoress: 
b. Hamburg, 1852; d. 1908. After studying in 
her native city, she taught school for a number 
of years, until 1884. In that year she went to 
Stuttgart, where she studied esthetics. There 
she became an intimate of Vischer, and after his 
death wrote ‘Vischer — Erinnerungen? (1889). 
From Stuttgart she proceeded to Munich, at- 
tracted by the literary circle of which Paul 
Heyse was the leading figure. In her later 
years she was afflicted by an incurable illness | 
which so depressed her that she agreed to be 
shot by her intimate friend, Emma Mandel- 
baum, who then killed herself. Miss Levien 
was married to an Armenian named Okunian. 
Of her novels those deserving mention are 
‘Hamburger Novellen? (1886); Zwischen 
Elbe und Alster? (1890) ; ‘Bitterstiss? (1891) ; 
‘Querkdépfe? (1897) ; ‘Erich Hetebrink? (1907). 
Other works are ‘Gedichte, > a volume of poems 
(1890) ; ‘Phibje Ohrtens Gliick? (1902), a com- 
edy; ‘Die Retter der Moral,’ a drama (1905). 


LEVIN, Lewis Charles, American politi- 
cian: b. Charleston, S. C., 10 Nov. 1808; d. Phil- 
adelphia, 14 March 1860. Removing to Wood- 
ville, Miss., he became a school teacher and 
subsequently followed the practice of law in 
various States, settling permanently in Philadel- 
phia in 1838. The temperance cause attracted 
him and he edited a temperance organ. Becom- 
ing known as speaker and writer, he formed 
the Native-American party in 1843 and pub- 
lished The Sun, a daily paper, in its interests. 
As a representative of the party he was sent 
to Congress and served three terms (1845-51). 


LEVIRATE MARRIAGE, among the 
Jews, the custom of a man’s marrying the 
widow of a brother who died without issue. 
The same custom or law prevails tn some parts 
of India. Consult Benziger, ‘Hebraiche Arch- 
aologie? (1907). 

LEVIS, Francois Gaston, fran-swa gas- 
ton la-vé, Duc pe, French soldier in America: 
b. Chateau d’Anjac, Languedoc, 23 Aug. 1720; 
d. Languedoc, 1787. He served in the French 
army in various campaigns and in 1756 was or- 

dered to Canada, where he became second in 
command to General Montcalm. For his serv- 
ices at the defense of Carillon in 1758 he was 
promoted major-general; and at Montmorenci 
in 1759 he repulsed the English under Wolfe. 
After Montcalm’s death on the Plains of Abra- 
ham, Lévis took command of the French army, 
and during the winter of 1759-60 he maintained 
a vigorous struggle against great odds. He was 
victor at Sainte Foye in 1760 and might have 
gained Quebec if the French vessels had ar- 
rived at the opening of navigation in that 
spring. Lévis. returned to France, where he 
continued in the service; he was made a mar- 
shal in 1783 and given a dukedom in 1784. 


LEVIS, 1a’vé or lév'is, LEVIS TOWN or 
PORT LEVI, lé’vi, Canada, the capital of 
Levis County, Quebec, on the Saint Lawrence 
River, opposite Quebec city, with which it has 
ferry communication. It is an important port 
with government docks ; is the landing place for 
transatlantic travelers; ‘and has a large export 
trade. Most of the square timber brought down 
the Saint Lawrence in rafts is here loaded into 
sailing ships for Europe. It is on the Inter- 
colonial railway and a terminus. of the Quebec 


330 


Central and of branches of the Grand -Trunk 
railways. It is fortified, has a convent, ship- 
yard, factories, stores and lumber-mills. Pop. 
(1921) 10,479. 


LEVITES, lé’vits, those of the tribe of 
Levi who were not priests. They were the min- 
isters specially singled out for the service of 
the sanctuary, and, with the priests, formed the 
sacerdotal tribe. After the idolatry of the 
golden calf, the Levites were the first to rally 
round Moses, and then the idea of a special 
consecration of “an Israel within an Israel” de- 
veloped itself and the Levites thenceforth occu- 
pied a distinct position. They became guardians 
of the tabernacle and no others approached it 
under penalty of death. They appear to have 
been in part only descendants of Levi, others 
being taken tnto the tribe at convenience. From 
the first the Kohathites, as nearest of kin to the 
priests, had the highest offices assigned them. 
They bore the vessels of the sanctuary and the 
ark itself. A permanent arrangement was made 
for their maintenance. They were to receive 
the tithes of the produce of the land, and in 
their turn to offer a tithe to the priests. When 
the tabernacle should have a permanent place, 
the whole tribe was to be assigned 48 cities, six 
of which were to be cities of refuge. The Le- 
vites were moreover to preserve, transcribe and 
interpret the law and to read it every seventh 
year at the Feast of Tabernacles. They were 
not included in the general census of the peo- 
ple, but in a separate census (1 Chron. xxiii, 3) ; 
their number is given at 38,000. The vessels of 
the temple and sanctuaries were placed in their 
charge and they prepared animals for the sac- 
rifices. Keeping watch and menial duties of 
cleaning the places of worship als» fell to their 
share. They were the assistants and servants 
of the Aaronite priests, and at some periods 
seem to have closely approached the priests in 
dignity and position, and at others to be de- 
graded and treated as menials. Their position 
was much changed by the revolt of the 10 
tribes, and after the captivity, in the movement 
under Ezra, not more than 38 could be brought 
together. The purity of their blood was strin- 
gently guarded both by Ezra and Nehemiah. 
After the destruction of the temple in the dis- 
persion, they disappeared from history, being 
merged in the crowd of captives scattered over 
the Roman world. See Leviticus. 


LEVITICUS, Book of. Leviticus is the 
third book in the Old Testament. Its Hebrew 
name is Wayyikra, “And he called,” after the 
opening word of the book. The designation 
Leviticus, which means “Levitical,» that is, “the 
Levitical System? —the Levitical. system is 
found chiefly in this book — originated with the 
early Greek translation of the Old Testament 
known as the Septuagint and is meant to be de- 
scriptive of the contents. The Talmud suggests 
an even more appropriate title, namely, “Law 
of the Priests.” 

Contents.-— Leviticus contains few passages 
cast in narrative form; and in these few cases 
the narrative is introduced not so much for the 
purpose of describing the past as for the pur- 
pose of enforcing some provision for the fu- 
ture. The book is almost entirely a collection 
of laws, chiefly priestly or ceremonial in nature, 
that is, laws dealing with the functions and 
privileges of the priests and Levites; hence, the 


LEVITES — LEVITICUS 


name Leviticus. The first group of laws (i, 1-vii, 
38) deals with sacrifices and offerings — burnt 
offerings, meal offerings, peace offerings, sin of- 
ferings and guilt offerings—and with the 
priestly functions in connection with these sac- 
rifices. These laws are followed by accounts 
of the consecration of Aaron and his sons as 
priests and of the sin of Nadab and Abihu, and 
by further regulations concerning priestly du- 
ties and. portions (viii, l-x, 20). Five chap- 
ters (xi-xv) are devoted to laws dealing with 
matters of cleanness and uncleanness. The day 
of the atonement is the subject of chapter xvi; 
chapters xvii-xxvi contain the so-called Law 
of Holiness (see further, section 4). Chapter 
XXVii is in the nature of an appendix, contain- 
ing laws concerning vows, things devoted and 
tithes. 

Composition.— Other books of the Penta- 
teuch contain material taken from at least three 
originally separate sources, commonly desig- 
nated by the letters J, E and P; in Deuteronomy 
appears a fourth source known as D. (For de- 
tails see article PENTATEUCH). The whole of - 
Leviticus is derived from P; but chapters xvii- 
Xxvi, with the exception of some later inter- 
polations found chiefly in chapters xxiii and 
xxv, formed originally a separate code of laws, 
which is designated “Law of Holiness” by mod- 
ern scholars. (For a characterization of P see 
article PENTATEUCH, and the relevant sections 
in Eiselen, F. C., ‘The Books of the Penta- 
teuch?; a better understanding of the relation 
of Leviticus to the other P sections in the Pen- 
tateuch may be secured from a consecutive 
reading of the whole P document, as reproduced 
in an English translation in Kent, C. F., ‘The 
Student’s Old Testament?— for the material 
embodied in Leviticus consult especially the vol- 
ume entitled ‘Israel’s Laws-and Legal Preced- 
ents>— or in Brightman, E. S., ‘The Sources of 
the Hexateuch?; compare also Carpenter and 
Battersby, “The Hexateuch, and Addis, W. E., 


©The Documents of the Hexateuch?). 


The Law of Holiness.—Chapters xvii-— 
XXvVi constitute perhaps the most significant sec- 
tion of the book of Leviticus. Peculiarities of 
form, contents and expression have convinced 
modern scholars that these chapters existed at 
one time as an independent code. (It is not 
impossible that originally the code was more 
extensive than it is now. Some of its laws may 
have been omitted by the redactor who made 
it a part of P; others may have been trans- 
ferred to other parts of the Pentateuch, for 
example, the food laws in Lev. x1 and the law 
concerning fringes in Num. xv, 37-41). The 
designation “Law of Holiness” (H, the first 
letter of Holiness, as also of the corresponding 
German word “Heiligkeit,» is used as a con- 
venient symbol), first suggested by Kloster- 
mann in 1877, finds justification in the fact that 
the central theme of the whole code is holiness, 
both moral and ceremonial. Its motto is, “Be 
ye holy, for I, Yahweh, am holy” (xix, 2; 
compare also xxii, 31-33). 

As in the case of the Book of the Cove- — 
nant (see article Exopus), attempts have been 
made to subdivide the Law of Holiness into 
a series of decalogues (consult L. B. Paton, 
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1897, pp. 31-37), 
but such a theory necessitates a more or less 
radical rearrangement of the contents, which 


LEVULOSE— LEVY 


would find its only justification in the demands 
of the theory. The code deals with a variety 
of topics; it is worthy of note, however, that 
it lays much less stress upon civil and criminal 
than upon moral and ceremonial requirements. 
The more important subjects covered are the 
slaughter of animals and sacrifice (17); un- 
chastity and Moloch worship (18) ; the religious 
and moral behavior of the Israelites (19); 
penalties for Moloch worship, unlawful mar- 
riage and other offenses -(20); regulations 
touching priests and offerings (21, 22); sacred 
seasons (23); the lights of the sanctuary, the 
showbread, the blasphemer and his punishment 


(24); the Sabbatic year and the year of Jubilee 
(25). The code closes with a hortatory ad- 
dress, emphasizing ah fundamental duty of 


loyalty to Yahweh (26 

The individual laws did not originate with 
the compiler of the code. Internal evidence 
makes it probable that the author of the code 
had access to earlier collections, which may 
have been made at different times and places 
and in different priestly circles, embodying laws 
handed down in oral or written form for gen- 
erations and centuries. No doubt he may have 
formulated and inserted new laws, but, on the 
whole, his work was that of adapting older 
laws to present conditions, of bringing them 
into: harmony with his own point of view, 
and of re-enforcing them by supplying suitable 
motives. Kent is undoubtedly right when, in 
speaking of these laws, he says, “Their roots 
are probably to be traced to the Mosaic and 
nomadic periods of Israelitish history.” 

In language, thought and general aim the 
Law of Holiness resembles Ezekiel. For in- 
stance, the principle underlying the more formal 
teaching of Ezekiel is the same kind of holiness 
as is insisted upon in the Law of Holiness. The 
similarities are, indeed, so striking that some 
scholars have considered Ezekiel the author, or 
at least the redactor, of the code. However, 
there are also such obvious differences that it 
is practically impossible to believe that they 
came from one and the same author. 

Are, then, the resemblances) a matter of 
coincidence? Or, was Ezekiel. influenced by 
the Law of Holiness? Or, was the compiler 
of the code influenced by the thought and 
language of Ezekiel? The evidence is. so 
slight that there exists wide difference of 
opinion on these questions among scholars. On 
the whole, it seems most satisfactory to ex- 
plain the resemblances by assuming that the 
Law of Holiness and the Book of Ezekiel 
originated in the same priestly circles and under 
the inspiration of the same religious concep- 
tions and ideals. In the words of Kent, “It is 
probable, therefore, that the original draft of 
this code was made between the first and final 
captivity (B.c. 597-586), a period in which the 
more enlightened leaders, like Jeremiah and 
Ezekiel, saw clearly that the state was doomed 
and that Israel’s laws and institutions, if they 
were to be preserved, must be put into written 
form.” This code served as a nucleus around 
which a later writer or compiler arranged legal 
material taken from various sources; the com- 
pilation which resulted is now known as P, or, 
the Priestly Code. 

Bibliography.— In addition to the discus- 
sions named in the body of the article, atten- 
tion may be called to the following books in 


crystallize. 


331 


English: Chapman, A. T., ‘Introduction to the 
Pentateuch? (Cambridge 1911); and, in co- 
operation with A. W. Streane, ‘Leviticus? 
(‘Cambridge Bible,» Cambridge 1914) ; Cornill, 
C. H., “Introduction? (London 1907); Creel- 
man, H., ‘Introduction? (New York 1917); 
Driver, S. R., ‘Introduction? (1891); new ed., 
1910) ; and in co-operation with H. A. White, 
‘Leviticus? (‘Sacred Books of the Old Testa- 
ment,” New York 1898); Gray, G. B., ‘Intro- 
duction? (New York 1913) ; Harper, WreRs. 
‘The Priestly Element in the Old Testament? 
(Chicago 1902); Kennedy, A. R. S., ‘Leviticus 
and Numbers? (‘New Century Bible, Edin- 
burgh 1911); McFadyen, J. E., ‘Introduction? 
(New York 1905). Also articles on “Leviticus” 
in Hastings, ‘Dictionary of the Bible,» ‘Ency- 
clopedia Biblica? and ‘Encyclopedia Britannica? 
(11th ed.). 
FREDERICK CARL EISELEN, 
Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, 
Garrett Biblical Institute. 


LEVULOSE, a sugar (CsHi:Os) isomeric 
with a grade of "glucose, but of left polariza- 
tion; it always occurs with glucose in honey, 
in many fruits and in other sacchariferous 
vegetable tissues. It is popularly known as 
fruit sugar, is thick, sweet and will not readily 
See SUGAR. 


LEVY, Auguste Michel, French mineralo- 
gist: b. Paris, 1844; d. 1911. He was promi- 
nently connected with the geographical survey 
of France in 1876, and he was for many years 
a very active member of the Academy of Sci- 
ence. Among his publications which are all of 
a scientific nature are ‘Structure des roches 
éruptives etudées au microscope? (1876) ; ‘Syn- 
thése des minéraux et des roches? (1888) ; 
‘Structures et classification des roches érup- 
tives? (1889); ‘Tableaux des minéraux des 
roches? (1888), with A. Lacroix as collabo- 
rator; and ‘L’Explication de la carte géologique 
de la France, in collaboration with F. Fouqué. 

LEVY, Emile, 4-mél 14-vé, French painter: 
b. Paris, 20 Aug. 1826; d. Paris, 4 April 1900. 
He won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1854. In 
1878 he was awarded a first class medal for a 
picture he exhibited in the Salon. He had re- 
ceived the cross of the Legion of Honor in 
1867. He was much valued as a portrait 
painter, and also was successful in pastel. 
Among his works are ‘The Death of Orpheus’ 
(1866), now in the Luxembourg; ‘Supper of 
the Martyrs? (1859) ; ‘The Elements? in the 
Louvre; ‘Presentation of the Virgin? in the 
church de la Trinité, and ‘The Judgment of 
Midas. 


LEVY, le’vee, Louis Edward, American 
photo-chemist and inventor: b. at Stenowitz, 
Bohemia, 12 Oct. 1846; d. 17 Feb. 1919. Coming 
to the United States in childhood he received 
his education at the Detroit public schools. He 
gave special attention to mathematics and 
astronomy at the University of Michigan (1866) 
and to practical optics in Detroit (1861-70). He 
was connected with the United States Lake Sur- 
vey (1866), made researches in microscopic 
photography (1867-70) and invented a process 
in photo-chemical engraving (1874) called the 
“Levytype” He received (1896), with his 
brother Max, a medal for invention of “Levy 
line screen» and (1900) a gold medal for Levy 
“acid blast,» both from Franklin Institute, 


Philadelphia, and a medal and diploma from 
the World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) for 
original discoveries. He published and edited 
in Philadelphia, The Evening Herald (1887- 
90); The Mercury (1887-91); author of 
‘The Jewish Year? (1895); ‘The Russian 
Jewish Refugees in America? (1895); ‘Busi- 
ness, Money and Credit? (1896), and, with 
Hugo Bilgram, ‘The Cause of Business De- 
pressions? (1914). He was elected vice-presi- 
dent of Inventors’ Association at Paris in Sep- 
tember 1900, member of Committee on Sci- 
ence and the Arts, Franklin Institute; elected 
vice-president of institute, 1916. 


LEVY, Uriah Phillips, American naval of- 
ficer: b. Philadelphia, 22 April 1792; d. New 
York, 22 March 1862. Sailing as a cabin boy 
before his 11th year, he was apprenticed as a 
sailor in 1804, and before he was 20-had passed 
through every grade and became master. On 
23 Oct. 1812, he was commissioned sailing- 
master in the navy, serving until June 1813 on 
the ship Alert and then on the brig Argus. He 
was placed in command of one of the prizes 
which the Argus secured, but it was subse- 
quently recaptured and he, with his crew, was 
imprisoned in England for 16 months. In 
March 1817, he was appointed lieutenant. Per- 
sonal antagonism, in which religious prejudice 
played an important part, subjected him to 
nearly 40 years’ struggle, in the course of which 
he fought a duel, killed his opponent, was 
court-martialed six times and finally dropped 
from the list as captain. He was finally re- 
stored to that rank in 1855, and later became 
commodore. 


‘LEVY, lev’i, (1) a term used in Europe for 
the compulsory raising of a body of troops 
from any specified class in the community for 
purposes of general defense or offense when 
the existing military forces are insufficient to 
meet the necessities of the case. When a coun- 
try is in danger of instant invasion a levée 
en masse is sometimes made —that is, every 
man capable of bearing arms is required to con- 
tribute in person toward the common defense. 
On less urgent occasions the levy may be re- 
stricted to a class, as to men between 18 and 40 
years of age. (2) In law, the seizure of prop- 
erty under a writ or other process; usually the 
taking by a sheriff or marshal of the property 
of a judgment debtor under an execution. It 
is not a valid levy unless the marshal or other 
official takes actual possession of the property. 
In the case of real property, he enters and 
takes charge, as by taking the key, or putting on 
new locks. In the case of chattels, he may 
either move them to another place or if they 
are cumbersome place a deputy to watch them. 
The judgment debtor is not always ejected 
from his premises, as they are taken subject 
to sale for the amount of the judgment, and 
any excess above judgment and costs belongs 
to the original owner. See ATTACHMENT; 
EXECUTION. 


LEWES, li’és, George Henry, English 
philosophical writer: b. London, 18 April 1817; 
d. there, 30 Nov. 1878. He was in turn clerk, 
medical student and student of philosophy in 
Germany, whence he returned to England in 
1840 to devote himself to general literature. 
His first important work was his ‘Biograph- 
ical History of Philosophy? (1846), of which a 


LEVY — LEWIS 


second edition appeared, much extended and 
altered. This work, written largely from a 
Positivist point of view, sufficiently proved his 
ability as a thinker and writer. He was 
literary editor of the Leader (1850-54). He 
published his ‘Life of Robespierre? (1849) and 
a compendium of Comte’s ‘Philosophy of the 
Science? (1853). His ‘Life of Goethe? (1855) 
won him a European reputation. From 1854 
he was largely engaged in physiological in- 
vestigations with .special reference to philo- 
sophical problems. To this period belong his 
“Seaside Studies” (1858) ; ‘Physiology of Com- 
mon Life? (1859-60), and ‘Studies in Animal 
Life? (1862); ‘Aristotle, a Chapter from the 
History of Science? (1864), was his last book 


before he became first editor of the Fort- 


nightly Review (1865), from which, a year 
later, indifferent health compelled him to retire. 
His. chief work, aiming at the systematic de- 
velopment of his philosophical views, is ‘Prob- 
lems of Life and Mind? (1873-79). Besides the 
works already mentioned he wrote ‘The Span- 
ish Drama: Lope de Vega and Calderon? 
(1847) ; two novels, ‘Ranthorpe? (1847) and 
‘Rose, Blanche and Violet? (1848); and pre- 
pared various plays for the stage under the 
pseudonym of “Slingsby Laurence” Few 
writers have done as uniformly good work in 
so many fields and over so wide an area. In 
1840 he married Agnes Jarvis, but the marriage 
was an unhappy one. In 1854 began his asso- 
ciation with Mary Ann Evans (see ELiort, 
GeorcE) and from that time they lived to- 
gether as husband and wife. Whatever may be 
urged against the union on religious grounds, 
it cannot be doubted that it had a strong 
reciprocal influence on their lives and writings. 
Consult the New Quarterly for October 1879, 


and Cross’ ‘Life of George Eliot? (3 vols., 
London 1885). 
LEWES, liis, Del., town, in Sussex 


County, on Delaware Bay and on the Asso- 
woman Canal and the Pennsylvania Railroad, 
about 40 miles southeast of Dover. The excel- 
lent harbor has been improved by an artificial 
breakwater. It is the shipping point for much 
of the farm and garden products of the southern 
part of Delaware. Large quantities of fruit, 
fish oils and vegetables are among the products 
shipped to Northern markets. Lewes is the 
headquarters of the Delaware Bay pilots. It 
contains a shirt factory, tomato canneries and 
tin-box factories. Cape Henlopen lighthouse, 
built in 1800, is nearby. The waterworks are 
municipally owned. Pop. (1920) 2,074. 


LEWIS, lis, Agnes Smith, English 
scholar and paleographist. She was educated 
at the Irvine Academy, Ayrshire, in her child- 
hood and subsequently became an accomplished 
linguist, especially in modern Greek, Arabic 
and Syriac. She was married to Rev. S. S. 
Lewis (1836-91). Her remarkable services to 
paleographical science have been recognized by 
the bestowal upon her of honorary degrees 
from Halle, Saint Andrews, Heidelberg and 
Dublin. In company with her sister, Mrs. 
Margaret Dunlop Gibson (q.v.), she visited 
Sinai four times, and in 1892 discovered and 
photographed the Syro-Antiochene, or Sinaitic 
Palimpsest, the most ancient one of the four 
Gospels known. In 1896 they brought back the 
first half of the Hebrew Ecclesiasticus. Both 


LEWIS 


sisters were awarded the gold medal of the 
Royal Asiatic Society in 1915. She has writ- 
ten also ‘Introduction to the Four Gospels 
from the Sinaitic Palimpsest? ; ‘Some Pages of 
the Sinaitic Palimpsest Retranscribed? : fA 
Translation of the Syriac Gospels? ; ‘The Pal- 
estinian Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels? ; and 
other learned works on Scripture antiquities. 


LEWIS, Alfred Henry, American journal- 
ist and author: b. Cleveland, 1858; d. 23 Dec. 
1914. He was a lawyer by ‘profession and at 
the age of 21 was elected city attorney of 
_ Cleveland. Later, he went West and in New 
Mexico and Arizona procured material for his 
Wolfville stories. He practised law in Kansas 
City for six years, entering journalism in 1890, 
and with William Nelson, editor of the Star, 
outlined the plans for the boulevard of the park 
in Kansas City. In 1891, Lewis went to Wash- 
ington as a staff correspondent of the Kansas 
City Times, subsequently becoming Washing- 
ton representative of the Chicago Times and 
later of the Hearst papers. He first gained 
prominence through his “Wolfville” tales of 
Western frontier towns. In 1898 he established 
in New York The Verdict, a humorous weekly. 
He has written ‘Wolfville? ; ‘Episodes of Cow- 
boy Life?; ‘Sandburrs? (1900); ‘Wolfville 
Days? (1902); ‘Wolfville Nights? (1902); 
‘Black Lion Inn? (1903); ‘Peggy O’Neal? 
(1903); ‘The Sunset Trail» (1905) ;~“Confes- 


sions of a Detective? (1906); ‘Story of Paul 
Jones? (1906); ‘The Throwback? (1906) ; 
When Men Grew Tall? (1907); ‘An Ameri- 


can Patrician— Aaron Burr? (1908); ‘Wolf- 
ville Folks» (1908); ‘The Apaches of New 
York? (1912); ‘Faro Nell and her Friends? 
(1913); ‘Nation— Famous New York Mur- 
ders? (1914). 


LEWIS, Andrew, American soldier: b. 
Donegal, Ireland, about 1720; d. Bedford 
County, Va. 26 Sept. 1781. He resided in 
Augusta County, Va., where he was prom- 
inent in border conflicts ; and in 1754 entered as 
a volunteer the expedition for taking possession 
of the Ohio region. Later he became a major 
in Washington’s regiment of Virginians, and 
was at the surrender of Fort Necessity. In 
1756 he was in command of the Sandy Hook 
expedition; in 1758 participated in that of 
Major Grant to Fort Duquesne, on which oc- 
casion he was taken prisoner and carried to 
Montreal. He was a commissioner of Virginia 
in 1768 to arrange a treaty with the Iroquois, in 
1774 was appointed a brigadier-general during 
hostilities with the Indians on the western Vir- 
ginia border, and 10 Oct. 1774 gained an im- 
portant victory over the Shawnee confederacy 
at the battle of Point Pleasant (at the mouth of 
the Great Kanawha). He was a brigadier- 
general in the Continental army from 1 March 
1776 to 15 April 1777, and then entered the 
Virginia civil service. He drove Lord Dun- 
more from Gwynn’s Island, 9 July 1776. For 
several years he sat in the Virginia house of 
burgesses, and in the Virginia conventions of 
May and June 1775 was a delegate from Bote- 
tourt. As a soldier he was highly regarded by 
Washington. See CoLonIAL Wars IN AMERICA. 

LEWIS, Charles Bertrand (“M. Quan”), 
American journalist: b. Liverpool, Ohio, 15 
Feb. 1842. He was educated at the Michigan 
Agricultural College, and served in the Union 


333 


army during the Civil War. His journalistic 
work began on the staff of the Detroit Free 
Press, and he soon became known as a descrip- 
tive and humorous writer under the name of 
“M. Quad. In addition to his work in_ this 
field, in connection with various publications, 
he also wrote ‘Field, Fort and Fleet: A Sketch- 
Book of the Civil War?; ‘The Lime-Kiln 
Club?; ‘Sawed-off Sketches?; ‘Mr. and Mrs. 
Bowser’; ‘Quad’s Odds,’ and several plays. 
After 1902 Mr. Lewis was connected with a 
newspaper syndicate, writing humorous sketches. 
and stories. Many of his syndicate sketches 
have been translated into other languages and 
republished in the French, German and Japanese 
magazines and newspapers. He died at Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., 21 Aug. 1924; 


LEWIS, Charlton Thomas, American law- 
yer and author: b. West Chester, Pa., 25 Feb. 
1834; d. Morristown, N. J., 26 May 1904. He 
was graduated at Yale in 1853, and after study- 
ing with a view to entering the ministry, served 
as professor at the State Normal University 
at Bloomington, IIl., 1856-57, and from 1858 to 
1861 was professor in Troy University. In 
1863-64 he was a United States deputy com- 
missioner of internal revenue. He entered 
upon the practice of law in New York city in 


1865; was associated with William Cullen 
Bryant in editing the Evening Post; and re- 
turned to law practice in 1871. At Harvard, 


Columbia and Cornell universities during 1898- 
99, he was a lecturer on insurance. He was 
also president of the Prison Association of 
New York and of the State Charities Aid As- 
sociation of New Jersey. Among his published 
works are ‘Gnomon of the New Testament,’ 
translated from the German of Bengel (1861); 
‘History of Germany? (1870); ‘Harper’s Latin 
Dictionary,” in collaboration with Charles Short 
(1879) ; ‘Latin Dictionary for Schools? (1889) ; 
‘Elementary Latin Dictionary? (1890), etc. 


LEWIS, Dio, American physician and au- 
thor: b. Auburn, N. Y., 3. March 1823; d. 
Yonkers, N. Y., 21 May 1886. He studied at the 
Harvard Medical School, and practised for a 
time at Port Byron and at Buffalo, N. Y., pub- 
lishing at Buffalo a monthly periodical with 
hygienic aims. He became widely known _ by 
his writing in advocacy of a system of higher 
gymnastics, and finally established a school in 
Boston in which teachers were trained in his 
new exercises; and a school for young ladies 
was also founded at Lexington, Mass., which 
was destroyed by fire in 1868. About 1883 he 
removed to New York. He wrote many arti- 
cles for magazines, and his more -extended 
works include ‘The New Gymnastics? (1862) ; 
“Weak Lungs and How to Make them Strong? 


(1863); ‘Talks About People’s Stomachs? 
(1870) - “Our Girls>’. (1871); “Chats “with 
Young Women? (1871); ‘Chastity» (1872) ; 


“Gypsies”? (1881), and In a Nutshell (1883). 


LEWIS, Edmonia, American sculptor: b. 
New York, 4 July 1845. She is of negro and 
Indian parentage. With slight instruction in 
sculpture she developed a talent for that art, 
and came into notice in 1865 through the ex- 
hibition of her first known work, a bust of 
Col. Robert Gould Shaw, in Boston. That 
year she went to Rome to study, and there she 
soon afterward established permanent residence. 
Her works include ‘The Freedwoman?; ‘The 


334 


Death of Cleopatra? (1876), exhibited at the 
Philadelphia Exposition; ‘The Marriage of 
Hiawatha?; ‘The Old Arrow-Maker and _ his 


Daughter; ‘Asleep?; ‘Madonna with the In- 


fant Christ,» and many portrait busts, among 
them those of Lincoln, Longfellow, Sumner and 
John Brown. Most of her work is in Europe. 


LEWIS, Estelle Anna Blanche (Rostn- 
son), American dramatist: b. near Baltimore, 
Md., April 1824; d. London, 24 Nov. 1880, 
While a schoolgirl she made a verse-rendering 
of the ‘#Xneid? into English; wrote ‘Forsaken? 
and published ‘Records of the Heart? (1844). 
Her best dramatic work, ‘Sappho of Lesbos? 
(1868), a tragedy, ran through seven editions, 
was translated into modern Greek, and played 
at Athens. Edgar A. Poe spoke of her as the 
rival of Sappho; Lamartine called her. the 
“female Petrarch.” Others of her works are 
‘The Child of the Sea, and Other Poems? 
(1848); ‘The Myths of the Minstrel? (1852); 
‘Poems? (1866), and The King’s Stratagem? 
(1869), a tragedy. 


LEWIS, Francis, American patriot: b. 
Llandaff, Wales, March 1713; d. New York, 30 
Dec. 1802. He entered commerce in London, 
but later came to America, and established a 
mercantile business in New York and Phila- 
delphia. He made numerous successful busi- 
ness voyages to Europe, and in 1752 obtained 
the contract for clothing the British army in 
America. In “the same year he was aide-de- 
camp to Gen. Hugh Mercer at Oswego, N. Y., 
when Montcalm advanced against it. After the 
capitulation, he was sent to France, and subse- 
quently exchanged. For his services the gov- 
ernment presented to him 5,000 acres of land. 
From 1765 he took part in public affairs. He 
was one of the New York committee in the 
First Colonial Congress (1765), in 1775 was 
elected to the First Continental Congress, in 
1776 signed the Declaration of Independence, 
in 1777 was again elected to Congress and in 
1779 became commissioner of the Board of 
Admiralty. He expended his wealth most 
freely in the patriot cause, to which his com- 
mercial knowledge also was very useful. 


LEWIS, Sir George Henry, English law- 
yer: b. 1833; d. 7 Dec. 1911. He was educated 
at University College, London, and was called 
to the bar in 1856. He laid the foundations of 
his subsequent great reputation in the prosecu- 
tion of the directors of Overend and Gurney’s 
Bank, and from that time he was employed in 
most of the great sensational trials, including 
the Colin Campbell divorce suit, the. Tranby 
Croft baccarat scandal and the Piggott 
forgeries. So deeply was he cognizant of the 
unsavory secrets of the “upper ten” that it 
was said of him that he could have placed. one- 
half of London society in jail; but in order 
that there might be no leakage of informa- 
tion, he kept no diaries in his professional 
work. He assisted the movement for the 
founding of the Court of Criminal Appeal, was 
knighted in 1893 and created a baronet in 1902. 


LEWIS, Henry Carvill, American geolo- 
gist: b. Philadelphia, 16 Nov. 1853; d. Man- 
chester, England, 21 July 1888. He was grad- 
uated from the University of Pennsylvania in 
1873, served as a volunteer in the State Geolog- 
ical Survey of Pennsylvania in 1879-84, was 


LEWIS 


professor of mineralogy in the Academy of 
Natural Sciences\.of Philadelphia in 1880-88, 
and of geology at Haverford College in 1883-88. 
In 1886-87 he studied at Heidelberg, and in 
1887-88 made special investigations regarding 
the origin of the diamond. He prepared a 
chart of the various ancient ice-sheets and 
glaciers of England, Ireland and Wales, for 
some time edited the mineralogical department 
of the American Naturalist, and wrote ex- 
tensively. on geological subjects, including ‘The 
Antiquity of Man in Eastern America, Geolog- 
ically Considered? (1880); ‘The Geology of 
Philadelphia» (1883); ‘Comparative Studies 
upon the Glaciation of North America? (1886), 
and ‘The Terminal’ Moraines of the Great 
Glaciers of England» (1887). 


LEWIS, James, American actor: b. Troy, 
N. Y., about 1840; d. West Hampton, Long 
Island, N: Y., 10 Sept. 1896. He first appeared 
in 1858 at the Troy Museum as Farmer Gam- 
mon in ‘The Writing on the Wall, played 
second comedy parts. for a time at the Green 
Street Theatre of Albany, was later with a 
traveling-company on the Georgia circuit, and 
was at Birmingham, Ala., when the Confederacy 
was proclaimed. Having escaped to the North, 
he afterward (1866) appeared at the Olympic, 
New York, as low comedian in ‘Your Life’s 
in Danger,» presented by Mrs. John Wood’s 
company. He was afterward successful as 
Dick Swiveller, and from 1869 until his death 
he was leading comedian in Augustin Daly’s 
company. He took numerous parts with ex- 
cellent versatility. 


LEWIS, James Hamilton, American legis- 
lator: b. Danville, Va., 18 May 1866. He re- 
moved to Augusta, Ga., was educated at Hough- 
ton College and at the University of Virginia. 
He studied law at Savannah and was admitted 
to the bar in 1884. In 1886 he removed to 
Seattle, Wash., and there established a law 
practice. He was elected to the Territorial 
senate and in 1890 declined the nomination for 
Congress. He was candidate for governor in 
1892, but was defeated. He was unsuccessful 
as candidate for the United States Senate in 
1894. At the Democratic National Convention 
of 1896 he was the Washington State candidate 
for the vice-presidential nomination. He was 
elected to the 55th Congress (1897-99) as 
congressman-at-large. He was the author of a 
resolution for the recognition by the United 
States of the independence of Cuba. In 1900 
he was again a candidate for the Vice-Presi- 
dency at the Democratic National Convention 
at Kansas City, being endorsed by the Pacific 
Coast States. He served on the staff of Gen. 
F. D. Grant in the Spanish-American War, in 
Cuba in 1898. In 1903 he was credited to the 
Joint High Commission ‘on Canadian and 
Alaskan Boundaries at London and also served 
as United States commissioner to regulate the 
customs laws between the Dominion of Canada 
and northwestern United States. In 1903 he 
removed to Chicago and in 1905-07 was cor- 
poration counsel of that city. In 1908 he was 
Democratic candidate for governor of Illinois, 
but was defeated by Dineen. He was elected 
to the Senate of the United States in 1912 for 
the term 1913-19. He served as United States 
commissioner representing the United States 
Senate at London to execute treaty laws for 


LEWIS — LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 


safety at sea. He was chosen Democratic 
“whip” of the Senate and as such rendered 
efficient support to the Wilson administration. 
He has written ‘Handbook on Election Laws,” 
with A. H. Putney (1912); ‘Constitutions, 
Statutes and their Construction; ‘Two Great 
Republics: Rome and the United States? 
(1913); ‘History of International Law. - 


LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, called “Monx” 
Lewis, English author: b. London, 9 July 1775; 
d. at sea on the way from Jamaica to England, 
14 May 1818. He was educated at Oxford, in 
1794 became a member of the British embassy 
at The Hague, and in 1795 published ‘Am- 
brosia, or the Monk? (whence his sobriquet), 
which had a great success at the time. From 
1796-1802 he represented Hindon, Wiltshire, in 
the Commons. Of his various dramatic. works 
the best known is ‘The Castle Spectre, first 
presented in 1798, and abounding in ghosts, 
storms and other melodramatic features. He 
visited, in 1815-16 and 1817-18, his property in 
the West Indies, to provide for the suitable 
treatment of his negro slaves; and published 
the ‘Journal of a West Indian Proprietor, 
which is interesting as a description of the con- 
dition of the negro in Jamaica of that time. 
His writings had considerable influence on 
the early poetry of Walter Scott, for whose 
translation of ‘G6tz von Berlichingen” he ob- 
tained the publication in 1799. 


LEWIS, Meriwether, American explorer: 

b. near Charlottesville, Va., 18 Aug. 1774; d. 
near Nashville, Tenn., 8 Oct. 1809. He en- 
listed in the troops called out for suppression of 
the “Whisky Rebellion” in western Pennsyl- 
vania in 1794, entered the regular service in 
1795 as lieutenant of the line, in 1797 was pro- 
moted captain, in 1801-03 was private secretary 
to Jefferson, and in the latter ‘year was ap- 
pointed commander of an expedition to’ cross 
the continent, with Capt. William Clark (q.v.) 
as second in command. On 5 July 1803 he left 
Washington for Pittsburgh, Pa., whére the ex- 
pedition was equipped; but he did not begin to 
ascend the Missouri until the ice had broken in 
the spring of 1804. Then he proceeded up the 
river to its sources, crossed to the Rocky 
Mountains, reached the headwaters of the 
Columbia River, floated down that river to the 
Pacific, and explored a large part of the Ore- 
gon region. He had covered in all more than 
4000 miles from the junction of the Missouri 
with the Mississippi. Having wintered in an 
entrenched camp on the south bank of the 
Columbia, he started eastward 23 March 1806, 
and arrived at Washington 14 Feb. 1807. He 
received a grant of land and was appointed 
governor of Louisiana, where he found much 
confusion, and where he was successful in re- 
storing order. He was a bold explorer, and 
familiar with Indian matters. He died by his 
own hand near Nashville, Tenn. Consult 
memoir by Biddle and Allen (new ed., 1843), 
and Lighton, ‘Lewis and Clark? (1901; River- 
side biography series). See also Lewis AND 
CLARK EXPEDITION. 


LEWIS, Morgan, American soldier and 
statesman: b. New York, 16 Oct. 1754; d. there, 
7 April 1844. He was graduated from the Col- 
lege of New Jersey in 1773, studied law, in 
1774 entered the Continental army, was com- 
missioned major in the 2d New York, later 


335 


became chief of staff to Gates with colonel’s 
rank, and quartermaster-general of the north- 
ern army. He commanded at Crown Point; 
and after the war entered legal practice in New 
York. Elected to the assembly, he also became 
judge of the Court of Common Pleas, attorney- 
general of New York, succeeding Aaron Burr 
(1791), judge of the Supreme Court (1792), 
chief justice of the court (1793) and governor 
(1804-07). In 1805 and 1806 he was governor 
of the State of New York, winning from Burr 
by a large majority. In 1810 he was elected to. 
the State senate, in 1812, after declining the 
portfolio of Secretary of War, became quarter- 
master-general of the armies of the United 
States, in 1813 was promoted. major-general, 
and was in command at Sackett’s Harbor and 
French Creek. He was president of the New 
York Historical Society, and president-general 
of the Cincinnati. In 1831 he was Grand Mas- 
ter of the Freemasons. 


LEWIS, Tayler, American author and edu- 
cator: b.. Northumberland, N. Y., 27 March 
1802; d. Schenectady, N. Y., 11 May 1877. He 
was graduated at Union College in 1820; studied 
law in Albany and practised at Fort Miller, 
but soon gave nearly all his time to the study 
of classical literature. In 1838 he was appointed 
professor of Greek at the University of New 
York, and in 1849 accepted the same professor- 
ship: at Union College. He attained distinction 
as a philologist and in Christian apologetics. 
Besides contributing largely to periodicals, he 
published the following works: ‘The Nature and 
Ground of Punishment? (1844); ‘Plato contra 
Atheos? (1845); ‘The Six Days of Creation? 
(1855) ; ‘The Bible and Science? (1856) ; ‘The 
Divine Human in the Scriptures? (1860); 
‘State Rights, a Photograph from the Ruins 
of Ancient Greece? (1864); and ‘The People 
of Africa, Their Character, Condition and 
Future Prospects,» with E. W. Blyden and 
Timothy Dwight (1871). He was a member of 
the Bible Revision Committee. 


LEWIS, or LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS, 
Scotland, the largest and most northerly of the 
Outer Hebrides, separated from the mainland 
by the Minch, a sea 30 to 35 miles wide. The 
northern larger portion, Lewis, is in Ross-shire, 
and is separated by a narrow neck from the 
southern portion, Harris, which belongs to 
Inverness-shire. The island occupies 770 square 
miles, is 60 miles long, varies in breadth from 
5 to 30 miles and has a diversified surface which 
attains an elevation of over 2,700 feet. It is 
almost totally devoid of trees, contains a good 
deal of peat bog, less than 4 per cent of the 
soil being under cultivation. There are inter- 
esting monumental remains, including what is 
regarded as the finest example of a Druidic 
stone circle in Scotland. - Capital, Stornoway. 
Pop. of island about 34,319. ~ 


LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, 
The, in American history, a celebrated expedi- 
tion to the northwestern part of the United 
States in 1803, under the command of Capt. 
Meriwether Lewis of Virginia and Capt. Wil- 
liam Clark, the results of which gave a more 
definite idea of our natural resources in this 
hitherto unexplored region than had ever been 
known. Recognizing the importance of a thor- 
ough and accurate knowledge of the vast extent 
of the country acquired by the United States 


336 


Thomas Jefferson, 
suggested to the 


with their independence, 
while Minister to France, 
traveler, 
America. Nothing came of it, however. In 
1792 he made a similar proposition to the Amer- 
ican Philosophical Society (q.v.), and Michaux, 
the celebrated traveler and botanist, proceeded 
as far as Kentucky, when he was recalled by the 
French Minister. In January 1803, in a con- 
fidential message to the Congress, President 
efferson recommended an appropriation for 
this purpose. It was granted, and he appointed 
Lewis, who had been his private secretary nearly 
two years, to the command of the expedition 
along with Clark. Lewis, while nominally in 
command of the expedition, always regarded 
Clark as his official equal, and during the three 
years of trying experience the two men worked 
hand in hand toward their great object with 
increased friendship and respect for each other. 
Lewis left Washington on 5 July 1803 and was 
joined by Clark at the Ohio. The expedition 
was delayed at Pittsburgh till 31 August, then 
proceeded on its way toward the Mississippi, 
Lewis choosing volunteers from the military 
posts along the way. The intention had been 
to winter at La Charette, a French settlement 
on the Missouri, but owing to the advanced 
season the first winter camp was pitched at 
River Dubois, on the Mississippi, about opposite 
the mouth of the Missouri. On 9 March 1804 
Lewis was one of the witnesses to the transfer 
of Upper Louisiana at Saint Louis; on 14 May 
1804 he set out from River Dubois on the long 
_ journey up the Missouri. The party comprised 
in addition to Lewis and Clark three sergeants, 
twenty-three soldiers, three interpreters and 
Clark’s negro slave, York. Toward the end of 
October they reached the Mandan country and 
put up for winter quarters near the site of the 
present city of Bismarck, N. D., after a trouble- 
some journey of 1,600 miles, battling against 
the swift current, the snags of the river and 
its falling banks. Much of this distance Lewis 
traveled on foot, hunting, collecting specimens 
and making notes upon the country. The jour- 
ney was resumed 7 April 1805, and on the 
twenty-sixth the party reached the mouth of the 
Yellowstone, one or the other of the captains, 
usually Lewis, pushing ahead with hunters on 
foot to provide game for the camps and to 
examine the country. On 3 June they passed 
and named Maria’s River, and on the thirteenth 
came to Great Falls. Nearly a month was spent 
in making the portage, and on 25 July the party 
came to the triple fork of the Missouri. Nam- 
ing the three branches Jefferson, Madison and 
Gallatin, they proceeded up the Jefferson River, 
and on 12 August reached the head of naviga- 
tion. . Then marching across the Nez Percé trail, 
along the Bitter Root Mountains, came to the 
headwaters of the Clearwater branch of the 
Columbia. On 7 October they launched their 
canoes for the descent of this great river to the 
Pacific, which they reached 15 November. A 
fortified camp, called by the explorers Fort 
Clatsop, was pitched on the shore of Young’s 
Bay, and here with much hardship the winter 
was spent. The return journey was begun 23 
March 1806, and on 8 May the headwaters of 
the Clearwater were reached. On the return 
journey the party divided and explored a large 
part of the present State of Montana, uniting 
again below the mouth of the Yellowstone, 


Ledyard, an exploration of western. 


LEWIS OVERTHRUST — LEWISHAM 


Rapidly descending the Missouri they arrived 
at Saint Louis, 23 Sept. 1806. Both Lewis 
and Clark kept elaborate and valuable journals. 
Unfortunately they were never to edit them. 
A paraphrase by Nicholas Biddle, a friend of 
Jefferson, appeared in 1814 and has run through 
many editions. Not until 1903 were these price- 
less papers published in their complete form, 
presenting the first authentic record of this ex- 
traordinary expedition. 


LEWIS OVERTHRUST, a large over- 
thrust fault (q.v.) in the front ranges of the 
Rocky Mountains along the Canadian boundary. 
The break in the rocks is nearly horizontal, and 
old rocks of pre-Cambrian (q.v.) Age have ‘been 
thrust horizontally out over younger rocks of 
Cretaceous Age for a distance of over five 
miles. The fault is well exposed in Glacier 
National park and vicinity, particularly on Chief 
Mountain, from which it is sometimes called 
the Chief Mountain Overthrust. 


LEWISBURG, li’is-bérg, Pa., borough, 
county-seat of Union County, on the Susque- 
hanna River and on the Philadelphia and Read- 
ing and the Pennsylvania railroads, about 50 
miles north of Harrisburg. It is on the border 
of the great anthracite coal fields and in a 
fertile agricultural valley. Its chief manufac- 
tures are flour, lumber, furniture, shirts, woolen 
goods, machine- shop products and acetylene gas. 
Its trade is chiefly in its manufactured products 
and in grain and vegetables. It is the seat of. 
Bucknell University, opened in 1846 under the 
auspi¢es of the Baptists. Pop. (1920) 3,204, 


LEWISBURG, Battle of. On 21 May 
1862 General Heth, with a Confederate force 
of three regiments of infantry, a battalion of 
dismounted men, a regiment of cavalry and 
three batteries, aggregating about 2,200 men, 
marched from Salt Sulphur Springs, Va., on 
Lewisburg, 24 miles distant, to surprise Col. 
George Crook who was encamped at that place 
with about 1,500 men. Heth marched through 
Union, crossed Greenbrier River, driving in 
Crook's pickets, and at 5 a.m. of the 23d formed 
line on a hill east of the town, Crook’s camp 
being on the west side. Crook threw out a 
well-supported skirmish line, which soon en- 
gaged Heth’s advance; Heth at first had some 
success, but was gradually forced back; Crook 
charged his main line; a panic seized Heth’s 
troops and they fled from the field in disorder, 
retreating across the Greenbrier and burning 
the bridge behind them. Heth left on the field 
38 dead and 66 wounded, 4 guns and over 200 
stand of small arms. Over 100 of his un- 
wounded men were captured. Crook’s loss was 
13 killed, 53 wounded and 7 missing. Consult 
‘Official Records? (Vol. XII); The Century 
Company’s atti and Leaders of the Civil 
War? (Vol. IT). 


LEWISHAM, England, a metropolitan and 
parliamentary borough of London, four miles 
southeast of Saint Paul’s. Area, 7,014 acres. 
It is a favorite residential district and contains 
the great open common of Blackheath, which is | 
replete with historical intefest. There are large 
nurseries in the borough. The Horninian Mu- 
seum is located on Forest Hill, and Morden’s 
College, a 17th century foundation, on the 
south of Blackheath. The borough returns one 
member to Parliament. Pop. 160,834. Consult 


LEWISOHN — 


Hasted, ‘History of Kent and the Hundred of 
Blackheath.” 


LEWISOHN, Adolph, American philan- 
thropist: b. Hamburg, Germany, 27 May 1849. 
Coming to New York in 1865, where his elder 
brother, Leonard, merchant and philanthropist 
(b. Hamburg, 10 Oct. 1847; d. London, 5 March 
1902), had preceded him a few years, the firm 
of Lewisohn Brothers was formed in 1866. In 
1868 they specialized in metals, particularly 
copper, in which line they became leaders in 
the markets of the world. After his brother’s 
death, Adolph Lewisohn headed prominent 
organizations in finance and metal industry and 
rapidly became identified with vital movements 
in philanthropy and social betterments, his 
character and services being recognized by his 
appointment on important national and _ local 
commissions. He gave $300,000 for the School 
of Mines building at Columbia University; also 
a German library and a stadium to the College 
of the City of New York; as president of the 
Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society kas been 
lavish in his gifts, and is a generous donor to 
all worthy causes. 


LEWISTON, Me., the second city in size 
in the State, 35 miles north of Portland, on the 
east bank of the Androscoggin River, and on 
the line of the Maine Central and Grand Trunk 
railways; incorporated a town 18 Feb. 1795, 
with a population of 600; incorporated as a 
city 15 March 1861, with a population of 7,500, 
and organized 16 March 1863. This city is 
located in the heart of the Androscoggin Val- 
ley, a fertile and prosperous agricultural dis- 
trict. The city of Auburn, with a population 
of about 15,000, is located immediately opposite 
on the westerly bank of the river and the four 
cities are connected by four beautiful and com- 
modious iron bridges, making them practically 
one community with a combined population of. 
41,311. The railroad connections and facilities 
are of the best. Three great lines of steam 
railways converge here,—the Maine Central, 
Grand Trunk and the Portland and Rumford 
Falls. The Maine Central runs west of. Port- 
land and the seaboard, there connecting by 
water routes with Boston, New York and all 
Southern ports, and by rail over the Boston and 
Maine with Boston, New York and all points 
south and west, and running east to Bangor, 
Saint John and the Maritime Provinces. The 
same road has local branches extending to 
Franklin and Somerset counties on the north, 
Augusta, the capital of the State, and the Ken- 
nebec Valley on the east, and again connecting 
with the seaboard on the south at Bath and 
Rockland. The Grand Trunk also extends from 
here westerly to Portland and northerly to 
Montreal, thence to Chicago and the far West. 
The*Portland and Rumford Falls runs north- 
erly through the beautiful Oxford region to 
Rumford Falls, thence into the heart of the 
celebrated Rangeley Lakes district, one of the 
finest fishing and game preserves in the coun- 
try. Lewiston is the electric railroad centre of 
the State of Maine. The Lewiston, Augusta 
and Waterville Street Railway, one of the lar- 
gest electric road systems in the State, radiates 
from this centre, extending southerly to the 
seacoast at Bath and easterly to Augusta and 
Waterville. The Portland-Lewiston Interurban 
Electric Railway runs from Lewiston to Port- 

YGL. 17 — 22 


LEWISTON 337 


land and is generally recognized as one of the 
best equipped electric railroads in the country. 

Manufactures.—Although located in a fer- 
tile agricultural district, Lewiston is distinctly a 
manufacturing city. The Androscoggin River 
here has a fall of 50 feet and furnishes one of 
the most extensive water powers in the coun- 
try. This power is utilized by means of an 
immense system of distributing dams and 
canals. The amount of power at the falls is 
13,000 horse power. About two and one-half 
miles up river an immense dam has been con- 
structed which adds 10,000 horse power, making 
in all 23,000 horse power available for use; the 
latter 10,000 horse power is made available for 
use by electricity and is so distributed. The 
city’s largest single industry is the manufacture 
of cotton cloth. Some of the largest manufactur- 
ing plants in the country are located here, and 
their various products are found in nearly all 
the markets of the world. Among them are the 
Bates Manufacturing Company, capital $1,200,- 
000, operating 2,250 looms and 82,376 spindles; 
the Hill Manufacturing Company, capital 
$750,000, operating 1,912 looms and_ 80,016 
spindles; the Androscoggin Mills, capital $1,- 
000,000, operating 80,000 spindles and 2,206 
looms; the Continental Mills, with 2,619 looms 
and 94,688 spindles; the Avon Mill with 126 
looms and 6,160 spindles; the Libby and Ding- 
ley Company, capital $300,000, with 18,000 
spindles. Their products are ginghams, bed 
spreads, fine dress goods, seersuckers, fancy 
shirtings and colored cottons, sheetings, twills, 
jeans, grain bags, drills, momie cloths, fine and 
coarse yarns, quilts, linen and cotton towelings, 
scarfs and table covers. There are three woolen 
mills located here—the Columbia Mills, oper- 
ating 8 sets of machinery, 94 looms and a dye 
house; the Cowan Woolen Company, 8 sets of 
machinery, 46 looms and does it own dyeing; 
the Cumberland Mill, with 7 sets of machinery 
and 76 looms. The products of the woolen 
mills are blanket wrappers, cheviots, cassimeres, 
repellants and meltonettes. One of the largest 
and most noted bleacheries and dye works in 
the United States, the Lewiston Bleachery and 
Dye Works, is located here. Its capital is 
$300,000; its business, bleaching and dyeing 
cotton cloth. 

In addition to the textile manufacturing in- 
dustries there are other small industries, the 
products of which are machinery and mill sup- 
plies for cotton and woolen mills, engines, 
boilers, brick, lumber, carriages, clothing, 
foundry products and agricultural implements. 

Banks.— There are two national banks, two 
savings banks and one trust and safe deposit 
company. The capital stock of the two na- 
tional banks and the trust company is $675,000, 
surplus $286,830.46. The deposits in the sav- 
ings banks and the trust company are $4,805,805. 

Government and Finances.— The govern- 
ment is vested by charter in a mayor, board of 
aldermen and common council. The mayor 
is elected by the entire vote of the city, while 
one alderman and three councilmen are elected 
from each of the seven wards into which the 
city is divided. All are elected annually on the 
first Monday of March and hold their offices for 
the term of one year. The administrative offices 
are partly appointed by the mayor subject to 
confirmation by the board of aldermen and 
partly elected by the city council, the latter body 


338 


being composed of the board of aldermen and 
common councilmen. The schools are under 
the jurisdiction of a superintending school 
committee of 14 members,— two elected by the 
voters of each ward and holding their offices 
for the term of two years. The public water- 
works are under a board of water commis- 
sioners consisting of seven members, one elected 
annually in March by the city council under 
authority of a State law, and holding office for 
a term of six years. The mayor is ex officio a 
member of the board. The fire department is 
under the control of a board of commissioners 
consisting of five members, the mayor being a 
member ex officio. The board is created by a 
State law and one member is elected annually 
in March by the city council and holds office 
for a term of four years. The highways, 
bridges and sewers are under the control of a 
board of public works created by State law and 
consisting of seven members, of which the 
mayor is a member ex officio. One member is 
elected by the city council annually in February 
and the term of office is six years. The city 
owns its own waterworks. The supply is 
abundant, unusually pure and healthful and is 
taken from Lake Auburn, a beautiful and 
picturesque pond fed by springs: and located in 
the city of Auburn, about four and one-half 
miles from Lewiston. This city was the first 
in the United States to own and operate its own 
street lighting plant. The undertaking has 
proved a great success and many other cities in 
~ the country have since adopted the plan. The 
total assessed valuation of real and personal 
property in 1915 was $18,907,701; rate of taxa- 
tion $19.20 on each $1,000 of valuation; total 
municipal bonded debt $990,500; floating debt 
$221,396. 

Churches and Charitable Institutions.— 
There are 12 churches in the city, some of 
which are imposing edifices. Four are Roman 
Catholic, one Episcopal, one Baptist, one 
Friends, one Congregational, two Free Baptist, 
two Methodist and one Universalist. There 
is also a Jewish synagogue. Two of the Catho- 
lic churches, Saint Joseph’s and Saint Patrick’s, 
are supported principally by Irish-American 
Catholics, while the third, Saint Peter’s, is com- 
posed in membership of French-Canadian citi- 
zens who number about 13,000 people in this 
city. In connection with the Catholic churches 
are maintained four large Catholic parochial 
schools, with a total membership of 2,239 
scholars. These schools are under the superin- 
tendence of the parish priests and are taught 
by the Sisters of Charity. Of the charitable 
institutions the more notable are the Sisters’ 
Orphanage, the Healy Asylum, the Young 
Women’s Home, the Home for Aged Women. 
There are two hospitals. in. the city,— the 
Central Maine General’ Hospital and. the hos- 
pital of the Sisters of Charity. Both receive 
substantial aid fromthe State. The Central 
Maine General Hospital is located in the heart 
of the city at the corner of Main and Ham- 
mond. streets. The hospital of the Sisters of 
Charity is on Sabattus street, just at the edge 
of the thickly settled part of the city. Both 
hospitals are in elegant locations, and occupy 
imposing brick structures, commodious, well 
lighted and ventilated, with all modern appoint- 
ments and improvements. and high grade medi- 


LEWISTON 


cal staff. The Sisters’ hospital is in charge 
of the Sisters of Charity, but is absolutely non- 


_ sectarian, its doors being open to all alike. 


Education.— The public school system of 
the city is of the best and a source of pride to 
its citizens. The city gives an absolutely free 
education to its pupils from the kindergarten 
to the completion of the high school course. 
Its school buildings are numerous, conveniently 
located, with all the usual modern appoint- 
ments, some of the more recently constructed 
being among the best in tlhe State. A new 
high school building was recently erected at a 
cost of $75,000. The total value of the school 
property owned by the city is over $300,000. 
The corps of teachers is selected with great 
care and a high standard of efficiency is re- 
quired by the superintending school board. 
The results are highly satisfactory. In addi- 
tion to the public schools are the Catholic 
parochial schools, where a high standard of 
thoroughness in instruction is maintained. 
Bates College is also located here. It is a co- 
educational institution and was the first col- 
lege in New England to open its doors to 
women. The college is in a flourishing condi- 
tion. It has 15 excellent buildings, a faculty 
of 19 full professors, one assistant professor, 
five graduate instructors, two directors of phy- 
sical training and a dean for the women of the 
college with the standing of a professor and a 
student body of 472. 

Miscellaneous.— The city has five excellent 
hotels, commodious, comfortable and well ap- 
pointed: four fine theatres, a splendid public 
library, a beautiful city hall, a new United 
States post office building and a handsome pub- 
lic park, two live and ably conducted. daily 
newspapers and one weekly, a_ progressive 
board of. trade, and a population of thrifty, 
industrious, law-abiding and order-loving peo- 
ple. Pop. (1920) 31,791. 
D. J. McGILiicuppy. 


LEWISTON, N. Y., village, in Niagara 
County, on the Niagara River, and on the New 
York Central and Hudson River Railroad, 
seven miles north of Niagara Falls, and about 
25 miles north of Buffalo. It has communica- 
tion by steamer with a large number of lake 
ports, and is the terminus of a line connecting 
with Toronto. The famous Gorge Route from 
Niagara Falls, traversed by an electric trolley 
line, connects at Lewiston by a suspension 
bridge with Queenstown. Canada, and other 
points of interest in the vicinity are the Devii’s 
Hole and Bloody Run, Rumsay park, and the 
Tuscarora Indian Reservation. The place 
where Lewiston now stands was the site of an 
Indian village. In 1720 the French took pos- 
session of the place, and built a blockhouse, but 
abandoned it in a few years, when it was again 
occupied by the Indians. Joseph Brant’s home 
was in this vicinity. On 14 Sept. 1763 occurred 
the Indian massacre at Bloody Run, a place 
near Lewiston. The first white settlement was 
made about 1800, and in 1818 the town was 
incorporated, and in 1843 the village. On 19 
Dec. 1813, Lewiston was one of the towns 
burned by the English and Indians, in retalia- 
tion for the burning of Newark (now 
Niagara), Canada West, by the Irish-Ameri- 
can General McClure; numbers of innocent per- 
sons perished on both sides. The place is now 


LEWISTOWN 


a favorite summer resort. There is a public 
library. Pop. about 713. Consult Pool, ‘Land- 
marks of Niagara County? (Syracuse 1897). 


LEWISTOWN, II1., city, county-seat of Ful- 
ton County, on the Chicago, Burlington and 
Quincy and the Fulton County Narrow Gauge 
railroads, about 50 miles southwest of Peoria, 
and 60 miles north-northwest of Springfield, the 
State capital. It is situated in an agricultural 
region and is the trade centre of a large part of 
the county. Its chief manufactures are car- 
riages and wagons, flour, lumber, brick, tile, 
furniture, bee traps, cigars, concrete blocks and 
dairy products. Livestock and farm products 
are shipped from Lewistown to the large 
markets. It contains a Carnegie library and 
owns the waterworks. Pop. (1920) 2,279. 


LEWISTOWN, Mont., city and county- 
seat of Fergus County, 120. miles southeast of 
Great Falls, on the Chicago, Milwaukee and 
Saint Paul and the Great Northern railroads, 
and on Spring Creek. It is a manufacturing, 
mining, farming and stock-raising centre. It 
has flour mills, brick yards and creameries,’a 
Carnegie’ library, Catholic hospital, four 
banks, city hall, courthouse, seven_ schools 
and a high school. Gold and coal are the prin- 
cipal objects of the mining interests. The 
waterworks are owned by the municipality. 
Because of its central location in the Great 
Judith Basin it is an important trade centre. 
The assessed valuation of its property is $3- 
283,000, while the estimated real valuation is 
$15,000,000. Pop. (1920) 9,000. 


LEWISTOWN, Pa., borough, county-seat 
of Mifflin County, on the Juniata River, and on 
the Pennsylvania Railroad and on the Pennsyl- 
vania Canal, about 60 miles northwest of Har- 
risburg, the State capital. There is a hos- 
pital and a public library. It is situated in a 
fertile agricultural region in which are valu- 
able mineral deposits, especially of iron and 
glass sand. Lewiston is a trade centre for an 
extensive farming section; but it is also a 
manufacturing borough. The chief manufac- 
tures are steel, iron, flour, leather, lumber, 
foundry and machine- shop products, silk, edge- 
tools, hosiery, hydrants and pumps. Lewis- 
town and vicinity are now favorite summer 
resorts. Pop. 9,849. 


LEXICOGRAPHY. See Dictionary. 


' LEXINGTON, Ky., city and county-seat 
of Fayette County, metropolis of the famous 
Blue Grass section, is on the Southern, the 
Chesapeake and Ohio, the Queen and Crescent 
and the Louisville and Nashville railroads, with 
42 passenger trains daily, and is connected with 
five Blue Grass county seats by interurban 
railways with hourly service; is located at 
intersection of four national highways — Dixie, 
' Jackson, Boone Way and Midland Trail; about 
82 miles south of Cincinnati, Ohio, and about 
22 miles southeast of Frankfort, the capital of 
the State; has a shopping population of 500,000 
people within a radius of 50 miles; is the 
largest wholesale distributing centre in central 
and eastern Kentucky; is the gateway to the 
rich mining section of Kentucky. The first 
settlement was claimed by a party of hunters, 
who, in 1775, camped at this place and named 
‘it Lexington in honor of the battle of Lexing- 


— LEXINGTON 


339 


ton. They built a log cabin on the site so as 
to leave a proof of their ownership. Four 
years later Robert Patterson, one of the hunt- 
ing party, made here a permanent settlement. 
Three years afterward the town was incorpo- 
rated by the legislature of Virginia, as this 
section was then a part of Virginia. In 1792, 
when Kentucky became independent of Vir- 
ginia, Lexington was made the capital of Ken- 
tucky, and the first Kentucky legislature met 
in this city. The city was granted a charter 
in 1832. / Lexington is located in a fertile agri- 
cultural section; has the largest loose leaf 
tobacco market in the world, which is one of 
its largest assets, the sales amounting to about 
$5,000,000 annually ; is surrounded by the 
finest and most celebrated stock farms in the 
world; has the fastest trotting track in the 
world: has more than $250,000 annual in- 
come from the training stables of the trotting 
and running tracks. Its chief manufactures 
are bagging, rope, harnesses, saddlery, flour, 
canned goods, lumber, carriages and wagons. 
Some of the important institutions are Uni- 
versity of Kentucky, Sayre College, Hamilton 
College, Saint Catherine’s Academy, State Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College, Kentucky Re- 
form School, Chandler Normal School (negro) ; 
12 public schools. It has the Eastern State 
Hospital for the Insane, Saint Joseph’s Hos- 
pital, Good Samaritan Hospital and Colored 
Industria! Home. It has an excellent public 
library. Henry Clay made this city his home 
from 1797 until his death. Pop. 41,500. 


LEXINGTON, Mass., town, in Middlesex 
County, on the Boston and Maine Railroad, 
about 12 miles northwest of Boston. The town 
contains the villages of Lexington, East Lex- 
ington and North Lexington. Lexington was 
settled in 1642, was long known as “Cambridge 
Farms,” and was incorporated as a town in 
1713. It was the scene of the first conflict 
between the colonists and the British troops in 
the Revolutionary War, on 19 April 1775. Lex- 
ington is situated in an agricultural region, 
and its industries are connected chiefly with 
the products of the farms and the trade neces- 
sary for supplying local wants, but is chiefly a 
residential town. It contains many points of 
interest, some of which are the first battle- 


ground of the Revolutionary War; the monu- 
ment commemorative of this battle; the Mon- 
roe Tavern, built in 1695, which was Earl 


Percy’s headquarters ; the old Belfry, here was 
hung the bell giving ‘the alarm that the British 
were coming, and the Hancock-Clarke house 
(1698), where Samuel Adams and Hancock 
lodged the night before the battle. The last- 
mentioned building is now used as a museum 
for Revolutionary and early settlement. relics. 
The town has recently acquired and added to 
the battlefield, or “Common,” the Buckman 
tavern and three acres of land. This tavern 
was used as the Minutemen’s headquarters 
19 April 1775. A number of monuments in 
honor of the men and events which made 
Lexington famous adorn the city, also the first 
normal school built in America. It contains the 
Cary Library with nearly 25,000 volumes; a fine 
high school, the Hancock and Adams grammar 
schools, a town hall and a number of fine 
churches and elegant residences. The old bury- 
ing ground, visited annually by hundreds of 


340 


people, is mute witness of the noble people 
who have lived in this town. Pop. (1920) 6,340. 


LEXINGTON, Mo., city, county-seat of 
Lafayette County, on the Missouri River, and 
on the Missouri Pacific and the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fé railroads, about 63 miles 
southeast of Saint Joseph and 39 miles east of 
Kansas City. The first permanent settlement 
was in 1825, and it, was incorporated in 1830. 
Lexington was the scene of a siege in 1861, 
when a Confederate force of 18,000 under 
Gen. Sterling Price attacked the city, which 
was defended by a Federal force of 3,000 men 
under Col. James Mulligan. The Federals sur- 
rendered on 20 Sept. 1861, but Price left the 
place a few days later, and put on guard a 
small force. On 16 October, a Federal force 
of 230 men under Maj. J. White entered the 
city, released the Union prisoners and took 
the Confederates captive. The city is in the 
midst of a fertile agricultural region, and is 
the largest single coal mining point in Mis- 
souri. Lexington is the seat of the Central 
College for Women, the Lexington College for 
Young Women and the Wentworth Military 
Academy. Pop. (1920) 4,695. 


LEXINGTON, Va., town, county-seat of 
Rockbridge County, on the north fork of the 
James River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio 
and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroads, about 
110 miles west by north from Richmond, and 
44 miles northwest of Lynchburg. It is in a 
_rich farming valley west of the Blue Ridge. 
Valuable deposits of sulphur ore are in the 


vicinity. The chief manufactures are dairy 
products, agricultural implements, flour and 
lumber. ‘The city owns and operates the water- 


works. The water is brought some distance 
from springs in the mountains. Lexington is 
the seat of the Virginia Military Institute, 
opened in 1839, and the Washington and Lee 
University (q.v.). Generals Jackson and Lee 
are buried here, and statues have been erec- 
ted in their memory. The Jackson Memo- 
rial Hospital and Lee Memorial Church are 
also noteworthy. The mineral springs in the 
vicinity are becoming popular resorts; the 
Natural Bridge (q.v.), one of the natural curi- 
osities of America, is about 15 miles south, 
separated from Lexington by low mountains 
or hills. Pop. (1920) 2,870. 


LEXINGTON, Siege of. After the battle 
of Wilson’s Creek (q.v.), Mo., 10 Aug. 1861, 
Gen. Sterling Price, abandoned by McCulloch 
and his troops, appealed to the secessionists of 
Missouri to fill his depleted ranks; ard about 
the middle of August he moved northward 
toward the Missouri River, skirmished with a 
force under Gen. J. H. Lane, 7 September, 
at Dry Wood Creek, drove Lane out of the 
State, and followed as far as Fort Scott, which 
had been abandoned. On the 10th he was at 
Rose Hill, from where he marched for War- 
rensburg, which was reached on the 11th, Pea- 
body’s 13th Missouri at that place retreating to 
Lexington. When Fremont, at Saint Louis, 
heard of Price’s northward movement, he or- 
dered to Lexington a force which, when Price 
arrived at Warrensburg, numbered 2,800 men, 
with seven 6-pounder guns, under command of 
Col. James Mulligan, 23d Illinois. Mulligan 
took position and threw up entrenchments on 
College Hill, a bluff 200 feet above low-water 


‘brick building erected for a college. 


LEXINGTON — LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 


( 
mark, northeast of the city, overlooking it and 
the Missouri, and on which was a substantial 
Imme- 
diately in front of the college was the first 
line of works, outside of which was a broad 
ditch, and beyond were “confusion” pits. On 
the morning of the 11th Price marched from 
Warrensburg toward Lexington, and _ that 
night, after a march of 30 miles, halted three 
miles fromthe city, where he rested until 
dawn, when he drove in Mulligan’s pickets, 
and from four different points opened a can- 
nonade upon. the hastily constructed works 
around the college. After several sharp en- 
counters the Confederates captured some out- 
works and drove Mulligan’s men behind the 
main line. At the end of the day Price with- 
drew to the fair ground, two miles away, to 
await reinforcements afid ammunition. Mul- 
ligan, looking for reinforcements, strengthened 
his position and prepared for a siege. Price 
was anxious because he knew of the approach 
of Union troops to relieve Lexington; but being 
reinforced to 25,000 men, and his ammunition 
coming up, he again moved on the city on the 
18th, took possession, closed in upon Mulligan 
and began a siege. Rains’ and Parsons’ divi- 
sions occupied strong positions on the east, 
northeast and southwest of the works; Rives’ 
division, supported by McBride’s command and 
a part of Harris’, moved along the river bank 
to a point immediately beneath Mulligan’s 
works; fire was opened upon the Confederates 
from a dwelling on the bluff, 125 yards from 
the works; upon which the Confederates 
charged and took the house, and also the bluff 
immediately north of it. A gallant counter- 
charge by Captain Gleason, with 80 men of the 
23d Illinois, retook the house, but it was soon 
regained, and the adjoining heights fortified. 
Firing continued all day of the 19th; water 
gave out, but Mulligan encouraged his men to 
hold on until help arrived. On the morning 
of the 20th Price caused to be taken to the. 
river heights a number of hemp-bales, with 
which movable breastworks were constructed. 
These were rolled forward; under cover of 
them the Confederates moved to within 10 rods 
of the works; and at 2 p.M., after over two 
days’ continuous fighting, Mulligan’s men being 
without water or rations and short of ammuni- 
tion, a white flag was displayed, and Price 
ordered a cessation of firing. Mulligan had 
lost 42 killed and 108 wounded, and surren- 
dered 1,624 men, 7 guns, many horses and a 
large amount of stores. Price reported a loss 
of 25 killed and 72 wounded. Price remained 
at Lexington until 30 September, when, pressed 
by the Union advance from Jefferson City, 
he abandoned the place and retreated toward 
Arkansas, leaving a guard of 500 men with 
the prisoners taken. On 16 October a squadron 
of cavalry under Maj. F. J. White surprised 
the party, captured 70 and released the prison- 
ers. Consult ‘Official Records? (Vol. III); 
The Century Company’s ‘Battles and Leaders 
of the Civil War? (Vol. I). 


E. A. CARMAN. 


LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, Battles 
of, in the American Revolution. Learning that 
the colonists had collected a quantity of mili- 
tary stores at Concord, Mass., Gen. Thomas 
Gage (q.v.), commander of the British troops 


LEXOW — 


at Boston, sent 800 troops under Lieut.-Col. 
Francis Smith and Maj. John Pitcairn (q.v.) 
to seize these stores. The colonists were 
warned of the expedition by William Dawes 
and Paul Revere (q.v.) and on their arrival 
at Lexington early on the morning of 19 April 
1775 the British found about 70 minute-men 
under Capt. John Parker assembled to dispute 
their progress. Pitcairn ordered the provin- 
cials to disperse and, on their refusal, fired 
into them, then ordering the troops to open 
fire. The colonists returned the fire and re- 
treated, leaving eight dead on the field. The 
British next proceeded to Concord, destroyed 
several pieces of cannon and some stores and 
prepared to retire to Boston. A body of col- 
onists under Maj. John Buttrick offered re- 
sistance and firing was begun, resulting in a 
few casualties on both sides. The country 
having been aroused, armed men rushed to 
the scene so that the British were assailed 
from all sides. 

Meanwhile, having been informed of the 
skirmish at Lexington and fearing disaster to 
his troops, Gage rushed 900 infantry under 
Lord Percy to Smith’s aid. Being reinforced 
and provided with artillery the British were 
able to check the colonists, since the latter 
could not approach close, owing to the can- 
non fire. Nevertheless they continued to fol- 
low and harass the British until they had 
reached a point too close to the city for their 
own safety and accordingly abandoned the 
pursuit. _ Shortly after sunset the British 
reached Bunker Hill in a state of utter ex- 
haustion. Though estimates of the colonists 
engaged vary from 250 to 20,000, probably 
not more than 400 or 500 were actually en- 
gaged at any one time. The British loss was 
73 killed, 174 wounded and 26 prisoners; 49 
Americans were killed, 39 were wounded and 
5 were reported as missing. On hearing of 
the battles, thousands of colonists hastened 
toward Boston and soon that city was alert 
state of siege, culminating in the battle of 
Bunker Hill (q.v.), the regular investment of 
Boston, the occupation of Dorchester Heights 
(q.v.) and the subsequent evacuation of the 
city by the British. Consult Frothingham, 
Richard, ‘The Siege of Boston; Force, Peter, 
‘American Archives? (4th series, Vol. Il); 
Lossing, B. J., ‘Field-Book of the Revolu- 
tion? (Vol.-I, p. 523 et seq.) ; Heath, William, 
-“Memoirs?; Thacher, James, ‘Military Jour- 
nal?; Fisher, Sidney G., ‘Struggle for Amer- 


ican Independence”? (Vol. I, pp. 300-308) ; 
Gage’s ‘Circumstantial Account? (in Mass. 
Hist. Coll., 2d series, Vol. II); accounts of 


the actions by Isaiah Thomas, Elias Phinney, 
Ezra Ripley and Lemuel Shattuck; and biog- 
raphies of those engaged. 


LEXOW, 1ék’sow, Clarence, American 
lawyer and politician: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 16 
Sept. 1852; d. 1910. He studied abroad and at 
the Columbia Law School, where he was grad- 
uated in 1872. He was admitted to the bar and 
established practice 1n New York city, receiv- 
ing a large German-American patronage and 


engaging in many important litigations. In - 


1882 he became a resident of Nyack and was 
active in the Republican party there. In 1890 
he was an unsuccessful nominee for Congress, 
but lowered the usual Democratic majority. In 


LEYDEN 341 


1893 he was elected to the State senate where 
he served till 1898. Here he at once became a 
leader, was chairman of the committee on. in- 
ternal affairs and introduced the bi-partisan po- 
lice bill calling for an investigation of the New 
York city police. This led to the appointment 
of the so-called “Lexow Committee,» of which 
he was head; the investigations of this commit- 
tee brought to light the system of protection of 
vice by the police in New York and were the 
direct cause of the reform campaign and the 
election of Mayor Strong. Lexow was also 
the introducer of the bill creating the city of 
Greater New York, was chairman of the joint 
legislative committee for the investigation of 
trusts and unlawful combinations, of the com- 
mittee on primary elections reform and of the 
judiciary committee. In 1896 he was chairman 
of the committee on resolutions at the Republi- 
can State convention and introduced the gold 
standard plank in the platform; in 1900 he was 
a presidential elector. He is author of reports 
on ‘Municipal Government? (5 vols., 1895) and 


on ‘Trusts and Unlawful Combinations? 
(1895). 
LEYDEN, li’dén, or LEIDEN, Nether-. 


lands, an important town in the province of 
South Holland, 22 miles by rail southwest of 
Amsterdam, on both sides of the Old Rhine, 
which flows through the town by several 
branches. The ‘neighborhood is marked’ by 
wind-mills, country-seats, pleasure-grounds, 
gardens and fertile meadows, and street rail- 
roads connect with the bathing resort of Kat- 
wyk, five miles to the northwest on the North 
Sea. The streets are straight, broad and clean; 
Broad street (Breede-straat) being esteemed 
one of the finest in Europe. In it is situated 
the town-hall (Stadhuis), originally founded 
toward the end of the 16th century, a pictur- 
esque building, with 30 windows in a line in 
front, a tall spire and three highly-ornamented 
projecting gables. In the council-chamber are 
the painting of the ‘Last Judgment,? by Lucas 
van Leyden, and several good ‘historical por- 
traits; in part of the lower floor is situated the 
meat market. None of the churches are re- 
markable; the Reformed church of Saint 
Peter contains monuments to Boerhaave, Span- 
heim, Scaliger, etc. The most important educa- 
tional institution is the university founded in 
1575, formerly one of the most famed in Eu- 
rope, especially for law, and still tm excellent 
repute. It is attended by 1,500 students. Con- 
nected with the university are a well-laid-out 
botanic garden, an observatory, a library of 
400,000 volumes, with over 3,000 ° maps and 
nearly 7,000 MSS., many of priceless value, 
an anatomical theatre and museum of compara- 
tive anatomy, one of the richest collections of 
natural history in existence, cabinet of coins, 
museum of antiquities and a rich Japanese mu- 
seum. Leyden was noted for its cloth manu- 
factures, which after 1670 declined, but have 
revived in recent years. There are also various 
other branches of manufacture and the former 
great trade in books, carried on in the latter 
part of the 17th and during the greater part of 
the 18th century and rendered world-renowned 
by the Elzevirs, is represented by several print- 
ing offices. There is an extensive trade in agri- 
cultural produce, especially cheese and butter. 
\Pop. 59,207. The most memorable event in 


342 


the history of Leyden is the successful siege it 
maintained against the Spaniards in 1573-74 
until relieved by the action of the Prince of 
Orange in breaking down the dikes. Leyden 
is the birthplace of John of Leyden, the 
founder of the Anabaptists; Camper, Muschen- 
broeck, the brothers Gerard and Isaac Vossius, 
Gronovius, Rembrandt, Luke of Leyden, the 
brothers Van der Velde, Gerard Douw, etc. It 
is of interest to Americans as the asylum from 
1609 to 1620 of the persecuted English non- 
conformists, the Pilgrim Fathers, founders of 
the New England States. 


LEYDEN JAR. See ELECTRICITY. 


LEYS, Henri Jean Auguste, On-ré zhon 
G-gust lis, or 14, Baron, Belgian painter: b. 
Antwerp, 18 Feb. 1815; d. there, 25 Aug. 1869. 
He worked from 1829 to 1832 in the studio of 
his brother-in-law, Ferdinand de Braekeleer, 
and in 1833 exhibited in Brussels ‘Fight Be- 
tween a French Grenadier and a Cossack.» He 
attracted still further attention by his picture 
‘Fight of Burgundian and Flemish Soldiers. 
His style changed after his visit to Paris (1835) ; 
during which he confined himself to a study of 
the French Romantic school. . Yet while the 
modern manner is discernible in his works, he 
shows himself also under the influence of Van 
Dyck and Rembrandt in such pictures as 
‘Flemish Wedding? ; ‘A Painter’s Studio? ; ‘A 
Family Party in Brittany?; ‘Burgomaster Six 
at Rubens’ House,’ etc. In 1839 he still fur- 
ther modified his manner after traveling in 
Holland and familiarizing himself with the 
Dutch genre painters. It was certainly under 
their inspiration that he painted such pictures 
as ‘A Family Party? (1845); ‘Divine Services 
in Holland? (1850), etc. After completing his 
travels in Holland he still further changed his 
style and painted in the bizarre style of Quen- 
tin Matsys, whose naiveté and uncouthness he 
also reproduced. In 1863 he received a com- 
mission to decorate with frescoes the town-hall 
of Antwerp, and this he fulfilled by producing 
a fine series of scenes from the history of the 
city. He was also an etcher, lithographer and 
wood engraver of acknowledged skill. <A 
statue to his memory was placed on the Boule- 
vard Leys. 


LEYTE, 1a’ta, Philippines, a province con- 
sisting of the island of Leyte and 40 dependent 
islands, discovered by Magellan in 1521; area 
of Leyte 3,872 square miles; area dependent 
islands 342 square miles; total 4,214 square 
miles. Leyte lies southeast of Luzon, south- 
west of Samar, from which it is separated by 
the narrow strait of San Juanico, and north- 
west of Mindanao; it is roughly rectangular 
in outline; its extreme length from northwest 
to southeast is 121 miles. The two most import- 
ant dependent islands are Biliran, area 144 


square miles; and Pana6dn, area 76 square 
miles. They are both mountainous; Biliran is 
noted for its sulphur springs; Panaén is well 


populated and has some gold deposits. The in- 
terior of the island of Leyte is mountainous 
(highest peak, Mount Sacripante, 3,930 feet), 


there being a number of extinct volcanoes and ° 


the island is crossed by a number of large riv- 
ers; the coast line is irregular, indented by a 
number of bays, some of which afford excellent 
harbors, among the best in the Philippines. 


LEYDEN JAR— LHASA 


There are numerous roads on the east coast 
and the west coast is also paralleled by roads 


and trails for almost its entire length; the riv- 


ers furnish good inland transportation. The 
climate is temperate and healthy; the province 
is one of the best cultivated in the archipelago; 
the most important product is hemp and many 
of the plantations being under cultivation for 
almost 50 years require little work, the crop 
being abundant and of excellent quality ; other 
products are rice for home use, cotton, choco- 
late, sugar, coffee and corn. The mineral prod- 
ucts include sulphur, gold, iron, lead and silver; 
of these the most important is sulphur, which 
supplied the gunpowder works at Manila under 
Spanish rule. There are also valuable forests; 
the yield of dammar, the brea or pitch of the 
Spaniards, is the most important in the Philip- 
pines. The largest industries are the manufac- 
ture of abaca and the cabonegro or black boat 
cables from the hemp and the extracting of 
cocoanut oil. There are also ship-building yards 
at Tacloban, the capital, at which good-sized 
schooners are often built, and weaving of fine 
fabrics by the women. Civil government was 
established in April 1901; the people have 
proved generally favorably inclined to the new 
régime although there were sporadic troubles 
in 1905 and 1906; there has been renewed ac- 
tivity in every line of industry; and protection 
is now in the hands of a native police. The 
school attendances number over 44,000. Pop. 
357,041, mostly Visayan. 


LHASA, tha’sa, or LASSA, las’sa, Tibet, 
the capital of the country and the “Rome or 
“Mecca” of Buddhism, its name signifyrng the 
“Place of God,” is picturesquely situated in a 
valley plain surrounded by mountains rising 
from the K-chu, a left affluent of the Sanpo or 
Upper Brahmaputra, about 280 miles in a direct 
line northeast of Darjiling. Access being exclu- 
sively forbidden to Europeans, three only hav- 
ing visited it during the 19th century, the place 
had a mysterious celebrity, until the British ex- 
pedition under Col. G. J. Younghusband (q.v.) 
reached the city in 1904. The accounts since 
published corroborate the information previ- 
ously obtained from Asiatic pilgrims and ex- 
plorers.. Broad roads lined by luxurious gar- 
dens lead past the well-built houses of the sub- 
urbs to the closely guarded gates of the walled 
city, which is dominated by the imposing Potala 
hill-palace and other hill-top edifices. The prin- 
cipal streets of the city are wide, regular and 
clean, lined with well-stocked stores and houses 
of two and three stories; but the side streets 
and lower parts of the town are very dirty and 
daily crowded by importunate beggars. The 
houses are generally two or three stories high, 
built of stone, brick or earth, terraced at the 
summit and uniformly whitened externally, the 
windows and door-frames being painted with 
the sacred or lamanesque colors, red and yel- 
low. Internally, however, they are exceedingly 
dirty and comfortless and have no chimneys. 
A yak stable occupies the ground floor. There 
is no heavy traffic on the streets, yak and 
horse being the only means of conveyance. 
In the heart of the city is the convent of Morn, 
with a large printing establishment, from which 
numerous religious works are issued; and on 
the outskirts, toward the cardinal points, are 
four other large monasteries— Praebung on 


L’HOPITAL — LI 


the west, Sera on the north, Khaldan on the 
east and Samie on the south or southeast side. 
All these have several thousand inmates, betng 
greatly resorted to from China, Turkestan, 
Nepal, etc., as schools of philosophy and Bud- 
dhism. About 1% miles northwest from the 
city and connected with it by two avenues of 
trees is the Potala, Bottala or- Buddha-la, the 
residence of the Dalai or Talé (Grand) Lama, 
the ecclesiastical sovereign of Tibet and su- 
preme pontiff of the vast regions forming cen- 
tral, eastern and southeastern Asia. <A. triple- 
peaked hill here rises abruptly out of the plain 
to the height of 367 feet; it is covered with 
convents and cells of monks and in the centre 
is the palace of the Dalai Lama, a fine edifice 
1,000 feet long, four stories in height, with 
over 490 rooms and a large dome, which, like 
the columns of the peristyle surrounding the 
structure, is covered with gilding. The inte- 
rior is full of idols, treasure and works of art. 
The chief public edifices are the Buddhist mon- 
asteries, some of them among the noblest speci- 
mens of architecture in Asia. The buildings 
were begun 1,200 years ago, the most recent 
parts being 200 years old. Seven miles to the 
west is the largest monastery of Tibet, the sum- 
mer residence of the Dalai Lama. About 7,500 
monks inhabit it, and it has room enough to ac- 
commodate the largest of American universities. 
Lhasa is the principal emporium of Tibet and 
a rendezvous of people from all parts of Asia; 
silk stuffs, tea and other articles being here ex- 
changed for Tibetan, Indian and European 
goods. British troops under Colonel Young- 
husband occupied Lhasa in 1904, and after 
great difficulties concluded a treaty with_the 
authorities in behalf of British interests. Pop. 
of city estimated at 10,000, exclusive of the 
great number of Buddhist lamas or priests and 
students in the monasteries (computed at 
15,000). Associated with the Dalai Lama are 
two ambans, appointed every four years, who 
direct political administration, and the regent, 
who is the most learned lama in the country. 
Lhasa is the scene of a great annual religious 
gathering, attended by 80,000 lamas. The trade 
is entirely in the hands of women. As a great 
centre of pilgrimage, it is visited by great 
throngs from Tibet and Mongolia. -(See TIBET). 
Consult Candler, ‘The Unveiling of Lhasa? 
(London 1905) ; Chaan (a member of the Chi- 
nese mission of 1906-07), ‘The Most Extraordi- 
-nary City in the World? (in the National Geo- 
graphic Magazine for October 1912); Holdich, 
T. H., ‘Tibet the Mysterious’ (New York 
1906) ; Hac, ‘Travels in Tartary, Tibet, etc.? 
(2 vols., London 1852) ; Landor, A. H. S., ‘The 
Opening of Tibet? (ib. 1905) ; ‘Millington, “To 
Lhasa at Last? (ib. 1905); Waddell, L. A., 
‘Lhasa and Its Mysteries? (ib. 1905); Young- 
husband, F. E., “India and Thibet? (ib. 1910). 


L’ HOPITAL, Guillaume Francois Antoine, 
ge-yOm fran-swa an-twan 16-pé-tal, MaRouis 
DE SAINT Mesme, French mathematician: b. 
Paris, 1661; d. 2 Feb. 1704. He devoted him- 
self exclusively to the study of mathematics, 
having received some instructions from Jean 
Bernouilli in differential and integral calculus, 
and at the age of 32 distinguished himself 
by solving problems proposed to the lovers of 
mathematics by Jacques Bernouilli; and 1693 
was admitted an honorary member of the Acad- 


HUNG CHANG 343 


emy of Sciences at Paris. From that period he 
published, in the French and foreign journals, 
solutions of difficult questions, and other mathe- 
matical communications. Such was his reputa- 
tion that Huygens, profound as was his ac- 
quaintance with science, applied to L’H6pital 
for information relative to the nature of the 
differential calculus. This led to the publica- 
tion of his ‘Analyse des Infiniment Petits? 
(1696), the first French work on the subject 
of which a new edition was published by Le- 
fevre (1781). Besides the work mentioned he 
was the author of ‘Les Sections Coniques, les 
Lieux Géometriques, la Construction des Equa- 
tiones? (1707), and ‘Une Théorie des Courbes 
Mécaniques.? 


L’HOPITAL, Michel de, mé-shél dé, 
French statesman: b. Aigueperse, Puy de Dome, 
France, about 1504: d. Chateau Bellebat, near 
Etampes, France, 15 March 1573. He studied 
law in Italy, and returning to France was pres- 
ident of the Court of Accounts in 1554, and 
chancellor of France in 1560. To his moderate 
policy were due the Edict of Romorantin, 1560, 
which prevented the introduction of the Inquisi- 
tion in France; the Edict of Pacifiction, 1562, 
authorizing the free exercise of Protestant wor- 
ship; and the Ordinance of Moulines, 1566, 
which aimed at reform in the administration of 
justice. Distinguished for his integrity and 
moral courage, L’Hopital stood far in advance 
of his time in his support of toleration and 
civil liberty. He gave up his office in 1568. 


LI, lé, a Chinese unit, the ,4,,th part of a 
liang or ounce, and the equivalent of “cash,” a 
copper coin of China, with a square hole in ‘the 
middle, and an inscription on one side. The 
value of a li in American money is about one- 
eighth of one cent. Ji is also a Chinese measure 
of length, the equivalent of one-one hundredth 
of a day’s walk, very slightly exceeding one- 
third of an English mile on the level; but in a 
hilly country the li is a distance requiring the 
same effort to cover on foot as the li on the 
level, and in such a case it might be as little 
as an eighth of a mile. 


LI HUNG CHANG, 1é hoong chang, 
Chinese statesman and diplomatist : b. Lu-chow, 
province of Ngan-hwei, 16 Feb. 1823 (or per- 
haps 1819); d. Peking, 7 Nov. 1901. He re- 
ceived a thorough education, passing through 
the successive grades of scholarship, with the 
severe examinations which in China must be 
undergone before admission. to the literary 
caste, “ahead of 15,000 competitors.» In 1847 
he received the third degree, and entered the 
Hanlin College in 1849. In 1850, when the 
Tai-ping rebels invaded Ngan-hwei, he joined 
Tseng Kuo Fan’s army as secretary. He was 
appointed judge of Che-kiang province, and 
in 1861 governor of Kiang-su. In 1863, in 
conjunction with Col. (afterward Gen.) 
Charles George Gordon (q.v.), known as 
“Chinese Gordon,» he retook Su-chow and 
drove the rebels entirely out of Kiang-su. 
Gordon’s force, the “Ever-victorious Army,” 
had previously ‘been commanded by Frederick 
T. Ward, an American soldier of fortune, and 
was largely composed of foreigners. From 
them Li Hung Chang derived much informa-. 
tion concerning Europeans, and also acquired 


344 


increased military knowledge and ideas of 
Western political ethics. 

For his services in suppressing the Tai-ping 
rebellion Li was made commander of. the Im- 
perial forces, head of the navy, a hereditary 
noble and received the highest decorations in 
the gift of the emperor. In 1864 he was ap- 
pointed governor of the Kiang provinces. 
During the Nien-fei rebellion (1868) he was 
degraded for apathy in the face of the enemy, 
but was soon restored to favor. In 1872, after 
the massacres at Tien-tsin, followed by his 
stern measures of redress, he was appointed 
viceroy of Chi-li, the metropolitan province. 
During his long service in that office he resided 
at Tien-tsin, where he displayed his progressive 
designs by many improvements, among which 
were a great canal and the forming of the 
Chinese Merchants’ Steam Navigation Company. 
Here for 24 years (1870-95) he exercised a 
power in reality second only to the emperor’s, 
controlling the foreign policy of the empire, 
and introducing modern tendencies from West- 
ern civilization. He negotiated important treat- 
ies with Japan, Peru and other countries, in- 
creased the military strength of China in view 
of foreign encroachments, and may be said to 
have created the Chinese navy. He was impe- 
rial commissioner of trade for the northern 
ports; the emperor entrusted to him supreme 
charge of the military and naval forces sent 
to Korea in the Chino-Japanese War; and 
though several times disgraced, he bore nearly 
the whole burden of the war, marine and finan- 
cial departments of the Chinese government. 
During the war with Japan the disasters to 
the Chinese armies and navy were laid to 
his charge, and he was degraded and punished, 
but still retained his office of Prime Minister. 
He was sent to Japan in 1895 to negotiate the 
peace treaty, and barely escaped assassination. 
Having represented China at the coronation 
of Nicholas II of Russia in 1896, he made a 
tour of the world, and was everywhere re- 
ceived as a highly distinguished guest. On his 
return he was again at the head of foreign 
affairs, and governor exclusively of the Kiang 
and Chi-li provinces. After the suppression of 
the Boxer risings of 1900-01 he played a promi- 
nent part in adjusting the relations of China 
with foreign powers. 

The official integrity of Li Hung Chang has 
not gone unchallenged, although specific acts of 
corruption were never proved against him, but 
he amassed a huge fortune in the public service. 
Craftiness was conspicuous in his character and 
political acts; but however his conduct may 
have been inspired at different times, there is 
no question in regard to the great services 
which, through his extraordinary abilities and 
opportunities, he*rendered to China and to the 
world. His shrewdness and thrift were shown 
in the curious fact that while acting so great 
a part in China for so many years he also held 
control of all the pawnshops in the empire. If 
he were “the buffer between China and the 
rest of the world on the side of practical 
usefulness to his own country the scope of 
his work is seen in the influence which he 
exerted in behalf of modern progress; in the 
machine-shops which he established; the cot- 
ton-mills, fitted with foreign machinery; the 
bicycle factory that he built; the telegraph 
lines he constructed; the coal mines he opened; 


LIA-FAIL — LIAS 


the arsenals he erected; the fortifications which 
he equipped ,~with foreign guns; the modern 
firearms and military organization and instruc- 
tion which he introduced; his gunboats and 
ironclads of foreign construction; railroads 
built under his direction; above all in the estab- 
lishment of schools for the introduction of 
modern improvements and appliances; in the 
founding and endowment of a hospital, etc. 
These things showed in him a spirit and a pur- 
pose new to the official world in China, and 
from whose initiative still greater results may 
be expected. Consult Douglas, R. K., ‘Li Hung 
Chang? (London 1895), and Mannix, W. F. ed., 
“Memoirs of Li Hung Chang? (Boston 1913). 


LIA-FAIL, or STONE OF DESTINY, 


-a broad gray stone on which the kings of Scot- 


land were crowned in the Abbey Church of 
Scone. In 1296 Edward I carried it to England 
and it still remains under the coronation chair 
in Westminster Abbey. Tradition says it is the 
stone which.the patriarch Jacob used as a 
pillow. 


LIABILITY INSURANCE. See Insur- 
ANCE, CASUALTY. 


LIABILITY OF MUNICIPALITIES. 
See MUNICIPALITIES. 


LIAKHOF ISLANDS. See New Siserta. 


LIANAS, climbing and twining plants found 
in profusion in tropical climates, where they 
form thick, woody stems. In many instances 
they overtop the heads of the tallest trees, 
when they descend and interwine the entire 
forest by their cable-like shoots, frequently 
forming an impenetrable network or matting, 
which it is necessary to break through with 
the hatchet. The thickness of the stems of 
some of the species of lianas become so great 
that their constriction kills the tree to which 
they originally adhered, and when this has 
fallen the magnificent confusion of leaves and 
flowers presents one of the most striking feat- 
ures of those forest scenes. Vanilla, sarsa- 
parilla and other medicinal plants are true 
lianas. 


LIAS, in geology, a formation. consisting 


-of thick argillaceous and calcareous deposits, 


which constitute the base on which the Oolitic 
series reposes. It is generally regarded as the 
lowest division of the Jurassic system, and it 
rests on the Triassic system. The upper por- 
tion of these deposits, including about two- 
thirds of their total depth, consists of beds of 
blue marl, containing only a few irregular lime- 
stone beds. In the lower portion the limestone 
beds increase in frequency, and assume the 
peculiar aspect which characterizes the Lias, 
presenting a series of thin stony beds, separated 
by narrow argillaceous partings, so that the 
quarries of this rock at a distance assume a 
striped and ribbon-like appearance. The Lias 
is remarkable for the number and variety of 
its organic remains, among which are belem- 
nites, ammonites, gryphites and other shells, 
together with the remains of saurian or lizard- 
like animals, of which the ichthyosaurus and 
pleiosaurus are familiar examples. The Lias 
crosses England from near Whitby, in York- 
shire, to Lyme, in Dorsetshire. In the Cleve- 
land district the Lias contains workable beds 
of iron carbonate. See GEoLocy. 


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LIBANIUS — LIBEL 


LIBANIUS, li-ba’ni-tis, Greek sophist and 
rhetorician: b. Antioch, 314 a.p.; d. there, 395. 
He taught rhetoric at Constantinople, where his 
school drew such vast numbers of students that 
his rivals caused him to be expelled from the 
city as a sorcerer. He subsequently returned 
to Antioch, and there passed his latter days. 
He was highly esteemed by the emperors Julian, 
Valens.and Theodosius. He was a pagan, but 
maintained friendly relations with many Chris- 
tians, including Saint Basil and Saint Chrysos- 
tom, who were his pupils. He was a volumi- 
nous author, and several of his works are ex- 
tant, but there is no complete edition of them. 
Consult Sievers, ‘Das Leben des Libanius? 
(1868) ; Walden, ‘The Universities of Ancient 
Greece? (1909). 


LIBANUS, Mount. See LEBANON. 


LIBATION. Among the ancients libation 
was properly a drink-offering; but was used 
also for other offerings to the gods, as a meal- 
cake, or something similar placed on the altar, 
and a part of which was burned. Libations 
were also made at domestic meals, some of the 
food being thrown into the-fire on the hearth 
in honor of the Lares. A libation always ac- 
companied the sacrifice offered in concluding a 
treaty with a foreign nation. The libations to 


the dead were not performed till the ninth day. 


after the burning or interment, and consisted 
of milk, wine or blood, and generally concluded 
the funeral solemnities. 


LIBAU, 1é’bow, Latvia, an important sea- 
port in the government of Courland, on the 
Baltic, 14 miles by rail southwest of Riga, on 
a narrow strip of land between the sea and 
a small lagoon. It has rapidly increased in 
recent years and become an important centre 
of industry as well as of trade and is a favorite 
bathing resort. A great artificial ice-free harbor 
was built between 1893 and 1904, having 27 
feet of water on the outer bar and it has also 
a naval harbor, and ship-building, especially of 
ocean-steamers, is carried on. An Orthodox 
Naval Cathedral was consecrated in 1903, and 
there is a school of navigation. It exports 
erain, linseed, flax, hemp, timber, rye and hides; 
and imports colonial produce, manufactured 
goods, herring, etc. Known as Lvra Portas in 
1263, Libau has at different times been in the 
hands of Livonian and Teutonic orders, Prussia 
and Sweden, and came into possession of Rus- 
sia in 1795. During the Great War, Libau was 
attacked by German naval forces on several 
occasions, and considerable damage was done. 
Pop. 90,400; 20 per cent of which are Jews. 


LIBBEY, William, American scientist: b. 
Jersey City, N. J., 27 March 1855. He .was 
graduated from Princeton in 1877 and from 
1882 to 1883 was assistant professor of physical 
geography there. From 1883 to 1898 he was 
professor of histology, and since 1883 professor 
of physical geography and director of the mu- 
seum of geology and archeology at Princeton. 
He is a Fellow of the geographical and geo- 
logical societies of London and Paris. He is 
author, with Dr. Franklin E. Hoskins, of ‘Jor- 
dan Valley and Petra? (1905). 

LIBBY PRISON, a famous prison at Rich- 
mond, Va., during the Civil War. It was a 
large brick structure named for its owner, who 
used the building as a ship chandlery and also 


345 


as a tobacco warehouse before the war. The 
Confederate government early secured it as 
a military prison for Federal soldiers, and 
many thousands were confined here. It was 
divided into large rooms or lofts about 100 by 
45 feet, and was inadequate for the housing 
of 1,200 prisoners, which at times was the 
total. There were ventilation and bathing con- 
veniences of a sort, but no heating, and the 
food was often poor and inadequate. On 9 
Feb. 1864 there was a large delivery of the 
prisoners, 109 escaping through a tunnel that 
they had laboriously dug with their hands and 
bits of board. Col. Thomas E. Rose led the 
refugees and 59 of them ultimately reached 
the Federal lines, 48 being recaptured and two 
drowned. There were other escapes at times. 
The unsanitary conditions resulted in a very 
heavy mortality, and many of the poor sufferers 
welcomed death. In 1889, the building was torn 
down and removed, brick by brick, to Chicago, 
and set up there as a museum, but the enter- 
prise proved a failure. 


LIBEL, (1) a defamation of a person, with 
malice expressed or implied, made public by 
means of writing, printing or pictures, calcu- 
lated to provoke him to anger, or expose him 
to hatred, ridicule or contempt. Spoken words, 
however opprobrious or injurious, do not 
amount to libel but are classed as slander; and, 
being more limited in their publicity, the of- 
fense is not so great as in a case of libel. 
There may be a libel by traducing the memory 
of one who is dead, as well as one which at- 
tacks the reputation of one who is living. Any 
publication which has a tendency to disturb 
the public peace or good order of society is 
actionable as a libel, and may usually be prose- 
cuted by either a civil action for damages or 
by a criminal proceeding, and both remedies 
are often pursued at the same time. In the 
absence of some statutory provision on the sub- 
ject, proof of the truth of the matter contained 
in the libel does not ordinarily furnish a good 
defense to the offending party. The publication 
may be very limited and yet amount to the 
offense. The malicious reading of a libel to 
one or more persons has been held sufficient 
and the sale of each copy of a book containing 
a libel has been pronounced by a court as suf- 
ficient to furnish a distinct offense. -Libels 
against the government consist of calumnious 
publications in denunciation or unwarrantable 
criticism of the established governmental sys- 
tem or in censure of methods of administration, 
provided the allegations are of such a nature 
that their natural tendency or evident purpose 
is to promote disaffection among the citizens 
or to excite a spirit of revolution. But indict- 
ments for ltbels of this character are very rare, 
and would not be resorted to except in extreme 
and very plain cases. Many of the States have 
enacted statutes upon the subject of libels, 
declaratory of the old common-law rules, with 
ancillary provisions, relating principally to 
forms of administration, with provisions as to 
punishment. A. libel may be a misdemeanor 
only, or a felony, according to the character of 
the offense. 

(2) Libel in admiralty practice denotes the 
complaint or pleadings by which an action is 
commenced, to enforce some claim or right in 
a marine matter, and contains a circumstantial 


346 


statement ofthe claim. .The general scope of 
the jurisdiction of admiralty embraces all ma- 
rine contracts and maritime torts, including cap- 
tures in times of war, and seizures for revenue 
forfeitures, and all duties appertaining to ma- 
rine commerce and general navigation. The 
test of jurisdiction in torts is determined by the 
place where the same were committed. Such 
a libel is not required to be drawn with any 
degree of technicality, the substance being more 
important than the form. In the United States 
substantially aH. admiralty matters are trans- 
acted in the Federal courts. The, plaintiff, or 
moving party in an admiralty proceeding, is 
called the libellant, and the defendant, or party 
against whom the proceeding is brought, is 
termed the libelee or respondent, Sometimes 
a libel is directed in rem or against property 
only, without naming a respondent... Consult 
Bigelow, ‘The Law ot Torts» (7th ed., Boston 
1901) ; Newell, ‘The Law of Libel and Slander 
in Civil and Criminal Cases? (2d ed., Chicago 
1898) ; Odgers, ‘A Digest of the Law of Libel 
and Slander? (4th ed, New York 1905); Pol- 
lock, ‘The Law of Torts> (7th ed., New York 
1904) ; Townshend, ‘Treatise on the Wrongs 
Called Slander and Libel? (4th ed, New York 
1890). 


LIBERAL PARTY, in politics, the party 
which claims to be distinctively that of reform 
and progress with a view to increased political 
power of the people, and to extending privileges 
to the masses. Most European countries have 
‘a Liberal party, but in several of them, such as 
Germany, Belgium and France, liberalism has 
lost heavily owing to the rapid spread of Social- 
ist doctrines, which involve economic and in- 
dustrial rather than political reform. In Great 
Britain, Liberal and Conservative ministries 
follow each other at irregular intervals, and on 
the whole the system has worked well. The 
greatest of modern Liberal leaders was Glad- 
stone, but his introduction, in 1886, of the Irish 
Home Rule and Land Purchase bills alienated 
many of his supporters, and led to the forma- 
tion of the Liberal Unionist party. On the 
question of the war policy in South Africa in 
1899-1901 the Liberal opposition was split into 
several groups, such as the Liberal Imperial- 
ists, who supported the government; the so- 
called “pro-Boer” Liberals, who opposed the 
war throughout; and those who tried to com- 
bine both policies, 


LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY, in 
American politics, a party organized in 1872 by 
Republicans, who were dissatisfied with Gen- 
eral Grant’s first administration as President. 
At a convention held by them in Cincinnati, in 
that year, Carl Schurz was elected its president, 
and a platform adopted demanding civil service 
reform, local. self-government. and universal 
amnesty, recognizing the equality of all men, 
recommending the resumption of specie pay- 
ment, etc. Horace Greeley and B. Gratz Brown 
were named for President and Vice-President. 
This platform and these nominations were 
adopted by the regular Democratic convention 
of that year, but dissensions arose, and other 
candidates were nominated, the result being 
that the Republican nominee, General Grant, 
was elected by an overwhelming majority and 
the Liberal Republican party was thereafter 
practically dead. The real strength of the 


LIBERAL PARTY — LIBERIA 


party lay in its presidential candidate, Horace 
Greeley, who had a large following, particularly 


of the farming element throughout the coun- 


try, which was secured through the large and 
widespread circulation of the New York 
Weekly Tribune, of which Greeley was the 
editor. Among those connected eat the party 
were Charles Francis Adams, Lyman Trum- 
bull, David Davis, Horace White and David 
A. Wells. Consult Fess,:.9.., \D.94,), PUIStOny OF 
Political Theory and Party Organization i in the 
United, States? (Boston, 1910); Hart, A. B., 


“Cyclopedia of American Government? (New 
York:, 1914) ;,. Woodburn, _ J. _A., »‘Political 
Parties in the United States? (ib. 1903) ; Dun- 
ning, W. A., ‘Reconstruction? (ib. 1907) ; 
eae 1s F., ‘History of the United States? 
1906 


LIBERAL UNIONIST PARTY, in Brit- 
ish politics, a party formed in 1886 by. the Lib- 
erals under the leadership of the Marquis of 
Hartington who objected to Gladstone’s Irish 
Government and Land Purchase bills, as being 
dangerous to the empire. They gained their 
immediate object by coalescing with the Con- 
servatives, and in the election which followed 
the defeat of the Gladstonian ministry they suc- 
ceeded in returning some 80 members to Par- 
liament. They have since acted with the Con- 
servatives. 


LIBERATOR, The. 
LIAM LLoyp. 


LIBERIA, a republic on the west coast of 
Africa; the only part of the continent remain- 
ing in Negro hands and under Negro control. 
Situated in what was formerly known as Up- 
per Guinea, it extends for some 350 miles along 
the coast, from ‘Mano River on the west to the 
Cavalla River on the east. It is between long. 
7° 38, amd 41°- 32. Wand lat, 47 22asani ee 
N. Its area is approximately 43,000 square 
miles, a little more than that of the State of 
Ohio. It is bounded on the west by the Brit- 
ish colony of Sierra Leone and on the north 
and east by French possessions. The coast is 
low, through most of its length a narrow sandy 
beach, interrupted at only three points by ele- 
vations. Five-sixths of the area of Liberia is 
covered with dense tropical forest; there are 
mountains in the interior of the east half; the 
Mandingo Plateau.in the northwest is grass- 
land. There are no good harbors. There are 
more than 30 rivers, most of which have no 
navigation value; the Saint Paul with the Me- 
surado is navigable to White Plains, a distance 
of 20miles, and the Cavalla is practicable for 
boats of some size for about 80 miles. The cli- 
mate of Liberia is tropical with a short dry 
season from December to February, inclusive, 
and a cooler wet season; on the Mandingo 
Plateau the dry season extends from November 
to May. Liberia was acquired by the American 
Colonization Society, founded in 1817, for the 
purpose of colonizing free blacks from the Uni- 
ted States. The first company of colonists was 
sent out in February 1820 on the Elizabeth. 
During the next 25 years 4,500 more colo- 
nists were sent over by the society and auxili- 
ary organizations. The government of the Uni- 
ted States was favorable to the enterprise and 
at times gave active assistance. While the colo- 
nists suffered severely from the climate and at 
times had difficulty with the natives, they made 


See GARRISON, WIL- 


LIBERIUS — LIBERTINES 


a number of settlements on the coast and on 
the lower reaches of some of the rivers. The 
name Liberia was officially adopted in 1824 and 
at the same time the name of the chief, settle- 
ment was changed to Monrovia. The names 
were suggested by Colonel Harper of Mary- 
land who was prominent in the work of the so- 
ciety. Liberia referred to the free status of the 
colonists, Monrovia honored the then Presi- 
dent of the United States, James Monroe. At 
first under an agent, later under a governor ap- 
pointed by the society, the settlers developed a 
practical governmental organization and, in 
1838, adopted the official title “Commonwealth 
of Liberia” To secure the funds for adminis- 
tration, duties and port-dues were instituted. 
These led to trouble with the British govern- 
ment which could not recognize sovereign pow- 
ers in “a mere commercial experiment of a 
philanthropic society» Consequently it was de- 
cided best that the relation between the colony 
and the society should cease. A declaration of 
independence and a constitution were adopted 
on 26 July 1847 and the republic of Liberia 
came into existence. The first President was 
Joseph J. Roberts, himself a colonist, who was 
the last governor under the society. The new 
nation was promptly recognized by Great Bri- 
tain (1848) and France (1852); other nations 
made recognition during the next few years; 
the United States did so in 1862, Abraham Lin- 
coln being President. At first the term of Li- 
beria’s President was two years, but it has been 
extended to four. President and Vice-President 
are elected; there are two legislative bodies: 
House of Representatives and Senate; the Su- 
preme Court consists of three justices; the Cab- 
inet includes seven members, heads of depart- 
ments of State, Treasury, Justice, War and 
~ Navy, Interior, Post Office and Public Instruc- 
tion. The franchise is confined to males, of at 
least 21 years of age, owners of real property. 
Only persons of negro blood may be citizens. 
The population of Liberia is uncertain: it is 
made up of three quite distinct classes — Amer- 
ico-Liberians in the settlements, coast natives 
who come into contact with the Liberian gov- 
ernment and with traders and other Europeans, 
and the natives of the interior; there are per- 
baps 20,000, 60,000 and 1,500,000 respectively. 
These figures are, however, crude estimates to 
which little weight can be attached. Up to the 
present, the Liberian settlements have been al- 
most exclusively occupied in trade; agriculture 
has been little developed and there is practi- 
cally no manufacturing. The country is rich 
in natural resources. Palm oil, palm nuts, pias- 
sava fibre and rubber are the leading exports. 
Liberian coffee once had a good market, but 
has lost its importance. Fine woods and gums 
will be in course of time a source of wealth. 
Plantations of rubber and coffee and mines of 
gold are under development, chiefly by British 
and German enterprise. Liberia has had 
boundary troubles with both of her neighbors 
and has already lost territory to both Great 
Britain and France. Difficulties came to a head 
about 1908, when she sent a commission to the 
United States appealing for aid. A commission 
of investigation was appointed by our govern- 
ment which visited Liberia and made certain 
specific recommendations. As a result, the 
United States has aided Liberia in straighten- 


. title Eleutheria. 


347 


ing out her financial affairs and in strengthen- 
ing her internal condition. In connection with 
these adjustments, the customs service of the - 
republic is temporarily administered by an in- 
ternational commission with an American at its 
head. With firm backing from the United 
States, Liberia might not only. prosper, she 
might become the leader of Africa. During the 
embroglio of the World War (1914-18) Liberia 
severed diplomatic relations with Germany on 
8 May 1917 and formally declared war on 4. 
August. On 10 April 1918 a German submarine 
bombarded Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, 
destroyed the wireless telegraph station and 
sank the Liberian armed vessel President Grant. 
Ten persons were killed. The submarine was 
later sunk by a British cruiser. Liberia’s con- 
tribution to the war consisted mainly in send- 
ing some hundreds of laborers to France. In 
November 1918 it was announced that the ne- 
gro republic desired a voice in the peace con- 
ference and that the principle of self-determi- 
nation should be applied to the natives of Afri- 
can colonies, not only those taken from Ger- 
many, but also former parts of Liberia which 
had been absorbed by France and Great Bri- 
tain. 
FREDERICK STARR, 
Umversity of Chicago. 


LIBERIUS, Pope: b. Rome; d. there, 24 
Sept. 366. He was Pope from 352 to 366; is 


_ one of the pontiffs that have incurred the ac- 


cusation of heresy. It is conceded that he suf- 
fered an exile of two years by order of the 
Emperor Constantius II] for refusing to sub- 
scribe to a condemnation, by the Council of 
Arles (354), of the great champion of the 
Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed of the homo- 
ousian, Saint Athanasius. But it is alleged that 
he obtained his recall by subscribing to a heret- 
ical, formally Arian confession of faith drawn 
up by an assembly of bishops at Sirmium. Con- 
stantius II died in 361 and Liberius was then 
more free and annulled the decrees of the 
Council of Rimini, but was not severe upon 
the bishops who had signed them. He renewed 
relations with Athanasius and Hilarius, re- 
ceived deputies from the Eastern Episcopate 
and gave the communion to many of the Arians. 


LIBERTAD, ié-bér-tad’, Peru, a maritime 
department bordering on the Pacific Ocean, 
with the departments of Lambayeque, Caja- 
marca and Amazonas on the north, Loreto on 
the east and Ancachs on the south. It is moun- 
tainous, with a narrow strip o@level land along 
the coast. The Marafion, the head stream of 
the Amazon, waters its eastern slopes. Many 
of the eastern valleys are very fertile. Agri- 
culture and stock-raising are carried on. Min- 
ing is in a backward state, although consid- 
erable mineral deposits are said to exist in the 
mountains. Area, 10,206 square miles; pop. 
about 250,000. Capital, Trujillo. 


LIBERTAS, the goddess of freedom. By 
the Greeks she was invoked by the synonymous 
At Rome, her most famous 
temple was situated on the Aventine Mount. 
She was represented by the figure of a woman 
holding in one hand a cap, the symbol of lib- 
erty, and two poniards in the other. 


LIBERTINES, a name that has been given 
to various liberal organizations: (1) a sect of 


348 


fanatics in the 16th century in the Netherlands 
and Belgium, who maintained that nothing is 
- sinful but to those who think it sinful and that 
perfect innocence is ‘to live without- doubt. 
They advocated community of goods and gave 
themselves ‘the name of “Spirituals” ; (2) a fac- 
tion of the Hellenistic Jews who attacked 
Stephen, as told in Acts vi, 9; (3) the Liberal 
party in Geneva that opposed Calvin; (4) the 
early Anabaptists. The use of the term did not 
often imply loose morals and many think the 
Libertine Jews of the time of Christ were more 
properly called Libystines or Libyans, after 
Libya in Africa. 

LIBERTY, Mo., city, county-seat of Clay 
County, on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pa- 
cific, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and 
other railroads, about 15 miles, by rail, north- 
east of Kansas City. It is situated in an agri- 
cultural region and its chief manufactures are 
flour, dairy products and vacuum cleaners. Its 
trade is principally in grain, vegetables, fruit 
and live-stock. It is the seat of the William 
Jewell College, opened in 1849 under the aus- 
pices of the Baptists, and of the Liberty Ladies’ 
College opened in 1899 and contains a Carnegie 
library and an Odd Fellows’ Home. The water- 
works are the property of the municipality. 
Pop. (1920) 3,097. 

LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATER- 
NITY, a well-known motto of the French Re- 
public, dating from the time of the first revo- 
lution. Equality, in this connection, means 
equality before the law and the absence of class 
privileges. The motto gives title to a work b 
Sir J. F. Stephens (1873). ; 


LIBERTY, Religious. Religious liberty 
is the right or freedom of a person to wor- 
ship or not to worship according to his own 
understanding and preferences, and, within the 
requirements of public order, of teaching his 
religious beliefs without hindrance or molesta- 
tion; the complete equality of all religions be- 
fore the law. 

The question of religious liberty seems 
never to have arisen in pre-Christian times. 
The story of Paul’s visit to Athens and the 
noted Pantheon at Rome seem to reveal a 
tolerant attitude of the ancient peoples toward 
all religions. All persons within the state 
might, as a matter of political necessity, be re- 
quired to pay formal homage to the god of 
the state, but they were also wholly free to wor- 
ship their own particular gods. This ancient 
toleration carrie@§ however, the seeds of its 
own destruction within itself. For while it was 
allowed to people to worship what gods they 
pleased, it was rigidly required of them, re- 
gardless of what their personal faiths might be, 
to take part in the state religion. Naturally to 
persons who believed that there was and could 
be but one God, one religion, one worship, and 
that to take part tn any other worship was ex- 
ceedingly sinful, such a demand would become 
intolerable. While appearing to be tolerant it 
actually forced a person to go against his own 
conscience and to do what he believed to be 
hateful to God. When religion became more 
a personal than a state affair there grew up a 
bitter resentment against any sort of power that 
sought to compel a person to go against his 
conscience and against his God. The truth- 
fulness or actual value of a person’s religion 


LIBERTY 


is no part of the question. It is enough that 
there has sprung up from the deepest depths 
of the human heart and mind an unalterable 
and unconquerable opposition to any authority 
that seeks to force a man to worship in a way 
alien to his faith. 

The problem is much less simple than this 
seems to imply. It is hardly more than a 
century ago that it was finally conceded by the 
governing power that religion is not a state 
but a purely personal affair. Even at the present 
time this is not conceded in all countries. From 
time immemorial the state has had its religion 
as by law established, the idea being that the 
safety and welfare of the state depended upon 
the proper performance of the state religion. 
To protest and refuse to perform these re- 
ligious rites was to become a disorderly and 
possibly a revolutionary element within the 
state. Thus the issue was joined, those in 
control of the government insisting that the 
public order and safety required all to wor- 
ship according to the established religion and 
in no other way and in opposition to these an 
increasing number demanding as a matter of 
divine right the freedom to worship according 
to the dictates of their own conscience. Some- 
thing more than that is involved—and this 
is the most serious part of the trouble; the 
right of a person not only to worship but to 
teach, propagate the doctrine he believes true, 
so that others may be led to worship in his 


“way. This, under the old system of state re- 


ligion, plainly amounted to nothing less than 
the. right to form a party within the state at 
variance with the state religion and the state 
government. To the political necessity which 
forced the governing powers to suppress re- 
ligions other than that by law established, add 
the intense feeling each person had that his 
religion was the only true religion and the 
bitterness of the struggle between those de- 
manding and those opposed to religious liberty 
is easily understood. That the political rulers 
dreaded the revolutionary possibilities of re- 
ligious dissent; and the ecclesiastical author - 
ities feared that the freedom to teach heretical 
doctrines would lead the souls of men to per- 
dition, and on these grounds honestly sought 
to prevent such dissent and heresy by measures 
more or less severe, will not be doubted. But 
eventually the more clear-visioned statesmen 
saw that the evils resulting from this policy of 
religious suppression and oppression were a 
greater menace to political stability and to 
religion itself than any which could come from 
a reasonable religious freedom. 

The first attempt to grant and try out re- 
ligious freedom must be credited to Con- 
stantine in the Edict of Milan, 313 ap. This 
edict granted “both to the Christians and to 
all others free power of following whatever 
religion each may have preferred . The 
absolute power is to be denied to no one to 
give himself either to the worship of the 
Christians, or to that religion which he thinks 
most suited to himself” This exceedingly 


‘liberal decree did not inspire his successors. 


Not until we come to the American State con- 
stitutions is so broad a statute met with. Be- 
tween 313 a.v. and approximately 1775, re- 
ligious freedom, with but one or two excep- 
tions, was never conceded. Acts of toleration 
more or less generous, usually less, were 


LIBERTY 


occasionally granted with the hope of effect- 
ing a compromise. The practice of persecuting 
persons for dissent and heresy gradually went 
out of fashion. More and more frequently 


the courts ruled that it was not the business of . 


law to prohibit a person from exercising his 
religious faith so long as it did not, as Black- 
stone put it, “threaten ruin or disturbance of 
the state” In the recent (1918) trial of the 
followers of Pastor Russell the court made it 
plain that religious freedom never could be 
stretched‘ to confer the right to commit crime. 

Toleration was not the end sought. Tolera- 
tion is simply a favor granted. Toleration 
kept alive all sorts of political and other dis- 
abilities. In New England a person could not 
enjoy the franchise unless he were a member 
of a particular church in good and regular 
standing. In Europe similar disabilities were 
laid upon persons who refused to conform to 
the state’s religion. Toleration was as odious 
as oppression. What was all along demanded 
was the right of absolute equality of all re- 
ligions before the law. 

America led the way to this goal. It was 
the first and for a long time the only country 
to write the principle not of toleration but of 
religious freedom into the fundamental laws. 
What is perhaps the earliest attempt since the 
Edict of Milan to grant something like reli- 
gious freedom is found in the Maryland Tolera- 
tion Act of 1649. It reads “Whereas the en- 
forcing of the conscience in matters of Re- 
ligion hath frequently fallen out to be of 
dangerous consequence in those common- 
wealths where it hath been practiced, and for 
the more quiet and peaceable government of 
this Province, and the better to preserve mu- 
tual Love and amity amongst the Inhabitants 
thereof; Be it therefore enacted 


that no person or persons within this Province 


professing to believe in Jesus Christ, 

shall henceforth be in any ways troubled, 
molested or discountenanced for, or in respect 
to, his or her religion, ‘nor in the free exer- 
cise thereof nor in any way compelled 
to believe or exercise any other religion against 
his or her consent, so that they be not un- 
faithful to the lord proprietary, or molest or 
conspire against the civil government.” Just 
how much the liberal spirit toward religious 
differences which actuated the Plymouth colo- 
nists contributed to the establishment of reli- 
gious freedom in America there is no way of 
telling. The contribution was undoubtedly 
large. More conspicuous if not more im- 
portant is the work in this direction of Roger 
Williams, founder of Rhode Island. To secure 
real religious liberty was the ambition of his 
life. His great desire was “to hold forth a 
lively experiment, that a most flourishing civil 
state may stand and best be maintained with a 
full liberty of religious concernments.» The 
charter issued in 1663 reads “No person within 
the said colony (Rhode Island), at any time 
hereafter, shall be in any wise molested, pun- 
ished, disqualified, or called in question for 
any difference of opinion in matters of re- 
ligion: every person may at all times freely 
and fully enjoy his own judgment and con- 
science in matters of religious concernments.»” 
Although religious persecutions and dis- 
abilities continued far into the 18th century in 
many parts of America the principles of re- 


349 


ligious liberty were gradually becoming clearer 
and more firmly established. When, therefore, 
during the Revolutionary period and soon there- 
after the various States made constitutions for 
themselves, liberty of religion was one of the 
things most explicitly provided for. The Con- 
stitutional Convention of Virginia, 1776, led 
the way in its adoption of the Bill of Rights. 
The amendment proposed by Madison and 
adopted puts the point clearly, “No man or 
class of men, ought on account of religion to 
be invested with peculiar emoluments or privi- 
leges, nor subjected to any penalties or dis- 
abilities, unless under color of religion the 
preservation of equal liberty and the existence 
of the state are manifestly endangered.” 
Jefferson points out that the law of October 
1785 entitled, “An Act Establishing Religious 
Freedom” in Virginia was designed to “com- 
prehend within the mantle of its protection the 
Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Ma- 
hometan, the Hindu and Infidel of every de- 
nomination.» \The provisions of the act itself 
are so broad as to be virtually the last word in 
the matter. “Be it enacted by the General 
Assembly, that no man shall be compelled to 
frequent or support any religious worship, 
place, or ministry whatever; nor shall be en- 
forced, restrained, molested, burthened in his 
body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on 
account of his religious opinions or belief; but 
that all men shall be free to profess, and by 
argument to maintain, their opinion in matters 
of religion, and that the same shall in no wise 
diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities.” 
Other States were moving in the same direction 
though not always with the same completeness. 
Some States hesitated to grant fullest liberty. 
Thus Pennsylvania, while conceding that “all 
men have a natural and inalienable right to 
worship God, according to the dictates of their 
own conscience,” required office holders (1776) 
to affirm belief in God, in future rewards and 
punishment and the divine inspiration of the 
Old and New Testaments. This test was 
abolished by the constitution of 1790, but the 
case of Updegraph v. the Commonwealth in 
1824 disclosed the curious fact that it is still 
unlawful in Pennsylvania “to speak lightly or 
profanely of Almighty God, Christ Jesus, the 
Holy Ghost or the Scriptures of Truth” But 
despite this, and evidencing that full religious 
liberty no longer even waits on the law, Jews, 
Unitarians, Ethical Culturists and non-Chris- 
tians are free to worship as they will and 
suffer no sort of disability therefrom. It is 
hardly necessary to state that the United States 
Constitution most effectively guarantees full 
liberty of religion. “Congress shall make no 
law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The 
situation in the United States may be summed 
up as follows: All the State constitutions pro- 
vide that no law can be passed establishing a 
religion, no person can be compelled to attend 
any form of religious service, or contribute to 
the support of any religion. No restraint can 
be put on the free exercise or expression, 
or promulgation of any religion. But this free- 
dom must not be “so construed as to excuse 
acts inconsistent with the peace and safety of 
the state.” 

A limitation of religious freedom not con- 
templated in the statute or in judicial decisions 


350 


came to light in the Crapsey heresy trial of 
1906. Against the defendant’s claim of the 
right of freedom to teach what he conceived 
to be the truth in religious doctrine it was 


argued by the prosecution that as a regularly. 


ordained priest of the Episcopal Church and 
by the terms of his ordination he was free 
only to teach what the Church set forth as 
true, and this argument was sustained by the 
ecclesiastical court that tried the case. It is 
doubtful whether that decision can be con- 
strued as a contradiction of the principles of 
religious liberty for which men fought so long. 
But “gradually,” as Herbert Spencer remarks, 
“during recent centuries, the right of free 
speech on religious matters, more and more 
asserted has been more and more admitted; 
until now there is no restraint on the public 
utterance of any religious opinion, unless the 
utterance is gratuitously insulting in manner 
or form.” 

The literature of the subject is widely dis- 
tributed through various historical writings 
and the contemporary chronicles of different 
periods. A very sound and comprehensive 
survey of the subject will be found in Sanford 
H. Cobb’s ‘Rise of Religious Liberty in 
America. 

CHARLES GRAVES. 


LIBERTY, Statue of, the name of a co- 
lossal statue on Bedloe’s Island in New York 
harbor. On 28 Oct. 1886, after more than 12 
years of preparation, this statue, given by the 
people of France to the United States, was 
dedicated and unveiled. The statue was the 
conception of M. Frédéric Bartholdi, who de- 
signed it for the Franco-American Union in 
1874. It was built by popular subscriptions in 
France to commemorate the hundredth anni- 
versary of American independence, and re- 
quired over five years for its completion. It 
was mounted in Paris in October 1881. The 
American pedestal for the statute was not 
commenced till April 1883, and was finally 
finished in 1886. This was built by popular 
subscription. The’ statue was erected on an 
iron framework bolted firmly to the stone ped- 
estal. It was dedicated 23 Oct. 1886. The 
statue, which is of copper sheets 2% mm in 


thickness, is of the following dimensions: 
Feet Inches 

Water-level to top of pedestal............... 149° 10 
Statue proper to:tdp ofitorch’. -s7. tai . 151 5 

Total height from water-level............ 301 3 
IGel-LOrcOp: OL, MEAG S hiie Brak ats aecob ones ateactore eis 111 6 
herigth offhand saath. Pe iY. ESS eee 16 Le 
Meee eo Aaabale (sy ge na aS eT Oe Ce a rg en erence pred 0 
Circumference at second ane AO a Be Te Om coh 7 6 
Size of finger-nail. . nee 13 x 10 in 
Head:of chin ‘to erahium ts). na AOD. . 17 3 
Head-thickness from-ear to ear.............. 10 0 
Distance between the eyes. ........+--+-eee- 2 6 
Deieth OF NOSEy ee. See ee tates one apace 4 6 
Riphtwarm encthik, Ceaeoe, Geek hi sae ictesaeend sae 42 0 
Right arm, greatest thickness..............-.- 12 0 
Thickness Of waist.) a ake os 35 0 
Wadth of oth! 82 ar trkis aeettrete ottrnies oe 3 0 
Tablet; lengthy <a. tii ota s . ae Pee 23 7 
La blets wat ico cai cers bad Ribyhoretone ania BeRteeiea axe 13 7 
Tablet, thickness. 90s he's ie deste EET een ae 2 0 


The statue weighs 450,000 pounds or 225 
tons; the copper alone weighs 200,000 pounds. 
Forty persons can stand comfortably i in the head, 
and the torch will hold 12 people. The num- 
ber of steps from the base of the foundation 
to the top of the torch is 403; from the ground 
to the top of the pedestal 195 steps. The num- 


LIBERTY, STATUE OF — LIBERTY PARTY 


ber of steps in the statue from the pedestal to 
the head is\ 154, and the ladder leading up 
through the extended right arm to the torch 
has 54 rounds. The cost of the statue is esti- 
mated at $250,000; the cost of the pedestal and 
the erection of the statue, $350,000; total cost 
of the work completed, $600,000. The light in 
the torch at the top of the Statue of Liberty 
is maintained by the lighthouse service of the 
government. On 2 Dec. 1916 arrangements 
were completed for the permanent lighting of 
the entire statue, the signal being given by 
President Wilson for the turning on of the 
lights. The funds for the permanent illumina- 
tion were collected by the New York World 
through popular subscription. Liberty exceeds 
in height the Colossus of Rhodes, which was 
said to have been about 105 feet high. That 
of Nero is said by Suetonius to have been 120 
feet high. The statue of Charles Borromeo, 


. which is still standing on the Lake of Geneva, 


is 66 feet high and is mounted on a pedestal 
measuring 46 feet. The celebrated statue of 
Jupiter carved by Phidias is said to have been 
60 feet in height. 


LIBERTY BELL, the bell which for- 
merly hung in the dome of the old State House 
(Independence Hall), Philadelphia, and was 
rung to announce the signing of the Declara- 
tion of Independence, 4 July 1776. It was cast 
in England especially for the State House and 
was brought from there in 1752; in being taken 
from the ship it met with an accident which 
spoiled its tone, and it was recast in Phila- 
delphia in 1753, when the words Proclaim 
liberty throughout all the land unto all the 
inhabitants thereof” (Lev. xxv, 10) were in- 
scribed on it. When the British occupied Phila- 
delphia the bell was taken down and hidden 
in the Delaware River near Trenton, but was 
afterward hung in its old position, and for 
several years rung every Fourth. On 8 July 
1835 it was broken while tolling for the death 
of Chief Justice Marshall. In 1854 it was 
placed in the hall of the old State House on a 
pedestal with 13 sides, representing the number 
of original States. In 1893 it was carried to 
Chicago for the World’s- Fair, and in many 
cities through which it was carried was greeted 
with special demonstrations; and has since been 
specially exhibited at expositions in other cities, 
notably at Saint Louis 1904 and at the Panama- 
Pacific Exposition, San Francisco, 1915. Con- 
sult Belisle, ‘History of Independence Hall. 


LIBERTY BOYS, a popular name given 
He Sons of Liberty during the American Revo- 
ution. 


LIBERTY PARTY, the first political 
organization of the American Abolitionists 
(q.v.). The Anti-Slavery Society was com- 
posed of two wings steadily and at last de- 
cisively diverging: the politicals, who wished 
the work to be carried on as ‘other reform 
measures are, by massing its supporters, and 
either winning a decisive victory or extorting 
gradual compromises from its opponents: and 
the Garrison wing, who refused to vote, hold 
office or in any way recognize a government 
which legitimized slavery, denounced the Con- 
stitution and denounced the churches and 
ministers for refusal to join the movement. 
The violence of this branch and the revolution- 
ary and sometimes offensive social theories 


LIBERTY OF THE PRESS 


associated with it made the other wing anxious 
to part company; and this was brought about 
in 1838 by suggesting the nomination and sup- 
port of abolitionist candidates. The next year, 
on the refusal of the Garrisonians to listen, 
the political wing split away and in 1839-40 
organized the “American and Foreign Anti- 
Slavery Society.» Among the leaders of this 
secession were James G. Birney, Arthur Tap- 
pan, Gerrit Smith, J. G. Whittier, Edward 
Beecher, John Jay and Thomas Morris. In 
a convention at Warsaw, N. Y., 13 Nov. 1839, 
this branch nominated Birney (a Kentucky 
ex-slaveholder) for President and Francis J. 
Lemoyne for Vice-President. A national con- 
vention (mainly from New York) was held 
1 April 1840, confirmed these nominations and 
took the name of the Liberty party. The nomi- 
nees refused to accept, but were voted for 
none-the-less, and received 7,059 votes in the 
Harrison-Van Buren election of 1840, of which 
2,798 were from New York State. During the 
next four years the party put up tickets in 
various local elections. On 30 Aug. 1844 it 
held another national convention at Buffalo. 
Polk was already nominated by the Democrats, 
on the issue of Texas annexation, which Clay 
had dodged, securing the nomination by the 
Whigs; but the Liberty party had pronounced 
against all ostrich policies or candidates and 
nominated Birney again, with Thomas Morris 
of Ohio as Vice-President. They received 
62,300 votes, all in the North and Northwest, 
except 15,812 in New York. Small as this vote 
was, it turned the scale in New York and 
Michigan against Clay and elected Polk, the 
Southern Democrat; decided the annexation of 
Texas and reinforced the slave party with new 
territory six times the size of New England. 
This result, however it might prove the poten- 
tial power of the party, was not wholly satisfac- 
tory, and although they polled 74,017 votes in 
the elections of 1846, it was evident that a pure 
Abolitionist party was premature. The Abo- 
litionists, therefore, dropped their separate 
organization, and although they had nominated 
John P. Hale for President and Leicester 
King for Vice-President in 1847, these candi- 
dates withdrew and in 1848 and 1852 their 
adherents voted for the candidates of the Free 
Soil party (q.v.). It was felt that they accom- 
plished much more by strengthening the forces 
of this practical movement, whose enemies were 
constantly playing into their hands, than they 
could have done with the straight ticket. After 
the rise of the Republican party the former 
Abolitionists formed part of its reliance and 
advance guard. 


LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. Liberty of 
the press means not only freedom to publish 
one’s thought in printed form but freedom of 
speech as well, there being no essential differ- 
ence between the written and spoken word. 
Liberty to publish by speech or print one’s own 
opinions, subject to certain limitations which 
can hardly be said to limit the fundamental 
principle, is regarded as one of the natural or 
absolute rights of man. The Bill of Rights 
(1689), while making no mention of liberty 
of the press, stipulates “that the freedom of 
speech and debates or proceedings in Parlia- 
‘ment ought not to be impeached in any court 
or place out of Parliament.” The constitutions 
of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and 


351 


North Carolina, all adopted in 1776, are the 
earliest declarations of any legislative author- 
ity in favor of the liberty of the press. With 
the adoption in 1791 of Article One, amending 
the United States Constitution, by which it is 
commanded that “Congress shall make no law 
: . abridging the freedom of speech or of 
the press,» the principle of a free press and 
free speech is for the first time written into 
the fundamental. law of an important nation. 
In 1768 a Massachusetts legislative body re- 
fused to support Governor Bernard in his 
demand that the editor of the Gazette be pun- 
ished for libeling his honor and asserted instead 
that “the Liberty of the Press is a great Bul- 
wark of the Liberty of the People: It is 
therefore the incumbent Duty of those who 
are constituted the Guardians of the People’s 
Rights to defend and maintain it.” 

The struggle for a free press began almost 
immediately after the introduction of printing. 
Though actually antedating the Reformation by 
a century it. was not until Luther’s time, how- 
ever, that the printing press revealed itself 
as a powerful agency in the wide and rapid 
distribution of ideas, creating new public 
opinion and stirring men to united action. 
Contemporary writers mention with amazement 
that in 14 days Luther’s theses were found in 
every corner of Germany; in a month they had 
gone to the ends of Christendom “as though 
the angels were the postmen.” And so, as 
Putnam points out, early in the 16th century 
“the rulers of the State and the authorities of 
the church began to find occasion for alarm 
at the increasing range of the printed word, 
and came to the conclusion that if the com- 
munity was not to be undermined by 
dangerous and demoralizing opinion, measures 
must be taken to maintain supervision and con- 
trol over the production of books.» This was 
hardly a new thing for the rulers and authori- 
ties to attempt. From the time of Augustus 
down, rulers of empire and Church had per- 
ceived the danger to the power and perma- 
nence of their rule in allowing men to speak 
and write freely in criticism of prominent per- 
sons and the established order, and uttering 
and advocating ideas subversive of those upon 
which the then existing political sway rested. 
The question whether those in authority who 
prohibited free speech and a free press were as 
pure-minded and as clean-purposed as those 
who fought for such freedom does not enter 
into the discussion. The situation as it existed, 
and still exists, is that the organization of State 
and of Church represents certain social ideas 
and relations, also certain ideas which should 
govern the rights, authority and power of the 
rulers and the duties and obligations of the 
people. In Luther’s time, and before, satisfied 
—whether selfishly or unselfishly was not the 
point —that such organization and order were 
little or nothing short of divine in truth and 
worth, it was the natural, the inevitable thing 
for those in authority to try and suppress any 
and every word written or spoken which criti- 
cised or expressed a doubt as to the wisdom 
and validity of the existing order. As there - 
would be no restriction placed upon those who 
spoke and wrote in favor and support of the 
established order, it is clear that the men strug- 
gling for a free press and free speech were 
inevitably those who, for reasons good enough 


352 


for them, were opposed to things as they were, 
who were advocating ideas that were more or 
less revolutionary. 

According to Tacitus, Augustus was the 
first ruler to undertake to punish a word writ- 
ten or spoken. The writings of Vejinto were 
suppressed by Nero. Concerning this incident 
Tacitus remarks, “so long as the possession of 
these writings was attended with danger, they 
were eagerly sought and read; when there was 
no longer any difficulty in securing them they 
fell into oblivion.» From 150 A.p. and on, the 
Church incréasingly made it a practice to issue 
edicts against books. The fifth Council of 
Lateran, 1516, adopted a papal constitution 
which recited the injury to faith, morals and 
the public peace arising from the increasing 
number of books opposed to religion or mak- 
ing libelous attacks on individuals. In Scot- 
land in 1585 the authors of libels against the 
king of Scotland were punished with death, and 
it was the king or his servants who determined 
whether the king had been libeled, In 1680 
12 English judges solemnly resolved “that all 
books which are scandalous to the government 
may be seized and all persons so exposing them 
may be punished. And further, that all writers 
of news, though not scandalous, seditious nor 
reflective upon the government or State, yet, 
if they are writers (as there are few else) of 
false news, they are indictable and punishable 
on that account.” As late as 1808 a high judi- 
cial authority declares that it is “not to be 
permitted to any man to make the people dis- 
satished with the Government under which he 
lives.” Miulton’s ‘Areopagitica? (1644) tells 
with matchless force how great were the efforts 
made to “stifle the voice of argument, to ban 
and proscribe the press” or compel it to utter 
only such sentiments as meet the approval of 
those in authority. From the outset the prob- 
lem was not whether a person ought or ought 
not to.be free to publish whatever idea he 
believed to be true and good, but whether that 
was for the public good and safety. The free 
publication and distribution of literature advo- 
cating doctrines sufficiently antagonistic to the 
existing order to cause a war plainly could not 
be permitted, at least so it would seem. The 
champions of a free press saw Clearly enough 
that this was after all by no means the point 
at issue. They had no desire for freedom to 
stir up rebellion, to slander and defame and 
lead astray. There were a thousand and one 
things that were all wrong in the existing 
order and all they asked was freedom to dis- 
cuss the faults and follies, “the corruptions 
and defects, and bring forward if possible 
ideas which could be made the foundations of 
a better social and political order. To the 
charge that the ideas being advocated by those 
who demanded freedom of speech and press 
were abominable and menacing error and could 
lead only to anarchy the reply was that “error 
of opinion may be tolerated where reason is 
left free to combat it” or to use the words of 
Mill, “complete liberty of contradicting and 
disproving our opinion is the very condition 
which justifies us in assuming its truth for pur- 
poses of action; and on no other terms can a 
being with human faculties have any rational 
assurance of being right,” and so to prohibit 
discussion and free publishing of opinion is to 


LIBERTY OF THE PRESS 


“determine the judgment by an influence other 
than reason... Furthermore it could be effec- 
tively answered that the opponents of liberty 
of speech and press were assuming not only 
the responsibility of maintaining public order 
and safety but were claiming infallibility of 
understanding and judgment. Dr. Robert Hall 
in his address “An Apology for the Liberty 
of the Press” (1793) presents the matter in 
another fashion, “When a nation forms a goy- 
ernment, it is not wisdom but power which 
they place in the hands of a magistrate; from 
whence it follows, his concern is only with 
those objects which power can operate upon. 
On this account the administration of justice, 
the protection of property, and the defense of 
every member of the community from violence 
and outrage, fall naturally within the province 
of the civil ruler, for these may all be accom- 
plished by power; but an attempt to distinguish 
truth from error, and to countenance one set 
of opinions to the prejudice of another is to 
apply power in a manner mischievous and 
absurd.” That was the basis of the contention: 
the government whose chief business it is to 
preserve order by punishing crime transcends 
its authority and function when it proposes to 
determine whether this or that opinion is true. 
As Mill points out, when it comes to the gov- 
ernment’s passing judgment on the impiety or 
falseness of.a word written or spoken, the cases 
of Socrates, of Jesus and of many others indi- 


~cate the menace of such exercise of authority. 


When a person utters sedition or incites to 
crime he is hardly expressing an opinion, he is 
plainly guilty of criminal conduct. Words are 
sometimes deeds. Beginning with Milton’s 
masterly defense of the liberty of the press 
there is manifested a slowly growing apprecia- 
tion of the need and the possibility of keeping 
the press and speech free without giving free 
rein to those who are criminally minded. That 
this became the attitude of judicial authorities 
is seen in the opinion of Lord Wynford in 
Rex v. Burdett: “My opinion of the liberty of 
the press is that every man ought to be per- 
mitted to instruct his fellow-subjects; that 
every man may fearlessly advance any new doc- 
trines, provided he does so with proper respect 
to religion and government of the country; 
that he may point out errors in the measures of 
public men, but he must not impute criminal 
conduct to them. The liberty of the press can- 
not be carried to this extent without violating 
another equally sacred right, the right of char- 
acter. . . Where vituperation begins, the 
liberty of the press ends.” Of much more im- 
portance in the history of the struggle for a 
free press is the earlier incident of the trial 
of John Peter Zenger in New York, 1735, for 
“publishing a false, scandalous and _ seditious 
libel, in which the king’s immediate 
representative here is greatly and unjustly 
scandalized.» It established once and for all 
in North America “that in prosecution for 
libel the jury were the judges of both the law 
and the fact.” Even more significant is the 
temper of the people which this trial revealed. 
The jury despite explicit instruction of the 
court to the contrary brought in a verdict of 
“not guilty.» The mass of the people had come 
to see that the highest public welfare and 
safety depended upon the right of man to pro- 


LIBERTY TREE — LIBIDO 


test. freely against and expose publicly all 
wrong doing, particularly any evil doing or 
oppression of rulers. This right, as already 
pointed out, was clearly embodied in the Con- 
stitution of the United States and the con- 
stitutions of several States some 50 years later. 
But Louisiana in the constitution adopted in 
1868 puts it down quite explicitly “printing 
presses shall be free to every person who 
undertakes to examine the proceedings of the 
legislature or any branch of government, and 
no law shall ever be made to restrain the right 
thereof» This same constitution recognizes 
very emphatically the fact of life which moved 
the most scholarly and large minded of men to 
champion the cause of a free press, viz.: that 
political and economic and intellectual freedom 
and progress, without which life is less than 
human, are impossible without liberty to speak 
and publish one’s thoughts and opinions. So 
the Louisiana constitution continues: “The 
free communication of thoughts and opinions 
is one of the most invaluable rights of man 
and every citizen may freely speak, write and 
print on any subject, being responsible for the 
abuse of that liberty» The fundamental laws 
of most nations as reconstituted or modified 
during the last century attempt to provide for 
the “free communication of thoughts and 
opinions” without conferring the right to com- 
mit what may properly be regarded as crime. 
A few instances will serve to give the general 
situation. The Belgian Constitution of 1831 
declares that the press is free, that censorship 
shall never be established; sureties shall not be 
exacted from writers, editors, printers, and 
when the author is known and domiciled in 
Belgium the printer and bookseller cannot be 
prosecuted. But an author or speaker must 
not incite to crime or disobedience of the law; 
nor may he attack the constitutional authority 
or inviolability of the dynasty, nor the au- 
thority and rights of the chambers. In Italy 
the press has been free under fairly reasonable 
restrictions since the law of 1848, but Spain led 
the way among European nations. The con- 
stitution of 1812 promulgated by the regency in 
the name of Ferdinand VII provides “that all 
Spaniards shall have liberty to write, print and 
publish their political ideas without any neces- 
sity of license, examination or approbation 
previous to publication,” subject of course to 
restrictions imposed by law. Austria-Hungary 
in the fundamental law of 1867 declares every 
one has the right of freely expressing his 
thoughts within the limits imposed by law. 
Germany, in the constitution of the empire, de- 
clares the press to be free subject to usual 
limitations of law. The law of 1878, however, 
gives the police very large powers over the 
socialistic press. The French law of 1881 be- 
gins by asserting the liberty of the press and 
bookselling under certain restraints which are 
plainly ‘designed in the interests of justice and 
the public weal. Qualifying these constitu- 
tional declarations of freedom by certain re- 
strictive laws. while in theory a contradiction 
of the principle, in fact is hardly so. It is 
only what the constitution of Louisiana means 
by declaring that a person is to be held “re- 
sponsible for the abuse of that liberty” Her- 
bert Spencer puts th: matter clearly enough: 
“So long as he does not suggest the commis- 
sion of crimes each citizen is free to say what 
JoL. 17-— 23 


353 


he pleases about any or all of our institutions 
—even to the advocacy of a form of govern- 
ment utterly different from that which exists, 
or to the condemnation of all governments.” 
Censorship in war-times can hardly be pointed 
out as denial or as overthrow of the principle 
of a free press now so fairly well established. 
It will hardly be held that anyone has any 
more of a right to say or write a word which 
will lend aid and comfort to the enemy than 
he has to aid an enemy by armed insurrection... 
The ease and speed with which information 
can be transmitted makes it necessary to put 
the publishing of news in war time under re- 
strictions hitherto undreamed of. Writers on 
this subject of a. free press have felt it neces- 
sary to direct attention to the menace contained 
in the “Act of Congress approved 26 Sept. 
1888” and the former act of 1878 which 
designed to prevent distribution through the 
mail of obscene matter and matter offensive 
to the public taste. The menace is not in the 
thing aimed at’ but in the fact that it gives to 
an official in the Post Office Department abso- 
lute power to determine whether an article in 
a newspaper or periodical or a chapter in a 
book is obscene or offensive to good taste, and 
from his decision there is no appeal, and no re- 
dress even if he should be wrong. No less a 
man than Thomas Erskine a century ago 
pointed out the serious menace in allowing any 
individual; or even a self-appointed group of 
individuals, to determine what is offensive to 
good taste. It is not likely that the liberty of 
the press will have to be fought for again. 

The bibliography on this subject is scattered 
and the subject is usually discussed as a part 
of the larger subject of personal and individual 
liberty. Milton, John, ‘Areopagitica, is the 
great classic; consult also Mill, J. S., ‘Essay 
on Liberty?; ‘Trial of John Peter Zenger?; 
Putnam, G. H., ‘Books and Their Makers in 
the Middle Ages; Schroeder, T., ‘Free Press 
Anthology.” 

CHARLES GRAVES. 


LIBERTY TREE, (1) a famous ballad of 
the Revolutionary War, written by Thomas 
Paine in 1775. (2) An old elm tree in Boston 
upon which the citizens hanged in effigy British 
officials connected with the Stamp Act and its 
enforcement. 


LIBI-DIVI, lé’bée-dé’vé. See Drivi-prvt1. 


LIBIDO, a term introduced into analytic 
psychology in 1895 by Sigmund Freud of Vienna 
and used by him to denote the vital urge or 
drive or craving, which is behind all human 
endeavor and especially the desire of the re- 
productive instincts. Jung of Ziirich has sub- 
stituted for it the term Hormé [Greek: opp]. 
The libido is regarded as. having two main 
phases or aspects: the sexual, or race preserva- 
tive, and the nutritive, or self-preservative. 
Every human activity is regarded as satisfying 
in some form one or the other of these spheres 
of desire and as the result of the specification in 
concrete reality of one or other of them. Thus 
various forms of art may be the expression of 
the sexual libido, and various callings and 
professions and types of business activity such 
as dealing in foods or in clothing are expres- 
sions in different forms of the self-preservative 
urge. This point of view is of great import- 
ance, particularly in the psychotherapeutics of 


354 


certain psychogenic nervous disorders. In 
hysteria, for example, the libido is regarded as 
fixated on the physiological level with the result 
that there is an exaggerated activity in some of 
the physiological processes producing an in- 
creased flow of blood or lymph or certain of the 
internal secretions in some of the organs, pro- 
ducing in turn a change in metabolism which 
causes an over-development. This is termed a 
hysterical conversion and is made manifest in 
many of the symptoms so varied in hysteria. 
In compulsion neurosis, on the other hand, the 
libido becomes fixated at an early age upon 
certain psychic elements with the result that 
special forms of thought, compulsive fear, com- 
pulsive doubt, compulsive action, etc., occur, 
without producing any specific change in the 
physiological functions. Analytic psychology, 
as practised therapeutically by physicians, aims 
to resolve the fixations of the libido and thus 
free the patient from his physical symptoms or 
from his mental inhibitions and therefore to 
educate him in such a way as to be better able 
to fulfil the requirements imposed upon him by 
society. Consult Jelliffe, “Technique Psycho- 
analysis? (New York 1918). 


LIBMANAN, lib-ma-nan, or LIBANAN, 
lé-ba’ nan, Philippines, pueblo of the province 
of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, situated on the 
Polanluna River near its confluence with the 
Naga, 10 miles northwest of Nueva Caceres. It 
is on the main road, and is a telegraph and 
military station. It has also important hemp 
and rice industries. Pop. 14,500. 


LIBRA, (1) the ancient Roman pound 
weight, also a Spanish and Italian weight. 
Translated into modern grains Troy, these 
ancient libra vary, but are usually between 5,000 
and 7,000 grains. (2) The original meaning is 
balance or pair of scales. (3) One of the 
ancient zodiacal constellations. The seventh 
sign of the zodiac is called Libra, because at 
its first point the ecliptic crosses the equator to 
the southern hemisphere, and we have then the 
autumal equinox, when day and night are, as 
it were, equally balanced. 


LIBRARIES, Ancient. The written word 
in some form or other is of immemorial antiq- 
uity. Discoveries in Crete and Assyria-Babylonia 
and at Susa (Persia) have proved that 
relatively advanced civilizations were in ex- 
istence as nearly as 6000 years B.c., and that the 
art of writing had been developed at that time. 
Some of the collections of stone and clay 
tablets unearthed at Knossos (Crete). and Nip- 
pur (Babylonia), seem to have the characteris- 
tics of libraries, even according to the strict 
definition of the term jibrary (Latin liber, 
book) : a collection of books or other literary 
material preserved -for reference or study; the 
designation also, by association, of the place or 
building wherein they are kept. This doubt- 
less cannot be said of many finds of ancient 
cuneiform tablets for these were merely legal, 
commercial or sacerdotal archives, but others 
are historical, philosophic or epical,— pure 
literature in fact. The fact that stone and clay 
records have been preserved does not prove 
that more perishable materials were not used, 
for there is an example of Egyptian hieratic 
writing dating back to 3,000 years Bc. in the 
Louvre. The incised stone records of Egypt, 
many of them of immense antiquity, contain 


LIBMANAN — LIBRARIES, ANCIENT 


references to papyrus rolls. The roll (Latin 
volumen, volume) was the first stage in the 
development of the book, the second being the 
codex or the book as familiarly known, con- 
sisting of separate sheets bound together. This 
was probably a development of waxed tablets, 
used by the Greeks, the adoption of which has 
been traditionally ascribed to the kings of Per- 
gamus who were forced to use parchment 
(Pergamentum) for their books, the Egyptians 
having placed an embargo on papyrus. Just 
when paper supplanted parchment is not defi- 
nitely known, but the indications are that the 
Arabs were the first to make and use paper, 
Arabian manuscripts of the 9th and 10th cen- 
turies being in existence. Paper mills were in 
operation during the 12th century. Paper was 
known to the Chinese at a very early date, but 
the ancient Chinese book is a phase of the sub- 
ject yet to be investigated. Recent explorations 
have added a most astonishing store of 
knowledge regarding the ancient world and 
there is little obscurity now regarding the 
existence and constitution of the libraries of 
the Classic Orient. The investigations of - 
Paul Emile Botta, Sir Austen Henry Layard, 
Dr. John P. Peters and his successors, Dr. 
John ‘Henry Hayes and Dr. H. V. Hilprecht 
of the University of Pennsylvania, have 
proved that a library in the strict sense of the 
term formed a part of nearly every temple and 
probably every royal palace. More than 50,000 
tablets have been found, comprehending his- 
torical and traditional records, epical narra- 
tions, folksongs and ballads, hymns and 
prayers, medical lore and philosophy. Thus 
the temples were centres of literary as well as 
religious activity, the temple of Enlil at Nip- 
pur, that of the Sun-god at Sippar and others 
in Babylonia possessing large collections of 
tablets. 

Assyro-Babylonian Empire.— Asur-bani- 
pal (668-626 z.c.), known in Greek history as 
Sardanapalus, the grandson of the Biblical 
Sennacherib,. was the first ruler of Assyria 
recorded to have taken an interest in the col- 
lection of literature. “Being endowed with 
an attentive ear, and inclined to the study of all 
tablets,» he commanded that a great collection 
be gathered together in Nineveh to form the 
royal library. This was classified and indexed, 
and fortunately left undisturbed when Nineveh 
fell into ruins. Thousands of tablets from this 
library are in the British Museum and consti- 
tute one of the great sources of knowledge re- 
garding Assyro-Babylonian civilization. | 

Egypt.— It is impossible to say whether the 
libraries of ancient Egypt antedate those of 
the Assyro-Babylonian empires or not. 
Scribes, however, were known in Egypt as 
early as 6000 B.c. As in Assyria-Babylonia, the 
temples were centres of learning in which were 
gathered records and literary productions of all 
kinds. The rulers often encouraged learning 
and made collections as is evidenced by 
hieroglyphic inscriptions on their tombs and 
monuments. A reference of this nature is 
contained in an inscription on a tomb near the 
Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), and another in- 
scription refers to the library (collected works) 
of Khufu. Papyrus was undoubtedly used in 
Egypt at a very early date, one of the most 
ancient examples being a roll relating the acts 
of King Assa (3580-3536 B.c.). An early ex- 


LIBRARIES 


‘ A i AML gp ea neg neninninuce cin 
yaaaanraltnian ‘iiaaiaeee 
Glas og 


. 
gi 


The British Museum, London 


LIBRARIES es 


Copyright, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


THE VATICAN LIBRARY, ROME 


One of the richly decorated halls, 220 feet long. This stately hall is not the largest of the library rooms. In the Vatican 


Palace are 11,000 rooms and halls, and its library preserves some of the rarest and most valuable manuscripts and books in 
existence; these include a copy of Virgil 1600 years old; a copy of the Bible in Greek 1500 years old 


LIBRARIES, ANCIENT 


ample of a purely literary papyrus is the Prisse 
papyrus, composed about 2500 s.c._ Professor 
W. Flinders Petrie, during his researches in 
Fayiim, discovered papyri in mummy cases that 
dated back 3000 or more years B.c. That clay 
tablets were also used by the Egyptians is proved 
by his discovery of a collection of the reign of 
Amenophis IV (Amenhotep, 1466 B.c.). These 
were unearthed at the site of the king’s palace 
in the city founded by him, Tel-el-Amarna. 
Heliopolis, the city of the Sun God, prior to 
the rise of Alexandria, was the centre of 
Egyptian culture. Here were numerous tem- 
ples, each of which had its library of papyri, 
among them the famous Sacred Books of 
Thoth, an encyclopedia of ancient wisdom. 
Brugsch, in his ‘True Story of the Exodos? (p. 
204), states that there was a library in the temple 
at Edfu, on the walls of which was a list of the 
works contained in the collection. The most 
noted library of ancient Egypt was that formed 
by King Osymandyas, who has been identified 
with the Biblical Rameses II (1300-1236 B.c.). 
This collection was in the palace of the king, 
the Ramesseum, Thebes, and is described by 
Didorus Siculus (I, 58 Wessling ed.) as “the 
dispensary of the mind” The Persian subjuga- 
tion under Cambyses (527 sB.c.) marks the close 
of Ancient Egyptian culture and undoubtedly 
many collections of literature were destroyed 
during that period. The Persian influence was 
succeeded by the Greek and then the Roman, 
hence the later library history of Egypt 
properly belongs to those nations. 

Ancient Greece.— Greek papyri of great 
antiquity have been found in Egyptian tombs, 
one of these, discovered at Abusir, near Mem- 
phis, dating as early as 4000 3.c. We do not 
know just when collections of literature began 
to be made, for classic historians state that 
libraries were first developed when Greece had 
already reached a very high degree of civiliza- 
tion. Thus Aulus Gellius asserts that the first 
library of Greece was founded by Pisistratus 
(605-527 s.c.). The same tradition is repeated 
by Atheneus. That Pisistratus was a notable 
patron of learning is unquestioned, yet collec- 
tions undoubtedly antedated his. The tradition 
that he founded the first library doubtless arose 
from the fact that he was responsible for the 
collecting and editing of the various poems of 
the Homeric cycle. Polycrates, the tyrant of 
Samos (d. 522 n.c.), and friend of the poet 
Anacreon, was also a patron of letters and is 
said to have formed a library. Others known 
to have been collectors and lovers of books 
were Nicocreon of Cyprus, the kings of Per- 
gamus, Euripides the poet, Euclid the mathe- 
matician, Aristotle the philosopher and Neleus, 
his biographer (Athenzeus, ‘Deipnosophiste,? 
lib. c. 4). Strabo asserts that it was Aristotle 
himself, who formed the first library in Greece 
and gives a graphic description of its vicis- 
situdes, which included its burial for many 
years to keep it out of the rapacious hands of 
the kings of Pergamus, antiquity’s prototypes 
of the modern bibliomaniac. The most famous 
libraries of Greek antiquity, however, were 
those at Alexandria, developed during the 
régime of the Ptolemies. See ALEXANDRIAN 
LipraRY. 

Pergamon Libraries.— Hardly less famous 
than the Alexandrian libraries were those 
founded by the kings of Pergamus. During 


355 


the two centuries prior to the Christian era, 
Greek civilization reached an astonishing height 
in the cities of Asia Minor. Among these, 
Pergamon was the most noted for its love of 
art and letters. Under Attalus I (241-197 
B.c.) and his son, Eumenes II (197-159 z.c.), 
the city was beautified, objects of art were 
created or imported in great numbers and learn- 
ing in every form was encouraged. It is prob- 
able that Attalus founded the libraries of Per- 
gamon, but it was his successor that developed 
them, seeking throughout the world to obtain 
texts by any means and from any source. It 


_has already been noted that Aristotle’s library, 


according to Strabo, was hidden away in a 
cave in order to prevent its falling into the 
hands of the agents of the kings of Pergamon. 
Strabo, however, wrote more than a century 
after these happenings and, as he is often in 
error, this story is interesting more for the 
light it throws upon the methods pursued in 
developing the libraries of Pergamon. At any 
rate they grew until they rivaled those of 
Alexandria, causing, it is said, an embargo on 
papyrus, so that the Pergamoi were forced to 
resort to parchment (pergamentum). This 
tradition also may be accepted with caution, 
for sheepskin had long been used for manu- 
scripts in Greece. 

How many rolls and codices were in the 
libraries of Pergamon it is impossible to esti- — 
mate. About the only reference to their number 
is the passage from Plutarch, wherein Antony 
is accused in Rome of presenting Cleopatra 
with the collections of Pergamon,— “more than 
200,000 separate volumes.» The Acropolis of 
Pergamon was excavated in 1878 and _ the 
rooms assigned to the library determined. They 
form the subject of a monograph by Couze — 
‘Die pergamen Bibliotek? (1884). 

Ancient Rome.— There is little evidence in 
ancient literature indicating Roman interest in 
libraries prior to the wars with Greece. Rome 
conquered Greece, but in turn was conquered 
by Greek culture. It is narrated that Lucius 
ZEmilius Paulus, who defeated Perseus and 
overthrew the Macedonian Empire in 168 B.c., 
carried the library of Perseus to Rome, “the 
first that was seen in the capital of the world.” 


‘Thus Sylla, after subjugating Athens, gathered 


from Athenian books a library alike extensive 
and choice. (Consult Bacmeister, ‘Essai sur 
la Bibliothéque de l’Académie des Sciences de 
Saint Pétersbourg,? quoted in Edwards, ‘Mem- 
oirs of libraries,» Vol. II, p. 544). Lucullus 
(110-57 3.c.) who had been a general in the 
Mithridatic wars and had returned to Rome 
under the spell of Greek and Oriental civiliza- 
tion, is the first Roman distinguished as a col- 
lector of books. Plutarch, in his life of Lu- 
cullus, says: “His furnishing a library, how- 
ever, deserves praise and record, for he collected 
very many choice manuscripts; and the use they 
were put to was even more magnificent than the 
purchase, the library being always open and 
the walks and reading-rooms about it free to 
all Greeks, whose delight it was to leave their 
other occupations and hasten thither as to the 
habitation of the Muses.» Pliny states that 
Caius Asinius Pollio (76 B.c-6 Aap.) founded 
the first public library in Rome. It has been 
seen that the library of Lucullus was open to 
readers but they were mainly his friends, the 
library thus never wholly losing the character 


356 


of a private collection. Pollio, in founding the 
public library, was undoubtedly carrying out a 
plan of Julius Cesar, to form libraries through- 
out all Rome, unfortunately miscarried by his 
death. .(Suetonius Jul 44). Cesar, apparently, 
had planned a system of public libraries, and 
placed the execution of this in the hands of the 
famous scholar, Varro. That Varro was en- 
thusiastic in furtherance of the enterprise is 
indicated by the fact that one of his lost works 
was a treatise upon libraries and their develop- 
ment. It would seem that under Pollio the 
scheme finally assumed a definite form, and 
we know that in the library Varro was honored 
by the erection of a statue to him. Cesar’s 
dream of establishing a widespread system of 
libraries was in part realized by Augustus. 
Two new collections were founded by him in 
Rome: the Octavian and the Palatine, the 
former founded and named in honor of his 
sister, Octavia. This was housed in a splendid 
building constructed for the purpose. C. Me- 
lissus was the first librarian. The Palatine, 
according to Suetonius, was housed in two 
additions made to the temple of Apollo. “On 
either side of the Temple of Apollo stood 
libraries, one Greek and the other Latin, which 
contained none but works of special merit, with 
medallions of their authors embossed in either 
gold, silver or bronze.” (Consult Thomas, 
“Roman life under the Cesars?). Of this Pom- 
peius Macer was the first librarian, who was 
succeeded by Julius Hyginus. The Octavian 
_ Library was destroyed during the great fire 
which raged for three days during the reign 
of Titus (79 a.p). Records are extant of some 
28 libraries in the Roman provinces and other 
dependencies of the empire, notably at Milan, 
Comum, Tibur, Potre, Athens, Smyrna, Pom- 
peii and Herculaneum. “There was more- 
over in Timgad a unique public library. It 
has been identified exactly through an in- 
scription to the following effect: ‘Out of 
the funds bequeathed by Marcus Julius Quin- 
tianus Flavus Rogatianus, of Senatorial mem- 
ory, by his will to the colony of Thamagudi, 
his mother city, the erection of a library has 
been completed at a cost of 400,000 sesterces, 
under the direction of the city authorities.» The 
building in question consists of a rectangle of 
77 by 80 feet, with recesses for receiving vol- 
umes or rolls of papyrus, with benches and seats 
for readers. There are also side rooms and 
evidently two upper galleries for book ‘stacks, 
the great central hall having a kind of sky- 
light to facilitate reading. It seems to have been 
the custom in Rome as in America, for wealthy 
and distinguished citizens, Carnegie-like, to 
start the ball rolling, so to speak, in the matter 
of municipal libraries. We are reminded of the 
fact that the public library was a Roman in- 
stitution, and that there were 28 public libraries 
in Rome in the 4th century. Some ingenious 
calculator has measured the space of the Tim- 
gad library, avowing that it contained at least 
23,000 volumes.” (Consult Cooper, C. S., in The 
Boston Transcript, 2 Jan. 1918). Emperor 
Domitian expended vast sums in restoring the 
Roman libraries. He collected manuscripts from 
all parts of the empire, even sending scribes to 
Alexandria and other places to copy books when 
the originals themselves could not be obtained. 
Plutarch refers to a library founded by Oc- 
tavia in memory of Marcellus, and Aulus 


Vw 


~ a more extensive scale. 


* 


LIBRARIES, ANCIENT 


Gellius to the collection in the palace of Tiber- 
ius, another in the temple of Peace, founded by 
Vespasian, and Dion Cassius gives an account 
of the famous Ulpian Library, founded by 
Trajan, which was first housed in the Forum 
of Trajan, but afterward transferred to the 
Baths of Diocletian. The library of Tiberius 
was burned in 191 a.p., during the reign of 
Commodus; the Palatine in the great confla- 
gration of 363 A.D. (recorded by Ammianus 
Marcellinus, xxiii-3-3). That there were num- 
berless private collections there can be no doubt. 
That of Lucullus has already been referred to, 
while Tyrannion, a Greek scholar captured by 
Lucullus in the Greek wars, was employed in 
arranging the library of Apellicon the Teian, 
seized by Sylla at Athens. This was, accord- 
ing to tradition, the original library of Aristotle 
which was hidden in the cave to prevent its 
falling into the hands of the king of Pergamus. 
(Cf. Plutarch, ‘Sylla?). Suidas asserts that 
Tyrannion formed a library of his own, number- 
ing more than 30,000 rolls. This, however, may 
refer to the library of Apellicon. That Cicero 
was an ardent collector of books we know from 
many allusions in his writings, and Serenus 
Sammonicus, a physician of the 3d century a_D., 
possessed a library of 62,000 volumes. (Capi- 
tolinus, Gord. xviii, 2). The excavations of 
Pompeii and Herculaneum verify the fact that 
many residences had provision for libraries. In 
a few cases the cabinets and the rolls therein 
were still intact, from which a very accurate 
image of an ancient library has been obtained. 
The rolls were kept in cupboards (armaria) 
usually against the walls of the apartment, but 
sometimes detached. These were often elabo- 
rately decorated. As a guide to the contents of 
the different cases, the names of the authors 
were placed on the doors, sometimes sur- 
mounted by gold, silver or bronze medallion | 
portraits. The walls of the room were often 
ornamented with frescoes or mosaics, statuary 
and other works of art. The public library 
doubtless had the same characteristics, but on 
Greek and Latin works 
were usually separated, the books in each divi- 
sion being subarranged according to subject: 
law, theology, philosophy, geography, medicine, 
belles-lettres, etc. Consult Cagnat, “Les biblio- 
théques municipales dans l’empire romain.? 
Byzantine Empire. The division of the 
empire was a serious blow to library develop- 
ment. Rome lost its interest in Greek liter- 
ature and Constantinople cared little for the 
Latin. Furthermore, the spirit of the early 
Christians was opposed to the pagan writings, 
and many valuable collections were destroyed 
by narrow-minded fanatics. Constantine I is 
said to have possessed a royal library, but it 
could not have numbered more than a few 
hundred items, and those mainly theological. 
Julian, essentially a student and a lover of 
classic literature, is said to have added many 
books to the palace library, which numbered, 
according to some authorities, 120,000 volumes. 
This was burned by the iconoclasts during the 
reign of Leo the Isaurian (8th century), but. 
later rebuilt. The Byzantine emperors of the 
9th to the 11th century were patrons of learning 
and probably collected libraries. Little, how- 
ever, is known about them. Under Leo Sapiens 
and Constantine Porphyrogenitus it is said that 
the libraries were restored, and undoubtedly 


LIBRARIES, MEDIZAVAL AND RENAISSANCE 


members of the Commenian dynasty found time 
in the midst of their intrigues to collect books. 
Monastic Libraries.— The attitude of the 
early Fathers of the Church was rather inimical 
to any books save those of a religious nature, 
as has been indicated by the destruction of 
the Alexandrian libraries (q.v.) under Theophi- 
lus, archbishop of Alexandria, during the 
reign of Theodosius. This was owing to the 
fact that they were mainly pagan works. Soon, 
however, a body of Christian literature arose, 
and it was not long before the churchmen be- 
came as ardent collectors of books as their 
predecessors. Each monastery had its archivum, 
as had many churches. Skilful copyists were 
employed in transcribing religious books. Ac- 
cording to the Theodosian Code, seven copyists 
were attached to the library at Constantinople. 
The Basilica at Cesarea, founded by Pamphilus 
(a.p. 309), contained about 30,000 volumes. 


Epwin WILEY, 
Librarian, United States Naval War College. 


LIBRARIES, Medizval and Renaissance. 
—With the disruption of the Western Empire, 
learning passed into eclipse. It is impossible 
to estimate what has been lost to the world 
during that period of political and intellectual 
twilight. What was saved was saved by mon- 
asteries, for they became the refuge of both 
scholars and books. Thus Cassiodorus, the 
favorite minister of Theodoric the Goth, gath- 
ered a collection of books and retired to a 
monastery at Viviers which he had founded, 
endowing it with money and with his library. 
Numberless monasteries sprang up in Asia 
Minor and Egypt, their collections lost to the 
world until the researches of Tattam, Curzon 
and others brought them again to light. The 
majority of their books and manuscripts were 
theological, but many of these were of great 
importance, comprehending versions of the 
Gospels and books of the Old Testament in 
Greek, Hebrew, Coptic and Syriac, and also 
texts of ancient classics and palimpsests that 
have revealed productions of the writers of 
antiquity that otherwise would have been wholly 
lost. During the 6th century, it is said at the 
instance of Gregory the Great, missionaries, 
among them Augustine, went to the British 
Isles. Soon monasteries sprang up there which 
became great centres of learning. Canterbury 
was founded, and to this went Theodore of 
Tarsus with books obtained in Rome for its 
‘library. A library was also founded at York 
by Archbishop Egbert, of which Alcuin made 
use when there, and the lack of which he be- 
moaned when, at the solicitation of Charlemagne, 
he became abbot of Tours. In the north of 
England, Jarrow and Whitby, the home of the 
Abbess Hilda and the poet Caedmon, both 
possessed libraries, that of the latter monastery 
being catalogued in the 12th century. Many of 
these monasteries were destroyed during the 
raids of the Danes, and their treasures were 
finally scattered as the result of the decrees of 
Henry VIII. The library at Christ Church 
Monastery, Canterbury, which was one of those 
to suffer at the hands of the Danes, was re- 
stored in the 11th century by Lanfranc and 
Anselm. A catalogue made during the 13th 
century contains 698 titles, about 3,000 volumes. 
Consult Edwards, ‘Memoirs of libraries? (Vol. 
I, p. 122). A catalogue of Saint Augustine’s 


357 


Monastery at Canterbury has also been pre- 
served, revealing that it was rich in historical 
works and.in French romances. According to 
Baeda, the first abbot of Wearmouth, Bennet 
Biscop, made five journeys to Rome, each time 
bringing back books for the abbeys of Wear- 
mouth and Jarrow. ‘The collection at Wear- 
mouth was cherished and increased by Baeda 
himself until it became the largest in England. 
It was destroyed by the Danes in 867, and 
Jarrow in 973. Croyland Monastery also pos- 
sessed 700 volumes which were destroyed by 
fire in 1091. The monastery of Glastonbury, 
famous for its connection with the Arthurian 
cycle of legends, was ravaged by the Danes, 
splendidly rebuilt by Henry II and finally 
destroyed in the reign of Henry VIII. A 
catalogue of its collections (circa 1248) is con- 
tained in Hearne’s edition of John of Glaston- 
bury. A catalogue of the Peterborough Mon- 
astery library (14th century) reveals that it 
possessed 344 volumes and the Surtees Society 
has published lists of the books in the Durham 
Monastery. On the Continent, Charlemagne 
was the first of the Frankish kings to encour- 
age learning and formed a collection of books 
for his palace. He also encouraged the estab- 
lishment of other libraries. His son, Louis, 
formed a library which was extant during the 
time of Charles the Bald. Everhard, Count of 
Triuli, formed a collection which was later be- 
queathed to a monastery. The greatest private 
collector of the 11th century, however, was 
Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylvester II, who 
spent large sums in developing his collections. 
The Benedictine Order was undoubtedly the 
most active in the cause of learning in western 
Europe, and its monasteries gathered large and 
valuable libraries. The oldest of the founda- 
tions, Monte Cassino (A.D. 529), was the begin- 
ning of a long line of institutions, among which 
may be named Fleury, Moelk, Saint Gall, Saint 
Vast, the famous Saint Maur; the English 
monasteries of Jarrow, Wearmouth, Bury 
Saint Edmunds, Croyland, Glastonbury, Whitby, 
Reading, Saint Albans and Tewkesbury. 

The Augustinians and Dominicans rank 
next to the Benedictines as lovers of books. 
Saint Geneviéve and Saint Victor had large 
libraries. The Barefoot Friars and _ other 
mendicant orders also collected books in their 
travels. Richard of Bury, the founder of a 
library ._ at Oxford and the author of 
‘Philobiblon,? a treatise on the art of collect- 
ing and preserving books, praised their enthu- 
siasm and industry, and Sir Richard Whitting- 
ton (d. 1423) built a library for them at Grey 
Friars, London. In France, monasteries at 
Fleury, Cluny, Corbie and Saint Riquier pos- 
sessed libraries. After suffering many vicissi- 
tudes the remnant of the Fleury collection was 
presented to the town library of Orleans (1793). 
From the Corbie Monastery 400 MSS. were 
transferred to Saint Germain des Prés in 
1638, and in 1794 the remainder was divided 
between the Bibliothéque Nationale and the 
town library of Amiens. In Germany the 
monasteries of Fulda, Corvey, Richenau and 
Sponheim had excellent collections. At Fulda, 
it is said that 400 copyists were busy at one 
time. Sponheim is famous because of its. Ab- 
bott, Johannes Trithemius, who established its 
library. The monastic library of Saint Gall, in 
Switzerland, founded by its abbott, Gozbert, is 


358 


still extant. Several general catalogues of 
monastic libraries have been compiled, the first 
being one by the Franciscans (14th century), a 
sort 
libraries. In the early 15th century John Bos- 
ton of Bury, an Augustinian monk, made a list 
of the books in 195 British libraries, each col- 
lection being designated by a number, making, 
as John Bale says, “one library out of many” 
(cf. Tanner’s ‘Bibliotheca, 1748, pp. xvili- 
xliiii). John Leland, 1506?-52, the famous 
antiquarian and librarian of Henry VIII, made 
notes of the collections in the institutions of 
England visited in the years 153642. These 
lists are contained in the edition of Leland 
published by Hearne in 1715. 

Renaissance Libraries.—The lamp of learn- 
ing which had burned during the 8th to 10th 
centuries and had become almost extinguished 
during the period following the Crusades, flames 
up again during the 12th—-13th centuries, the age 
of the cathedral builders, and again dies down, 
not to revive until the 15th century. In Eng- 
land the barbaric invaders from Denmark and 
Norway had applied the torch to Wearmouth, 
Jarrow, Whitby and other of Britain’s noblest 
foundations, and the institutions spared by the 
Danes suffered from fires or from accumu- 
lated wealth. Here, and on the Continent, the 
interest in learning passed into decay, and the 
monasteries that had been preservers of books 
now became their tombs. Boccaccio, in an ac- 
count of a visit to the Abbey of Monte Cassino, 
vividly describes the condition of its precious 
manuscripts “personifying them as_ gentle 
prisoners held in captivity by barbarous 
jailers” Poggio, who made a journey to the 
Council of Constance as Apostolic Secretarv, 
also states that the manuscripts in the Abbey 
of Saint Gall were kept in “a dungeon foul 
and dark, at the bottom of a tower.” (Consult 
“Cambridge Modern History,? Vol. I, p. 549). 
Here and there were free spirits among men, 
like Pope Sylvester II, who fought against the 
moral and mental negation of the times, and 
endeavored to maintain the traditions of learn- 
ing, yet scholarship, save among the Arabs, was 
at a discount. It was not until the 15th century 
that a new light was kindled by Petrarch, 
Poggio and Boccaccio, and the revival of 
learning began. Stimulated by their example, a 
world-wide and almost mad search for classic 
texts began. Palimpsests were discovered and 
their concealed writings brought to light. The 
Medici family, in particular, was keenly in- 
terested in learning, and in founding libraries. 
Cosmo de Medici, while an exile in Venice 
(1433), founded the library of San Giorgio 
Maggiore, and later, after his return to Flor- 
ence, was made one of the trustees of the 
collection of 800 MSS. collected and copied by 


Niccolo de’ Niccoli. Four hundred of these 
were presented to the library of the Convent 
of San Marco (1441), the remaining 400 pass- 
ing into his own collection, thus forming the 
nucleus of the Medicean Library. This joined 
later with the collection of San Marco, and 
that of Fiesole, also founded by him, now form 
a part of the Biblioteca Medicio — Lauren- 
ziana. In this work for libraries the Medici 
found an able helper in Vespasiano de Bisticci 
(1421-98) who might well be termed the 
father. of Italian libraries. Vespasiano also as- 
sisted. Federigo de’ Montefeltro, Duke of 


of union catalogue of 160 European 


LIBRARIES, MEDIZVAL AND RENAISSANCE 


Urbino, in creating his splendid collection of 
classics, theology, medicine and humanistic 
literature. Vespasiano tells us that he kept a 
large staff of~scribes at work for 14 years 
transcribing material. Few of the collections 
rivalled those of Federigo, but there were other 
large ones, particularly that of Cardinal Bes- 
sarion, which, according to Vespasiano, con- 
tained 600 Greek and Latin manuscripts. This 
was presented to San Marco Cathedral, Venice, 
in 1468, but a generation passed before it was 
properly housed. The Vatican Library (q.v.) 
as now constituted also dates from the 15th 
century. Earlier collections had been formed 
by the popes, but it was not until Nicholas V 
(1447-55) filled the chair that the library re- 
ceived any special attention. The Pope, who as 
Tommaso Parentucelli, had been librarian of 
San Marco, Florence, had perhaps imbibed 
some of the enthusiasm of Vespasiano and the 
Medici. At any rate the library was greatly 
increased by him and his immediate succes- 
sors, being housed finally in the splendid apart- 
ment in the Vatican (1475). In manuscripts,- 
the Vatican collections are perhaps the richest 
in the world, many of the items being unique. 
They number about 34,000. The Humanistic 
movement spread rapidly over Europe and 
many private collections of books were devel- 
oped. Among these collectors, John Bale and 
John Leland in England have already been 
mentioned, as has Trithemius, the work of 
the latter being continued by Cardinal Bellar- 
mine in Italy. Matthias Corvinus, king of 
Hungary, formed a splendid library, mainly 
manuscripts, which is said to have numbered 
50,000 items. This was dispersed by the Turks 
after the fall of Buda, 1526. The kings of 
France, particularly Saint Louis, Charles V 
and Francis I, encouraged the book arts in 
their every phase. It has been noted how the 
religious institutions were the conservers of 
learning during the Dark Ages and the Mediz- 
val Period, only to ‘become their tombs or to 
be destroyed during the events of the reli- 
gious wars. Eight hundred, it is said, disap- 
peared at this time. Another group of institu- 
tions, however, now appeared to play the réle of 
the builders of libraries These were the univer- 
sities. Even before the period of Renaissance 
the universities under direction of the Church 
had become centres of cultural activity. They 
sprang into existence throughout Europe, espe- 
cially in France, Germany and Italy. Among 
these might be noted Paris, Poitiers, Caen, 
Bordeaux, Nantes, Pisa, Florence, Bologna, 
Padua, Constance, Basel, Heidelberg, Cologne, 
Frankfort-on-Oder, Prague, Louvain, Utrecht, 
etc. In. spite of the fact that theology was 
the main concern of these institutions, never- 
theless they were forums of free discussion, 
collectors of literature, and presented a strong 
front against arbitrary restrictions upon their 
prerogatives. Courses in physical science were 
offered, and books were gathered. “John of 
Dalberg, appointed in 1482 Curator of Heidel- 
berg and Bishop of Worms, divided his time 
between the University and the bishopric; he 
helped to establish the first chair of Greek, and 
founded the famous Palatine library. Reuchlin 
came to Heidelberg in 1496; he was made li- 
brarian and in 1498 professor of Hebrew.” 
(Consult ‘Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, 
p. 637). The invention of printing gave a 


LIBRARIES 


Siaydessojoyg [BinzoazYory “s1ayzOIg 2410 AA 


Asesqr] ONqQng YIOX Mal eyy 


sansnsnoseseseicomeor 


Sioa 


Philadelphia Public Free Library 


LIBRARIES, MODERN > 


tremendous impetus to the making and the 
collecting of books. They became so inexpen- 
sive that many printed works could be ob- 
tained at the cost of one manuscript. Libra- 
ries accordingly began to increase rapidly in 
numbers, and in the size of their collections. 
The breakdown, of medizval institutions, the 
decline in power of the Holy Roman Empire, 
and the strengthening of the principle of 
nationality were also influences that encour- 
aged the development of libraries within the 
different states of Europe. -For this reason 
their history after the beginning of the modern 
era can best be told separately. 
EpwIn WILEY, 
Librarian, United States Naval War College. 


LIBRARIES, Modern. The origin and 
history of the modern libraries of the world 
will here be treated under the captions of the 
various nations as best suited to clearness 
and the purposes of an encyclopedia. 


Unitep STATES. 

Origins.— Library history in America be- 
gins with the first permanent settlement in the 
New World by the English. At Jamestown 
it was proposed to establish a college, and the 
minutes of the Virginia Company record a 
gift of books to the institution. The Indian 
massacre of 1622, however, dissipated these 
plans. New England was more fortunate. 
Harvard College was founded in 1636, and two 
years later, under the terms of the will of 
Rev. John Harvard, the school became pos- 
sessed of 300 books. An interesting chapter in 
early American library history was the effort of 
the Rev. Thomas Bray cf England to establish 
parochial libraries in Great Britain and the 
colonies. In 1699, he arrived at Baltimore and 
established soon after a number of such col- 
lections. These libraries, with the exception of 
a few volumes, have disappeared, but some of 
the English collections are still extant. Among 
other libraries founded during 17th century, 
William and Mary College (1692) and the Yale 
College (1700) are still in existence, Yale Li- 
brary numbering now about 1,025,000 volumes. 

Subscription and Shareholding Libraries 
of the 18th Century.—The 18th century marked 
the origin and development of the library as 
an independent institution. This was due to 
the founding of subscription or shareholding 
libraries. The influence of these was, of course, 
restricted to the members, but even so they con- 
stituted an important advance toward the mod- 
ern free library. The founding of the earliest 
of these, the Library Company of Philadelphia 
(1732), was one of the multifarious activities 
of Benjamin Franklin. It was an outgrowth 
of a literary society, first called the “Junto,” 
which became eventually the American Philo- 
sophical Society. In 1769 the Union Library 
Company, and, in 1771, the Association and 
Amicable Library Companies were merged with 
the Philadelphia Library. A still more import- 
ant accession was the Loganian Library (1792), 
which had developed from the private collec- 
tions of James Logan, formerly a private sec- 
retary of William Penn. Other libraries of 
this type organized during the 18th century 
were the Redwood Library, Newport (1747), 
the first institution in America to erect a build- 
ing solely for library purposes, which is still 


359 


standing; the Charlestown, S. C., Library 
(1748) ; the New York Society Library (1754) ; 
the Providence Library (1758), and the Balti- 
more Library Association (1795). 

Athenzums, Mercantile and Apprentice 
Libraries.— A further advance toward the 
popularization of the library idea was the 
organization and development of athenzeums, 
mercantile and apprentice libraries. A few of 
first group, of which the Boston Atheneum 
(1807) is the best example, were closely allied 
with the subscription libraries, yet the majority 
of the athenzums such as the Salem (1810), 
the Rochester, N. Y. (1829), the Providence 
Atheneum (1753), the Lancaster Atheneum 
(1860) and others partook more of the nature 
of mercantile libraries. Mercantile libraries 
were organized in Boston (1820), New York 
(1820), Philadelphia (1821), Albany (1833), 
Cincinnati (1835), Baltimore (1839), San Fran- 
cisco (1853). There were, approximately, 67 li- 
braries of the mercantile-mechanics type estab- 
lished before 1870. Still more popular in na- 
ture were the apprentice libraries, organized for 
the welfare of young men. A few of these 
were founded prior to the 19th century; one 
at Charleston, S. C., another at Lexington, Ky., 
and one at Newport, R. I. 

It is not strange, therefore, that in some 
cities these libraries for many years performed 
the functions of the public library. Their fees 
were low, and social considerations played 
little part in the selection of their clientele, 
hence the growth and great educational influ- 
ence of such libraries as the Boston, the New 


- York, the Philadelphia and the San Francisco 


mercantile libraries. 

Growth of the Idea of the Free Public 
Library.— This popularization of the share- 
holding library, however, did not go far enough. 
It did not respond fully to American educa- 
tional demands, and as a result the idea of 
a free public library began to assume form. 
Already the public school had been established 
and had proved its worth, and the time was 
ripe for its corollary, the free public library. 
Many years before, far-seeing men like Frank- 
lin and Jefferson perceived the value and need 
of such institutions, yet it was not until the 
middle of the 19th century that the movement 
gained strength. No account of the develop- 
ment of public libraries in America can omit 
reference to Prof. Charles C. Jewett, libra- 
rian of the Smithsonian Institution and later 
of the Boston Public Library. He can justly 
be termed the father of the modern library 
movement in America, for it was his broad 
vision of the importance of the library in the 
community, of the need for library co-operation, 
and his enthusiasm that bore fruit first in a 
conference of American librarians in 1853, 
which ultimately resulted in the organization 
of the American Library Association, and the 
founding of The Library Journal in 1876. The 
work he had initiated was at this time carried 


-to success by Winsor, Poole, Dewey, Cutter, 


Spofford, Billings, Greene, Leypoldt, Bowker, 
Putnam and other pioneers in American library 
work. 

Library Philanthropy.— Coincident with 
this awakening of librarians to the value and 
tremendous possibilities of their profession, 
there was an awakening on. the part of men of 
wealth to a new and singularly productive 


360 


field of philanthropy. Already John Jacob 
Astor (1849) and James Lenox (1870) had 
founded in New York city the institutions bear- 
ing their names; Joshua Bates of London had’ 
smade munificent gifts to the Boston Public 
Library; the Newberry bequest had just fallen 
to the citizens of Chicago (1876); Dr. B. Rush 
had left $1,000,000 for the erection "of the Ridge- 
way Branch of the Philadelphia Public Library; 
and James Lick had made gifts to the libraries 
of San Francisco. Now, however, began an 
era of gifts to American libraries that have 
totaled astounding figures, Andrew Carnegie, 
alone, giving $64,000,000, the terms of his 
gifts making it possible for nearly any com- 
munity willing to support and develop it 
to have a library. State and municipal aid 
have also entered strongly into this great ex- 
pansion of library activity, and more and more 
tapidly is the ideal aim of placing books freely 
within reach of all is being realized, even in the 
remote districts of mountain and prairie. This 
has meant a complete transformation of the 
whole concept of the library. Formerly it was 
only a conserver of knowledge, a mere store- 
house of books, now it realizes its true destiny 
by becoming a vital and progressive force in 
its community, reaching out and inviting all 
to share in its treasures. The library thus be- 
comes an active and not a passive agency, 
joining with and supplementing the schools and 
other institutions. It becomes, in reality, a con- 
tinuing university, free to all ‘and supported by 
all. The support that has been given libraries 
by the communities and by the States is a 
very tangible recognition of the popular esfeem 
in which libraries are held. Library enabling 
laws have been enacted by nearly every State 
in the Union, and under their provisions nearly 
any community may establish a public library 
and tax itself for its maintenance. These laws 
are usually permissive, yet the opportunity they 
offer has been generously seized upon. Local 
control is also universal, authority being in- 
vested in boards of trustees who determine the 
policy and expenditures of the institution. In 
addition many States have library commissions, 
which as a rule have- advisory jurisdiction, 
but in certain instances, such as California, 
actively administer a widely extended system 
of State libraries. Traveling library systems 
have also been established in various States. 
These are generally under direction of the 
State library commission. The activities of 
American public libraries are protean, only a 
few of which can be pointed out. They work 
hand in hand with the schools, often maintain- 
ing branches in the latter; they use every means 
to get in touch with the child and encourage 
him to read good books; they reach out to 
the immigrant, offering him books in his own 
language but at the same time endeavor to 
introduce him to the language and ideals of 
‘his adopted country; they endeavor to supply 
the needs of the business men, manufacturer, 
etc., building up collections, as at Grand Rapids, 
relating to the peculiar industries of the region; 
they keep in touch with the work of the clubs 
and associations and supply as far as possible 
their bibliographic necessities; they offer lec- 
ture courses. These area few of the manifold 
phases of the work of the modern library that 
have been superimposed upon the original idea 
of the library as a mere storehouse of books. 


“LIBRARIES, MODERN 


The First Free Public Libraries in “Amer: 
ica.— It is almost impossible to determine the 
identity of the first library in the United States 
supported by public funds and wholly free to 
its users. The earliest recorded gift of books 
to a municipality is that of the Rev. John 
Sharp who bequeathed, in 1700, his library to 
the city of New York for the benefit of the 
people. This has disappeared, as has another 
collection founded in 1803 at Salisbury, Conn. 
The Town Library at Petersborough, N. H., 
founded through the efforts of Rey. Abiel 
Abbot in 1833, appears, from the data at hand, 
to have ‘been the first free library which has 
continued to the present. This, however, was 
essentially a local development, and the move- 
ment in its larger aspects was probably initiated 
by the enactment of a law in 1848 enabling 
Boston to establish a free public library. In 
1851 this was extended to the whole State. 
The Boston Public Library is thus one of the 
first American free public libraries in time and 
for many years it was the first in importance, 
taking second place only to the New York 
Public Library after the merger of its various 
foundations, the New York Public Library 
(q.v.) becoming thereby the greatest institution 
of the kind in the world. This primacy of the 
Boston Library comprehended not only the ex- 
tent and scope of its collections, but also build- 
ing, librarians and general cultural activities. 
The first home of the library, built according to 
the discarded alcove plan, was nevertheless for 
many years the most imposing public library 
building in the country, a position that was 
regained when the new structure was erected 
at Copley Square in 1895, at a total cost of 
$2,750,000. This beautiful Renaissance building, 
with its mural decorations by Abbey, Sargent 
and other distinguished artists, was the fore- 
runner of the great library constructions of 
to-day, few of which have surpassed it in dig- 
nity and fitness. The Boston Public Library 


‘has 30 branches and contains collections total- 
‘ling 1,157,326 volumes. 


The Chicago Public Library assumes a posi- 
tion next to that of the Boston and New York 
libraries, but differs from them to the extent 
that it is, in fact, as well as in name, a 
popular library. Its collections are restricted 
in the main to books that would be called for 
by the general public and not by the scholar; 
the student of literature and the humanities 
being left to the Newberry, and the one in 
science and the useful arts to the John Crerar. 
The same principle applies to the building, 
which is an imposing but simple Renaissance 
structure, the idea of fitness for use being 
uppermost. This building was erected in 1898. 
It is an interesting fact that the Chicago Li- 
brary originated in a gift of 7,000 books 
gathered in England by Thomas Hughes, the 
author of ‘Tom Brown at Rugby,’ and pre- 
sented to the people of the city after the great 
fire of 1871. This humble nucleus has grown 
into a collection of about 800,000 volumes dis- 
tributed through the central library and its 
45 branches. 

Another public library that supplies a great 
constituency most efficiently is the Saint Louis 
Public Library. This was established in 1893, 
being a merger of several earlier collections, 
the most important of which was the Public 
School Library founded in 1860 by Ira Divoll, 


LIBRARIES 


Newberry Library, Chicago 


LIBRARIES 


The Public Library of the District of Columbia, Washington, D C, 


Saint Louis Public Library, Saint Louis, Mo. 


#) 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


then superintendent of public schools. It was 
further developed by Dr. W. T. Harris, and by 
the remarkable group of thinkers then in Saint 
Louis. It is at present housed in a beautiful 
building, completed in 1912 at a cost of $1,900,- 
000. The collections number 487,330 volumes 
distributed through the central building and 
seven branches. 

Another city library formed of smaller col- 
lections and now occupying an attractive new 
building is the Denver Public Library. This 
was formed by an amalgamation of the Denver 
Public Library, housed in the East Denver 
High School, and the Mercantile Library. It 
has four branches in addition to the central 
building with collections numbering 192,366 
volumes. Mr. Carnegie’s gifts have aided the 
larger libraries as well as the smaller ones, the 
most notable gift being the sum of $5,200,000 
to construct branch library buildings for the 
New York Public Library. Toward the con- 
struction of central libraries, however, among 
the many, may be noted the beautiful building 
of the District of Columbia Library, founded 
in. 1896. Its collections number about 200,000 
volumes. Another. splendidly vital library, 
almost wholly due to his munificence, is the 
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh (1895) with 
eight branches and 434,469 volumes. The 
Louisville Public Library building was also con- 
structed with Carnegie funds ($250,000), to 
which he later added $200,000 for eight branch 
libraries. Two of these branches were con- 
structed for ‘the colored people of the city. 
Nearly all.the libraries in the Southern States, 
in fact, have branches of this type. Among the 
other public libraries of the country worthy of 
much fuller attention are Brookline, Mass. (4 
branches, 90,000 vols.); Cambridge (1858; 5 
branches, 113,314 vols.) ; Somerville (3 branches, 
115,216 vols.); Springfield (1857; 3 branches, 
229,990 vols.) ; Worcester (3 branches, 244,047 
vols.) ; Providence (1878; 4 branches, 181,307 
vols.); Hartford (2 branches, 118,000 vols.) ; 
Philadelphia (1891; 26 branches, 534,152 vols.) ; 
Buffalo (1836; 7 branches, 363,546 vols.) ; Cleve- 
land (1867; 44 branches, 584,340 vols.) ; Brook- 
lyn (33 branches, 862,112 vols.) ; Pratt Insti- 
tute, Brooklyn (1888; 114,775 vols.) ; Newark 
(1889 ;.3 branches, 256,581 vols.) ; Enoch Pratt, 
Baltimore (1886; 16 branches, 355,817 vols.) ; 
Cincinnati (1814; 24 branches, 515,906 vols.) ; 
Detroit. (1865; 13 branches, 450,910 vols.) ; 
Milwaukee (10 branches, 342,194 vols.) ; Minne- 
apolis (1889; 15 branches, 334,763 vols.) ; Saint 
Paul (4 branches, 161,609 vols.) ; Grand Rap- 
ids (1837; 13 branches, 147,761 vols.) ; Kansas 
City (12 branches, 271,077 vols.) ; Los Angeles 
(1872; 19 branches, 309,463 vols.) ; Cossitt Li- 
brary (Memphis 1888; 8 branches, 120,263 
vols.) ; New Orleans (1897; 4 branches, 102,927 
vols.) ; Atlanta (1899; 4 branches, 94,770 vols.). 

College and University Libraries.—In 
point of time the college and university libraries 
antedated the other types, and while they have 
developed to an amazing extent yet the growth 
of each collection has been determined by the 
character and demands of the institution of 
which it forms a part. The collegiate library 
must co-ordinate its activities with those of its 
school, forming, as it were, a sort of biblio- 
graphic laboratory. During recent years the 
conception that the library was but a store- 
house of reference and source material has 


361 


given way in some cases to a separation of the 
different groups of books, each group assigned 
to the care of the academic department most 
interested. This method was extensively tried 
out at Johns Hopkins and Chicago universities, 
but the difficulties of administration, the over- 
lapping of interests and the irregular develop- 
ment of collections has forced the return to the 
idea of the central library, the principle of the 
seminary or special departmental libraries being 
adhered to, yet restricted in scope and usually 
under control of the university librarian. 
Hence seminary libraries are to be found in 
practically every university in the country, some 
of them constituting special collections of the 
highest value. 

It has already been noted that all that is 
known of the College of Henrico is the brief 
notice regarding its gift of books. The ex- 
perience of Harvard, however, was not so un- 
fortunate. By the death of the Rev. John Har- 
vard in 1638 the college came into possession 
of a collection of about 370 volumes, mainly 
theological. These were added to, until the 
library at the end of a century contained some 
5,000 volumes, the largest collegiate collection 
in America. In 1764, however, this was de- 
stroyed by fire, only a few hundred books being 
rescued. Steps to reconstitute the library were 
immediately taken and in 1790 its collections 
numbered about 12,000; in 1840, 40,000; in 1856, 
70,000 volumes and 30,000 pamphlets; in 1875, 
154,000 volumes; the aggregate number of vol- 
umes of the various libraries of Harvard being 
227,650 volumes. The main library now num- 
bers 792,117 and all the libraries total 1,088,000. 
In 1840 the collections were moved into, the 
Gore Hall, at that time considered adequate for 
the growth of many years. Nevertheless owing 
to the rapid growth of the library it has long 
been inadequate, making the necessity for a 
new building imperative, which was realized in 
1907 by the bequest of the late Harry Elkins 
Widener, who also donated to the library a 
splendid collection of book rarities. 

William and Mary College, founded in 1692 
under the auspices of the Church of England, 
was long the wealthiest institution in the colo- 
nies. It is known to have possessed books from 
its beginning, though doubtless the collection 
was small. It, too, suffered from fire in 1705, 
but its collections were replenished by gifts 
from the mother. country and from France, 
Queen Anne, the Georges and Louis XV being 
numbered among the donors of books. The 
college went into eclipse during the Civil War 
and it is only recently that it has again begun 
to take its place among the schools of the 
country. . 

It seems that Yale had a library provided 
for it before its foundation in 1700, for gifts 
of books had been made in anticipation of the 
establishment of a school in Connecticut. In 
1765 the collection comprehended 4,000 volumes ; 
in 1808, 4,700 volumes; 1913, 1,000,000 volumes; 
the total collections of Yale now aggregating 
1,025,000 volumes. 

During the first half of the 19th century a 
movement was well under way that forms a 
most important chapter in American educational 
and library history. This was the establishment 
of State universities. The national policy of 
permitting the States to handle their educa- 
tional problems in their own way has resulted 


in an unequal, but on the whole a remarkable, 
development of institutions of learning. Some 
universities, Harvard and Columbia for exam- 
ple, partook of, the nature of State schools at 
an early date, which they have since lost, hence 
it remained for the University of Virginia, 
which sprang to the last detail from the mind 
of Thomas Jefferson, to be the forerunner and 
model of succeeding foundations. Jefferson 
correctly estimated the importance of the li- 
brary in the scheme of a university, and all of 
his plans for the school centred around that 
fact. Hence when the university set to work 
in 1825 the library building was not only com- 
plete but a collection of books, selected by him, 
was on the way from Europe. It may be noted 
that this central library building and the funds 
for equipping it were only obtained after a 
bitter struggle with short-sighted politicians and 
reactionaries. As might be surmised, in found- 
ing this institution Jefferson was profoundly in- 
fluenced by English and French models, and the 
university in turn has transmitted the educa- 
tional principles of its founder to many other 
schools in the South and Southwest. That it 
has been outstripped by some of these has been 
due to conditions that need not be discussed, 
one of which, the burning of the Rotunda, or 
library building, in 1895, was a positive disaster 
from which the library has not yet recovered, 
although the building was immediately recon- 
structed. 

University Libraries in the South Per- 
haps it was due to the influence of Virginia that 
the idea of the State university was first accepted 
in the Southern States. At any rate it was in 
these States that for decades they were the 
most important institutions of higher education. 
Each one of them possessed some sort of a 
library, many of which collections were de- 
stroyed during the Civil War and are only now 
taking place with the other collections of the 
country. Among these may be noted the Uni- 
versity of North Carolina (1795; 79,205 vols.) ; 
South Carolina (1805; 46,000 vols.); Georgia 
Site 41,000 vols.) ; Tennessee (1796: 37,379 
vols.). 

University Libraries in the West.— During 
the middle of the 19th century, the Middle and 
Far West had developed to such an extent that 
the demand of the people for schools and li- 
braries began to find response and then began 
a most remarkable development in these fields. 
The earliest of these educational institutions, 
the University of Missouri (1841; 161,470 vols.), 
owed more to Southern influences than North- 
ern, as did the University of Texas (1836; 
134, 342 vols.), hence it is in the University of 
Michigan ( 1837: 383,976 vols.) that we find the 
earliest type of ‘the great universities that have 
sprung up throughout.the West. Among these 
that have large libraries the following may be 
noted: California (1865; 355,463 vols.) ; Illinois 
(380,000 vols.); Iowa (1850; 130,040 vols.) ; 
Minnesota (1867: 251,000 vols.) : Nebraska 
(1871; 138,650 vols.) ; Ohio (1873: 176,526 
vols.) ; Wisconsin (1849: 255,000 vols.), 

Privately Endowed Universities. Equally 
important has been the development of libraries 
of institutions owing their origin wholly or in 
part to private munificence. One of the earliest 
of these, Cornell (1868), has a library of 489,656 
volumes : Lehigh (1877), 130,000; Leland Stan- 
ford (1891), 287,634. The growth of the li- 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


braries of these schools has been relatively 
moderate compared with that of the University 
of Chicago founded in 1892 by John D. Rocke- 
feller, its collections growing from nothing to 
half a million volumes in 25 years. Other col- 
leges and universities having collections of 
more than 100,000 volumes are: Dartmouth 
(1769), 140,000; Georgetown (1789), 106,341; 
Bowdoin (1794), 115,789; Amherst (1821), 
118,000; Oberlin (1833), 175 625; Johns Hopkins 
(1876), 202,247 ; Princeton (1746), 397,126 
volumes. The character of a college library 
is determined, of course, by the nature and 
aims of its institution. In schools mainly 
technological, like Lehigh, Cornell or Massa- 


chusetts Institute of Technology, the coilections 


are strongly scientific or technical. The same 
is true of many of the libraries of the State 
universities, the latter often specializing in agri- 
culture and kindred topics. 

State Libraries.—Another and _ relatively 
early development of libraries in the United 
States was that of the State libraries. Orig- 
inally these were merely reference collections, 
mainly law books and public documents, housed 
in the State capitol. In time, however, many 
of these collections quite outgrew their limita- 
tions, becoming general libraries, the most of 
them remaining essentially reference collections. 
A few like the New York and California State 
libraries in addition serve as capstones to 
splendidly organized State:library systems. In 
general, the funds for the maintenance and de- 
velopment of these institutions are supplied by 
appropriations from the State treasuries, which, 
it must be confessed, have not always been 
sufficiently generous to warrant large extensions 
of their activities. A few of the larger State 
libraries, such as that of Massachusetts, of 
Connecticut and of Arkansas, still adhere to the 
law and document principle, whereas in the case 
of Colorado, Illinois, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode 
Island, Texas and Virginia the State library has 
developed into a general or historical collec- 
tion which had resulted in the establishment of 
special law or reference libraries for official 
use. In 1811 the State Library of Massachusetts 
initiated the custom of exchanging State docu- 
ments which it has kept up to the present. It 
is difficult to say which State had the earliest 
collection. Pennsylvania is said to have had 
an official library in 1777 and New Hampshire 
claims to have possessed one prior to the Revo- 
lution. In some cases the libraries had de- 
veloped before any official recognition ‘was 
made of them. Thus Virginia appointed a 
State librarian in 1825, before an appropriation 
had been made for books, and Tennessee had 
accumulated some 8,000 volumes prior to the 
first official enactment regarding the collection 
in 1854. The following are the most important 
State libraries: Arkansas (1836), 100,000 vol- 
umes; California (1850), 207,283; Connecticut 
(1835), 200,000 (law); Iowa (1846), 142,841, 
Kentucky (1820), 116,626; Maine (1820), 110,- 
000; Massachusetts (1826), 192,015 (law) ; New 
Hampshire (1820), 153,861; New York (1818), 
449,542; Ohio (1817), 213, 723; Pennsylvania 
(1816), 176,624: Tennessee (1854), 150,000; Vir- 
ginia (1823), 114,520. In addition, Louisiana, 
Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, New 
Jersey and Nebraska have State law libraries, 
and Colorado, Illinois and Ohio have Supreme 
Court libraries. 


LIBRARIES 


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LIBRARIES, MODERN 


Special Libraries— The development of 
the special library in the United States has as- 
sumed two phases which might be termed the 
early and the recent. The former comprehends 
the establishment and expansion of types of 
libraries already differentiated in Europe, such 
as theological, legal, medical, historical and, to 
a lesser degree, pedagogical and associational 
libraries. The second group is the result of the 
development of science during the 19th cen- 
tury, and of recent economic and social move- 
ments. 

Theological Libraries— The earliest of 
these were the theological libraries, the ma- 
jority of which were developed in connection 
with institutions of learning. Indeed, some of 
the college libraries of the 18th century con- 
sisted mainly of theological literature. As the 
secular aspects of the institutions became more 
and more emphasized, the theological elements 
tended to become segregated, forming depart- 
ments of the school, rather than permeations 
of the whole. The libraries followed this tend- 
ency hence we find the development of the 
splendid theological collections at Harvard, 
Princeton and other universities. The Harvard, 
now the Andover-Harvard Theological Library, 
numbers 109,321 volumes and the Princeton 
Theological Seminary Library 103,427 volumes. 
One of the few institutions whose library has 
remained true to the earlier type is the George- 
town University. Its collections consist to a 
large extent of Catholic theologic literature and 
number about 106,000 volumes. In addition to 
these university collections, the foundation of 
sectarian seminaries during the first half of the 
19th century has resulted: in the upbuilding of 
some very excellent special libraries of theology, 
such as the Union Theological Seminary (1835; 
130,018 vols.) ; the Drew Theological Seminary 
(Methodist, 1867 : 128,054 vols.) ; the Hartford 
Theological Seminary (1834; 109, 620 vols.) and 
the General Theological Seminary (1817; 59,- 
691 vols.). 

Law Libraries.——Another early type of 
special libraries is the law library. These were 
first developed, as was the case of the theolog- 
ical libraries, in connection with colleges, the 
Harvard Law Library, housed in a splendid 
building of its own, still remaining one of the 
largest collections in America (172,073 vol- 
umes). Other colleges with special law li- 
braries are Columbia (59,262 vols.), University 
of Chicago (40,236 vols.), Yale (40,127 vols.), 
Northwestern (45,000), New York University 
(25,791 vols.), University of Pennsylvania (57,- 
152 vols.). Legal literature is predominant in 
the collections of State libraries, but as many 
of these have developed into general libraries, a 
number of ‘States have developed in addition 
special legal libraries, among them being the 
Indiana State Law Library (55,000 vols.), Min- 
nesota State Law Library (79,662 vols.), New 
York State Law Library (69,000 vols.), the 
Ohio Supreme Court Library (36,000 vols.). A 
few of the State libraries, such as the Massa- 
chusetts (192,015 vols.), remain essentially law 
and documentary libraries. In addition to these, 
bar.associations and legal societies have organ- 
ized and developed law collections, some of 
them of first importance such as that of the 
New York Association of the Bar (114,437 
vols.), Philadelphia Law Association (62,858 
vols.), Chicago Law Institute (67,072 vols.), 


~ little save historical interest. 


363 


Social Law Library, Boston (65,000 vols.), Bar 
Association of San Franciso (35,000 vols.), San 
Francisco Law Library (28,000 vols.), New 
York Law Institute (81,209 vols.). 

Medical Libraries.— The literature of a 
science so progressive as that of medicine and 
its allied subjects loses its value after a very 
limited period, hence many of the books have 
For this reason 
only a few institutions undertake to obtain and 
care for the great mass of medical lore of the 
past. This has been left to institutions with the 
necessary funds and facilities for its preserva- 
tion. One library in particular in the United 
States has essayed to play this part with dis- 
tinguished success—'the Library of the Sur- 
geon-General’s office of the United States Army. 
Under direction of Dr. John S. Billings, the 
largest collection of medical literature in 
America has been gathered, classified and a 
catalogue issued that is a monument of biblio- 
graphic research. The library now numbers 
190,310 bound volumes and 328,036 pamphlets. 
The majority of the medical libraries are con- 
nected with the medical departments of univer- 
sities or of independent medical schools, the 
largest being that of the library of the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons, Philadelphia, with 
collections numbering 107,782 volumes. The 
Harvard Medical School has collections num- 
bering 27,000 volumes, and Columbia with 28,- 
960 volumes. Medical societies have also de- 
veloped excellent libraries, among them being 
the Medical Society, County of Kings, Brook- 
lyn, with collections numbering 70,000 volumes; 
New York Academy of Medicine,’ 101,593; 
Rhode Island Medical Society, 25,000; Boston 
Medical Library, 85,963. 

Pedagogical Libraries.— Educational _ li- 
braries form a comparatively recent phase in 
the development of special libraries. The lar- 
gest and most comprehensive, that of the 
Bureau of Education, was founded in 1868 and 
numbers about 150,000 volumes. With the 
establishment of teachers’ colleges many special 
pedagogic libraries have come into being, the 
most important of which are that of the Teach- 
ers’ College (1887), affiliated with Columbia 
University (63,770 vols.) ; State Normal School 
of Indiana (Terre Haute, 1870; 70,926 vols.) ; 
State Normal School of Kansas (Emporia, 
1865; 40,900 vols.) ; ‘State Normal College of 
Michigan (Ypsilanti, 1852; 43,000  vols.); 
Southern Illinois State Normal University 
(Carbondale, 1869; 30,210 vols.) ; Chicago Nor- 
mal College (1898 : "25,000 vols.) : Colorado 
State Teachers’ College (44,800 vols.) ; School 
of Education, University of Chicago (35,000 
vols.) ; Nebraska State Normal School (25,245 
vols.) ; Peabody College for Teachers (Nash- 
ville, Tenn., 35,0 000 vols.) ; Hampton Institute 
(44,962 vols.) ; Glenville Normal School CW. 
Va.; 42,000 vols.) ; Wisconsin State Normal 
(Milwaukee; 27; 510 vols.). There are approx- 
imately 208 normal school libraries in the United 
States. 

Historical Libraries The majority of 
special historical libraries in America have 
been organized by historical societies, either 
regional, State or group. Many State libraries, 
in that they endeavor to collect local historical 
material, partake of the characteristics of spe- 
cial historical libraries. Among these may be 
noted the Alabama State’ Department of Ar- 


364 


chives (100,000 vols.) ; Colorado State Library 
(40,000 vols.); . California State Library 
* (207,134. vols.);..New York State, Library 
(449,542 vols.). Among the libraries whose 
collections cover the history of an area larger 
than a State may be mentioned the New Eng- 
land Historical. Genealogical Society (39,711 
vols.) ;; American Antiquarian Society (Wor- 
cester, Mass.; 140,000 vols.). The State -his- 
torical societies, however, have been most as- 
siduous in collecting and. preserving local his- 
torical material. Nearly every State has an 
active association of this nature and several 
possess very valuable collections, notably Kan- 
sas (1875; 90,689 vols.) ; Maine (1822; 40,000 
vols.) ; Maryland (1844; 45,399 vols.) ; Massa- 
chusetts (1791; 56,000 vols.) ; Minnesota (125,- 
000 vols.) ; Nebraska (53,000 vols.) ; New Jer- 
sey (30,000 vols.); New York (130,866 vols.) ; 
Pennsylvania (202,000 vols.); Rhode Island 
(90,000 vols.) ; Virginia (15,300 vols.) ; Wis- 
consin (376,000 vols.). A still more restricted 
phase is that of city historical societies, of which 
a number possess interesting collections, not- 
ably the Chicago Historical Society (24,738 
vols.); Buffalo, N. Y. (40,000 vols.); New 
Haven Colony (8,000 vols.) ; New York Genea- 
logical and Biographical Society (15,000 vols.) ; 
Essex Institute (Salem, Mass.; 115,856 vols.) ; 
Newport (R. I.) Historical Society (8,000 
vols.); Western Reserve (Cleveland, Ohio, 
Historical Society; 44,850 vols.). A collection 
of great importance to students of early Amer- 
‘ican literature and American history is the 
John Carter Brown Library at Providence 
(25,000 vols.). There are other collections 
representing special groups and interests that 
partake of the nature of historical societies, 
such as the Hispanic Society of New York 
(82,461 vols.) ; the Pan-American Union (Co- 
lumbus Memorial Library, Washington; 37,965 
vols.) ; Congregational Society (Boston; 64,- 
561 vols.) ; the Presbyterian Historical Society 
(Philadelphia; 20,000 vols.) ; the Holland So- 
ciety (New York; 6,500 vols.) ; National Soci- 
ety of the Daughters of the Revolution (Wash- 
ington; 6,693 vols.). 

Scientific and Technical Libraries.— The 
tremendous advances made in pure and ap- 
plied science during the 19th century have re- 
sulted in the establishment of many scientific 
and technical libraries. The various activities 
of the national government has caused the lo- 
cation of a number of these collections at 
Washington. The special libraries in. Wash- 
ington in the most cases have been developed 
in connection with scientific bureaus and de- 
partments of the Federal government. In pure 
science may be noted the Library of the Bu- 
reau of Standards (44,900 vols.) and the li- 
brary of the Smithsonian Institution with its 


magnificent collection of the publications of . 


learned institutions and scientific societies + 
(521,616 vols.). The Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey has a collection of 25,000 volumes on geod- 
esy, slfveying, hydrography, etc.; the Geo- 
logical Survey, 220,000. books and pamphlets 
on geology, mineralogy and paleontology; and 
the Weather Bureau of 35,500 volumes and 
pamphlets on meteorology and climatology. 


*Not including Sutro Library in San Francisco, 81,851 
volumes. ; 


'. Deposited in the Library of Congress. 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


The Bureau of American Ethnology has a col- 
lection of 33,430 items on ethnology, anthropol- 


ogy and American aborigines; the Bureau of 


Fisheries, 29,155 volumes on fisheries, fish cul- 
ture, etc.; the Department of Agriculture, 137,- 
700 volumes and pamphlets on agriculture, for- 
estry, chemistry, botany, etc.; the Forest Serv- 
ice, 18,852 items on forestry. In military and 
naval sciences the Army War College has 100,- 
000 items, Navy Department, 50,000, the United 
States Army Engineers’ School, 45,115. Other 
collections on military and naval topics are at 
the United States Military. Academy (West 
Point, N. Y.; 16,121 vols.); United States 
Naval Academy (Annapolis, Md.; 56,851 vols.) ; 
Coast Artillery School (Fortress Monroe, Va.; 
28,034 vols.) ; .Naval War College (Newport, 
R. I.; 21,000 vols. and pamphlets) ; Army Serv- 
ice Schools (Fort Leavenworth, Kan.; 32,000 
vols. and pamphlets). 

Libraries of Economics, Political Science 
and Sociology.— The literature of economic 
and social problems is to be found in the col- 
lections of the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion, 23,000 volumes and pamphlets; Bureau of 
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 20,000 vol- 
umes and pamphlets; Bureau of Labor Statis- 
tics, 32,000 volumes and pamphlets; Department 
of Commerce, 103,738 volumes and pamphlets; 
Treasury Department, 11,580 volumes and 
pamphlets. There is also in Washington a li- 
brary of the United States public documents 
under direction of the superintendent of public 
documents which contains 193,533 volumes. 
Other special libraries in Washington, but non- 
official, are the Bureau of Railway Economics, 
60,000 volumes and pamphlets, and the Volta 
Bureau (deafness), 9,000 volumes and pam- 
phlets. The Library of Congress has a large 
collection of embossed books for the blind. An- 
other interesting special collection at Washing- 
ton is that of the Carnegie Endowment for In- 
ternational Peace, containing 11,000 items, peace, 
international conciliation and league of nations. 

Science and Technology.— There are many 
scientific libraries, however, outside of the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. The oldest collection of the 
sort is undoubtedly that of the American Phil- 
osophical Society, Philadelphia, founded in 
1743. This has 65,413 volumes, mainly relat- 
ing to pure and applied science. The American 
Academy of Sciences of Boston is probably 
the next in point of age, its date of foundation 
being 1780. It has 34,681 volumes. The lar- 
gest library specializing in scientific and -tech- 
nical literature is the John Crerar Library of 
Chicago, with 384,603 volumes. Other collec- 
tions of importance are Boston Society of Nat- 
ural History, 40,617 volumes; Franklin Insti- 
tute, Philadelphia (1824), 71,020 volumes, 28,- 
845 pamphlets. The schools of technology have 
necessarily developed libraries along the lines 
of work treated in their courses. The largest 
is perhaps the library of the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology numbering 121,711 vol- 
umes. The library of Cornell is also strong in 
technical works (489,654 vols.); Sheffield — 
School (Yale; 12,500 vols.) ; Lehigh (130,000 
vols.); Wagner Free Institute of Science 
(Philadelphia; 25,000 vols.); Rose Polytech- 
nique Institute (Terre Haute; 15,360 vols.) ; 
Armour Institute of Technology (Chicago; 
27,869 vols.); Stevens Institute (Hoboken: 


LIBRARIES 


*q ‘u0}ZurqsemM ‘AIviIqr] [eUOIsseIZu0D 


LIBRARIES 


Public Library of the City of Chicago 


Central Library Building of the City of Boston 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


12,700 vols.) ; Worcester Polytechnic Institute 
(15,000 vols.); Michigan College of Mines 
(28,050 vols.) ; Missouri School of Mines (20,- 
495 vols.) ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute (2s.- 
072 vols.) ; Alabama Polytechnic (27,550 vols.). 
Many State universities pay attention to tech- 
nology and the applied sciences, agriculture in 
particular. Among the noteworthy collections 
are those of the State agricultural colleges of 
Kansas (57,800 vols.) ; Michigan (38,561 vols.) ; 
North Dakota (26,620 vols.); and Utah. (28,- 
046 vols.). The University of Tennessee also 
has a valuable collection of agricultural books 
and pamphlets. The largest collection, how- 
ever, is the spendid library of the Department 
of Agriculture at Washington, numbering 137,- 
700 items. 

Social Sciences, Economics, etc.—A very 
recent library development has been indicated 
in the departments of economics and sociology. 
The great industries have discovered the value 
of collections of literature, both as history and 
as a guide to future developments. Thus the 
railways of the United States have organized 
a Bureau of Railway Economics for the study 
of transportation problems. This has a library 
of some 50,000 items at Washington, D. C 
Other libraries similar in purpose but in a dif- 
ferent field are those that have been developed 
by the great insurance companies, the most 
noteworthy being that of the Prudential In- 
surance Company, at Newark, N. J., which has 
a collection which is said to number 200,000 
items on life insurance and allied topics. The 
Mutual Life has 30,000 items; the Metropoli- 
tan 20,000 volumes; and the Insurance Library 
Association, Boston, 21,000 items. Finance is 
represented also by some interesting collections. 
Thus the National City Bank of New York 
has a library of 24,000 volumes on banking, 
etc.; American Bankers’ Association, New 
York, 48,000 items; Lee, Higginson & Company, 
Boston, 50,000 items. See Lrprarizs, Com- 
MERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 

A few special collections in sociology and 
social reform have appeared recently, the lar- 
gest probably being that of the Russell Sage 
Foundation, New York, with 51,695 items, The 
Children’s Bureau at Washington has a collec- 
tion of books upon its specialty and the Bu- 
reau of Labor has a library of 32,000 volumes 
on economic and social topics. ‘There are a 
great many society and association libraries in 
the United States, the collections of Masonic 
Order being of interest, that of the Supreme 
Council of the Scottish Rite at Washington 
containing some 75,000 items. 

Bibliography.— Bostwick, ‘The American 
Public Library» (New York 1910); Dana, ‘A 
Library Primer? (Chicago 1910); Fletcher, 
‘Public Libraries in America? (Boston 1899) ; 
et “Notices of Public Libraries in the 

nited States? (Smithsonian Reports. 
dix. Washington 1857) ; United States Bureau 
of Education, ‘Public Libraries in the United 
States? (Special report 1876; Washington 
1876) ; id., ‘List of Public Society and School 
Libraries? ; ‘American Library Annual. 


CANADA. 


There are few records of collections of 
books in Canada prior to the establishment of 
the British colonies. Le Moyne d’Iberville is 


Appen- 


365 


said to have gathered together all the works 
on the New World and carried them with him 
on his expeditions, but what became of them 
is unknown. The Jesuit Fathers, as is well 
known, were indefatigable chroniclers, but 
whether they were equally enthusiastic readers 
is less certain. At any rate the first library re- 
corded in Canada was one organized by a group 
of British officers stationed at Quebee in 1779, 
who expended £500 in London in the purchase 
of books. This was first housed in the Bishop’s 
Palace. In 1843 it was transferred to the Que- 
bec Literary Association, and again in 1866 to 
the Literary and Historical Society, at which 
time it numbered about 7,000 volumes. The 
collection now numbers 16,000 volumes, mainly 
Canadian history. 

Collections in Ottawa.—In Ottawa, the 
seat of the Dominion government, are 
centred the libraries developed by the various 
official departments. Of these the I arliament 
Library is the most important and, prior to the 
fire of 3 Feb. 1916, was the largest in Canada, 
numbering between 300,000 and 400,000 vol- 
umes. The departments of Justice (8,000 
vols.), State Geological Survey (20,000 vols.) 
and the Supreme Court (38,000 vols.) are spe- 
cial collections that are growing rapidly. 

Provincial Libraries— The most import- 
ant collection in Quebec is the library of the 
legislature of the province (1792; 107,218 
vols.) and the University of Laval in the same 
place possesses about 102,000 volumes and con- 
tains much important historical material rela- 
tive to Canada, and the B. Saint Sulpice 
(80,000), also in Montreal, has a most attrac- 
tive building. Public libraries have developed 
to a very limited degree in Quebec, but the con- 
trary is true of the province of Ontario. This 
has a widespread and thoroughly modern sys- 
tem modeled upon American and British meth- 
ods. The value of the library is recognized and 
it is liberally supported. A considerable num- 
ber are an evolution out of mechanics’ libra- 
ries. These were taken over by the municipali- 
ties, the communities being taxed to maintain 
them under provisions of the Free Libraries 
Act, passed in 1882. Libraries were provided 
for in the law reorganizing the school system 
drawn up by Dr. Ryerson and passed in 1848, 
but only a few libraries were established at that 
time. There are more than 500 libraries, large 
and small, in Ontario. The largest and most 
active public library in Canada is the public 
library of Toronto with 15 branches and 300,- 
000 volumes. The activity in Ontario has ex- 
tended to the middle and western provinces, the 
Provincial Library of Manitoba at Winnipeg 
numbering 60,000 volumes; British Columbia 
having several active libraries, the Provincial 
Library at Victoria containing 30,000 volumes; 
while Alberta has three collections of over 
10,000, the most important being the Public and 
Strathcona Library at Edmonton, containing 
35,000 volumes. Many new and _ splendidly 
equipped buildings are being constructed in 
Canada, especially in the western provinces. 

Traveling Libraries.— In 1890, a system of 
traveling libraries was initiated by Lady Aber- 
deen at a meeting of ladies in Winnipeg. This, 
called the Aberdeen Association, has endeav- 
ored to supply reading matter to settlers and iso- 
lated families in the Canadian Northwest. This 


366 


association has distributed thousands of books, 
magazines, etc. and has brightened the lives 
of many lonely people. 

University Libraries—-The largest and 
most’ modern university library in Canada is 
that of McGill University at Montreal. This 
has six branches and its collections number 
about 152,000 volumes. The University of To- 
ronto has also an excellent library numbering 
some 148,434 volumes. 

There is an active library association in Can- 
ada, which was established mn 1900. Canadian 
libraries have suffered severe losses by fire dur- 
ing the recent years — the collections of the Uni- 
versity of Toronto, of the Provincial Library 
of Quebec and finally the Parliament Library at 
Ottawa was partially destroyed in the burning 
of the Parliament buildings, 3 Feb. 1916. 


LaTIN AMERICA. 


The continuous social and political unrest 
and the upheavals that have marked the course 
of affairs in the Latin American countries have 
had an injurious effect upon the development 
of libraries. Prior to the establishment of the 
various states, the only collections were in the 
religious institutions. These, however, in most 
cases were of minor importance, and during the 
19th century were allowed to decline or were 
merged with the public collections. In a few 
of the more progressive states, such as Argen- 
tina and Mexico, provision was made for na- 
tional libraries in the middle of the last cen- 
tury. As early as 1867 a national library was 
instituted in Mexico and in 1873 the librarian 
of the Argentine National Library, V. G. Que- 
sada, made a trip to Europe in order to study 
its famous libraries, which resulted in an elab- 
orate work entitled ‘Las Bibliotecas Europas 
y algunas de la América Latina? (Buenos 
Aires 1877). 

Mexico.— In 1913 there were about 150 li- 
braries in Mexico, of which the most important 
is Biblioteca Nacional. This was formed from 
the collections of the various religious and edu- 
cational institutions that came into control of 
the state when the Liberal party came into 
power. It was opened to the public in 1884. 
Its collections number about 200,000 volumes. 

Central America.— Several of the Central 
American states have libraries, the majority, 
however, being relatively unimportant, that of 
Costa Rica, at San José, being housed in a new 
building with a system of arrangement, cata- 
lJoguing, etc. 

Cuba.— One of the most active and up-to- 
date libraries of Latin America is the B. Na- 
cional at Havana, Cuba, founded in 1901. 

South America.— With the exception of 
Argentina, Brazil and Chile there are very few 
collections of great importance in South Amer- 
ica. Colombia has a national library at Bo- 
gpta, Bolivia has a number of small collec- 
tions, as has Peru at Lima, while Paraguay es- 
tablished a Biblioteca Nacional in 1915. 

Brazil. The largest and perhaps the best 
equipped library in South America is the Bib- 
liotheca Publica Nacional at Rio de Janeiro, 
Brazil. This was founded in 1810 and its collec- 
tions of over 330,000 volumes and 500,000 man- 
uscripts, etc., are housed in a splendid new 
building completed in 1910 at a cost of $1,500,- 
000. The most modern methods are in use 
here and in other libraries in the country. 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


Argentina.— The interest in libraries is 
more active and widespread in Argentina than 
any other South American state. There are 
fully 200 libraries of all types, the most im- 
portant, of course, being the Biblioteca Nacional 
at Buenos Aires. This was founded in 1810 by 
Dr. Mariano Moreno, the first collections being 
derived from the library of the bishop of Bue- 
nos Aires. The collections now number about 
300,000 and contain some interesting manu- 
scripts relative to the early Spanish period. 


GREAT BRITAIN. 

The English kings apparently were indif- 
ferent lovers of books. So far as is known, 
none but George III formed a library worthy 
of the name. In one case the power of the 
king reacted injuriously upon British libraries, 
for as a result of the conflict of Henry VIII 
with the Holy See the valuable monastic and 
other ecclesiastic collections of the pre-Ref- 


ormation period were destroyed or scattered. 


Some of these books, however, were saved by 
John Leland (q.v.) and other book-lovers. For 
this reason but few of the existing British 
libraries assign a very early date to their 
foundation. In fact, according to published 
records, only 37 containing more than 50,000 
volumes were founded prior to 1800. Of these, 
two, the Cambridge University Library (1444) 
and Lincoln’s Inn Library (1497), were founded 
during the 15th century; six during the 16th 
century, eight during. the 17th century, 11 dur- 
ing the 18th century and 64 during the 19th 
century. 

Among these institutions, the British Mu- 
seum (q.v.) of course assumes greatest ime 
portance. The date of its foundation is usually 
designated as 1753, the year of the bequest 
of Sir Hans Sloane, yet Edward Edwards finds 
the origins of its collections in a much earlier 
period. A royal library, according to Walpole, 
was established by Henry VIII, which was in- 
creased’ by gifts from monarchs abroad. Slight 
additions were made under Henry VIII, but 
during the brief reign of Edward VI was a 
decided development owing to the efforts of 
Sir John Cheke and Roger Ascham. The ac- 
cessions later of the collections of Henry, Earl 
of Arundel, Lord Lumley, Archbishop Cranmer, 
Casaubon, Sir John Morris and the Orientalia 
of Sir Thomas Roe formed the nucleus, to 
which was added the splendid collections of 
Sir Hans Sloane and King George III. 

University Libraries—As one would ex- 
pect, the earliest large collections were formed 
by the universities, many of which have grown 
into imposing libraries. The oldest of these, 
and one of the most ancient in England, is 
the Cambridge University Library. That it 
was in existence prior to 1425 is indicated by 
a list of its books made at that time. Its first 
great benefactor was Thomas Scott, arch- 
bishop of York, who erected the building’ (1475) 
in hich it was housed until 1755, and who 
made additions to its collections and endow- 
ment. It contains about 900,000 volumes, which 
include many early English imprints. More 
famous, even, than the Cambridge Library is 
that of Oxford, named the Bodleian, after the 
founder, Sir Thomas Bodley. It was due to 
the enthusiastic labors of this bibliophile that 
the Bodleian was opened to the public in 1602 
with 2,000 volumes, almost entirely gifts from 


LIBRARIES 


AyIQ WIOX MON SvoTIOUTY Jo AJBIN0G auedsipy 9G} Jo tinesnyy puy Areiqry 


LIBRARIES 


Central Library Building of Baroda, India. Formerly a Palace of the Maharaja 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


his private collection. These activities were 
crowned by the generous provisions contained 
in his will. Other distinguished benefactors 
were Archbishop Laud, Sir Kenelm Digby, John 
Selden, Francis Douce, etc. The library now 
contains about 800,000 volumes, 41,000 manu- 
scripts, which include a wonderful collection of 
Orientalia, Greek and Latin manuscripts, and 
much valuable material in history and lttera- 
ture. In 1860 it was united with the Radcliffe 
Library of Medicine and Science, the collec- 
tions being transferred to the Radcliffe Camera, 
its present home. Among the university libra- 
ries of Scotland, those of Edinburgh and Saint 
Andrews are the most important. The library 
of the latter is perhaps the older of the two, 
as the university is known to have possessed 
books as early as 1456, but the assigned date 
is 1610 at which time the various collections 
were united by command of King James VI. 
It contains about 150,000 volumes, including 
valuable local history. Edinburgh University 
was founded in 1583 by the bequest of the 
library of Clement Little, a lawyer of Edin- 
burgh. This collection was transferred to the 
university at its foundation in 1583. Among 
the library’s benefactors was the famous Scotch 
poet and bibliophile, Drummond of Hawthorn- 
den, who made a large donation of books in 
1627. The collections number 270,000 volumes 
and 800 manuscripts. The library of Trinity 
College at Dublin had a somewhat romantic 
beginning, having been founded by a gift of 
£1,800 made by the English army as a memorial 
to its victory over the Spanish at Kinsale in 
1602. This sum was placed in the hands of 
James Usher, later primate of Ireland, who 
was a friend of Bodley, the two co-operating 
in the interest of their libraries. Usher’s own 
library was purchased at his death in 1655 but 
its transfer to the university was held up by 
Cromwell, and not consummated until the Res- 
toration. The library has received many valu- 
able gifts of books and manuscripts and now 
numbers about 350,000 volumes and 2,078 manu- 
scripts. Among the more recent university 
foundations may be named ‘the University Col- 
lege Library, London (1823; 150,000 vols.) and 
the University of London (1839; 100,000 vols.). 
The majority of the English cathedrals have 
collections of books. The most of these, how- 
ever, are small and their use is usually restricted 
to the diocesan purposes. A few, however, 
are open to the public. : 

Public Libraries— The development of 
the free public library has in the main followed 
a course parallel with that in the United States, 
the movement toward popularization of exist- 
ing collections and the establishment of new 
ones occurring simultaneously in both countries. 
The work of the public library of to-day was 
formerly done by proprietary and subscription 
libraries, analogous to the mechanics’ libraries 
in the United States. Some of these, such as 
the London Library, founded by Carlyle, Glad- 
stone and other distinguished men, are still 
operative, but in great part they have been 
absorbed by the public libraries. The most 
active worker for the establishment of free 
public libraries was Edward Edwards, the au- 
thor of ‘Memoirs of Libraries.» At a meeting 
of the Statistical Society, 20 March 1848, he 
read a paper in which he deplored the lack 


of interest in free libraries. He found only 


367 


29 free libraries, possessing more than 10,000 
volumes each, while France had 107, Austria 41 
and Switzerland 13. This paper attracted the 
attention of William Ewart, M.P., and resulted 
in the appointment of a library commission 
on the subject of public libraries, and finally 
in the Public Libraries Act of 1850. (Consult 
Axon, ‘Statistical Notes on the.Free Town- 
Libraries of Great Britain,» Journal of the 
Statistical Society, September 1870). The de- 
velopment under the provisions of this act was 
slow. Prior to 1886, 133 libraries had been - 
established; from 1887 to 1890, 70; since which 
date the annual average was 17. Under a new 
law, which came in force in 1893 “any local 
authority (i.e., town council or district board), 
save in the county of London, may establish 
and maintain public libraries without refer- 
ence to the wishes of the rate payers.” (Library 
Journal, Vol. XVIII, p. 422). Since 1900 the 
growth of free public libraries in Great Britain 
and her colonies has been remarkable. Not a 
little of this has been due to Andrew Carnegie, 
whose benefactions have been extended to the 
British Empire. 

Only two of the great British public libra- 
ries, Dundee, Scotland (1601; 154,922 vols.), and 
Bristol (1613; 180,825 vols.), were established 
prior to the 19th century. Indeed, the tremen- 
dous growth in free public libraries has been a 
very recent thing in all countries. This is indi- 
cated in Great Britain by the fact that some of 
the most important free libraries in the kingdom 
have been established during the last few dec- 
ades. Thus Glasgow (430,000 vols.) was founded 
in 1877; Lambeth-Tate, London (159,000 vols.),: 
in 1886; Edinburgh Public Library (200,000 
vols.), in 1887; Hull (106,000 vols.), in 1892; 
John Rylands in Manchester (200,000 vols.) 
is one of the relatively few private endowed li- 
braries in England. This was founded by Mrs. 
E. A. Rylands in 1899 as a memorial to her 
husband and is housed in a splendid building 
Its collections are based upon the famous Al- 
thorp Library, formed by Earl Spencer. Other 
public libraries of more than 100,000 volumes 
are Birmingham (1861; 445,675); Bolton 
(1852; 128,322); Bradford (1871; 178,035); 
Cardiff (1862; 221,000) ; Liverpool (1850; 338,- 
796); Guildhall Library, London (1824; 148,- 
757); Westminster, London (125,000); Man- 
chester Free Public Libraries (1852; 500,000) ; 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1874; 170,000) ; Notting- 
ham (1868; 149,657), and Sheffield (1853; 
186,551). 

Special Libraries— There are many valu- 
able special collections in Great Britain, among 
which may be noted: La&: London, Inner 
Temple (1540; 58,000); Lincoln’s Inn (1497, 
72,000); Edinburgh, Signet (1722; 122,000). 
Political Science Statistics, etc.: London, Brit- 
ish Library of Political Science (1896; 300,- 
000); Foreign Office (75,000 public docu- 
ments); Reform Club (1836; 56,000); Royal 
Colonial Institute (1868; 100,000); Royal Sta- 
tistical Society (1834; 50,000). Medicine: Lon- 
don, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons 
(60,000). Science: London, Royal Society 
(1662; 80,000); Science Museum (105,000) ; 
British Museum, Natural History Library 
(1881; 72,000) ; Society of Antiquities (40,000) ; 


Geological Society (1807; 30,000); Linnean 
Society (1788; 35,000); Royal Geographical 
Society (1830; 50,000); Chemical Society 


368 
(1841; 25,000). Miltary and Naval Science: 
London, British Admiralty (1700; 50,000) ; 


Royal United Service Institution (1831; 32,- 
000). Fine Arts: National Art Library (1841; 
115,000). Consult Edwards, ‘Memoirs of Li- 
braries’ (London 1859); Garnett, ‘Essays in 
Librarianship» (London 1899); Ogle, ‘The 
Free Library? (London 1897); Rye, ‘The Li- 
braries of London?; Savage, ‘The Story of 
Libraries and Book-Collectors’? (1909). 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


Owing to the fact that Austria has remained 
firm in her allegiance to the Roman Catholic 
Church, the library situation there is rendered 
interesting by the great number of monastic 
collections remaining intact.” From the view- 
point of the bibliographer they are of immense 
interest, some of them having been founded 
in the early medizval period and still in pos- 
session of their ancient treasures. There are 
13 of these libraries containing over 50,000 
volumes of which the following may be noted: 
the Benediktinabtei at Admont (1074; 88,000) ; 
Closternburg (1106; 81,000); Kremsmunster 
(777 and 1571; 91,000); Moelk, Salzburg (fd. 
circa 790 by Archbishop Arno, 72,000). In 
modern library movements, however, Austria, 
until recently, has not taken an active part 
For a long period the empire possessed the 
richest collections in Europe, but they have not 
kept pace with those of Germany, Great Britain 
and France during the 19th century. In the 
K. K. Hofbibliothek at Vienna, Austria pos- 
sesses, however, a library of the first import- 
ance. This is based upon the palace collections 
of Emperor Frederick III, established in 1440, 
but its growth was limited until the reign of 
Maximilian I, who is considered to have been 
the real founder by its noted librarian, Lam- 
brecius. One of its early librarians was Enea 
Silvio Piccolomini, who later became Pope Pius 
IJ. The library is housed in an imposing and 
elaborately decorated building on Josephplatz 
and was completed in 1826. It has many 
exceedingly valuable and interesting collections, 
among them being the library: of the famous 
Fugger family, manuscripts from the collec- 
tions of Matthew Corvinus, king of Hungary, 
the library of Tycho Brahe, the astronomer, 
that of Prince Eugene of Savoy, etc. The 
collections number about 1,000,000 volumes, 
8,000 incunabula and 27,000 manuscripts. Of 
particular importance is the collection of 100,- 
000 papyri formed by the Archduke Ranier. 

University Libraries—— With the excep- 
tion of the Hofbibilothek at Vienna, the most 
important collecti@ns in Austria are those pos- 
sessed by the universities, the largest being the 
K. K. Universitats-B at Vienna. This was 
founded in 1775 by the Empress Marie Theresa, 
and contains 882,394 volumes, 663%incunabula and 
906 manuscripts. Other large university collec- 
tions are Budapest (1635; 491,831 vols.) ; Cra- 
cow (1400; 429,355 vols.); Czernowitz (1852; 
2e2 433 vols.) ; Graz (1586; 271,000 vols.) ; 
Innsbruck (1746: 266,812 vols.) ; Klausenburgh 
(1872; 253,000 vols.) ; Lemberg (1784; 241,000 
vols.) : Prague (1784: 381,000 vols.). 

Special Libraries The following special 
collections may be noted: Law, Politics, 
Statistics, etc.: Futrstl. Leichsteinische Fidei- 
Kommiss-B. (100,000 vols.); K. K. Familien- 
Fideikommiss-B. (1784; 250,000 — vols.) ; 


LIBRARIES, MODERN. 


Archiv u. B. des K. K. Finanz-Ministeriums 
(63,000 vols.) ; B. des O. Reichsrats (1873; 56,- 
000 vols.), in Vienna, and B. des K. Ungar 
Statistiches Amt. (1867; 118,132 vols.), in 
Buda-Pest; Theology: Reform-Theologische- 
u.-Rechts-Academie B., Sarospatak (153b; 69,- 
000 vols.) ; Science ria Technology: K. 
Geologische Reichsanstalt-B. (1849; 65, 000 
vols.) ; Hungarian Academy of Sciences (160,- 
000 vols.) : the Konigl. Ungar. Josephs-Technis. 
Hochschule-B. (1850; 105,098 vols.), in Buda- 
Pest, and the K. K. Technis. Hochschule-B. 
(140,173 vols.), in Vienna. Consult Bohatta 
and Holzmann, ‘Adressbuch der Bibliotheken 
der oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie” (Vienna 
1900) ; Kukula, ‘Die oesterreichischen Studien- 
bibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908 (Vienna 
1908) ; Gulyas, ‘Das ungarische Oberinspektorat 
der Museen u. Bibliotheken> (1909); ‘Die 
tuber 10,000 Bande zahlenden oeffentichen- 
Bibliotheken ungarns in Jahr 1908? (Buda- 
Pest 1910). 
FRANCE. 


The greater part of the French libraries 
originated in the collections of religious orders 
and the medieval universities. These collections, — 
many of which date back to the 14th and 15th 
centuries, remained relatively intact until the 
Revolution, during which the libraries suffered 
in common with all of the institutions of the 
nation. Yet its effect on library development 
in France, on the whole, was beneficial, for 
while many valuable manuscripts and books 
were lost, yet their loss was more than com- 
pensated by the foundation of the public 
library system of France, which was for many 
years superior to any. When the monasteries 
and other religious foundations were disestab- 
lished, their libraries were made the property 
of the state and placed in the care of the com- 
munes, thereby forming the nuclei of the present 
bibliothéques municipales, or free public 
libraries. This transfer was made under the 
Decrees of the Constituent Assembly, 1789 and 
1790, and of the Legislative Assembly, 1792 and 
1793. The Decree of 1793 fixed the distinction 
between libraries and archives and laid the 
foundation for the provincial libraries. The 
provisions of these enactments were strength- 
ened by the Orders of Napoleon, 1803 and 1809, 
which provided for the organization and ad- 
ministration of these libraries. 

Municipal Libraries.— The majority of the 
municipal libraries, therefore, as mow con- 
stituted, were established during the early por- 
tion of the 19th century, yet, as has been indi- 


cated, their original collections are vastly 
older. The earliest existent collection, if the 
German guns have spared any of it, is the 


Bibliothéque Municipale of Rheims founded in 
1146, while that of Angers was established by 
Alain de la Rue in 1376. Michel Anglici began 
the collection now the library of Charpentras 
in 1452. This still retains many of the manu- 
script rarities of the original collection. The 
Bibliothéque Municipale of Bourges was estab- 
lished in 1466, and that of Clement-Ferrand by 
Mathieu de la Porte in 1490. Francis I~ 
founded the library of Lyons in 1527, which 
was originally a part of the Collége de " 
Trinité, established at the same time. The col- 
lection later passed into the hands of the 
Jesuits, and suffered considerable losses when 
the order was suppressed. Its collections have — 


LIBRARIES 


peigoneg ‘Alviqry] d1qnd 


LIBRARIES 


1 Bibliothéque Sainte Geneviéve, Paris 2 Bibliothéque Nationale, Cour d’honneur, Paris 
3 Bibliothéque de la Ville, Bordeaux 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


been largely increased by private benefactions. 
A library, free to the public, was established at 
Aix-en-Provence in 1409. This was partially 


scattered, but restored in 1705 with the gift by | 


André Tournon of his private collection and 
7,000 francs for the establishment of a free 
public library. The Bibliothéque Municipale of 
Tours originated in the collections of the 
abbey of Marmoutiers and_ other religious 
foundations of the region. Its earlier collec- 
tions have suffered losses, but is now one of 
the largest public libraries in France. Another 
ancient library of France is that of Caen, Wil- 
liam the Conqueror’s town, which was founded 
in 1431. In spite of the vicissitudes of many 
wars, particularly the religious ones, it has de- 
veloped into its present collection of 128,000 
volumes. It was suppressed in 1701, but re- 
opened in 1736. Cardinal Fleury was one of 
its most liberal benefactors. The Bibliothéque 
Municipale of Lille is based like the others 
upon church collections and must have been 
established prior to the 14th century as a 
catalogue of that period is still in existence. 
It likewise suffered losses during the Revolu- 
tion, but at the same time was augmented. by 
additions from other monastic collections. Just 
what it has suffered from the German occupa- 
tion is yet to be determined. One of the 
largest municipal libraries to develop from 
ecclesiastical origins is that of Rouen, which 
has steadily grown to its present size of 150,- 
000 volumes. It was largely increased in 1855 
by the accession of the splendid collection of 
M. Leber, containing 50,000 choice books and 
manuscripts. The Bibliothéque Municipale of 
Troyes was founded in 1651, by the gift of 
the library of Jacques Hennequin,. to the 
Cordeliers of Troyes, on the condition that the 
library be opened to the public (135,550 vols.). 
When the religious orders were suprressed this 
collection, with that of the Oratorians and the 
remnants of the collection of the famous 
abbey of Clairvaux, were united to form the 
municipal library. Many of its treasures have 
been lost, but rare and precious items still 
remain, some antedating the death of Charle- 
magne. Among its collections of particular in- 
terest are the autograph works and correspond- 
ence of the Port Royal fraternity. The library 
of Besancon (103,830 vols.), founded by the 
Abbé Boisot in 1696, contains many manu- 
scripts. from the famous library of Cardinal 
Granvelle which had passed into the hands of 
the abbey of Saint Vincent and turned over to 
the city during the Revolution. Douai library 
(96,186 vols.), founded in 1767 unde- the aus- 
pices of the university, received in 1791 the 
splendid collection of the Benedictine Com- 
munity of Marchiennes, which contained 1,718 
rare manuscripts. The Bibliothéque Munic- 
ipale of Bordeaux (200,000 vols.) owes_ its 
origin to the bequests of MM. Bel and Cardoze 
to the Bordeaux Académie des Sciences in 
1738. This collection has been generously 
added to by the city. Among other French 
libraries of interest may be noted: Rochelle, 
originating in the collection of the Consistoire 
Réformé de la Rochelle, 1604 (109,712 
vols.) ; Dijon (125,000 vols.), founded by P. 
Fevret in 1701; Nancy (142, 018 vols.), founded 
by Stanislas in 1750; Nantes (220,000 vols.), 
1753; Nice (60,000 vols. ), founded by Abbé 
Massa in 1786; Nimes (110, 000 vols.), founded 


VOL 17 —24 


‘and 4,600 manuscripts. 


369 


by Jean de Dieu and R. Bion in 1778; Perpig- 
nan (35,000 vols.), founded by Maréchal de 


Mailly in 1759; Rennes (120,000 vols.), 1733; 
Toulouse (213, 000 vols.), founded by the 
archbishop of Brienne in 1782 ; Marseilles 


(124,039 vols.), 1799. 

Paris, of course, is richest in libraries of all 
types. The principal institution is the 
Bibliotheque Nationale, one of the world’s 
greatest libraries, the importance of which calls 
for a detailed description. (See special article 
NATIONAL LiprAry OF FRANCE). Next in im- 
portance to the Bibliothéque Nationale is the 
Bibliotheque Saint Geneviéve, founded by Cardi- 
nal de Rochefoucauld in 1642. Originally it was 
the library of the abbey of Saint Genevieve, 
which he gathered upon his appointment as 
abbot. From this small beginning, it de- 
veloped under the librarianships of Du Molinet, 
Gillet, Le Courayer, Mercier de Saint Léger, 
Pingré, Lemonnier and the historian Daunou. 
It steadily increased until at the outbreak of 
the Revolution it possessed about 80,000 printed 
books and 2,000 manuscripts. Two noteworthy 
collections were added during the 18th century; 
the splendid collection of Archbishop le Tellier 
(1716; 45,000 books and manuscripts) and that 
of the Duke of Orleans in 1791. At the dis- 
solution of the abbey (1791), the library be- 
came state property and was renamed the 
Bibliothéque Panthéon. During the empire it 
was united with the Lycée Henri IV. The 
collections of the Bibliothéque Saint Geneviéve 
number at present about 400,000 books, 1,225 
incunabula and 3,855 manuscripts. The 
Bibliotheque Mazarine is of great interest in 
part owing to its founder, the great cardinal, 
and in part to the treasures it contains. The 
famous Gabriel Naudé, the first librarian, 
opened it to the public in 1642. It was dis- 
persed by the Fronde but reconstituted in 1661, 
at which time it contained about 40,000 volumes. 
The collection remained in the Mazarine 
Palace until 1688 when it was transferred to 
the College de Mazarine. Its collections num- 
ber about 250,000 volumes, 1,900 incunabula 
The Bibliothéque de 
Arsenal owes its origin to Antoine d’Argen- 
son, Marquis de Paulmy, who in the midst of a 
life of greatest activity as a general, statesman 
and author contrived to gather a private library 
of approximately 100,000 volumes. At his death 
in 1789, this was acquired by the Comte 
d’Artois who united it with the equally splendid 
collection of the Duc de La Valliére. This 
collection, in 1858, contained 202,000 volumes 
and some 6,000 manuscripts. Its collections in 
1915 numbered 624,904 volumes and 10,341 
manuscripts. It possesses the most complete 
collection extant of romance literature, of 
drama, particularly of the period of mystery 
plays and by early French poetry. 

Special Libraries.— There are, in all, about 
200 libraries in Paris of which many are ‘special 
collections of great importance. Of these the 
Bibliothéque des Archives may be mentioned. 
It was founded by the Daunou in 1808 and con- 
tains 30,000 volumes, mainly source material in 
history. A library similar in nature is that of 
the Office de Législation Etrangére et de Droit 
Internationale. Other special libraries are 
Law: Bibliotheque des Avocate (1704; 65,000 
vols.) ; Bibliothéque de la Faculté de Droit 
(100, 000 vols.) ; Legislation: Bibliothéque de la 


370 


Chambre des Députés (1706; 200,000 vols.); 
Bibliotheque du Sénat (1818; 140,000 vols.) ; 
Medicine: Académie de Médecine (1820; 60,- 
009 vols.) ; Faculté de Médicine (220,000 vols.) ; 
Military and Naval Sciences: Bibliothéque du 
Ministere de la Guerre, founded by Louvois 
(135,000 vols.) ; Bibliothéque et Archives du 
Ministére de la Marine (1836; 100,000 vols.) ; 
Bibliothéque Hydrographique de la Marine 
(60,000 vols.); Education: Bibliothéque de 
Enseignement Public (80,000 vols.); Science 
and Technology: Ecole Nationale des Ponts et 
Chausées (100,000 vols.) ; Ecole Polytechnique 
(50,000 vols.); Ecole Supérieure des Mines 
(1778; 5,000 vols.); Muséum d’Histoire 
Naturelle (220,000 vols.) ; Societé de Statistique 
(60,000 vols.) ; Bibliothéque de la Société de 
Géographie (60,000 vols.); Music, Fine Arts: 
Bibliotheque d’Art et Archéologie (100,000 
vols.) ; Conservatoire National de Musique 
(1775; 80,000 vols., 500,000 music manuscripts) ; 
Miscellaneous: Ecole Spéciale des Langues 
Orientales Vivantes (75,000 vols.) ; Bibliotheque 
Historique de la Ville de Paris (1872; 24,000 
vols.) ; Institut de France (1795; 550,000 vols.) ; 
Bibliothéque Polonaise (1838; 100,000 vols.) ; 
Société de I’Histoire du Protestantisme (60,- 
000 vols.). 

University Libraries.— In comparison with 
the libraries of some of the provincial univer- 
sities, that of the Université de Paris, or the 
Bibliotheque de la Sorbonne (600,000 vols.), is 
of relatively recent birth, having been founded 
in 1762. Next to the Bibliotheque Nationale 
-it is the richest in special collections and source 
material. In 1897 it was housed in the build- 
inys of the New Sorbonne, even then inade- 
quate for its collections. Many of the pro- 
vincial university libraries date from the 
medieval foundations of their schools. Thus 
the Bibliothéque Universitaire, Aix-en-Provence 
(85,000 vols., 63,000 theses) was established in 
1409, that of the University of Bordeaux (107,- 
000 vols., 174,400 theses) .in 1441. More recent 
foundations are the University of Grenoble 
(1879; 175,000 vols.) ; Lille (407,000 vols., 194,- 
000 theses); Lyon (137,352 vols., 
theses); Montpellier (126,399 vols., 127,000 
theses) ; Nancy (107,254 vols., 106,000 theses) ; 
Poitiers (114,000 vols., 170,000 theses) ; Rennes 
(1733; 193,000 vols., 68,000 theses); Toulouse 
(1879; 140,000 vols.). 

Prior to the 20th century France was per- 
haps better supplied with excellent collections 
of books than other countries. Her institutions 
have tended to cling to old methods, hence the 
modern movement that has’ transformed biblio- 
graphic systems in the United States and Eng- 
land has been but slowly accepted there. In 
1906, however, the Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion appointed a committee to study the condi- 
tion of the archives and libraries of France 
which presented a report recommending radical 
reforms in methods, and a more liberal treat- 
ment of libraries and their personnel in income 
and scholarly recognition. At this time, also, 
a national library association was founded and 
a periodical started which might serve as an 
organ of intercommunication between libra- 
rians. ‘There is every reason for believing that 
this movement will prove as wholesome for 
library conditions in France as the similar ones 
in Great Britain and America. Consult Mar- 
cel, H., and others, ‘Bibliothéque Nationale? 


117,000" 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


(2 vols., Paris 1907); Franklin, ‘Guides des 
savants, des littérateurs, etc., de Paris? (Paris 
1908); Le Prince, ‘Essai historique sur la 


_Bibliothéque du Roi, aujourd’hui Bibliothéque 


Impériale? (Paris 1856); Martin, ‘Histoire de 
la Bibliothéque de lArsénal> (Paris 1899) ; 
Morel, ‘Le Développement des Bibliothéques 
publiques? (Paris 1899); Mortreuil, ‘La Bibli- 
othéque Nationale? (Paris 1878); Pécheur, 
‘Histoire des bibliothéques publiques du Dé- 
partment dé l’Aisne? (Soissons 1884); Saint- 
Albin, ‘Les bibliothéques municipales de la 
Ville de Paris» (Paris 1896); Supercaze, ‘Les 
bibliothéques populaires, scholaires et péda- 
gogiques? (Paris 1892). . 


GERMAN EMPIRE. 


The German Empire has a great number of 
large libraries. This is due in the main to the 
existence of the many separate states that form 
the empire, the rulers of which have encouraged 
the formation of libraries in their capital cities. 
The interest, likewise, taken by the Germans in 
popular education and in scholarship has had 
its effect also. Hence, while Germany has no 
individual collections that compare with the 
Bibliothéque Nationale or the British Museum, 
it has a dozen that exceed 500,000 volumes in 
size. Four classes of libraries may be distin- 
guished in Germany, the Hof or Royal, the 
Stadt or Municipal, the university and the pop- 
ular libraries, or Volk-bibliotheken. 

In origin the German. libraries, like the 
French, may be traced to three movements: 
(1) The medizval or ecclesiastic foundations; 
(2) the humanistic or university; (3) the mod- 
ern. As in France, it has been the privilege of 
the last period to gather together and organize 
the material that has been saved from the 
earlier collections. For this reason many of the 
German libraries assign their foundations as 
early as the 14th and 15 centuries. The sup- | 
pression of the religious orders during and 
after the Reformation resulted in the liberation 
of many collections of books, some of great 
interest, and, while many valuable items were 
lost, a large proportion was saved as is evi- 
denced by the splendid collections of manu- 
scripts and early printed books in the various 
libraries. 

Germany has produced many librarians and 
bibliographers of distinction, among whom may 
be noted Lipsius, Pertz, Panzer, Halm, Petz- 
holdt, Heyne, Ritschl, Hain, Jahn, Forstmann 
and Dziatzko. The modern library movement, 
owing to the early efficiency and completeness 
of Germany’s early library system, did not de- 
velop in that country until the beginning of the 
present century. While an excellent library 
journal, Zentralblatt fur Bibliotekswesen, 
has been in existence since 1884, no national 
association of librarians was formed prior to 
1889. During the last decade legislation has 
been enacted in Prussia and Bavaria providing 
for more careful attention to the development 
of libraries and for raising the standard of 
librarianship, it being enacted in 1904 that 
librarians should be university graduates and 
candidates for the doctorate, and in 1907 a | 
director of library affairs, under the Minister 
of Education, was established. 3 

The Ko6nigl. Bibliothek at Berlin (1661) is 
net only the greatest library in Prussia, but, in 
a sense, fills the réle of the national library of 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


the German Empire. It is one of the 10 great- 
est libraries in the world, containing now about 
1,500,000 volumes, 5,000 incunabula and 42,000 
manuscripts. Its founder was the Elector of 
Brandenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, who formed 
a collection in his palace in 1650, consisting 
mainly of spoils from monasteries destroyed 
during the religious wars. In 1699 the copy 
privilege was assigned, but no large ad- 
ditions were made either during the reigns 
of Friedrich Wilhelm I and_ Frederick 
the Great. The predilection of the _lat- 
ter .for French literature, however, indi- 
rectly benefited the Royal Library, for he 
immediately turned over to it every book in the 
German language that came into his possession. 
Under Friedrich Wilhelm III many large addi- 
tions were made. The library possesses im- 
portant special collections, among which may be 
noted German history and literature, philology, 
the sciences and a splendid collection of any 
cunabula. Its collections were housed for more 
than a century in an imposing but sombre 
building erected by the command of Frederick 
the Great during the years 1775-80. A new and 
more commodious building was erected in 1909. 

The Konigl. Hof-u. Staatsbibliothek, the 
Royal Library of Bavaria at Munich, has long 
been recognized as a model institution. It was 
founded during the reign of Gross-Herzog Al- 
brecht V during the years 1550-79, its nucleus 
being the private library of the ruler. A build- 
ing was erected for it in 1575 and the collec- 
tions have gradually increased until it pos- 
sessed about 20,000 volumes at the beginning of 
the 16th century. It suffered*losses during the 
Thirty Years’ War, but. gained in the end, for 
a number of valuable collections, such as that 
of Gross-Herzog Christopher of Wutrttemberg 
and the library of Tubingen, came to it as 
spoils of battle. 
ever, were overshadowed by the expansion un- 
der Maximilian Joseph resulting from the sup- 
pression of religious institutions, 150 of which 
were closed in 1803. Vast collections came 
from the Jesuits’ College at Ebersberg, the 
Benedictine, abbey of Saint Emmeran, Ratisbon 
and other monasteries of the same order; the 
canonries of Saint Udalrich, Saint Afra, and 
from libraries at Mannheim and Bamberg. 
Ludwig I was equally generous and during his 
reign many important special collections were 
received, such as those of von Moll and K. F. 
Neumann, He built the splendid palace on 
Ludwigstrasse, which houses the collections, the 
library being reorganized and reclassified when 
installed. The collections number about 1,200,- 
000 volumes, 50,000 manuscripts and are par- 
ticularly rich in Hebrew literature and 
Orientalia. 

The Royal Library of Saxony, at Dresden, 
was founded by Elector Augustus in 1556, who 
established a collection in his palace, Castle 
Annaburg. In 1595 it contained 5,668 volumes. 
Its greatest expansion was experienced under 
Friedrich Augustus II, the second founder of 
the library. He installed it in a new home, add- 
ing a number of valuable collections such as 
those of von Besser and Maurice of Saxe. 
Under Friedrich Augustus III it took first rank, 
due mainly to the efforts of Prince Xavier, 
guardian of the young prince. Two vast col- 
lections were added; the Biinau (43,000 vols.) 
and the Brihl (62,000 vols,). In 1800 the col- 


All previous accessions, how- . 


371 


lections numbered 200,000 volumes, in 1850 
300,000 volumes, and at present it contains about 
600,000 volumes and 6,000 manuscripts. It is 
particularly rich in German history, literature 
and the fine arts. 

Among the other royal libraries may be men- 
tioned Konigl. Landesbibliothek of Stuttgart 
(603,186 vols.), opened to the public in 
1777, containing at that time 6,000 volumes and 
4,000 manuscripts from the palace collections at 
Ludwigsburg. It contains many of the books 
from the private library of the famous French 
scholar De Thou which were purchased when 
his library was dispersed. It is also famous for 
its collection of editions of the Bible. The 
Hertzogl. B. of Wolftenbiittel (300,000 vols.), 
founded by Julius, Duke of Braunsweig-Lune- 
burg, in 1558, was a large collection at the be- 
ginning of the 18th century. The poet Lessing 
at one time was librarian and among its 
patrons was the philosopher Leibnitz, many of 
whose papers, however, are in the Konigl. u. 
Provinzial-Bibliothek at Hanover (211,200 vols.), 
founded by Duke Johann Friedrich in_ 1660; 
Gotha, Offentliche B. des Herzogl. Hauses, 
founded 1646 by Ernest I of Saxony, has been 
developed by the reigning sovereigns (25,000 
vols. in 1723; 150,000 in 1858; 205,638 in 1912 and 
7,055 manuscripts). The Grossherzogl. Hof-B. 
at Darmstadt (564,512 vols.) was founded in 
1670 by Ludwig I, but based upon the col- 
lections of the Landgrave Ludwig VI. It 
contains manuscripts from Cologne Cathe- 
dral. Saxe Weimar has long been a centre of 
art and literature, its rulers encouraging all 
things that would foster learning. Hence the 
Grossherzoglich Bibliothek (300,000 vols.) is 
large and most interesting. It was founded in 
1700 by Duke Wilhelm Ernest, who gathered 
all of the books of his predecessors together 
into one collection. During the 18th century 
it was accounted the best library in Germany. 
It contains a fine collection of military litera- 
ture. 

Municipal Libraries.— One of the most in- 
teresting and perhaps oldest of the German 
stadt or town libraries is that of Nurnberg, 
founded in 1445 by Dr. Konrad Kithnhofer, 
who presented his private collection to the city. 
To this has been added many valuable collec- 
tions, notably that of Jerome Paumgartner, the 
friend of Luther. It also contains monastic ~ 
books, the manuscripts of Hans Sachs and of 
Diirer, and many rarities greatly treasured by 
the city. The collections, numbering about 
112,000 volumes and 2,550 manuscripts, are 
housed in the ancient monastic building of the 
Dominicans. The Staats-Kreis.-u.-Stadtbiblio- 
thek of Augsburg was founded in 1537, its col- 
lections originally having been monastic. In 
1806, when the city of Augsburg was ceded to 
Bavaria, the greater part of its library was 
transferred to Munich. Steps were soon taken 
to rebuild it and books were gathered from the 
convents and monasteries to that end. These 
amounted to 42,791 volumes, which were formed 
into a Kreisbibliothek. The collections number 
(1912) 205,000 volumes, 2,300 manuscripts. 
Hamburg contains a number of excellent li- 
braries, of which the most important is the 
Stadtbibliothek, founded in 1529, This contains 
about 418,000 ‘volumes, 917 incunabula, 8,000 
manuscripts. Frankfort-on- Main also is well 


__supplied with libraries, possessing four of more 


372 


than 50,000 volumes each. The Stadtbibliothek, 
founded in 1668, is the largest, containing ap- 
proximately 370,000 volumes. The Konigl. 
Offentliche B. of Bamberg (1611) contains 
splendid collections, being particularly rich in 
examples of early printing, the majority coming 
from the libraries of suppressed religious insti- 
tutions. It is housed in the building of the 
former Jesuits’ college. Among the other pub- 
lic libraries in Germany, too numerous to be 
discussed, may be noted those of Berlin (124,- 
866 vols.) ; Ltibeck (1620; 129,056 vols.) ; Mainz 
(1803 ; 235 000 vols.); Bremen (1660; 148,837 
vols.) ; Breslau (185, 000 vols.) ; Cassel (1580; 
250, 000 vols.) ; Cologne (1602; 255,000. vols.) ; 
Danzig (1591; 167,000 vols.) : Treves (1803; 
100,000 vols.) ; Weisbaden (1813; 172,211 vols.). 
Leipzig, the centre of German publishing activi- 
ties, is also the home of a number of excellent 
libraries, among which may be noted the Biblio- 
thek des Reichsgerichts (1870; 170,000 vols.), 
the Padegogische Zentralbibliothek (1872; 190,- 
000 vols.) and the Universitats-B. (1543; 
610,000 vols.). The Stadtbibliothek originated 
in a bequest of Hulderich Gross in 1677. It 
contains many valuable collections, among them 
that of Prof. H. L. Pélitz, the historian, be- 
queathed im 1838. 

University Libraries— The universities 
have played an extraordinary role in the de- 
velopment of modern Germany. This has 
been due in part to their large and well- 
equipped libraries and to the German research 
methods which enforce constant reference to 
~ their collections. The oldest German univer- 
‘sity library 1s probably that of Heidelberg, 
founded in 1386. Its modern development, 
however, dates from the purchase of the private 
library of the scholar Grevius by the Elector 
Palatine Johann Wilhelm, in 1707, who incor- 
porated with it the remnant of the ancient 
library. Other collections were received from 
dissolved monasteries and other sources, and 
by careful purchases, until it comprehends at 
present 500,000 volumes, 200,000 theses and 
3,530 manuscripts. 

The University of Halle (Friedrichs-Uni- 
versitat Halle-Wittenberg) possesses an excep- 
tionally well-organized library, rich in early 
printed books and research literature. Its 
foundation was ‘laid in the purchase of the 
library of Prof. J. G. Simon in 1696, by dupli- 
cates from Berlin and the collections of Bergen 
Convent. The merging of the University of 
Wittenberg with Halle in 1816 resulted in 
another large increase. The collections now 
number about 300,000 volumes and 2,016 manu- 
scripts. Another admirably equipped library 
is that of the University of Gottingen, founded 
by George II in 1734. The famous bibliog- 
rapher Heyne was librarian for 50 years, and 
to this fact is due the completeness of its col- 
lections and their excellent catalogues. Heyne’s 
successors were equally devoted. The library 
contains many valuable special’ collections, 
among them those of the historian Heeren, of 
von Bulow, Uffenbach and J. C. Jahn. The 
library is particularly rich in philology, history 
and science, and contains about 619,102 vol- 
umes and 6,940 manuscripts.. The united Royal 
and University Library of Konigsberg was 
founded by the Margrave Albert of Branden- 
burg, Ist Duke of Prussia, in 1534. The library 
at first was called the Schlossbibliothek. It 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


numbers some 318,000 volumes and 1 ,00 manu- 
scripts. 

The Jena University Library (270,000 vols.) 
was founded by the transfer of books from 
Wittenberg in 1548. The Grand Duke Karl 
Augustus of Saxe-Weimar was a patron of 
it and Goethe took great interest in its de- 
velopment. Another splendidly equipped uni- 
versity library is that of Leipzig, containing 
some 610,000 volumes and 6,500 manuscripts. 
It was formed out of monastic collections in 
1543 and is particularly rich in history, the 
sciences and classics. Among other university 
libraries of Germany may be noted Erlangen 
(254,083 vols.), formed by the Margrave 
Friedrich, in 1743, out of the collections of the 
margraves of Anspach and dissolved monas- 
teries; Breslau (402,767 vols.), founded in 
1811 from earlier collections and from the 
library of the former University of Frankfort- 
on-Main; Bonn (376,800 vols.), founded 1818 
by the purchase of the collections of Prof. C. G. 
Harless and those of the former University 
of Duisburg; Marburg (265,000 vols.), founded 
in 1527 by Philip, Landgrave of Hesse; Rostock 
(294,000 vols.), founded by Grossherzog Al- 
brecht of Mecklenburg in 1552, based in part 
upon the collections of the short-lived Univer- 
sity of Biitzow; Wiirzburg (400,000 vols.), 
founded by the Prince-Bishop Julius Echter 
v. Mespelbrunn; Giessen (261,747 vols.), formed 
of a collection purchased in Prague in 1605, 
and Titbingen (555,283 vols.), founded in 1477, 
based originally in monastic collections. 

Special Libraries Germany has many ex- 
cellent special libraries, of which the most 1m- 
portant are at Berlin, the collections in law, 
medicine and technology being particularly note- 
worthy. As might be expected, the military 
collections are impressive, the Bibliothek des 
grossen Generalstabes, Berlin, numbering about 
100,000 volumes, and that of Kreigsakademie | 
about 105,000 volumes. The majority of the 
schools of technology have large and well- 
selected libraries. Consult ‘Addressbuch der 
deutschen Bibliotheken? ; Ebert, ‘Geschichte u. 
beschreibung der K. Oeffentlichen Bibliothek — 
zu Dresden? (Leipzig 1822); Hortzschansky, 
“Die K. Bibliothek zu Berlin? (Berlin 1908) ; 
Jaeschke, ‘Volks-bibliotheken? ; “Jahrbuch der 
deutschen Bibliotheken? (Leipzig 1902) ; Petz- 
holdt, ‘Addressbuch der bibliotheken Deutsch- 
lands mit einschluss von Oesterreich — Ungarn 
u. der Schweiz? (3 vols., Dresden 1875). 


ITALY. 


The library history of the kingdom of Italy 
has its roots in antiquity. Here was estab- 


lished the first Western monastery, Monte 
Cassino, whose library still exists. This was 
founded by Saint Benedict in 529. It was in 


Italy that Petrarch, Boccaccio, Poggio and their 
confréres began the search for manuscripts and 
objects of ancient art that initiated the Renais- 
sance. As in Germany, another thing that en- . 
couraged the development of libraries was de- 
velopment of the small states and free cities. 
The rulers of these, during the later medizval 
period and throughout the Renaissance, were © 
often patrons of art and learning who loved 
books and found much delight in collecting 
them. Many of the modern Italian libraries 
originated in such collections, and in spite of 
numberless wars and vicissitudes of all kinds 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


they still possess a great share of their original 
treasures. Italy was deprived of many rarities 
during the wars with the first French republic 
and Napoleon, but the majority were returned 
after the fall of the latter. The unification of 
Italy and the establishment of the present king- 
dom resulted in the nationalization of the li- 
braries, most of which passed under govern- 
ment control. Successive laws have been en- 
acted for the organization and administration 
of these biblioteca governati which are under 
direction of the Minister of Public Instruction, 
who has under him a Board of Library Control. 
Careful watch is made over the library treas- 
ures. In 1875, 1,700 monastic libraries were 
confiscated by the state. These were trans- 
ferred to the governmental libraries already in 
existence or new collections were formed (371 
in 1875, 415 in 1878). The personnel of the 
libraries are government employees and are 
divided into the following classes: (1) libra- 
rians; (2) keepers of manuscripts; (3) assist- 
ants, cataloguers, etc.; (4) ushers, messengers, 
etc. 

The national library of Italy is the Nazion- 
ale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele, in Rome, 
founded 1875, and based on the collections of 
the Collegio Romano, or Jesuits’ College. It 
has the copy privilege and contains many splen- 
did collections, such as the Farfensi, the Sesso- 
viani manuscripts of Santa Croce, Jerusalem, 
and much material on the history of Italy, par- 
ticularly the period of the Renaissance. An- 
other important library in Rome is the Biblio- 
teca Casanatense, founded by Cardinal Casanate 
in 1698. This contains 200,000 volumes, 2,000 
incunabula, 5,000 manuscripts, many of them 
of the 8th to 10th centuries, and is rich in the 
literature of theology, law, economic, political 
and social sciences and history, particularly that 
of the Middle Ages. Among the other libraries 
of Rome may be mentioned the Biblioteca Uni- 
versitaria Alessandrina called the Sapienza, 
founded by Alexander VII, in 1667, the Cossini 
and the Chiagi. The collections at Milan are 
perhaps next tn importance to those of Rome, 
the largest being the Biblioteca Nazionale, or 
Braidense, founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, 
who purchased the collections of the naturalist 
Haller consisting of 14,000 volumes and manu- 
scripts. The collections have been greatly in- 
creased by transfers from religious institutions 
and by public and private munificence. It con- 
tains many interesting items, among the manu- 
scripts of Dante, Galileo, Tasso and Manzoni. 
The collections number 259,680 volumes, 
167,948 pamphlets, 1,834 manuscripts. There is 
an excellent catalogue in three parts, accession, 
author and subject, developed by Sacchi and 
Rossi. The classification system devised by 
Rossi for the Braidense has been adopted by 
other Italian libraries. More famous, even, 
than the Braidense is the Biblioteca Ambrosi- 
ana founded in 1609 by Cardinal Federico 
Borromeo, and based on his private collections. 
This is housed in an ancient conventual build- 
ing adapted to the purposes of a library, and 
contains many bibliographic treasures, among 
them manuscripts of Petrarch and Laura, draw- 
ings and manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci and 
rare examples of early books. In 1879 it re- 
ceived the library of Prof. C. Mensinger, “Bib- 
lioteca Europea,” containing material on the 
history and linguistics of Europe. Cardinal 


373 


Mai, the celebrated antiquarian, was librarian 
of the Ambrosiana for several years. 

Florence has a number of interesting col- 
lections, the oldest and most important being 
the Mediceo-Laurenziana housed in the Uffizzi 
Palace. It was formed from the collections, 
that of Lorenzo the Magnificent and the one 
gathered by Niccolo Niccoli and Cosimo. Ed- 
ward Edwards, ‘Memoirs of Libraries,» Vol. 
2, p. 369, calls this “The noblest monument 
which the Medicis have left of the glory of 
their line» It has suffered many losses, par- 
ticularly during the régime of Savonarola, yet 
it still remains one of the most interesting 
collections of bibliographic treasures in the 
world. Second only to the Vittori Emanuele 
at Rome is the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale 
of Florence. This has developed from the 
amalgamation of the private collections of the 
famous bibliographer Magliabechi and the Bib- 
lioteca Palatina, formerly the-library of the 
grand dukes of Tuscany and housed in the 
Pitti Palace. '*Magliabechi was librarian of the 
ducal library for many years during which time 
he gathered his own splendid collection, be- 
queathing it to the Grand Duke in 1714. Many 
valuable additions have been made to these col- 
lections, among them Poggi and Reviczky li- 
braries. The library is very rich in Italian 
history and literature. Manuscripts of Machia- 
velli and of Galileo, Torricelli, Viviana and 
other early Italian scientists are among the 
collections. A new building, appropriated for 
in 1902, has been erected on the Corso dei 
Tintori, near Santa Croce. Its collections now 
number about 600,000 volumes, 900,000 pam- 
phlets and manuscripts including many prior to 
the 11th century. Others of special interest 
are those of Boccaccio and Cellini. Among 
other Florentine libraries are the Biblioteca 
Riccardiana, rich in Italian literature, and the 
Biblioteca Marucelliana, remarkable for its 
collection of Italian art. The Biblioteca 
Marciana (library of Saint Mark’s), is the 
most important one in Venice, and if the tradi- 
tion that Petrarch founded it in 1362 is 
correct it is the oldest. At any rate books 
from Petrarch’s collections were discovered by 
Tomasini. The present collection is based upon 
the gift of manuscripts and codices brought by 
Cardinal Bessarione from Constantinople and 
presented to Saint Mark in 1468. Many addi- 
tions have been made from the collections of 
religious institutions and by private gift. The 
library is particularly rich in Venetian history 
and early geography and travel. It was first 
housed in the Libreria del Sansovino, from 
which it was transferred in 1812 to the Palazzo 
Ducale and in 1904 to the Palazzo della Zecca, 
or The Mint. Naples has a number of libraries, 
the most important being the Biblioteca Nazion- 
ale, opened in 1804. It originated in the library. 
of Cardinal Seripando, to which large additions 
have been made, particularly in 1848 from 
monastic collections. It contains 395,439 vol- 
umes, 221,859 pamphlets, 4,218 incunabula, 7,997 
manuscripts, and is very rich in scientific litera- 
ture, particularly the publications of learned 
societies. The Biblioteca Brancacciano (115,000 
vols.) was founded by Cardinal Brancaccio 
in 1690. Balogne, long famous as a centre of 
learning, has an excellent library, the Biblioteca 
Comunale, founded 1801 (313,133 vols.), 
which is especially rich in Orientalia, as has 


374 


Padtia (Museo Civico, founded 1778, 230,000 
vols.) and Modena, whose library, the Bib- 
lioteca Estense, is based upon the collections of 
the famous Este family, which were transferred 
from Ferrara to Modena by Cesare d’Este in 
1598. It now forms the Biblioteca Estense- 
Universitaria. Other large collections are at 
Genoa, Pavia, Lucca, Palermo, Perugia, Pisa, 
Verona and Vicenza.: The library at Messina 
was destroyed by the earthquake of 1908, but 
reconstituted in 1910. 

University Libraries.— The universities of 
Italy are very ancient and the majority possess 
excellent collections of books. One of the 
oldest of these, Bologna, doubtless had some 
type of a library at an early date, yet the 
founding of its present collection is assigned to 
1605 at which time the naturalist Aldrovandi 
bequeathed his collection of 3,800 volumes and 
350 manuscripts to the university. Great addi- 
tions were made by gifts from Count Luigi 
Marsili (1712), Mezzofanti, the famous biblio- 
phile and linguist, and others. The collections 
now number 255,000 volumes, 880 incunabula, 
5,000. manuscripts. The University of Padua, 
another early foundation, has a library of 300,- 
000 volumes and Pisa one of 203,000 volumes. 
The Biblioteca Universitaria of Naples is based 
on a collection established by Joachim Murat in 
1812. This was transferred to the unversity 
and opened to the public in 1849. It contains a 
number of monastic collections and is rich in 
medical and scientific works. Other import- 
‘ant collections are at the universities of Pisa, 
Pavia, Genoa and Turin. 

Special Libraries.— There are a number of 
important special libraries in Italy, the majority 
being in Rome. Among these are Law, etc.: 
The Biblioteca dei Deputati (133,700 vols.), 
Biblioteca del Senato (100,000 vols.) ; Mili- 
tary Science: Biblioteca Militare Centrale (70,- 
000 vols.) ; Music: Biblioteca Musicale (115,- 


000 vols.); Agriculture: Institute Interna- 
tional d’Agriculture (60,000 vols.). Con- 
sult ‘Le biblioteche governative del regno 


d'Italia» (Rome 1893); ‘Le biblioteche popolari 
in Italia, relazione al Ministro della Pubblico 
Instruzione? (Rome 1893); Fabietti, ‘Manuale 
per le biblioteche popolari» (Milano); ‘Sta- 
tistica della biblioteche? (Rome 1893-96). 


NETHERLANDS. 


The Netherlands has long been a centre of 
culture and there were many excellent public 
and private collections during the era of their 
greatest prosperity. Popular libraries have been 
in existence for centuries, but Belgium and 
Holland fell behind the states of Europe during 
the 19th century. Since 1900, however, con- 
siderable progress has been made. Modern 
methods have been applied, old libraries have 
been rejuvenated and many new ones estab- 
lished. 

Belgium.— It is quite impossible to give any 
true statement of the libraries of Belgium at 
the present, on account of the destructive in- 
vasion of the Germans in the World War. We 
know that the wonderful collection of manu- 
scripts and book rarities of. the University of 
Louvain has perished, as doubtless is true of the 
collections at Liége, Tournai, Alost, Courtrai, 
Namur, Malines (Mechlin) and Mons. 

Brussels of course has the largest and richest 
collections in Belgium, the Bibliotheque Royale 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


containing about 700,000 volumes. Its present 
collections date from 1837, but it is based upon 
the ancient Bibliothéques des ducs de Bour- 
gogne, and the Austrian rulers of the Low 
Countries. These were augmented by collections 
from suppressed religious institutions, particu- 
larly the Jesuits, but many valuable works were 
confiscated by the French during their occupa- 
tion. Much of its modern development has 
been due to the activity of Van Hulthem, under 
whose direction it became one of the best li- 
braries in Europe. It is particularly rich in 
Netherlands history. Brussels is also the head- 
quarters of the Institut International de Bib- 
liographie designed to. constitute a centre for 
co-operative bibliographic work throughout the 
world. ; 

Special Libraries— The majority of the 
governmental departments have collections re- 
lating to their special fields, notably the library 
of the Ministry of War (120,000 vols.), Cham- 
bre des Représentants (100,000 vols.), Com- 
mission Centrale de Statistique (70,000 vols.), 
Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres (100,000 
vols.), Ministére de la Justice (50,000 vols), 
and Ministére des Sciences et des Artes (75,- 
000 vols.). Other important collections are the 
Bibliothéque des Bollandistes (1640; 200,000 
vols.), Bibliotheque de l Académie Royale 
(141,000 vols.), the Bibliothéque Collective 
International (75,000 vols., proceedings of 
learned societies), Académie Royal de Médécine 
(100,000 vols.), Conservatoire Royal de Musi- 
que (60,000 vols.) and the Musée Plantin 
Moretus - (1640), containing 26,000 books and 
manuscripts on the history of printing. 

The Bibliothéque Communal et Universitaire 
at Ghent is based upon the collections of the 
Conseil de Flandres, College des Echevins, the 
Baudeloo Abbey and other suppressed religious 
institutions. It was made a public library in 
1797 and merged with the university upon its 
foundation in 1817. Collections, 450,000 vol- 
umes. The only library of importance in Ant- 
werp is the Bibliothéque Municipale, founded 
according to some authorities in 1476, but prob- 
ably a century later. It contains, if still extant, 
about 125,000 volumes. 

Holland.— The most important libraries of 
Holland are the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at The 
Hague, and the university libraries of Utrecht 
and Leiden. The Koninklijke Bibliotheek 
(1798) was formed from the collections of the 
princes of Orange and the library of the 
Staats-General, and various smaller collections, 
which are notably augmented by the bequest of 
Baron van Westreenen in 1848. It numbers 
some 600,000 volumes, comprising a very com- 
plete collection of Netherlands history. The 
library of the University of Utrecht originated 
in a collection brought together by the town 
council in 1581, but its true establishment was 
probably the date of the foundation of the uni- 
versity in 1636. It contains many rarities in its 
collections, among them the famous “Utrecht 
Psalter.» Its collections number about 400,000 
volumes. The University of Leiden, founded — 
as a memorial to the brave and successful de- 
fense of the city against the Spaniards in 1574, 
was long one of ‘the most noted in Europe, and 
immediately upon its establishment by William 
of Orange (1575) steps were taken to develop 
a library. This has been augmented by books 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


from many sources, particularly by bequests 
and gifts from its distinguished scholars 
such as Grotius, Vossius and Joseph Scaliger, 
Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. In 1877 the Library 
of the Society of Netherlands History was 
merged with it, forming a notable collection of 
national history and literature. It is also strong 
in Orientalia, Greek manuscripts and early 
Dutch travels. Its collections number 400,000 
volumes, 6,000 manuscripts. 


RUSSIA. 


“The first library ever known in Russia was 
organized in the 11th century when the great 
Duke Yaroslaw, the Sage, ordered several 
books on religion to be copied and kept in the 
Church of Saint Sofia, at Kief.»” (Mme. Haff- 
kin-Hamburger, Russia Libraries, in Library 
Journal, March 1915). The principal libraries 
of Russia originated in the spoils of war. 
This is particularly true of the Imperial Li- 
brary at Petrograd. Its first collections were 
seized in 1714 in Courland, and its true estab- 
lishment dates from the transfer of the great 
Zaluski collection from Warsaw in 1796. It 
is perhaps true that the collection was de- 
teriorating in Poland, yet that only in part 
justifies the transaction. This collection was 
formed by Counts Josef and Andrei Zaluski, 
who had devoted their lives and great wealth 
to its accumulation, and when opened to the 
public in 1747 it probably numbered about 
300,000 items. The addition of this to its other 
collections made the Imperial Library one of 
the largest in the world, a position it still main- 
tains. Among the many collections of which 
it was formed may be noted those of Catherine 
the Great, containing Shcherbatof, Voltaire and 
Diderot, the Slavonic collections of ‘Tolstoi, 
Tischendorf manuscripts, including the wonder- 
ful Codex Sinaiticus, Dolgorousky’s Orientalia, 
the libraries of Adelung, Tobler and Jungmann 
and the collections of the Jesuits’ college of 
Polotzk. The library was opened to the public 
2 Jan. 1814. The development of the collection 
was due in large part to the librarians of Olenin 
and Korff, the increase during the latter’s ad- 
ministration being remarkable, growing from 
640,000 volumes to over a million. There is a 
catalogue in manuscript, and lists of special 
collections have been published from time to 
time. The collections number 2,615,374 vol- 
umes and 207,816 manuscripts. 

Other large collections at Petrograd are the 
Academy Library (1725; 200,000 vols.); Ar- 
chives of the Senate (4, 061, 042 vols.) ; Goruyi 
Institute (1773; 250,000 vols.) ; Imperial Acad- 
emy of Science (1728: 500,000 vols.). At War- 
saw is the library of the Polish Kingdom (1,749,- 
837 vols.). Moscow has also some large col- 
lections of books, notably the Rumiantseff 
Museum (1828; 1,000,000 vols.) and the Du- 
chovanja (1689; 240, 000 vols.). Russian uni- 
versities have also extensive libraries, Charkov 
(1804; 240,916 vols.) ; Helsingfors (1640, 1827; 
150,000 vols.) ; Kiev (1832; 500,000 vols.) : 
Moscow (1756; 394,845 vols.) ; Odessa (1865 ; 
280,144 vols.) ; Imperial University, Petrograd 
(453, 772 vols.) ; Warsaw (1817; 576,387 vols.). 
The university at Tomsk, Siberia, has a collec- 
tion of 226,167 volumes. 

There are a few special libraries of interest, 
the majority being in Petrograd. Agriculture: 
Archives of the Department of Agriculture 


- volumes. 


375 


(1837; 300,000 vols.); library of the College 
of Agriculture and Forestry at Novaya-Alex- 
andriya (79,374 vols.). Law, etc.: Archives 
of the Senate (4,061,042 vols.). Theology: 
Clerical Academy, Kazan (1842; 106,666 vols.). 
Science and Technology: Archives of the De- 
partment of Roads (140,000 vols.); Imperial 
Academy of Science (1728; 500,000 vols., 13,- 
000 MSS.); Russian Geographical Society 
(70,000 vols.). Medicine: Academy of Medi- 
cine (1725; 200,000 vols.). There has been no 
particular development of popular libraries in 
Russia, but during the last 10 years efforts have 
been made to establish them) 


SCANDINAVIA. 


Prior to the latter part of the 19th century 
there was no general interest in library develop- 
ment in the Scandinavian countries. There 
were a few collections in the larger cities and 
the universities possessed libraries, but none of 
these were extensive. During the last few dec- 
ades, however, there has been an awakening 
to the value of the library to the community 
and Scandinavian librarians have gone abroad, 
especially to America, to study modern systems. 

Denmark.— The most important Danish li- 
braries are at Copenhagen, the largest being the 
Royal Library (Det Kongelige Bibliothek), 
founded originally by Christian III in 1533-39, 
but re-established by Frederick III in 1665, who 
erected the building in which it was housed until 
1906 when it was transferred to a new home. 
It is essentially a national library and possesses 
a most complete collection of Danish literature 
and history. Among its treasures are the 
manuscripts of the astronomer Tycho Brahe. 
Its collections number about 770,000 volumes. 

Next in importance is the Universitets 
Bibliotheket, the oldest research collection in 
Denmark, having been founded in 1482, the - 
foundation date of the university. The col- 
lections were burned 1728, but soon reconsti- 
tuted. It contains the famous Arne- Magnean 
collections. The collections number some 400,- 
000 volumes, 150,000 theses, 6,500 manuscripts, 
rich in medicine and science. 

Copenhagen also contains some special li- 
braries of importance (law, history and eco- 
nomics), the Town Hall library (local history), 
the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural College 
(agriculture) and the Academy of Fine Arts. 
There are also several collections on military 
and naval sciences, aggregating about 100,000 
volumes. The only large collection outside of 
the capital is at Aarhus, which contains 200,000 
A new building was erected for this 
in 1902. During the last decade of the 19th cen- 
tury a movement was initiated to establish 
popular libraries throughout Denmark. Prior 
to that time there had been a few parochial 
collections in cathedral towns, but they were 
relatively inactive. The new movement invig- 
orated these and resulted in the establishment of 


many new collections, hence there were some 


500 of these in 1904, with an aggregate of 
200,000 volumes. The libraries are controlled 
by a state library commission. 

Norway.— The chief library of Christiania 
is that of the University. It contains about 
500,000 volumes and was founded by Frederick 
II in 1811, its first collections being duplicates 
from the Royal Library. Next in importance is 
the Deichmanske Bibliothek, the free public 


' from other 


\ 


"one of the founders. 


376 


library. This was established in 1780, reorgan- 
ized in 1898 and contains 126,638 volumes; 
Bergen (1872; 117,831 vols.) and Tyrondhjem 
(1760; 132,000 vols., 1,940 MSS.) are the 
other libraries of importance in Norway. 
The formation of small public libraries has 
been encouraged since the municipal reform 
of 1837, but their growth was slow prior to the 
reorganization in 1901, since which time the 
development has been more rapid. They num- 
ber about 1,000. The books for these collec- 
tions are purchased co-operatively. 
Sweden.— The most important collections 
of Sweden are the Royal Library (Kungliga 
Biblioteket) at Stockholm and the university 
libraries at Upsala and Lund. The Royal Li- 
brary has a somewhat unusual history, for it 
has been established three times. Gustavus 
Adolphus presented the original collections, 
founded in 1585, consisting of books confis- 
cated from monasteries, to the University of 
Upsala. Another collection was then developed 
libraries conquered during the 
Thirty Years’ War. This Queen Christina gave 
the Vatican upon her abdication, where it now 
remains among the treasures of that library. 
The third collection was, in the main, destroyed 
by fire in 1697, about one-third being saved. It 
grew slowly during the 18th century, but the 
gift of the Royal Antiquarian Collections in 
1786 added 30,000 valuable books to the shelves. 
Its collections now number about 400,000 vol- 
umes and 1,000,000 pamphlets. A new build- 
ing was erected in 1882. Owing to the efforts 
of the librarian, G. E. Clemming, the collec- 
tion of Swedish history and literature is very 


complete. At Stockholm is also the Kunegl. 
Svenska Vetenskapsakademie or the Royal 
Academy of Science. This was established 
in 1739, the naturalist, Linneus, being 


Its collections number 
about 115,000 volumes and contain among other 
items of interest the manuscripts of the Swedish 
scientists, Swedenborg and Berzelius. The 
Nobel Institute, which awards the Nobel Prize, 
has a valuable reference library, and in addition 
there are several special collections of import- 
ance, particularly that of the Royal Statistical 
Office. The library of the Royal University at 
Upsala is perhaps the oldest in Sweden, having 
been established in 1477. It was reconstituted 
in 1593, but its present development dates from 
1620, when Gustavus Adolphus presented the 
Royal Library to the university. It contains 
the magnificent De la Gardie collection, re- 
ceived during the latter part of the 17th cen- 
tury. The collections number about 400,000 
volumes, to which may be added hundreds of 
thousands of theses. The library of the Uni- 
versity of Lund was founded in 1666, being 
based on the old collection of the cathedral 
of Lund. It has been supported by the Swedish 
rulers and numbers 200,000 volumes. Gothen- 
burg and Linkoping each have public libraries 
containing more than 100,000 volumes, the lat- 
ter possessing some interesting manuscripts. 


SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 


Spain.— The interest shown in libraries in 
Spain, prior to the end of the 19th century, 
has not been very keen. Indeed many old col- 
lections have stood still or deteriorated. Re- 
cently, however, there has been a revival, par- 


LIBRARIES — MODERN 


ticularly in the larger cities, and considerable 
advance has been made in augmenting the 
collections and in improving their adminis- 
tration. Madrid, of course, has the richest 
collections, the Biblioteca Nacional being the 
largest and most important library in the 
kingdom. This was founded in 1711 by Philip 
V, being based upon the royal collections: It 
has occupied several buildings; the present one, 
the only one constructed for its purpose, was 
erected by Fernando VII in 1826. The collec- 
tions number about 700,000 volumes, 2,057 in- 
cunabula, 30,000 manuscripts, and contain much 
valuable and interesting material on Spanish 
history and literature, especially early discov- 
ery and exploration. Madrid has 23 libraries 
in all, containing collections aggregating 1,500,- 
000 volumes, among which may be noted the 
Biblioteca. de Universidad Central (1508; 
270,000 vols.) and the Real Biblioteca (100, 000 
vols. ). In the environs of the city is the famous 
library of the Escorial (q.v.). The universi- 
ties of Barcelona and Seville also have excel- 
lent collections. 

Portugal.— The National Library of Por- 
tugal at Lisbon was founded in 1796 and num- 
bers about 400,000 volumes, 16,000 manuscripts. 
It is based upon monastic collections. An- 
other notable collection is that of Academia 
das Sciencias (1779), numbering 120,000 vol- 
umes. Oporto has a_ public library, founded 
1833, of 200,000 volumes, and the university at 
Coimbra (1591) has a collection of 100,00 
volumes. 

SWITZERLAND. 


Switzerland has many libraries (5,798 in 
1917) in comparison with its population and 
area. Only seven of these, however, contain 
more than 200,000 volumes. The majority of 
these are cantonal or communal collections. 
There are, however, 1,335 devoted to science or 
technology. This showing is all the more re- 
markable as the state did not concern itself 
with library development until the first half 
of the 19th century. A few of the ancient 
monastic collections of Switzerland still exist, 
the most interesting being the library of the 
famous abbey of Saint Gall. This collection 
was established by Abbott Gozbert about 820. 
“There remains enough of the old collection to 
attract and gratify the student of medizval 
literature.» Edwards, ‘Memoirs of libraries? 
(Vol, 1,pe262)% 

The largest collection is the Oecffentliche. 
Bibliothek at Basel (1460), which contains 
about 330,094 volumes, 175,000 pamphlets, 5,140 
manuscripts. This was united with the uni- 
versity in 1905. The National Library (Biblio- 
thek Nationale Suisse) is at Berne. It was 
founded in 1895 and already has collections 
numbering 225,500 volumes. The city library 
(Stadt Bibliothek) has about the same number 
of volumes. Freiburg i. U., Geneva, Lausanne 
and Ztirich each has a public library of over 
200,000 volumes, while Ziirich has in addition 
a library of technology in connection with the 
Technische Hochschule. Ziirich also is the 
headquarters of the Consilium Bibliograph- 
icum, the purpose of which is to develop a 
universal card bibliography of scientific liter- 
ature. The Swiss libraries are also co-operating 
in the formation of a general catalogue of 
Swiss literature, the libraries at Berne and 
Lucerne forming the collections upon which 


LIBRARIES, MODERN 


it is based. A Swiss library association was 
organized in 1 


GREECE. 


There are two libraries of importance in 
Athens, the Chamber of Deputies library (160,- 
000 vols.), and the National Library (1842; 
314,000 vols.). 

ASIA. 


Japan.— The early history of libraries in 
Japan is involved with that of China and 
presents no important distinctions. During the 
last quarter of the 19th century, however, the 
great transformation produced in Japan by the 
introduction of Western ideals and methods 
has had an influence equally far-reaching upon 
the libraries. These are now modeled upon 
accepted modern systems and a number are 
large and very active. 

The most important is, of course, the Im- 
perial Library at Tokio, founded in 1872. This 
is a reference library and contains about 298,663 
volumes, of which one-half are Japanese and 
Chinese works. There are several other large 
collections in Tokio, among them the University 
Pibrary “¢18/2; 491, 082 vols.); the Imperial 
Cabinet Library (1885 ; 507,500 vols.) ; the 
Hibaya Library (1908; 153,000 vols.) ; and the 
air University Library (1902; 151,000 
vols.). é 

There are also large libraries at other 
places, neg the Imperial University Library 
(291,117. vols., mainly technology) and the 
Fukuoka Medical College (113,000 medical 
works) at Kioto. Osaka has a public library 
containing 109,186 volumes, of which 8,218 are 
in the native tongues. There are, in addition, 
collections of books in nearly all the cities and 
towns. None of these are large, but the gov- 
ernment is encouraging their development in 
every way, and undoubtedly the future of 
Japanese libraries is bright. 

China.— Very little is known regarding the 
library history of China, yet it is believed that 
collections were formed at an early period. 
Huang-ti, one of the semi-mythical emperors, 
is said to have organized a board of historians 
to collect and transcribe the records of the 
empire. It is known, too, that the so-called 
“First Emperor” (221 B.C.) decreed that all 
books save those on medicine, magic and agri- 
culture should be burned, and himself took 
charge of the censoring of the books. It was 
only through concealment that many treasures 
of Chinese learning, including the works of 
Confucius, were saved from _ destruction. 
Hsiao Wu (139-86 Bc.) established what were 
known as “Repositories,” the Chinese equiva- 
lent of the modern reference library. During 
the first century before Christ, Liu Hsiang 
(80-9 B.c.) and his son were commissioned to 
transcribe the masterpieces of Chinese litera- 
ture and form a library. An annotated cata- 
logue resulting from their labors which con- 
tains 11,332 entries is still extant. 

There are also records of Chinese travelers, 
particularly Buddhist priests, who brought 
books from India and elsewhere into China 
and translated them into the vernacular. Of 
these Fa Hsien (circa. 400 a.p.) and Hsuan 
(629:A.D.) are of especial consequence. 

The National Library at Peking was formed 
originally from a collection of 100,000 bamboo 
books and the Shu King, which had been con- 


377 


cealed from destruction. These were added to 
by successive dynasties, but suffered many 
losses by fire and war. At present the library 
has about 200,000 volumes and manuscripts. 

There are collections at Canton and other 
cities. These are mainly for reference use 
only. There are a few small modern libraries 
in China, the one at Boone University being of. 
some importance. 

India.— There are many libraries in India, 
both native and foreign. Few, however, of 
them are: of considerable size. The largest 
collection is doubtless that of the Imperial 
Library, Calcutta (1891; 152,000 vols.). The 
Royal Asiatic Society has collections at both 
Calcutta and Bombay, the latter numbering 
80,000 volumes. In general, particularly in the 
British ruled states, the interest in libraries has 
not been very keen, the greatest development 
along modern library lines being in a few of 
the native states. A most remarkable instance 
is that of the state of Baroda. The library 
movement here was initiated by the Maharaja 
of Baroda, a highly enlightened and clear- 
visioned ruler. Under direction of an Amer- 
ican librarian, Mr. Borden, a modern library 
system has been established which comprehends 
every portion of the state, all administered 
from the Central Library, a reference collec- 
tion of 200,000 volumes housed in a beautiful 
building, a former palace of the Maharaja. 
All the libraries are state supported, and free 
to everyone without restriction of caste or posi- 
tion. A library school has also been established 
for training native librarians. 

The only other state having a free library 
system is Indore. There are libraries at 
Madras, Benares, Allahabad and other cities 
but they are mainly used by scholars. A num- 
ber of the native princes have made it a point 
to collect manuscripts, that of the Rajah of 
Tanjore being famous for its Sanskrit rarities. 
Eight thousand of its items are written on 
palm leaves. 

Siam.—As a memorial to their father, the 
children of King Mong Kut founded a library 
in Bangkok. This was enlarged in 1904 and 
made the depository for the national archives. 
Its collections are divided into three sections: 
works in foreign languages, native languages 
and ancient languages. The last is of particular 
interest and contains over 100,000 items, many 
of them unique. The library also contains a 
collection of ancient inscribed stones. 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 
’ The most important library of the Hawaiian 


Islands is the Public Library of Hawaii which 


occupies an attractive Carnegie building at the 
civic centre of Honolulu. It grew out of a 
merger of several libraries, the Honolulu Li- 
brary and Reading Room, founded in 1878, 
forming the bulk of the collection. The new 
building was occupied in 1913, and the library 
was made free to all in 1914. Oahu College has 
a growing collection housed in a $75,000 build- 
ing, the gift of C. M. Cooke. 


PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 


There were collections of books in the 
Philippine Islands prior to the American oc- 
cupation, the most of them developed by the 
Church. None of these, however, appear to 
have been of great importance. The first 


378 


modern collection established was that of the 
American Library at Manila founded through 
the efforts of Mrs. Charles R. Greenleaf, the 
wife of General Greenleaf, and based upon 
books contributed by the Red Cross Society of 
California. This was turned over to the Philip- 
pine government in 1901 and is now under 
direction of the Bureau of Education. It is 
housed in a large building constructed by the 
Spanish government. The Bureau of Science 
also has an excellent collection, which is rich in 
material relative to the resources of the Philip- 
pines. 
AUSTRALASIA. 


Australia.— Great interest in libraries has 
been evidenced in Australia, virtually all of 
which are state supported. The most import- 
ant libraries of Australia are the New South 
Wales Public Library, Sydney (1869; 258,742 
vols.), the Victoria Public Library, Melbourne 
(1854; 254,756 vols.) and the Adelaide Public 
Library (85,804 vols.). The Victoria Library 
is housed in a splendid new building, erected 
in 1915. There are two modern university 
libraries, the Sydney University (100,000 vols.) 
and the Melbourne University. Tasmania has 
also established a system of public libraries. 
While none of these are large they are grow- 
ing rapidly. The largest collection is the Pub- 
lic Library of Hobart, containing about 50,000 
volumes. A library association was founded in 
1902 and reorganized in 1911. 

New Zealand.— New Zealand is not less 
alive to the value of libraries, which have been 
encouraged by very liberal library acts. The 
four largest centres of population, Auckland, 
Wellington, Christ Church and Dunedin, each 
has an excellent collection, the largest being 
the Auckland Free Public Library with approxi- 
mately 100,000 volumes. Dunedin Library is 
housed in a Carnegie building erected at a 
cost of $50,000. Trained librarians, only, are 
employed in New Zealand libraries, whose in- 
terest in their work is shown by the organiza- 
tion of a library association in 1910. 


AFRICA. 


Although there are a few libraries in 
northern Africa, such as the Bibliotheque 
Universitaire (58,620 vols., 135,252 theses) at 
Algiers, and the Bibliotheque Khediviale (75,- 
000 vols., 12,000 MSS. at Cairo, it is only 
in South Africa that any noteworthy prog- 
ress is evidenced. This has been encouraged by 
the enactment of library laws, the first being 
an ordinance passed by Cape Colony govern- 
ment in 1818 establishing the South African 
Public Library at Cape Town. This was given 
the copy-privilege in 1836. Grants of money 
have been made ‘from time to time. The 
library is very rich in local history, due 
in part to the bequest (1862) of the large col- 
lection of Sir George Grey, the famous 
colonizer. Collections of books are to be 
found in nearly all of the South African centres, 
notably Fort Elizabeth, Durban, Kimberley, 
Johannesburg, ete. See also LiBRARY Data; 
LIBRARY PERIODICALS. 

Bibliography.—General References: Adams, 
‘Public Libraries and Popular Education 
(Albany 1900); ‘American Library Annual? 
(New York 1911-); Brown, ‘Manual of 
Library Economy? fLondon 1907); Clegg, 


LIBRARIES, RURAL — LIBRARIES, 


' their respective needs, 


COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 


‘Directory of Booksellers? (London 1902); 


Reha ‘Free Town Libraries? (London 
1869); id, ‘Memoirs of Libraries? (2 vols., 
London 1859) : id, ‘A Statistical View of the 
Principal Public ‘Libraries in Europe and 


America? (3d ed., London 1894) ; Seba 
‘Public Libraries? (London 1804) : ‘Year 
Book» (London 1897, 1900-01) ; Teena €His- 
tory for Ready Reference? (Springfield 1901) ; 
‘Library Association Yearbook?  (1891-); 
‘Literary Yearbook? (1897-); Pellison, ‘Les 
bibliotheques populaires a l’étranger et en 
France? (Paris 1906); United States Bureau 
of Education, ‘Papers prepared for the 
American Library Association. Annual meet- 
ing held at the Columbia Exposition. 1893? 
(Washington 1896). 
EpwIn WILEY, 

Librarian, United States Naval War College. 


LIBRARIES, Rural. See Rurat Lripra- 
RIES. 


LIBRARIES, Special. Commercial and 
Industrial.— Industrial and commercial libra- 
ries are now found in manufacturing, and busi- 
ness corporations of all kinds. Their purpose 
is to supply managers, heads of departments, 
foremen, clerks and workers with information 
and suggestions. They are not parts of the 
equipment for the welfare work (q.v.), which 
is carried on in many plants for the comfort, 
convenience and education of employees, though 
they are sometimes closely allied to that equip- 
ment. 

These libraries are one of the results of the 
recent rapid development of certain manufac- 
turing, commercial and financial methods and 
of extensions and modifications of the use of 
print in the preservation and distribution of 
knowledge. They are so recent that they have 
no history, save as it is suggested in a state- 
ment of the factors which brought them into 
existence. 

The movement toward concentration and 
specialization in production, distribution and 
allied industries, which began with the inven- 
tion of the steam engine, has been very rapid in 
the last few decades. Many industrial leaders 
have seen the modest businesses they helped to 
establish grow rapidly into vast organizations, 
employing thousands of men and handling 
millions of dollars annually. This has been 
true in railroading, water transportation, min- 
ing, farming, manufacturing of all kinds, 
finance, insurance, construction and many other 
industries and occupations. The central offices 
of these large enterprises have developed many 
and varied methods, devices and tools to meet 
and to help to keep 
under proper control the infinity of details that 
threaten to consume the time, thought and 
energy of those _ creative, inventive and 
managerial minds whose undisturbed activities 
are absolutely essential to the continued success 
of any great enterprise. 

The demands from these central offices and 
from other sources for suggestions and advice 
in the field of business,—and by business is 
here meant management of persons and things 
and not the science or technique of making or 
transporting things,— led to a rapid increase in 
the production of books and journals of busi 
ness,— the first journal specifically devoted to - 
business appearing about 30 years ago, 


LIBRARIES, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 


Before industry had entered on its swift 
modern development, trade and technical jour- 
nals were relatively few and unimportant. Ex- 
panding industries demanded journals which 
should tell of that expansion and give to 
managers, department heads and _= special 
workers, who were often men of great native 
ability but of limited education, all obtainable 
information and suggestions in the fields of 
technique, science and management. Trade 
journals grew rapidly in number and in value. 
Within each industrial field soon appeared 
journals devoted, some to labor in that trade, 
some to production, some to distribution and 
to consumers. Meanwhile, book production on 
all aspects of industrialism grew rapidly. 

This, then, was the situation about 15 years 
ago: thousands of industrial* and commercial 
organizations were expanding rapidly and daily 
meeting new conditions and new problems. 
They demanded of their creators, managers, 
experts, salesmen, advertisers, heads of depart- 
ments, foremen, clerks and laborers greater 
efficiency, fresh ideas, new devices and broader 
‘views. To the offices of these organizations 
came, almost haphazard, a few books and jour- 
nals, and these were read by a few and treated 
at haphazard. They were helpful to some but 
gave slight assistance to most. 

Then came industrial and commercial 
libraries. Great organizations found that they 
needed, for their proper growth, all the knowl- 
edge, wisdom, technique, science and sugges- 
tion anywhere to .be found; that they needed 
to know every day all that all inquirers, in 
the special field of each organization, had 
learned the previous day; that they needed to 
know of all experimentation by others. that 
they might avoid costly experiments for them- 
selves; that they needed, in fact, as complete a 
collection as could be made of the recent, and 
of some of the older, books, journals and 
pamphlets on their activities; that they needed 
not only to have these at hand, but also to have 
them so arranged, filed and indexed as to 
bring out all they contained of value to them; 
and that they needed to have that part of 
their contents which particularly fitted their 
work digested, arranged by topics and pre- 
sented daily, weekly or monthly to all the di- 
rectors of special activities in their whole army 
of workers. 

A commercial or industrial library, then, is 
the resultant of two things,— the great modern 
growth of organizations and the great modern 
flood of business, technical and scientific litera- 
ture; and it is, briefly, a carefully controlled 
collection of such printed material, relating to 
the work of the organization which it serves, as 
a librarian, expert in print, and his assistants 
can gather, index, digest and present to all its 
personnel. 

The development of these libraries is not an 
isolated phenomenon. In the same three dec- 
ades in which they have appeared in large num- 
bers, libraries of the older types have increased 
in number, size and effectiveness, and have ex- 
tended their fields of work. The demand of 
the industrialist for the latest word on his 
industry was one of the immediate causes of 
the coming of the industrial library; but other 
and more general causes were, of course, be- 
hind this proximate one. Extension and im- 
provement of public schools; education through 


3879 


newspapers, journals and cheap books, in the 
use of print and in the habit of learning; 
growth of the habit of travel, and many other 
factors, all helped to make over the old type 
of library and to create new types. About. 40 
years ago free public libraries ceased to be 
mere storehouses and began to ask to be used, 
that is, to advertise. Soon they allied them- 
selves to schools, and vastly widened their 
fields. High schools awoke to library needs 
and installed special libraries of their own. 
College ‘and university libraries began to adopt 
new and broader methods. State libraries, 
herein anticipating and in a measure suggesting 
the industrialists’ libraries, began to make 
themselves useful and indispensable to state 
officers and legislators. 

Industrial and commercial libraries can be 
well understood, their quite inevitable character 
and purpose clearly visualized and their short 
history easily grasped, in the light ot the broad 
movements thus briefly noted. 

These libraries have grown in number so 
rapidly and so quietly in recent years that a 
census of them would be difficult to make and 
would be inaccurate the day after its comple- 
tion. Those who were in charge of a few of 
the more important ones formed, 10 years ago, 
a Special Libraries Association, using the word 
“special” because their work is in most cases 
confined to a special field, that of the operations 
of the corporations which respectively employ 
them. In 1910 this association founded a mod- 
est journal,. called Special Libraries, whose 
nine volumes contain most of the published 
literature on the subject of this article. 

Large and small corporations engaged in 
the following, and many other, industries and 
businesses, have established libraries of the 
kind under consideration: Banking, insurance, 
public utilities, manufacturing in many lines, 
department stores, wholesale houses, statistical 
establishments, engineering experts, electrical 
experts, bureaus of standards and economics, 
civic and commercial bodies. 

The list can tbe extended. But it is long 
enough to show that the movement toward 
gathering special knowledge for the special 
needs of special groups of workers is as broad 
as are industry and commerce themselves. 

These libraries collect anything printed or 
in manuscript which is proper to their respective 
purposes. Some consist almost entirely of 
typed, written and printed sheets and leaflets, 
kept in filing cabinets. Some are made up 
almost solely of pamphlets and of articles 
clipped from papers, journals, all classified and 
indexed. 

Some are composed chiefly of journals and 
proceedings, and some contain little save books. 
Most of them adjust both collections and 
methods of handling to the fact that to-day the 
majority of the more valuable contributions to 
human knowledge,——and knowledge is here 
used in its widest sense — appear first in jour- 
nals and publications of societies and are uns 
bound. These, being clipped or pulled apart, 
form a collection of leaflets and pamphlets, ca- 
pable of being closely classified and compactly 
and conveniently stored in filing cabinets, with 
manuscript and typed notes and data added as 
the corporation activities and needs suggest. 
That is, the industrial or commercial library 
tends more and more to the method, in its 


380 


acquisitions, of taking from a vast annual 
mass of print only so much as is quite specifi- 
cally related to the activities of the corpora- 
tion which maintains it. 

These libraries are usually located close to 
the central offices of their respective corpora- 
tions. They are, in many cases, put in charge 
of experts in the art of mastering printed 
material. Under general instructions from a 
manager, the expert studies the field of print; 
gathers what is proper for the corporation’s 
needs; puts it in systematic form by classifying 
and indexing processes; and, each week or each 
month, makes brief abstract sheets of such 
articles or books or parts of books as his 
knowledge of his corporation’s activities leads 
him to think will be useful, and places these 
sheets in the hands of such executives, ex- 
perts, foremen and heads of departments as 
may find them of value. 


REFERENCES. 


The following list of references is not in 
any sense intended to be inclusive even ‘of 
larger industrial and commercial libraries. 
Only those mentioned several times by author- 
ities are listed. The list merely suggests the 
application made in these days of the library 
idea to all branches of industry and business, 
and will serve as a directory to those seeking 
information on the subject. 

A list of special libraries appears each “veer 
in the ‘American Library Annual,? $5, R 
- Bowker Company, 241 West 37th street, New 
York City. Gives brief statement about each 
library. 

The New York Special Libraries Associa- 
tion maintains a permanent exhibit of forms 
and methods used by the members of the Asso- 
ciation at the Municipal Reference Library, 
Room 512, Municipal Building, New York 
City. 


REFERENCES ON THE THEORY, POLICIES AND 
METHODS OF COMMERCIAL LIBRARIES. 


Business number of Library Journal, April 
1917. $4 year, single copy 35 cents. R. R. 
Bowker Company, 241 West 37th street, New 
York City. Consult index to Library Journal 
for individual articles. 

Lee, G. W., “Commercial Research” (1909). 
Stone and Webster, Milk street, Boston. Pam- 
phlet sent on request. 

Johnson, E. M., “Training of the Business 


Librarian” (in Special Libraries, November 
1917, p. 141-144). é 
Buell, D. C., “Sources of Information for 


Business Men” (in Special Libraries, October 
1916, p. 142-144). 

Lapp, J. A., “Organized Information in the 
Use of Business” (in Special Libraries, April 
1915, p. 57-61). ; 

Gifford, W. S., “Suggestions for Making 
a Business Library Practical” (in Special Libra- 
ries, June 1915, p. 100-104). 

Johnson, E. M., “Special Library and Some 
of Its Problems” (in Special Libraries, Decem- 
ber 1915, p. 157-161). 

Handy, D. N., “The Library as a Business 
Asset — when and how” (in Special Libraries, 
October 1912, p. 162-165). 

Marion, G. E., “The Special Library Field” 
(in Special Libraries, March 1918, p. 59-64). 


LIBRARIES, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 


Kerr, E., “Building up the Special Library” 
(in Special Libraries, April 1918, p. 95-96). 


Lapp, “Growth of a Big Idea” (in 
Special Libraries September-October 1918, 
p. 157-159). 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES. 
“Bibliography of Library Economy for 


Business Librarians” ges Powers, R. L., ‘Bos- 
ton’s Special Libraries,» p. 121- 127. $1. - Pren- 
tice-Hall, Inc., New York). 


“Bibliography of Articles Relating to In- 
dustrial Libraries” (in Special Libraries, Feb- 
ruary 1911, p. 12). 

Meyer, H. H. B., “Select List of References 
on Special Libraries» (in Special Libraries, 
October 1912, p. 172-176). 

“List of ‘Destriptions of Special Libraries 
Appearing in Special Libraries, 1914 (in Spe- 
cial Libraries, November 1914, p. 133-134). 

Meyer, H. H. B.,, “List of References on 
Business Libraries, and the Relation of the 
Business Library to the Business Man” (in 
Special Libraries, November 1917, p. 147-149). 

Special Libraries, published by the Special 
Libraries Association, monthly, 1910 to date. 
108 Jersey street, Boston. Subscription, 10 is- 


sues, $4; single copies, 50 cents. Principal 
source of information. 
Public Affairs Information Service. H. W. 


Wilson Company, 958 University avenue, New 
York. Indexes articles and books about in- 
dustrial and commercial libraries and an- 
nounces establishment of new libraries, etc. 


SomME LEADING FIRMS AND INSTITUTIONS ~ 
MAINTAINING COMMERCIAL LIBRARIES. 


Financial—American Bankers Association, 
New York; National City Bank, New York; 
Guaranty Trust Company, New York; Fisk 
and Robinson, New York; Farmers’ Loan and - 
Trust Company, New York, etc. 

Public Utilities — American Telephone and 
Telegraph Company, New York; Stone and 
Webster, Boston; H. M. Byllesby Company, 
Chicago; Boston Consolidated Gas Company; 
Boston Elevated Railway Company, etc. 

Manufacturing.— Brighton Mills, Passaic, 
N. J.; B. F. Goodrich Company, Akron, Ohio; 
Studebaker Corporation, South Bend, Ind.; 
General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.; 
National Cloak and Suit Company, New York; 
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron, 
Ohio; National Cash Register Company, Day- 
ton, Ohio; Winchester Repeating Arms Com- 
pany, New Haven, Conn.; Robert H. Ingersoll 
and Brothers, Brooklyn, N. Yl ete: 

Dry Goods Stores.— Marshall Field and 
Company, Chicago; William Filene’s Sons Com- 
pany, Boston, etc. 

Commercial - Organizations.— Philadelphia 
Commercial Museum; Merchants Association, 
New York; National’ Automobile Chamber of 
Commerce, New York; Chamber of Commerce 
of the United States, Washington, D. C.; Bu- 
reau of Railway Economics, etc 

Government Departments. — Bureau of 
Standards; Bureau of Foreign and Domestic. 
Commerce; Library of Congress; United States 
Forest Service; Federal Trade Commission, etc. 

Special Departments in Public Libraries.— 
Technology department, Carnegie Library, 
Pittsburgh; business branches of public libra- 


LIBRARIES, TRAVELING — LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


ries in Newark, N. J., Saint Paul, 
Indianapolis, Rochester, etc. 

Miscellaneous.— Sears-Roebuck Company, 
Chicago (mail order); Curtis Publishing Com- 
pany, Philadelphia (advertising) ; McGraw Pub- 
lishing Company, New York; Retail Credit 
Company, Atlanta; Youth’s Companion, Boston 
(editorial) ; Price, Waterhouse and Company, 
New York (accountants); Arthur D. Little, 
Inc., Boston (chemists) ; Detroit News (news- 
paper); Harvard College, School of Business 
Administration; A. W. Shaw Company, Chi- 
cago, etc. 

Consult also following journals: Library 
Journal, 241 West 37th street, New York, 
monthly, $4 a year. Public Libraries, 6 North 
Michigan avenue, Chicago, monthly except Au- 
gust and September, $2.a year. Library World, 
8 Coptic street, Bloomsbury, W., London, Eng- 
land, 6d. Library, 32 George street, Hanover 
Square West, London, England, 3s. Library 
Assistant, Shepherds Hill Library, Highgate, 
North, London, England, 4s. Library Associa- 
tion Record, Caxton Hall, Westminster, Lon- 
don, England, 2s. Special Libraries, 108 Jersey 
street, Boston, monthly except July and August, 


$4 a year. 
Joun Cotton Dana, 
Librarian, Public Library, Newark, N. J. 


LIBRARIES, Traveling. See TRAVELING 
LIBRARIES. 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION. In 
recent years the conception of a library’s field 
and functions has grown so rapidly that l- 
brary administration has become a recognized 
science with problems vastly broader and 
deeper and demanding well-equipped profes- 
sional schools giving systematic instruction to 
those in whose charge the leading libraries 
will be placed. 

Certain library schools now require for en- 
trace a college degree; in others the course is 
a regular part of the work of a college. Many 
colleges and normal schools conduct courses in 
bibliography and elementary library adminis- 
tration to enable students to use library facili- 
ties to the best advantage or to take charge of 
school libzaries in connection with teaching 
positions. There are also numerous summer 
courses for those already engaged in library 
work and classes in individual libraries to train 
their own assistants. There is a growing 
movement, vigorously supported by the library 
profession, for certifying librarians, as we do 
teachers; and several States have already 
passed laws requiring tests or a certain degree 
of training or experience for some classes of 
library positions. This has greatly improved 
the librarian’s status. .In salaries, hours of 
service and vacations he has his place beside 
other educational officers, as the public recog- 
nizes that in general education, professional 
training, executive capacity and all factors 
which determine salary, the successful librarian 
should rank with the highest educational offi- 
cer of the same community. In a college the 
proper salary of the college librarian is that of 
a full professor. In a university he should 
rank with deans of departments and in public 
libraries with superintendents of schools or 
high school principals. Usual daily hours are 
now seven and usual vacation one month. 

Functions.— The chief function of the old 


Minn., 


381 


library was to get all the books it could and 
preserve them safely. The modern library does 
this also, but has placed free public use infi- 
nitely above getting and keeping. First the word 
library meant any collection of books. It is 
now losing that sense and means the community 
intellectual headquarters for not only books 
and pamphlets, but also periodicals, newspapers, 
maps, pictures, music scores, player rolls, phono- 
graph records and other material for informa- 
tion on subjects of current interest, as well as 
coins, medals and collections illustrating science, 
history or art. It is no longer a reservoir whose 
chief function is to take in and accumulate, 
but a fountain. Its work is no longer passive, 
but aggressive. The modern librarian is as 
anxious to put his wares before the public and 
have his books and other material used as is 
the store or factory to secure custom for its 
goods. He tries to attract the attention and 
rouse the interest of every resident or transient, 
child or adult, by bulletins, by book lists and 
notices in newspapers and in shop and office 
pay-envelopes, by exhibits, by floats in parades, 
by posters in hotels and other public places, by 


talks and by any other creditable means of 


“library advertising.” 

We have learned that reading is the greatest 
engine human genius has evolved. It grows 
constantly in importance. While most reading 
is better than most conversation, it is as power- 
ful for evil as for good, so that the greatest 
problem for educators and statesmen is to de- 
velop in youth a taste for the best reading and 
to supply it free through life. Hence, develop- 
ment of a children’s department in public Ji- 
braries and fostering of school libraries. 

Reading has three great functions: (1) To 
inform, so that one may stand on the shoulders 
of all his predecessors and utilize their labors 
and experience in any subject. This cumulative 
wisdom of the race passed on in books makes 
possible the marvels of civilization. Books give 
this information which builds material pros- 
perity. Increasing interest in vocational books 
and development of business and other special 
libraries powerfully stimulate this function. 
(2) A still more vital function, but less tan- 
gible, is the inspiration which lifts up and 
builds character, the work of the books of 
power, the books of all time. (3) The last 
great function is to afford rest and recreation 
for the tired and overworked to fit them better 
to carry life’s burdens. The free public library 
is the only practicable method for shaping this 
reading, which in its threefold form of infor- 
mation, inspiration and recreation is the great- 
est influence in modern life. 

Children’s Department.— This aims to in- 
terest children in books, to develop taste for 
good reading, to establish the “library habit,” 
to co-operate with schools, and, incidentally, to 
teach how to use reference books, indexes, 
catalogs and other bibliographic tools. It ranges 
from a few separate shelves or an alcove in the 
general reading-room to one or more separate 
rooms in charge of a specially qualified children’s 
librarian. Users may include children of all 
ages up to those beginning to appreciate adult 
literature. Besides an attractive collection of 
carefully selected books, there should be tables, 
chairs and other furnishings adapted to users of 
various sizes. Specially effective is the story 
hour, conducted by the children’s librarian or 


382 


some other childlover skilful in rousing in- 
terest in reading among those not naturally so 
inclined and in selecting from the great classics 
what appeals to children and also in interesting 
them in the daily events of world importance. 

Work with Foreigners. —The public library 
should be a strong Americanizing factor where 
there is a considerable foreign population, often 
largely of those who can read only their own 
languages. Among many means are: (1) 
Books in their own languages and in simple 
English to which access is made easy by: 
(2) branches and deliveries in immigrant dis- 
tricts; (3) lectures and story telling; (4) 
classes in English and elementary civics. 

It is in leading foreigners to read books in 
English that librarians meet their greatest 
obstacle. Spoken English is easily learned, 
but in print appears a new language, with 
words not spelled but made up of arbitrary 
combinations of letters incapable of being ex- 
plained or reduced to rule, and condemned by 
English lexicographers and philologists as un- 
etymologic, unphonetic_and altogether inde- 
fensible. Simplifying English spelling is vital 
to the librarian’s highest success, for his treas- 
ures are useless to foreigners till they take the 
meaning readily from the printed page. 


SPELLING REFORM. 


School Libraries—— These are in school 
buildings to provide, close at hand, reference 
and other books supplementing school text- 
books and aiming to stimulate interest in cur- 
riculum or, like children’s departments, to de- 
velop taste for good reading. These are some- 
times a public library branch or deposit station, 
sometimes managed jointly by the school and 
the public library and sometimes owned and 
managed by the school. For lower schools the 
branch system works best, while high schools 
tend to have their own libraries, with trained 
librarian specially qualified to influence stu- 
dents’ reading habits and to teach them how to 
use the library. Among States leading in de- 
velopment of school libraries are New York, 
New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
California and Oregon. 

Administration.— Books and other suitable 
material are no more a library than a pile of 
bricks is a building, or a mob of men is an 
army. To be effective there must be such ar- 
rangement and organization that its great func- 
tions can be performed promptly and efficiently 
without undue:cost. Experience proves that to 
make books into a successful library the chief 
factors are in order of importance: (1) Li- 
brarian; (2) methods; (3) building. Because 
it is most prominent and readily understood by 
the inexperienced, the least important is usually 
thought of first. 

Library Buildings.— To compete success- 
fully with places of amusement the library 
should be as accessible as possible, but prefer- 
ably a few steps off the main street for greater 
quiet. Books increase in a ratio beyond the 
plans of architects and librarians, and few li- 
braries provide adequately for growth, either 
for books, readers or administration. Good 
natural light and ample room for growth are 
essential. Steel, glass, brick, stone, concrete 
and tile are the best materials for large 
libraries, but fireproof construction is import- 
ant only for central libraries which preserve 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


rare books not readily obtainable in open 
market. The most needed best books should be 
housed within easy walking distance of every 
citizen. This requires in larger towns branches 
or deliveries at convenient points. The most 
used books should be freely accessible i in read- 
ing-rooms, but economy and convenience both 
demand that the main supply should be kept 
in stacks. In a standard storage stack the cases 
are double-faced and only 75 centimeters apart; 
but in small libraries cases may be 120 centi- 
meters (4 feet), apart, to invite public access. 
Each case is 8 or 7 shelves high and 5 tiers long, 
thus giving 80 or 70 shelves on its two faces. 
Each foot, shelves about 7 books, so each foot 
of wall, 7 shelves high, holds about 50 books. 
Each foot of double-faced case holds 100. Each 
shelf is better 75 centimeters long, rather than 
36 inches; 20 centimeters (8 inches) deep, and 
25.5 centimeters (10 inches) high, thus taking 
all books up to the. largest standard (8vo.) 
which by library rules is limited to 25 centi- 
meters. These cases make a one-story stack, 
with every book within reach without ladders. 


‘Steel is better than wood for tall stacks (some- 


times 10 stories) and grows steadily in favor 
because it is strong, compact, clean, fireproof 
and more open for light. An atmospheric 
steam heat is best as it can be regulated as 
closely as hot water and does not annoy readers 
by cracking or hammering. Electric light 
should be provided on all reading-tables. In- 
direct lighting has removed the most serious 
objections to high lights, but for greatest com- 
fort a reader should have a light under his 
control and near his book. When the stack 
section can have abundant daylight, it should 
be of glass with only steel or masonry enough 
for support, with glass always opposite aisles; 
but if it has only electric light, it should be 
well and draftlessly ventilated both for welfare 
of books and of persons working in it. 

Spiral stairs are costly, wasteful and incon- 
venient: Straight stairs under which space can 
be used for shelves take less space. Doors to 
bookcases are worse than useless and have 
been abandoned except for rare, costly or re- 
stricted books. Tables and desks should be 78 
centimeters high, not 75 centimeters as usual; 
for short people can use higher chairs, but tall 
people cannot shorten their legs. Skilful ar- 
rangement of rooms will greatly reduce cost of 
administration. Permanent partitions should be 
used only where necessary for support. Tem- 
porary partitions, usually glass, can be readily 
moved as growth requires. These allow better 
light and supervision from another room, while 
shutting off noise, and give a more spacious 
look. In small libraries, departments for adults, 
for children and for selection and delivery of 
books may be included in a single open room, 
separation being marked by bookcases not more 
than four feet high, the whole under direct 
central desk supervision. Consult ‘Carnegie 
Corporation Notes? for valuable suggestions. 

Most important after the central rooms are 
first a quiet study-room, then a children’s 
room. Even small libraries need one or more 
class, or lecture rooms for clubs, classes and 
meetings which find their natural home at the 
library. Larger libraries require a growing 
number of special rooms for newspapers, art, — 
patents and various other needs of the staff 
and public. 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


Acquisition.— Bookbuying for a small li- 
brary is simple, requiring mainly selecting an 
agent and arranging for discounts. A large 
library, buying thousands of volumes yearly, 
has often several agents for home and foreign 
buying, including auction sales, and requires 
accurate financial and order records with care- 
fully elaborated routine to prevent confusion, 
error and.waste of time. Large libraries often 
add by exchanging their own publications and 
duplicates with other institutions. In libraries 
of every size, gifts from individuals as well 
as from societies, institutions and government 
departments, if tactfully sought and apprecia- 
tively acknowledged, are a large and valuable 
annual increase. 

Book Selection.— In selecting from the vast 
flood of books, pamphlets and periodicals con- 
stantly printed ‘the chief considerations are: (1) 
Needs, interest and tastes of the community; 
(2) funds available; (3) merits of individual 
books. While every general library must have 
general cyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, etc., 
and some books on the most important subj ects, 
many communities have distinct interests, in- 
naire sociologic or cultural, which should be 

pecially fostered. Funds available should be 
seuaha owed among various subjects and must 
often determine whether to buy a special work. 
Deciding on a particular book depends on: (1) 
Importance of its subject; (2) its interest to 
the community; (3) its trustworthiness : (4) 
its probable influence on character and taste} 
(5) its style (whether interesting or dull) ; (6) 
for fiction, the interest of the plot or theme; 
and (7) its physical make-up, specially type 
and quality of paper. Some of these factors 
the librarian must decide, but his knowledge of 
reliability and probable influence of the books 
usuully depends on outside aid, personal or 
printed. 

Need of printed guides has been partly met 
by bibliographies, catalogs and lists to help de- 
termine quickly what is best to buy, its cost, 
where and by whom published and perhaps to 
track it through auctions and stores. Many 
think of these bibliographies as a dozen or so 
reference books, but their growing numbers run 
into many thousands. It is one great factor in 
the professional training of a librarian to learn 
how to use this extensive apparatus effectively. 
Of the preceding essential items, 3-7 are cov- 
ered by the notes forming a regular feature of 
most of the following very heipful printed aids. 
They embody the best from leading English and 
American reviews, besides much expert indi- 
vidual judgment. (A. L. A. means American 
Library Association, 78 E. Washington street, 
Chicago). 

On the selection of books consult A. L. A. 
Catalog, 1904, and Supplement, 1911 (United 
States Superintendent of Documents) ; “Book 
Review Digest? (Monthly, with semi-annual and 
annual cumulations); ‘Booklist? (10 numbers 
yearly, A. L. A.); Kroeger, A. B., ‘Guide to 
the Study and Use of Reference Books? (3d 
ed., 1917); New York State Library, ‘Best 
Books? (annual) ; Pratt Institute Free Library, 
‘Technical Books? (annual); Sonnenschein, 
W. S., ‘Best Books» (3d ed., in press, 1910- 
19); Walter, F. K., ‘Periodicals for the Small 
Library? (A. L. A.) 3; Wilson, H. W., Company, 
‘Standard Catalog Series? ; Wyer, J. I., “Gov- 
ernment Documents in Small Libraries? CALL. 


383 


A.); “Government Documents in State and 
City? (Ag TiA.). 

Accessions.— After a book is received it 
must be made part of the completely organized 
library which has as its ideal the choice and de- 
livery to each inquirer, with the least possible 
delay, of the book, pamphlet, article, essay or 
other item which then and there to him will be 
most usetul. 

This is most difficult even in a small library, 
and in large ones with a million or more items 
from which to choose, no satisfactory results 
can be reached without an elaborately organ- 
ized system, administered as carefully as the 
details of a great factory or railway, where 
mistakes and carelessness are intolerable. There 
are 30 distinct steps in accession department 
routine alone in a large library before a book 
is ready to be classified or cataloged. Econ- 
omists have repeatedly tried to shorten the 
processes, but after several years’ experience 
usually incur the extra cost of going back and 
supplying omissions as the only way to avoid 
the more serious expense of resulting delays 
and confusion. Ownership is marked by a 
bookplate inside the front cover with name of 
library and official marks. The name is also 
repeated (stamped, embossed or preferably per- 
forated on the titlepage so that it cannot be 
removed by book thieves, and private marks at 
some special page, to be found only by one 
knowing the key, serve to identify lost or 
stolen books. Call numbers on the back ensure 
quick finding and replacing on shelves, and most 
lending libraries put a manila pocket ‘inside the 
back cover to carry book or reader’s card. The 
accession book is the business record, in which 
every volume in the library has a ‘numbered 
line as_its pigeonhole for its complete his- 
tory. The number of this line, the accession 
number, is stamped on first recto after title, on 
shelflist and cards, and exactly identifies that 
particular volume. In trying to escape making 
accession entries, some librarians use _ bills, 
order slips for orders filled or shelf-list; but 
while these substitutes require less time at the 
start they lack the accuracy, uniformity, per- 
manence and convenience of the properly kept 
accession book. 

Shelf-list—As its name implies, this is a list 
of the books in the order in which they stand 
on the shelves, and so serves for taking inven- 
tory. Since the usual arrangement of books is 
by subject, the shelf-list serves also as a subject 
catalog for the main subject of books, though 
strictly as a shelf-list it contains no references to 
material in books shelved under other subjects. 
Such references may, however, be added to the 
Shelf-list i in any library where this double use 
warrants it. A third important use of the shelf- 
list is as the record of book numbers in each 
class. Books on the same subject group. un- 
der the same class symbol are distinguished from 
each other by a separate book number. This is 
generally assigned from the author’s name, but 
in some cases, e.g., individual biography, from 
the subject. Class and book (with sometimes 
volume or copy) number, together form the 
“call number,” distinguishing each book from 
every other in the collection. The shelf-list. by 
showing immediately what book numbers have 
been assigned in any group, prevents duplica- 
tion and consequent confusion. 

While the goo roe is bere shelf- 


384 


lists on cards because they allow exact inter- 
calation and save rewriting, these advantages 
are counterbalanced by danger of having so 
vital a record as the library inventory in such 
form that an entry may be removed without 
detection and by inconvenience of seeing only 
one entry at a time in shelf reading. Useful as 
cards are, they should not be used where busi- 
ness safety, efficiency or ease of reference re- 
quire sheets or bound books. ‘Rewriting is in- 
frequent when the New York shelf sheet (10 
by 25 centimetres, about 4 by 10 inches) is used 
and when in large classes separate sheets are 
used for each initial, so that, e.g., if entries in 
C become too disarranged, as many C sheets 
can be rewritten as are necessary to restore 
order without touching B or D. When the 
shelf-list is on cards and printed cards are used 
in the catalog, an extra copy may be used for 
a card shelf-list, thereby duplicating in full the 
catalog entry; otherwise the shelf-list entry, 
whether for card or sheet shelf-list, is very brief, 
including merely class number, book number, 
author, short title, some distinguishing detail 
when the library has more than one edition, 
accession number and volume or copy number. 

Classification.— Shelf arrangement of books 
is now almost universal by subject. A few 
of the oldest and largest libraries follow their 
old systems, but most libraries are arranged 
according to some widely used printed scheme 
of classification which brings together related 
subjects, first broadly and second under more 
- or less minute divisions according to amount 
of material. Adoption of such a generally ac- 
cepted scheme not only saves the librarian the 
enormous labor of developing one of his own, 
but also brings his library into harmony with 
many others, thereby facilitating both the use 
of various libraries by the same reader and 
also co-operative work among libraries them- 
selves. As the same book bears the same class 
number in each of many libraries using this 
system there is an immense saving possible by 
utilizing the work of others. The decimal 
classification, now most widely used by libraries, 
has over 20,000 subject headings and many new 
ones are added yearly. By means of its very 
full and simple index a book may readily be 
classed minutely; and may be found with equal 
ease by one knowing clearly what subject he 
seeks. The classifiers work involves not only 
familiarity with the system used, but often 
also careful examination of the book in hand 
and acquaintance with scope, relations and ter- 
minology of the subject treated. 

Author Catalog.— This like all other cata- 
logs and indexes is kept on cards 7.5 centimetres 
high and 12.5 centimetres long, the size adopted 
for national and international use and rapidly 
displacing all other sizes except for peculiar 
uses. (See OrricE LAsor SAveErS, Card Index 
System). The author catalog gives under each 
name all of any ‘author’s work which the library 
has. It is often expanded to include titles of 
anonymous books, striking titles of other books, 
biographies, criticisms and reviews, or any topic 
for which subject entry would be name of per- 
son or place. It is then a “name” catalog as 
it includes more than authors. 

Subject Catalog.—This shows what the li- 
brary has on any given subject. For lack of 
time or money it records in many libraries only 
books, but a complete catalog adds pam- 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


phlets, articles in periodicals, papers, transac- 
tions, essays and collected works, maps and 
whatever material one studying that topic might 
want. Subject catalogs arranged by the usual 
systems of classification are partly indext by 
the alphabetic index to the classification tables, 
but continual advance of knowledge outruns 
possibilities of corresponding printed records, 
so a printed index needs to be constantly sup- 
plemented by new topics, either interlined or 
separately listed on cards or sheets. It does not 
matter that a printed index refers to heads 
lacking in the catalog, for it often leads to 
valuable related material that might otherwise 
be overlooked. 

Dictionary Catalogs.—The separate logic- 
ally arranged subject catalog, with its corre- 
sponding name catalog, best meets scholarly or 
technical library needs, but for general public 
use the dictionary catalog is almost universally 
accepted. It has all entries (author, title, sub- 
ject, etc., with references from synonymous and 
related terms) in a single alphabet like the 
words tn a dictionary. . 

The author catalog corresponds to personal 
names in a directory; the classified catalog to the 
business section showing all engaged in each 
specific line of business. A dictionary catalog 
requires least explanation and is most popular, 
but it is more difficult to make well, and ex- 
cept at prohibitive cost cannot give intelligent 
investigators as clear and methodic exhibits of 
a library’s resources as a classified catalog. 
Large libraries have many special catalogs, 
bibliographies and indexes as keys to their own 
special collections. 

Annotation or evaluation is a most import- 
ant factor in modern cataloging. Its purpose 
is to tell in fewest words what readers ought 
to know about a book’s scope, treatment and 
value; but for such guidance we still depend 
mostly on printed bibliographies. See list at 
end of Book Selection. 

Printed Cards.—There is a great saving by 
utilizing cataloging done by large libraries 
which print their cards and make them readily 
available for others. The Library of Congress 
prints, with minute bibliographic detail, cards 
for its own books, which include practically all 
current American. publications through copy- 
right provision, and also many foreign works. 
Any iibrary may buy these cards (35,000 to 
40,000 titles a year) for little more than blank 
cards. They are author entries, with sugges- 
tions for subject and title entries, etc. Li- 
braries adapt them to their own catalogs by any 
necessary changes in detail and by adding sub- 
ject or title headings and their own call num- 
bers. Full information is given in the Library 
of Congress Handbook of card distribution. 

Lending. A loan system must give the 
quickest service consistent with accurate and 
complete records. The card system is best. 
The librarian must know where every book is, 
when it should be returned and must find de- 
linquents daily. Extra privileges in number of 
books or time retainable are given during vaca- 
tions and to scholars having special claim. 
Many libraries allow more than one book if 
only one is fiction. Inter-library loans are fre- 
quent so that a reader may, when necessary, 
secure from another library a book not in his 
own. 

For readers impatient of waiting their turn 


LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION 


for a free copy some libraries have duplicates 
of the newest and most popular books to rent 
for a small fee. Branches, deposit and delivery 
stations scattered through a city greatly increase 
library use by those to whom distance from the 
main collection would be prohibitive. Parcel 
post and rural free delivery carry the library 
to the doors of more remote readers, while 
traveling libraries serve groups such as schools 
and clubs, or isolated students requiring an un- 
usual number of books for longer time. 
Reference.— Libraries grow more liberal in 
privileges to readers who now find on open 
shelves books most used instead of having to 
ask for each book consulted. In many libraries 
not-only so called reference books but thou- 
sands of others are thus thrown open. Losses 
are small compared with benefits, and the prac- 
tice has become very general, its extent depend- 
ing mainly on size of library and space avail- 
able. An information bureau or reference desk 
in charge of an expert whose sole function is 
to answer readers’ questions is common, while 
large libraries have a library faculty, each tak- 
ing some special subject'on which he will be a 
recognized authority. Besides aiding readers at 
the library, a reference librarian utilizes. mail 
and telephone both for giving and getting in- 


formation. His department is the clearing- 
house for information from all available 
sources. There are special rooms for import- 


ant subjects, each in charge of a specialist. 
Rooms for women’s exclusive use are little 
used, women apparently seeing no more need 
of separation than in churches, lecture halls or 
theatres. The children’s room becomes the best 
possible training school for supplying readers 
who will use the library properly. (See CHIL- 
DREN’S DEPARTMENT). Special libraries belong- 
ing to factories, business or public offices, are 
increasingly available to all either through co- 
operation with public libraries or by operation 
as public library branches. 

Paid Help.—A highly appreciated accommo- 
dation in some libraries is assistance of an ex- 
tent or nature not properly provided at public 
charge, for mere cost of time spent, estimated 
at rate of annual salary. This saves costly 
journeys, because an expert trained in a given 
library can often find as much in an hour as a 
reader himself would find in a day. Telegraph 
and telephone make central cyclopedic libraries 
quickly available for large areas, and editors, 
lawyers and others whose time is specially valu- 
able may quickly get needed information, and 
if wished translations, verified or photostat 
copies or other library service at the trifling 
cost of the time of the lowest salaried assistant 
competent to do the work. 

Legislative Reference Libraries.—Progres- 
sive States have followed New York (in 1890) 
by establishing a bureau specially for its law- 
makers. A librarian versed in political and 
legal science keeps at his fingers’ ends laws and 
pending legislation of other States and counties, 


with available discussions, to enable legislators | 


of his State to stand on the shoulders of those 
dealing with similar problems elsewhere. 

Municipal Reference Libraries.—These are 
essential to intelligently conducted city govern- 
ments. Through them city officers and public- 
spirited citizens keep in touch with each other’s 
actual or proposed measures or projects, and 
the pros and cons of civic questions. 

voL. 17—25 


385 


County Libraries.—These provide for scat- 
tered rural communities too small to support 
separate efficient libraries, and bridge the gap be- 
tween state and city or town libraries. Instead 
of setting up an independent library some coun- 
ties contract with a city public library for service 
throughout its county. Some county libraries 
absorb weak local libraries as branches or de- 
livery stations. Though most of these libraries 
are in the West, California leading, they are 
spreading rapidly. 

People’s University.— Support of libraries 
by fees has largely given way to support by 
taxation. A fee is prohibitive to many, and 
communities recognize that it is as much for 
their interests to have the “people’s university” 
as the public schools free to all: Hours of 
opening have been lengthened from 2 to 3 a day 
till the larger libraries usually open from 8 or 
9 aM. to 9 or 10 P.M. and no longer close for 
evenings, holidays, vacations or annual inven- 
tory. Sunday opening, for at least reading and 
reference, 1s common in all but the smallest 
libraries. The modern library is available to 
readers at any time when they are inclined to 
use it. 

' Bibliography.— Including only recent gen- 
eral books (or those not superseded), in many 
of which are more extensive and specific lists 
of references, as well as in the following in- 
dexes to periodical literature: Cannons, H. G. 
T., ‘Bibliography of Library Economy? (1876- 
1909) and ‘Library Work Cumulated (1905- 
11), supplemented by monthly lists in Library 
Journal, 1914—-date, under the section ‘Library 
Work?; A. L. A., “Manual of Library Econ- 
omy” (ed. by J. I. Wyer, Jr.; being issued in 
parts, 1919; consists of over 30 chapters, each 
dealing with a special phase of library work) ; 
Bostwick, A. E., ‘American Public Library? 
(new ed.,-1917) ; Dana, J. C., ‘Library Primer? 
(5th ed., 1910) ; id., ‘Modern American Library 
Economy, as Illustrated by the Newark, N. J., 
Free Public Library® (being issued in parts; 
1919); Dewey, Melvil, ‘Simplified Library 
School Rules? (1898); Fay, L. E., and Eaton, 
A. T., “Instruction in the Use of Books and 
Libraries? (1915). Binding: Bailey, A. L., ‘Li- 
brary Bookbinding? (1916). Buildings: Koch, 
T. W., ‘A Book of ‘Carnegie Libraries? (1917) ; 
Snead & Company Iron Works, ‘Library Plan- 
ning, Bookstacks and Shelving» (1915) ; Soule, 
Cc. C., ‘How to Plan a Library Building for 
Library Work? (1912). Cataloging: American 
Library Association, ‘List of Subject Headings 
for Use in Dictionary Catalogs? (3d ed., 1911); 
Bishop, W. W., ‘Practical Handbook of Mod- 
ern Library Cataloging? (1914); Catalog Rules: 
Author and title entries; compiled by commit- 
tees of the American Library Association and 
the (British) Library-Association (1908) ; Cut- 
ter, C. A., ‘Rules for a Dictionary Catalog? 
(4th ed., 1904); Fellows, J. D., ‘Cataloging 
Rules? (1914); Hitchler, Theresa, ‘Cataloging 
for Small Libraries» (revised ed., 1915) ; United 
States Library of Congress, ‘Preliminary List 
of Subject Headings.» Children’s Work: 
Hazeltine, A. I., ed., ‘Library Work with Chil- 
dren? (1917). Classification: Cutter, C. A, 
‘Expansive Classification? (1891—); Dewey, 
Melvil, ‘Decimal Classification and Relative In- 
dex? (10th ed., 1919) ; Richardson, E. C., ‘Classi- 
fication, Theoretical and Practical? (enlarged ed., 
19¥2) ; Sayers, W. C. B., ‘Canons of Classifica- 


386 


tion, Applied to “the Subject,” “the Expansive,” 
“the Decimal” and “the Library of Congress” 
Classifications»? .(1915); id.,. “Short Course in 


Practical Classification, with Special Reference: 


to the Decimal-and Subject Schemes? (1913) ; 
United States Library of Congress, ‘Classifica- 
tion. (being issued. in parts, 1919). School 
Work: Bostwick, A. E., ed., ‘Relationship. be- 
tween the Library and the Public Schools? 
(1914). Special Libraries: Kaiser, J. B., “Law, 
Legislative and Municipal Reference Libraries? 
(1914). Periodicals: American. Library..ASso- 
ciation Bulletin (Chicago; bimonthly); Library 
Journal (New York; monthly);, Public, Li- 
braries (Chicago; monthly) ; Special: Libraries 
(New York; monthly); Bulletins of the vari- 
ous library commissions. 
Metvit, DEWEY. 


LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE AND 
CONSTRUCTION. The problems of: library 
construction have been considered so often dur- 
ing the last few decades that the erection of a 
faulty library building would appear. unneces- 
sary, yet, judging from complaints made by 
librarians from time to time, some of the build- 
ings erected have failed to respond to all of 
the demands made upon them.* In general this 
condition appears ‘to have resulted from one or 
more of the following causes: (1) An effort to 
erect a monumental building, (2) to conform 
it to a type of ‘architecture unsuited to library 
purposes, (3) the appointment, often by com- 
petition, of an architect unschooled in the re- 
quirements of a library, (4) failure to consult 
with the librarian or with library experts. 
Much advancement has undoubtedly been made 
toward co-operation between architect and li- 
brarian, and many’ good designers have made 
library buildings their specialty, nevertheless it 
seems that the ideal type of library is not yet 
-ealized — the type so adapted to its purpose 
that it would be immediately recognized as such, 
as is the case with school buildings at the 
present time. This does not mean that h- 
brary constructions ‘should conform ‘rigidly to 
a fixed standard of appearance and arrange- 
ment, but it does mean that the exterior should 
express as nearly as possible the purpose and 
functions of the interior. The body should 
properly and adequately house the spirit. The 
modern library building is the product of many 
years of experimentation and of fruitless efforts 
to adapt old types to new ‘conditions. This 
applies with especial force to the one known as 
the alcove type, which was inherited from: the 
medizval cloister libraries. This still has many 
advantages for small libraries and for special 
collections, but when its principle is applied to 
large libraries, as: was the case with the old 
Boston Public Library and the Astor, its de- 
fects more than outweighed its advantages. 
Hence as early as 1882 we find the. American 
Library Association protesting against the con- 
struction of more buildings according to this 
plan. To-day the constructional requirements 
of a library building are comprehended to: such 
an extent that library planning has become a 
science determined by definite laws. >(Tilton, 
“Scientific Library Planning,” Library Journal, 
September 1912). It seems strange, therefore, 
that library buildings are still being erected 
that fail to respond to the legitimate demands 
made; upon them; 

The fundamental problems of a library are: 


LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION 


(1) Accessibility; (2)' economical storage of 
books, and (3) their rapid distribution. With 
regard to these elements, the well-known. de- 
signer of libraries, Mr. Cass Gilbert, has this to 
say: “The first principle of library location and 
library planning should be accessibility. The 
whole efficiency of a public library depends 
upon its being accessible to the publhe in point 
of location, and being accessible in all of its 
parts to the working force and to the public 
parts by the people who are using it. I should 
like if practicable to have the main rooms of a 
library on the ground floor so that the public 
would not have to climb stairways to get to the 
delivery hall, yet in practice it appears to have 
been impossible to solve the problem in. that 
way except in small libraries for reasons of 
space or economy of construction. In planning 
library buildings I have considered that the di- 
rect access of the public to the point: of. dis- 
tribution of books is of prime importance and 
that this point of. distribution should be as 
close as possible to the place where the books 
are stored. This results then in the entrance 
leading direct to the delivery hall, the delivery 
hall being in close connection with the stack 
room. The open shelf. room should also be 
near to the delivery hall. Special collections 
may be placed at more remote locations, but 
those books which are constantly used by the 
public should be accessible. A type of plan 
which is suitable for a large city library is ob- 
viously not suitable for a small village library. 
A college or university library, a special re- 
search library, ora law library is essentially 
different from a city library so it-is impossible 
to lay down any standardized plan.» In small 
libraries these questions are not so urgent. In- 
deed, for, such wall cases, alcoves or small 
stacks all prove equally serviceable, but when 
the collections attain to 50,000 volumes or more 
the question of storage and administration. be-. 
comes acute. 

Three elements enter into the construction 
of any building: (1) Fitness; (2) permanence; 
(3) beauty. In library construction that is the 
order of their relative importance. The ques- 
tion of fitness is essentially the concern of the 
librarian. Here he should be supreme, for un- 
less: the architect has a correct knowledge of 
the problems of library administration he is 
not competent to decide questions of arrange- 
ment, etc., that so intimately affect the opera- 
tions of the library when it-is completed. The 
architect does not have to work in the building 
after completion, but the librarian does. This 
does not, of course, mean that the librarian 
shall meddle with purely constructional details 
but it does mean that either he or the trustees 
should determine the policy or program of con- 
struction; the size of the building, its cost, ma- 
terials, arrangement of) rooms, etc., etc. The 
librarian and the architect should work together, 
and in order >to do so most ‘successfully the 
sphere of each*should be so delimited that no 
possibility of misunderstanding can arise. In 
order to attain this happy result, the librarian 
or building committee should prepare a state- 
ment setting forth the characteristics of the 
proposed building so clearly and fully that the 
architect can have no excuse for presenting a 
plan at variance with the proposals. This, in 
effect, will constitute an order on the architect 
and its nature will: be determined by data pos- 


LIBRARIES 


oS 


slices 


Mas 


Carnegie Library, Atlanta, Ga.- 


LIBRARIES 


Minnesota Historical Society 


lle Free Public Library 


isvi 


Lou 


LIBRARIES 


1 Harvard College Library, Harvard University 
2 General Reading Room, W.dener Memorial Library, Harvard University 


LIBRARIES 


Public Library of the City of Denver, Denver, Col. 


Library of the University of California 


LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION 


sessed only by the librarian or building com- 
mittee; i.e., the amount of appropriation, the 
nature and purpose of the library, the site, etc. 
The question of permanency is next in order 
of importance and involves not only the type 
of material to be used, such as’ stone, terra- 
- cotta, brick, concrete, etc., but also the prob- 
lem of providing for future expansion. Failure 
in the latter respect has been the cause of more 
distress to librarians than anything else. Ap- 
parently a library does not grow by arithmetical 
progression, but by geometrical, and as soon as 
an' adequate home is constructed it attracts ma- 
terial from undreamed-of sources: and in a 
steadily increasing volume. Hence any esti- 
mates of future development -are generally 
much below the mark. A notable example of 
this was the case of the Library of Congress 
building. When planned, it was anticipated 
that it would accommodate the additions for 
several decades. This proved so mistaken that 
a new stack providing for a million volumes 
was under construction some 10 years after the 
building was first occupied. It is clear, there- 
fore, that the growth of a library cannot be 
foreseen with any great accuracy. That it will 
be greater than any apparently liberal estimate 
may be taken for granted. Building for the fu- 
ture, therefore, does ‘not mean a_ structure 
vastly larger than the needs of the present and 
immediate future, but it does mean that no 
building shall be erected that cannot be en- 
larged without injury to its design or without 
needless expenditures for. demolitions and 
modifications. In short the additions should be 
considered in the original plans.. With this in 
view, it is evident that a library building should 
not have ornamental facades on all sides, ex- 
pensive to construct, and a complete loss if ex- 
tensions are made. The question of material 
should be determined by the appropriation, by 
local conditions, etc. It is needless to say that 
it should be as nearly fireproof as possible. So- 
called absolute fireproof construction costs 
one-third more than a relative fireproof con- 
_ struction and ordinarily the latter will present 
_a sufficient factor of safety. Stone, of course, 
is favored for the greater library buildings, but 
is the most expensive type of material. Excel- 
lent effects have been attained with much sav- 
ing by the use of terra-cotta, brick and con- 
crete.. Frame construction, on. account of its 


great inflammability, is not desirable, yet it. 


would be better for a community to construct 
such a building rather than none at all. At 
least, it will be a nucleus for something better. 
The element of beauty,.as far as it concerns a 
library, is essentially a by-product. Failure to 
recognize this point has been the prime ‘cause 
of. unfit library buildings. .The designers of 
the public schools have learned this lesson. and 
now. library architects should recognize it. uni- 
versally and thereby avoid experiments and sad 
mistakes. It is difficult to fix the. responsibility 
for the common error. that a library should be 
something ornate and monumental,. Sometimes 


it is due to the desire of the building committee _ 


to supply an architectural wonder to the com- 
munity;, again it. may be that the librarian 
either favors or fails to oppose, with sufficient 
energy an ornate structure. Generally, how- 
ever, it would appear that the chief sinner. is 
the architect who. has seized. upon an oppor- 


387 


tunity to express himself in the grand style. 
Another fruitful cause of unfit buildings is the 
predilection of architects for certain styles of 
architecture. Thus, for instance, the follower of 
classic traditions will build nothing but Greek 
temples, although the Greek temple is un- 
doubtedly the very worst thing wherein to 
house a collection of books; a lover of the 
Gothic will construct lofty apartments, difficult 
to heat and expensive to build, ignoring, more 
or less, the most important element of floor 
space. The craze for libraries built after the 
Romanesque pattern, which sprang up owing 
to the genius of Richardson, certainly resulted 
in’ an advance in library construction, but their 
thick walls and deficient fenestration give them 
a tomb-like quality thoroughly depressing to 
the average reader. . 

To sum up, the esthetic requirements of a 
library are satisfied by a construction marked 
by taste, dignity and repose, with no excess of 
decoration and ornamentation. In fact, warmth, 
homelikeness and restfulness are the charac- 
teristics that good psychology would recom- 
mend for a building dedicated to the conserva- 
tion and distribution of knowledge. Should 
these principles be adhered to there can be no 
doubt that a purely library type of architecture 
will develop, if it has not already done so. Like 
the modern skyscraper, the library will find a 
type of construction all its own, sufficiently 
lovely and none-the-less a library. To gain this 
end, only one thing is necessary: to plan libra- 
ries from within, for all beautiful buildings be- 
came such because first of all they were fit. 
From the viewpoint of interior efficiency the 
following are the minimum requirements: (1) 
Sufficient floor space; (2) compactness; (3) 
light; (4) heat and ventilation; (5) storage. 
1. Floor space. The amount of floor space as- 
signed to the various departments will neces- 
sarily depend upon the nature of the library, 
but taking the public library as the norm, the 
assignment of. floor space would average as 
follows: Reading-room, delivery-room, etc., 
50 per cent; administration, 20 per cent; lecture 
hall, 10 per cent; stack, 20 per cent. There 
will of course be. variations, particularly with 
regard to the stacks, which of course ex- 
pand more rapidly and easily than the other 
groups. 2. Compactness. This is closely re- 
lated to the preceding requirement, and means 
that. the library be planned for economical 
administration. What is known in military 
science .as “interior lines of communication” 
should be adhered to, so that the various 
processes in handling the book will link up 
without loss of space or time. Every step that 
is wasted and every needless operation caused 
by constructional exigencies stamp the building 
as faulty to that degree. All portions of the 
building from. the basement to the attic should 
be available, and waste spaces formed by un- 
necessary passages and stairways should be 
avoided. 3. Light. The eye is the organ used 
almost exclusively in a library, hence the illumi- 
nation should be abundant in quantity and dif- 
fused in quality. Therefore any form of con- 
struction that decreases light, such as over- 
hanging porticoes, massive walls or dark tones 
in, decoration, are distinctly bad. Direct sun- 
light and glares are bad, but otherwise there 
is little danger of too much light, This applies 


388 


equally to artificial lighting, which should be 
supplied by electricity where available. In- 
direct systems of illumination are considered 
preferable, but they are not economical, and 
certainly are not recommended for stacks and 
situations requiring concentration of light. 4. 
Heat and Ventilation. - Mental work is’ most 
efficiently performed where the temperature is 
neither too warm nor too cool, 68°. to 70° 
Fahrenheit, and where there is an abundance of 
fresh air, without drafts. In general the direct- 
indirect method of heating appears to be the 
most satisfactory, for by means of it not only 
is the building heated but it is also supplied 
with fresh air. Furthermore the space-wasting 
and unsightly radiators are avoided, air-ducts 
in convenient positions in the walls or at po- 
sitions being substituted. There should, of 
course, be ventilating exits for impure air 
and, in addition, some libraries use forced or 
artificial ventilation. - Such a system has its 
advantages, but it is expensive to install and 
to maintain, and in certain cases has not been 
wholly a success. It might, however, be used 
to advantage in the reading-rooms and other 
assembly halls. The nature of the collections 
and the uses to which they are put will neces- 
sarily have a determining effect upon the type 
of building demanded. Thus, for instance, a 
special or associational library will require 
different arrangements from a_ public library, 
and the public library from a university library. 
For a technical collection, a small reference 
library or university seminar. collection, the 
‘alcove system has very decided advantages, 
which disappear, however, as soon as the col- 
lection exceeds, say, the 50,000-mark. These 
points apply, though with less force, to theo- 
logical, medical and law libraries. , The. lat- 
ter, in particular, requires special treatment, 
for a law library is a reference library in the 
strictest sense, not partially but as a whole. 
The entire collection, sometimes very exten- 
sive, should be immediately accessible.” In 
many cases, such as that of the Social Law 
Library, Boston, the problem has been solved 
by placing the stacks down one side of a long 
apartment, the other side of the room being 
arranged for readers, who have direct access 
to the books on the shelves. A similar arrange- 
ment would be satisfactory for the larger 
medical, technical and scientific libraries. Theo- 
logical, historical and document collections, par- 
taking more of the characteristics of general 
libraries, could make use of stack system. Gen- 
eral reference libraries are subject to the con- 
ditions determining any library building, yet 
there are certain differences that require special 
attention. The university library is perhaps 
the best type of this class. This has some very 
special problems that influence the construc- 
tion of the building. One of these is the neces- 
sity for making it conform with the other build- 
ings in the academic group, for more and more 
the universities are planning all new buildings 
according to predetermined architectural styles. 
The necessity for conformity on the part of 
the library could conceivably result in an un- 
satisfactory building, unless great care were 
taken in its design. Another serious problem 
of the university library is the necessity for 
providing for the special collections’ demanded 
by the different’ academic departments. | In 
seme institutions the university library is little 


LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION 


more than a collection of separate. special li- 
braries, the general library containing only a 
minority of the total collections. However, 


the difficulties of administration and oversight, 


the danger of losses and changes of position, 
more than offset the advantages of this system 
and has led to its general abandonment. A 
compromise has been adopted either in the 
nature of a rigid restriction of the books in 
a department’s collection to its particular sub- 
ject, or by ‘providing seminar or special rooms 
for the various departments in the central li- 
brary, where they can be administered by the | 
staff. In some cases there is direct access to 
the stacks and the main body of the literature 
from the seminary room. This system, in the 
main, follows the principles advocated by Dr. 
Poole and followed out by him in the New- 
berry Library. Practically all of the universit 
libraries have adopted it, notably Harvard, 
Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Illinois, Michigan and 
California. In most cases provision is made 
for research work in the stacks, table alcoves 
being installed for the use of professors and 
advanced students. This policy of course 
requires the construction of wider aisles 
along the stack ranges. In general no dis- 
tinction. is made in the reading and refer- 
ence. rooms between the serious student and 
the casual reader or those who make use of 
these rooms as study halls between classes. 
The last group presents a very serious problem 
in large university libraries and in certain 
buildings an effort is made to solve it by 
providing study halls. The constructional prob- 
lems of a large public library are infinite, but 
as such a library, owing to its size and the 
variety of its interests, tends to split up into 
very distinct departments, these problems can 
best be solved by considering each department 
as a unit. By determining its particular needs 
first, and then defining its relations to other 
departments and co-ordinating the whole, a 
satisfactory basis for a plan could be attained. 
With regard to the site a main public library 
should be situated as near to the centre of 
population as possible without establishing it 
on a traffic artery, with the accompanying in- 
conveniences of noise, dust, etc. The building 
should be of durable material, preferably stone 
or brick; and as nearly fireproof as possible. 
As great public libraries are both reference and 
circulating libraries the plans should provide 
for a separation of these activities. This prob- 
lem has been most admirably solved in the 
plans of the New York Public Library. It 
appears to be traditional that a public library 
should possess a large auditorium. This is 
more or less of a luxury and as-it is only 
occasionally used it would seem wiser to hire a 
hall when lectures are offered by the library, 
rather than carry so much unused space. The 
suggestions already presented regarding light, 
ventilation and provision for expansion apply 
with particular force to the public library. In 
the larger cities the central library cannot keep 
in touch with the whole community. For this 
reason branch library systems have been estab- 
lished. Special buildings have been erected or 
rooms acquired. The constructional problems 
of these, however, are those of the small li- 
brary, the only differences being extreme com- 


‘ pactness permitting a small administrative force, 


absence of cataloguing rooms, etc.; small 


LIBRARIES 


Provincial Library, Victoria, British Columbia 


ee 


New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord, N. H. 


LIBRARIES 


gol Shotetecec bnombonete 


The Home of the National Geographic Society. On the right is the Gardiner Greene Hubbard Hall, erected for the 
Society by the heirs of its first president. In this building are the Board rooms and Library. The administration building 
adjoining is devoted to the editorial and business offices of the Magazine 


The National Library, Berlin 


LIBRARY BUILDINGS — LIBRARY DATA 


stacks, preferably open to the public; and pro- 
visions for the reception and return of books 
forwarded by the parent library. The stack 
question is, of course, a most vital one in li- 
brary planning, yet it is one that has been fairly 
well answered by American constructive genius. 
The modern stack to be found in the libraries 
of our country constitute a most adequate adap- 
tation of construction to the demands of the 
situation. There is nothing to compare with it 
in foreign countries. One step is yet to be 
taken, which is for the architect to frankly 
accept the stack and, instead of hiding it away 
behind screens of walls; often unnecessary, 
to concern himself with its architectural pos- 
sibilities. The admirable results obtained in the 
Denver Public Library and in some smaller li- 
brary buildings point the way to a new and 
most interesting field of development in library 
construction. 


Bibliography.— Burgoyne, ‘Library Con- 


389 


struction» (The Library Series, II, London 
1905) ;~. Champneys, ‘Public Libraries; a 
Treatise on Their Design, Construction and 
Fitting? (London 1907); Koch, ‘A Book of 
Carnegie Libraries? (New York 1917) ; Snead 
and Company, ‘Library Planning, Bookstacks 
and Shelving? (Jersey City 1915) ; Soule, ‘How 
to Plan a Library Building? (Boston 1912) ; 
id., ‘Points of Agreement among Librarians as 
to Library Architecture? nS Series, 
architectural illustrations, 1897). 
EpwIn WILEY, 
Librarian, United States Naval War College. 


LIBRARY BUILDINGS. See Liprary 
ADMINISTRATION ; LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE. 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, The. 
Concress, LiIprARY OF, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


LIBRARY DATA.* For convenience of 
ready reference the principal libraries through- 
out the world are here tabulated by nations: 


See 


—————— ee —EE——E—EE—E————e eee 


Number of 
Status Founded Vohumes 
ARGENTINA. 
Buenos Aires....... Biblioteca Nacional: bre) cero aster siele: a ort het wr seater erate OO Reference...... 1810 300 , 000 
AUSTRALIA. 
Melbourne......... Victoria. Public Library «5 oocyte eee oe ORR TING Rublicey rene 1854 258,756 
OVANEY 1s oder ak N.S. Wales Public Library... coco se IG Publicis, i 4a: 1869 258,742 
AUSTRIA~HUNGARY. 
Budapest........... Magyar Nemzeti Mtizeum.... 000. eee ee Reference...... 1802 289 ,098 
Cracow en weet: Universytet Jagiell6énski Bibliothek................ University...... 1400 429 , 355 
Zee wn ee. Ko6nigliche Kaiserliche Universitats-Bibliothek...... University...... 1586 270,959. 
Klausenburg........ Ko6nigliche Universitats-Bibliothek. . .. SiH Oniversityosoiid: 1872 252 ,443 
Prague? cscs. K6nigliche Kaiserliche Universitats- Bibliothek... ... University...... 1773 380, 769 
ING wig a To lete taken Ké6nigliche und Kaiserliche Hofbibliothek........... Reference satiui¢! 1440 1,000,000 
i > Konigliche und Kaiserliche Universitats-Bibliothek. . University...... 1775 883,394 
ELGIUM 
Brussels..o../... £205. Bibliotheque Royale. oo... co eee ee Sel Reference...... 1837 700 ,000 
ETEK. cle « See: Bibliothéque de l'Université. ... 0.0.6... e 2 Pree, Referenced Alaa ij... 2... 450,000 
TiOge oh oe Bibliothéque Universitaire...........0...00000 000: University... ... 1817 300,000 
Louvain.... ....| Bibliothéque de i‘Université Catholique (destroyed by F f 
the Germans, 27 Aug, 1914)............2..0 000 University...... 1627 230,000 
BRAZIL. 
Rio de Janeiro...... Bibliotheca Na@eional.:... 2 os aes 25 ee APUG. Reference...... 1810 330,000 
CANADA. 
WEBER 5. « oho ona: Library Or Pari ment s:. ..:-...:ctece eee 6 PEAVY UTS. Referericesaio itt t.... . os 400 ,000 
SES YEIEO ce » hafta ates BUDA OO Ry Cartes (oreo areal eee teehee ce PEELE, Pablier.. Stodeth. Se: 258 ,000 
VUntiversityrbrary «tec re ceret ot iver BIC AL, Mniversityx wh A. ee 142,860 
CHINA, 
Efe iii ee Bec ie RA Ten peria VB eary obec a whe tote! ot hohe! teteiel on ere' dno oe Ea Reference .sitocull. 0.05. 100,000 
DENMARK 
Copenhagen........ Kongelige Sr Ducthek..22 0 52665 i¢ccidecssec cede es Reference 4 bet 1665 770,000 
Uniyersitets= Bibliothek: - 662s fsccsssecescvcc ewe. University...... 1482 400 ,000 
FRANCE. 
Grenoble.,......... Bibliothéque deta Villeci sac csee cock des cs sac awe Public. patiowy!: 1772 269 ,024 
LeMans) chase, 3. «tors Bibliothéque des Facultés Catholiques............. Wniversityes.2 < slndsas oe 235 ,000 
Bibliothéque eda UniversitO@s. «sncisccescesieeaed Universitya tOucuel ones. ccc. 407 ,000 
yomeeerd ct ccs Bibliothéque Pet ae Mille rar ein tie se Usvic te acs, a diss mes Publictae sca. - 1527 450,000 
PAT ic oh cana es Bibliothéque IP ATSCIE Dist sites ct stansharonasctctalstoretaherstotete OR Reference.... .. 1797 624 ,904 
Bibliothéque GeriMiaaSti tits cnn mene oe eats aslo Reference...... 1795 550,000 
Bibliothéque INaIONRICNA oss cta ca hacks oho aaa wate ee Reference...... 1367 4,050,000 
Bibliothéque de Sainte Geneviéve................-. Reference...... 1624 400 ,000 
: Bibliothéque de l'Université... 0c eee eee Reference...... 1762 600 ,000 
GERMANY. 
Bamberg... G4. K6nigliche Oeffentliche-Bibliothek................. Pirblie el GieNees 1611 350,000 
Betitio. ss to. PSS. KomghehesBiptothelcics * cs mas coe aos oo alt haee ee Reference...... 1661 1,500,000 
Ko6nigliche Universitats Bibliothek...............%. University...... 1829 265 ,856 
Bonn. Pose as. Rheinische.-F. W.—Universitats-Bibliothek......... University rem noe hi weg ee 376,800 
Dresden. 2.44.5. 2. K6nigliche Oeffentliche Bibliothek................. Refereice iGutagutt loos ss. 570,000 
Frlangen.. 0). 70-255. K6nigliche Universitats-Bibliothek................. University...... 1743 254,083 
Frankfort-a-Main. . .|. Stadt-Bibliothek. 0.00.2... cece cee eects Pablictits iret 1668 365 ,529 
Freiburg-1.-B.....2e4)| Universitatsi-Biblothek... 000650 5 ae se «1 RIEL. RIV GRSIEVARY ESI ste-s sys. cae 300 ,000 
Cecsen oe o. Lig od ee Universitats,=bibliothek: . <a coe os hosel University...... 1612. 261,747 
Gottingen’. aj. ee ea UniversitatssBintotheki. Vea 3 db ehae be fans ae uve « University...... 1736-37 619,162 
Patie-a-d\-5)... La vo8 Universitats?Bibhothelr. «.-.05.25 5 3): <6 «tee, BEDI en: Rablies. Scatoute: 1696 284,970 
Prec e  t.. oet: | LAC te MOt DE 5420... 0. scents oe. chore Peewee gles Publigw: acer 1529 418 ,000 
Memelnerc. ty... ....) Univetsitats-eiblothneks.3) 02) soc os ee ew University...... 1386 500 ,000 
hts oe ee Untversitases Bibliothek. <6 as0 alas. see; leer BS University... .. 1558 270,000 
re Universitéte-Bibliothek.. 3250s cy necec ne ec ce eenee University...... 1665 309,118 
et Bee zt.) K6nigliche Universitats-Bibliothek..... University...... 1534 318,000 
Leipzig... oe... | Universitats-bibuotnekemas itn. hon ee ak ose University... .. 1543 610,000 
Mirnich tyes mati. K6nigliche Hof-u.-Staatsbibilothek. . . Reference...... 1550-78 1,190,000 
Konigliche Universitats-Bibliothek ae See University Rise: 1472 691,475 


* Obtained from the latest reliable sources, ‘The American Library Annual—-1915~1918" in particular. 


Through the 


kindness of Mr. Bowker and Miss Huxley of The Library Journal, it has been_ possible to bring the figures relative to many 
American libraries quite up to date; in other cases, however, only approximations are presented. This is especially true of 


the foreign collections. 


- 


390 


LIBRARY DATA’ 


Lrprary Data — Continued 


GERMANY — continued 


Rostock 
Strassburg... ...¢ 243 
Stuttgart 
Pabingen sek f... 
Wetmarnttin! . mae 


GREAT BRITAIN. 
Birmingham........ 
Cambridge .1.)an Sete 
Edinburgh. son. eae 


Leeds #6) coda taa ee 
Liverpaolig. 2.32 ALES 


HOLLAND. 
Anisterdamin s. fae 
‘hhe. Haste meee 7... 
Levdeén -.0. 0. #8. 


Lis = yee aeteenye an 


Norway. 

@hristianiay; +. 5.6 1ce 
PORTUGAL. 

PHISIVOR, .fcte toe eas cae 
RusSsIA. 


HSA la orcs ttn hoe ot 


IBASEIG Hiei, athe dha ecbe 
Betires Werke os: 


Lausanne: vee. vas 
ZATION |. ae hie ore eae 


Universitats-Bibliothek reja.3 . Furze... s oereeag Haale 
Kauserliche Universitats-Bibliothek................ 
Konisliche:Landes-Biblidthek.*~. 0.6... at . 
K6nigliche Universit ats-Bibliothek.......5.02 0.0.4. 
Grossherzogliche Bibliothek... ...4....5s)4..0- ein 
Herzogliche: Bibliothek: 5 70.8 cts «42s ete es bicteuerannene 


* 


Bree’ Librarieses 025 sissies Oh eee eos WA prpeedeieca atte 
Unaivensityelibrary vic ao atreeBe hom ches oleae eee 
AAVOGAbES LADIALy ojos Sec ait eens On Une eens 
Mnwersity Wwibranys. A So SF. see oo ERS DOORS 


Corporation Library 


Central Public ice bigesry Ee Pe oy sadrgr ee st 
Poblte*Libraries .7.63. 8 EH. Fu ds oe) ee. 
British MM wSeumioon av. ste Cte wok ole ea eee ae 
Loridon Bibrary-Aati ds eee ead. el ebs epee « aprapep > 2 
Publicalibparies (43) 4 ey oye ote beaten: Aes 
University College*htprary re ics on Cs ee eee ae 
Wniversity “cil London 221. VOSS occ «6 Selle ws 
Victoria,and Albert | Museum; .s:s6 5. 5 emcee eke ope ery 
Wonn-Rylands Libraryieesmec s:< ac tee 5 eee 2 
Pubitc ‘Pree-Libraries (=p sacs see ee 


UniversitertssBibliotheles 8 0.5.0 eres 
Koninklijke Bibliothek........ Pere ia tea or aS Anes 
Rijks-UniversiteitiBibliothek) ...u::.,.0,-c0ties « ere dete oN 
Rijks-Universiteit Bibliothek...............--e205- 


Bibliotecan@onamanale .. sc2.5.i.4)s, 4. 0.4, e00s es 0.0 EO 
Biblioteca’ Universitaria. ..-.5..,-+.++ sowie re isle 
Biblioteca Archivo di Stato. sadecildsh.eassiwrayin ll. « 
BibliotecarMMartéelliana .: .. so. es oe akeihtnsite hn ot 
Regale Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale... ..0...0....5 
Biblioteca:Seieritificd.........,., -warbieoslahie takl estoi's 


Biblioteca Nazionale (Braidense)..............-..-. 
BibliotecasAnchive di:Stato:.ci5 sx, <sfeisye, telsuerereste “ne 
Regale BibhetecarNazionale. ..........0. 0.005 +. sabe e 
Regale Biblioteca Universitaria..............-.800% 
Regale Biblioteca Universitaria... oi... 053 fener 
Regale; Biblioteca! Palatina ......:,..cc.e:sjs, 0,0, fh bOL oases 
Biblioteca! Universitaria’ ic ot .ieale see re ieee 
BibliotecasApostolica Vaticana ..,.2.....cs0 + «65s 


Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele. . 


Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria...............-: 
Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana «3... isis .<j6.5 2,088.09 940 
Biblioteca: Comunale Bertoliana . 2.0... 65005 ces ss es 


Imperial Umivetsify (Library... 300.3. cca. sseele «aes = 
Tmperial:Cabinet: Library ie Joes ccisien coamlehs eleva secre 
Ten perial dei easy ee arses ene ha ae se 
University Haihtany <b) oak once wale alc Emer ae 


Universitet Bibligthek —, Svea: 2 oo saccctelicet ene ate om £ 
Bibliotheca wNacional... po enacts es os, oko ss eet taraaries 
Universitetvbtbothele so oascs c.cisue tte eevee anotreehs 


Universitetrasphiothek owns tae alc ee cee oes 
Vladima Universitet Bibliothek. .........0...022.. 
Duchovnaja Akademia Bibliothek...............6. 
Pub. -iiRumantzovski) Muset,o. 2: agi. se sisters cents sete 
Rossyski Istoriceski Musel................ sisddnildablied 
UniversitetyBilbhothek 1.0005. Cael te ssca see aceleae a 
Novorossijski Universitet...........:00eueeeuet ees 


Academija Nan 


Imperial Public EADTALry. |. «a0... 2 2's sens. = Hed eL ee at 


Universitet Bibliothek . 


Library: of theiPolish Kingdom <... 44.0 /52) «<0 srgs ue eee 
Varsavski Universitet Bibliothek. ................. 


UniversitetszBrbtiothek. os. oo ee 
Kungliga Biphotnert: 2... . S222. Sanam catteeaacee 
Kungl. Universitets-Bibliothek........... bot dtnage 


Oeffentliche*Bibliothek.’.............. xenteiid sata: 
Bibliothéque Nationale Suisse..... 06... 0.0 eee een 
B..Publique‘et! Universitairenih.!: asisnads. oa Ts..2¢ 
Stadt: Bibliothékecg ak 2ac. i. dawine.. . orb wis ok 
Bibliothek: Cantonaletestumjas yins...erevad sesaa: 
Stadt-Bibliotheks = spe te ethteer's <f-sdyare che owe « 


Cee On a ee oe ar a a ok a | 


ee 


Status 


— ee |S | 


University 


University a +5 


Public 


Ce tie Sr We Ye fe ye 


University... 0... 
Reference...... 


Public 


Reference........ 


er % 


University...... 
References O22. 


Public 


Public 


ee rt 


re 


ole we ee ee 


Sin ee ) 0 Chere ie 


University...... 
University...... 


Refere 
Public 
Public 


NCE. evensnons 


Ree resis ye 


University...... 
Reference...... 
University...... 
University.....:. 


Public 


fee! oe WerLie ees 


University...... 
Documents. .... 
Reference...... 
Reference: ..... 
Reference...... 
Reference.....+ 


University, (4s: si<l; 
University .....).. 


Refere 


AGO. 3 smefsre 


University...... 


Refere 
Public 


TICE hielo ls 


a cee, 2) ets) eum ® 


University...... 
Reference. ..... 


Public 


pee eee eee 


University...... 
Reference...... 
Reference. ..... 
University... . 


University...... 


Reference...... 


University...... 


University...... 
University ...... 


Refere 
Refere 


TCO ih sy. 65 
TICE . sie see 


Reference...... 
University...... 
University...... 


Refere 


TLCE| 2 tere ee 


Reference!aiij 5: 
University.....% 
Reference... .... 
University...... 


References; 29:34 
University...... 


University. ...:. 
Reference...... 
University...... 


Public 


sent @@ mie 8 8 


oe 6 aw etl pars o als © ofa 


te ye > » spate 


coe eee ae 


re ee 


eee eee ee 


Ce 


314,000 
600 ,000 


397,000 
313, 133 


291,117 
507,500 
298,663 
491,082 
495 ,000 


400, 000 


1,749,837 
576,387 


650,000 
267 ,000 


225,000 


257,599 


LIBRARY DATA 


Lrprary Data — Continued 


391 


— Ee 


UNITED STATES. 
Albany, N. Y.. 
Ann Arbor, Mich. . 
Baltimore, Md...... 


Berkeley, Cal....... 
Boston, Mass....... 


Brooklyn, N. Y..... 
Buttalo, Na Y. secs. 
Cambridge, Mass.... 


Chicago, Ill......... 


Cincinnati, Ohio... . 
Cleveland, Ohio..... 
Columbus, Ohio... .. 
Detroit, Mich....... 
Denver, Colo....... 
Harrisburg, Pa...... 
Hartford, Conn..... 
Ithaca, NOW, tit 
Kansas City, Mo.... 
Los Angeles, Cal.... 
Madison, Wis....... 


Milwaukee, Wis... .. 
Minneapolis, Minn. . 


New. Haven, Conn... 
New York, N. Y.... 


Newark, N. Lays fe 7 
Philadelphia, Pa.. 


Pittsburgh, Pa.....'. 
Portland, Ore....... 
Princeton, N. J..... 
Providence, R.I.... 


Sacramento, Cal..... 
Saint Louis, Mo.. 


Salem, Ore! j.30... 
San Francisco, Cal.. 


Urbanasiile’ 37.50. 
Washington, D.C... 


Status 

New Yark ‘State; baOrary.c <2. shoe ie eee eee Reference...... 
University of wviichiganwiibrary 2 it, Sone eee University...... 
Enoch Pratt mice Library” a. tiie bee eee PID ica.) Se any 
Johns Hopkins University Library... University 4... -r: 
Peabody Institute Library.... 00.0%... ae EN oa Reference...... 
University: or Caltionria’ bibrary..4 3. 2 ee ee University...... 
American Academy of Arts and Science............ Scientific. ... 20.3 
Bostern Athenrisnl so. tie. feeble ss Satie od kee ...| Reference...... 
Boston) Medical Libraryin ./. 0) eg eae he: rite DMICGICAL ZS. & asics t 
CY TER EADIGO VL os elec ec. ced: spe tit Ne ro PA BUC ee bn ates 
Congregational dsibtraryon 2228 es Soames _Theological..... 
Massachusetts Historical Society.............4.-.. HASEOTY aise 52,0050 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology............. Technological. . . 
New England Historical and Genealogical Society. ..| History........ 
Social Bawa jotatvcnes. qhvee. i RES. hoe cate eet TGA W guess. co ieo I 
Sta Lek Labracmemeain nine ees covacph ata ek ie cakes Tea Ws te wa 
Prublregiatiraty ere. tres ale Aorta e beterecotiee open ac wee erates Publicucs. 6s sse3 i 
Pttalice kt ORaie whee cece ts. 3 eos ee eer ae ee Publicnes.-- oo: .F 
Harvard University, Andover-Harvard Theological 

ADEA Pte Nei ipkec a aie. sab eaa, pac pias Theological. .... 
Harvard University, Arnold Arboretum Library... .. FPOrestryr -n.. 450.43 
Harvard Astronomy, Observatory Library.......... Astronomical... . 
Harvard, Golleverlabrary.o.n sory «ae em ae ae University...... 
Harvard eran, Penoa reir oc acy), tarcks) 3 crccapanesgaieto Reng ae Botanical. p. s-.0¢ 
Harvardulawn Sool: otk cvalr wa ubbe vieteier ce oe he, re W@W.a nice F.ccket s 
Harvard Museum of Comparative ZOOlORM ag or oe Scientific. ...... 
Harvard peabody Ilusewm 27 ato. oo uses. eaaretsee i=: Ethnological.... 
Chicazo' Histonicall-Socievy.c.ccmcg cc. soo tba eee ee cs Fistorynm toa icts 
Jon Crepe rola bia Gace vio.e 5 ere ce hoe eae eerie Scientific. : 10... 7: 
Municipal Reference Library 0... eo. soya acsy ok oene Economics...... 
ITC YIBELE V ei IEA VEN =, acinneias chara teen. f acond cauchs abet s: dass Reference...... 
Bitbhocl tiehataered sta on nsn a nodose Ocik ons tus shepieeete wet PDO. ex. gos 
Wmiviersit yuo ICAO 4) akin os sis ans Oe lees ot ae University...... 
Pree TAT ye aisle orci aie cscs gin 3.4 eutteuoe bine ooh eae PUbliG vers te eet 
LETRI NEY! Join yeseeny eth ed RIS iad as aoe Sale eR a Oe ee Ritbhicn -.- cuato. 
WEA Lae OREN Ba he via is ee ata laiy lc, neert oe cose Saisuna ‘ate Legislative...... 
Publie iibratry . SIN ABOLAIOo. Al... SFE Pubhickk. NY 3 
Puplie ibrary yet a. by. ERE) spears 6 oy unre ary Publicey see Le 
PRPC A GAIN hier accent Sb unc pishe 2 om atacd govt sis lesa h SLACCISHATIVG ..c cc) « 
SHEE OTL IEG cries 6 alec ey SON parte ere ai nab tabe ae tae dea Legislative...... 
Cornel DUniversity! Library). 26:8... -J3UeAG .2y2. 0. University...... 
Publiovitorary . ty. nes Gtie iad... wsen oad. be Publicitate ipai: 
Pe NCePAOGT VN 4.5. fnn $e 8 6 ks Choa + <secoa sh? auhce euevecs Pitblicuseac.c: nek, 
Universtey ot wiscorsiy Library... S45 Aaa University...... 
Wisconsin HistoricaliSocietyimic?... Ma. 219m ot Historyr. <). Otte 
Wisconsin, State Librarys pecs orl. . - dugg. bee tryr fics La yig sles cshsenph 
Public Library os... ec. ak LS GES (POM TO he 28d RuUDliC. pes woe ci 
Pegg nar yey hoi. ee ee ais vc ares SP Rela Pubes | 
Utiiversity or Minnesotawisiir2ii... LO. 4G). a: University...... 
Male fUniversity Libnany,64. sas1.022 >. 4 Yee ati University...... 
American Geographical Society Library............ Geographical.... 
Association Of (hetDaren sas rue ih. sé ete a eee ore AW care, AE. 
Columbia University Law‘Library... 20.0) .20.005.0: TAwgLa vob... be. 
Columbia University duibranyy, 4340). + awhtaawow the »UnIVEFSIty, css 
Columbia University Teacher’s College............. Education: ..... 
Erigineefing-societies +. S44 ben. IA AAI Engineering..... 
Mercantile tisbrarye tiie sheds. . 2B Publics fairer vc 
Metrépohtan, Miseun:).ccsncactes. . acd hys opera Barts tobe for ols paces: 
New York Academy of Medicine.................. Medicine....... 
New York°Historical Society... SPE PE ee EM History/i? 023). 
New York (Law<«stithite-babraryy......0205005 0000. DOW TSA... Mink 
New.Work Societe Library cinco dss - Ron ek eek els Society 4, dootiew. 
Preegeublicotibtary cot. sean wide ete ois teks cane a raees < SAW olson soph 
Russell -Sagze Fotindationy ait... 20D. 2 Se Sociological... .. 
Union? Theological Library:wak Pi... wher er Theological. .... 
KreaiPublupLibtaryist 2.0 cheats: 6 a ehette Bae et cae Puiliccs tae. ad. 
Prudential Life Insurance Company............... Trstirance «.. 4°. - 
Academy of Natural Sciences. .......0......5 20055 Scientific. 6. .2 >. 
Branklin Institute) ..2n 404 ..$o8... ch BESTE Ek Scientifics... As. 
Pree LAbranye:.. «pr ecenh s ha ae ees es ee las eee 1o Tbh ol epee Fea 
Historical Society of Pennsylvania..........i...... TAISCOLY 2 oe a 
Library Company of Philadelphia... OJ) 4 2B -ST.1 PHbWNER VLA. We 
Library of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. ..} Medicine....... 
Philadelphia CommercialsMuseum.. . ..,..0. j2 64s o> Commercial..... 
University of Pennsylvania Library....:..5..02.00. University...... 
Carmesgts biorary 21 214. SIG OW. LE Pablic v2 .. 55.0%. 
Library. ‘Assosiation. 2 = ..v fest Of... hetigd: -Lesigeia ty PAtbhig. icy of? Kissa 
Princeton University Library.........: Te sae erate University...... 
BLOWir irevetsit Va LADLAly —. eis nein coins el oe eke University...... 
Public Library ROM... ATUOGIIM, ... e198. HOME. Public Shee 
Rhode Usland:State dabraryveeins bo... ace eee we Legislative... .:. 
California Statetleibparyee. ct os + ance bi cca sa tle Legislative ass +> 
Christian Brothers College Library PAT: ahs Seno. ee University...... 
Public Library . tated. .9OOR st... dd GEA i} Public: 62631.5¢ pte 
OregoniState; Library.jjaeassieact... feaechianle s fier Legislative...... 
Public Ussbraryi aa eee ee eae Re 0 Rico tine. cco Fines eoes PubUC we, can att 
Mechanics Mercaritile Bibrary ’o... IME He. 2 iON, Reference...... 
Leland Stanford University Library. ...........0-. University...... 
University of Illinois Library....... NERS Tce gar SNE FS University...... 
Bureau. of Railway Economics. .<....,ccbeccseeres Railways....... 
District of Columbia Public Library. ...0....000s001 Publies ’. 05 is. 


Founded 


1818 
1841 
1882 
1876 
1857 
1869 
1780 
1807 
1875 
1848 
1853 
1791 
1889 
1844 


Coc i,  a e  d 


ee ee 


ee ee 


Number of 
Volumes 


449 ,542 
383 ,976 
355,817 
202 ,247 
197 ,634 
355,192 
34,287 
264,531 


363 ,546 
106,771 


392 


LIBRARY LAWS AND LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES 


Lrprary Data — Concluded 


Qe ee TE 


UNITED STATES — con. 
Washington, D.C.. 


United States Treasury Department 


United States Weather Bureau...... 
Volta’ Buredtata fs 7s esis tee nee 
American Antiquarian Society..::.. 
Publicvbipratves tai te cay cet aes 


Worcester, Mass.... 


Georgetown University Library..... 
Law Library of Congress........... 
Tibrary2OL GOneress wc: ciekie cite ete 
Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office............. 
Pan-American, Umion..s.45. 7...» «cen oh 
Public Documents Library.......... 
Smithsonian tstitution:,... <...+ <n 
Supreme Council Thirty-third Degree (Masonic). . 
United States Army War College.... 
United States Bureau of Education. . 
United States Bureau of Ethnology.. 
United States Bureau of Fisheries... 
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics........... 
United States Bureau of Mines...... 
United States Bureau of Standards. . 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.......... 
United States Department of Agriculture........... 
United States Department of Commerce........... 
United States Department of Justice 
United States Department of the Navy............ 
United States Department of State. . 
United States Engineers’ School.... 
United States Forest Service........ 
United States Interstate Commerce Commission... .. 
United States Geological Survey..... 
United States House of Representatives....:....... 
United States National Museum.... 
United States Patent Office......... 
United States Senate Library....... 


Numbe of 
Status Founded Volumes 

RTS AAU cee et University 1791 104,785 

Se a Teg OW Se BWI. ns suhoniespeteeel Polcustenteee 168,719 

ick SRRERG UR anette: Referenne « 4.05044 1800 2,451,974 

Medical......... 1865 190, 310 

Be aie eneat. ater, Se History ..:y. ae 1890 32,834 

EAN SP ae De re ee Documents..... 1895 193,533 

Tats Be cpan vet kate Anes Scientafic. .... + x 1846 521,616 

Masonry. 9... +2. 1886 75,000 

Pera tits tee Military 1885 100,000 

peepee 5 0 Ge has Education :..:... 1868 150,000 

Shia ehsiel steers. sel cee Bt hnological. +o rs, | forsee 20,430 

Rb Fee be ete ti Fausheries' 7: 2. sa\\-foncseeeen 29,155 

TCONOMIG. ... ae] bss ee 30,282 

Sc te Bek. See NGO ne a 1911 12,000 

ch apd Win page ras 98 Scientific... 1901 13,621 

DCIEDEUICs yg: as 1832 25,000 

Agriculture..... 1868 131,693 

Commerce...... 1866 54,540 

Bet Wack ir Mey Rae le SW pico ne 1831 45,000 
Naval. 1882 50,000 

MEE its rea Diplomatic. .... 1789 73 ,000 

shanties moar 2ek 6 MET GaATRY <r aa re 45,115 
Mi ties see hg ir eases be Forestry Ane One 12,245 

Railwayse ot tal) Ree 3,000 

Sette pee bacgpe A Geological... .... 1882 120,000 

DPocuitierits: eal kee 275,000 

De re eh Scientincs toast be. ae eee 43 ,692 

Sat ecsin barks ‘Technical... 1836 93,300 

Miya CAN ta air as Wa irs chiete one 1852 200 ,000 
Media ttn Re aos Piranves 22 7 ee es pee 11,060 

EAE cath ah gn Zoi Meteorological 1870 34,000 

GS ee SRE Sa a ee Cotie sta. eet x eee 9,000 
Spare) tk eattoia he PRStOry oor. aes 1812 140,000 
Be ee ee ee Pte. ere. een 1859 224,482 


LIBRARY LAWS AND LEGISLA- 
TION IN THE UNITED STATES. As in 
the case of education, each State has complete 
control of the library situation within its bound- 
aries. In many States the libraries have re- 
ceived great assistance and encouragement from 
the State administration; in many others, on 
the contrary, they have been neglected and 
sometimes discouraged. State library legisla- 
tion has concerned itself mainly with the fol- 
lowing topics: (1) Founding of libraries; -(2) 
their administration and supervision by library 
commissions, etc.; (3) development of school 
libraries; (4) of country and rural libraries; 
(5) of traveling libraries. Legislative refer- 
ence bureaus and provision for popular lectures 
and for educational extension by means of the 
library are more or less liberally provided for 
by certain States. 

1. The laws regarding the foundation of 
libraries are universally permissive and not 
mandatory. That is, a community is empow- 
ered to vote an appropriation for the establish- 
ment and support of a. public library. The 
method of obtaining the endowment differs in 
different States, the usual one, however, being 
the addition of a small percentage (one-half to 
five mills on the dollar) to the tax rate. In 
other cases a popular subscription up ‘to a cer- 
tain amount is authorized, which, in a very few 
cases, is supplemented by an additional fund 
from the State treasury. Virtually all of the 
States have library enabling or foundation acts 
in some form or other. 

2. Less unanimity is discoverable regarding 
the laws for administration and supervision, 11 
of the States having no legislation on that sub- 
ject. It is not surprising furthermore to find 
that these States are the ones in which library 
facilities are least developed. In those States 
which have enacted laws on this subject there 


is considerable difference of method in: obtain- 
ing the desired. end. In general, however, a 
State library commission is provided for, which 
has oversight and. direction of the libraries. 
In the case of California and of Virginia, the 
State library has the functions of a library 
commission, while in New York, Rhode Island, 
Tennessee and Utah, the State Board of Edu- 
cation has control, acting through special com- 
missions or representatives. In Alabama the 
State Department of Archives and History has 
the function of a library commission. Colo- 
rado provides for two library commissions, one 
of which has direction of the traveling libraries. 

The following States have laws providing 
for a library commission or some other form of 
direction and control: Alabama, Arkansas, 
California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, 
Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, 
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New 
Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Penn- 
sylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennes- 
see, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washing- 
ton, Wisconsin (37). ; 

3. The following States make provision in 
their laws for school libraries: Alabama, Ari- 
zona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Dela- 
ware, Florida, Idaho, Ilinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mas- 
sachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
Jersey, New York, ‘North Carolina, North Da- 
kota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, 
Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, 
Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, 
Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyom- 
ing (43). 

4. The following States have laws provid- 
ing for the extension of library facilities to 


° 


LIBRARY PERIODICALS — LIBRARY TRAINING 


counties and rural districts: California, Dela- 
ware, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, 
Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, 
Oregon, Texas, Virginia, Washington, Wiscon- 
sin, Wyoming (17 yt 

5. Traveling libraries are provided for in 
Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, 
New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ver- 
mont, Virginia and Wisconsin (11); and leg- 
islative reference bureaus in Alabama, Georgia, 
Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, 
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, Texas and Wisconsin (13). Pen- 
sions for library employees are provided for in 
Illinois and Nebraska (2) and Kansas provides 
for libraries in penitentiaries. 


Epwin WILEY, 
eae United States Naval War College. 


LIBRARY PERIODICALS. The spe- 
cial publications devoted to library work 
throughout the world will be found detailed by 
nations in the following list: 

United States.—American Library Annual 
(New York 1911-); American Library Asso- 
ciation. Bulletin (Chicago 1907-) ; American 
Library Association. Proceedings (Chicago) ; 
Bibliographical Society of America. Papers 
(Chicago 1906-); Library Journal (New York 
1876-); Public Libraries (Chicago 1896-); 
Special Libraries (Boston 1910-). 

Austria-Hungary.— Oesterreichische Zeit- 
schrift fiir Bibliothekswesen (1897-); Zeit- 

schrift des Osterreichischen Vereins fiir Biblio- 
thekswesen (Vienna 1910-). 


Belgium.— Bulletin de TlInstitut Interna- 


tional de Bibliographie (Brussels 1895—) ; Revue 
dese Bibliothéques et Archives de Belgique 
(Brussels 1903-). 

Denmark.— Bogsamlingsbladet (Copen- 


hagen 1906-). 

France.— Bulletin de Association des Bib- 
lothécaires Francais (1907-); Bulletin du 
Bibliophile et Bibliothécaire (1834-); Bulletin 
des Bibliothéques Populaires (Paris 1906-); 
Courrier des Bibliothéques (Paris); Revue des 
Bibhothéques (Paris 1891-). 

German Empire.— Bibliothekar (Leipzig 
1909-) ; Blatter .fur Volksbibliotheken u. Lese- 
hallen (Leipzig 1900-) ; Jahrbuch der Deutschen 
Bibhotheken (Leipzig 1902-); Zentralblatt fur 
Bibliothekswesen (Leipzig 1884-). 

Great Britain.— Librarian and Book World 
(1910-) ; Library (1884-); Library Assistant 
' (1898-) ; Library Association Record (1899-) ; 
Library World (London 1898-). 

Holland.— De _ Bibliothecaris (Rotterdam 
1912-); De Boekzaal (The Hague 1907-); 
Het Boek (The Hague 1912-); Maandblad 
voor Bibliothekwesen (The Hague 1913-). 

India.— Library Miscellany (Baroda 1913-). 

Italy.— Bolletino della Civica Biblioteca e 
del Museo, Bollettino delle Biblioteche Popolari 
(Milano 1907—); Revista della Biblioteche e 
degli Archivi (Florence 1890-). 

Norway.— For Folkeoplysning (Christiania 
1907—) ; Nordisk Tidskrift for Bok-och Biblio- 
teksvasen (Upsala 1914-). 

Russia.— Le Bibliothécaire (Saint Peters- 
burg 1910-). 

Spain.— Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y 
Museos (Madrid 1897). 

Sweden.— Bibliotheks Bladet (Stockholm 


393 


1916-); Folke Bibhiotheks Bladet (Stockholm 
1903-). 

LIBRARY SCHOOLS. See LIBRARY 
TRAINING. 


LIBRARY TRAINING. M. W. Schret- 
tinger, in his ‘Versuch eines vollstandigen Lehr- 
buchs der Biblotheks-wissenschaft? (Munich 
1829) was probably first to suggest special 
schools for training librarians. F. Rullman, 
librarian of the University of Freiburg, in 1874 
outlined a university course in library science. 
The older libraries and librarians were intensely 
individualistic, and these, as well as other 
early schemes, emphasized the bibliographical 
side rather than the administrative. Recogni- 
tion of librarianship as a profession and _ the 
consequent professional co-operation of libra- 
rians were necessary for substantial progress 
in library training. The first really construc- 
tive work in this direction followed the forma- 
tion of the American Library Association in 
1876. A regular course in bibliography was 
established at the University of Michigan in 
1882 and a chair of library science at G6ttin- 
gen under Karl Dziatzko, in 1886 

The beginning of systematic library training 
in America is largely due to Melvil Dewey, 
who on 5 Jan. 1887 opened the School of Li- 
brary Economy at Columbia College, New York 
City. This was transferred to Albany in 1889 
and renamed the New York State Library 
School. From this pioneer school five types of 
library training agencies have developed: li- 
brary schools; apprentice and training courses ; 
short courses; library courses in schools and 
colleges and miscellaneous agencies. 

Library Schools.— Regular library schools 
give courses of either one or two school years, 
All are connected with libraries which are used 
for study and practice. The location of the 
school usually determines whether public, col- 
lege or reference library work is emphasized. 
The principal subjects are substantially the same 
in the different schools. They include bibliogra- 
phy, reference work, selection and evaluation of 
books, history of books and libraries, binding, 
cataloging, classification, library administra- 
tion, library buildings and many other technical 
and social aspects of library work, sometimes 
grouped under the term “library economy.” 
Practice in varied library work is required. 
Entrance requirements range from high school 
graduation to college degree. 

The Association of American Library 
Schools was formed at Albany, N. Y., 29-30 
June 1915, for the improvement, of library 
school training. Membership is limited to 
schools giving at least one full year of library 
training and meeting the minimum standards 
of equipment, faculty personnel and curriculum 
prescribed by the association. The present 
members of the association (1919), with date 
of founding, length of course and degrees 
granted are: 

1887. New York State Library School, Albany, N. Y. (2 
years. College graduates only. Bachelor of Library 


Science. Master of Library Science.) 

1890. Patt Institute School of Library Science, Brooklyn, 
N. (1 year.) : 

1893. Univencity of Illinois Library School, Urbana, III. 
(2 years. College graduates only. Bachelor of Library 
Science.) 

1897. Syracuse University Library School, Syracuse, N. Y. 
(2 years. Bachelor of Library Economy.) 


394 


1900. Carnegie Library School, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
of 1 year each.) 

1902. Simmons College. School 
Boston, Mass. (1 year. Bachelor of Science.) 

1904. Library School of Western Reserve University, Cleve- 
land, Ohio. (1 year.) 

1905S. Library School of the Carnegie Library of Atlanta, 
Ga. (1 year.) 

1906. Library School of the University of Wisconsin, Madi- 
son, Wis. (1 year.) 

1911. Library School of the New York Public Library, New 
York City. (1 year and advanced electives.) 

1914, Los Angeles Public Library Training School, Los 
Angeles, Cal. (1 year.) 

Other library schools giving a one-year 
course are the California State Library School, 
Sacramento, Cal.; Saint Louis Public Library 
School, Saint Louis, Mo.; University of Wash- 
ington Library School, Seattle, Wash., and the 
Riverside Library Service School, Riverside, 
Cal. (33 weeks). 

Apprentice and Training Classes.— Be- 
‘fore the establishment of library schools, serv- 
ice as an apprentice was the usual method of 
library training. Most large library systems 
now conduct elementary classes for training 
assistants for their own libraries. The instruc- 
tion is usually local in emphasis and chiefly 
concerned with administrative details. Train- 
ing classes vary greatly in length, subjects 
treated and methods of instruction. 

Short Courses.— These are elementary 
courses of three or more weeks’ duration, usu- 
ally given in the summer months and chiefly 
intended to aid librarians in small public or 
school libraries or in subordinate positions in 
large libraries. They are rather numerous and, 
without any generally accepted standard. 
They fall, for the most part, into one of 
four classes: (1) Those conducted independ- 
ently by State library commissions as in Indi- 


(3 courses 


of Library Science, 


ana, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania ; (2) those given by library 
schools, with or without the co-operation of 


library commissions, e.g., the summer course of 
the New York State, University of Illinois, 
Simmons College and University of Wisconsin 
library schools: (3) those given as summer 
courses by colleges, universities and normal 
schools as at the universities’ of California, 


Iowa, Michigan and Missouri and at Columbia 


University; (4) the independent short course, 
represented by the Chautauqua (N. Y.) School 
for librarians: 

School, College and University Courses. 
—These, unlike the “short courses,” are usually 
a part of the regular curriculum. Secondary and 
normal school courses usually emphasize the 
reference use of books, the wider reading of 
good books and the intelligent use of. libraries. 
Many normal school courses include the ele- 
ments of library organization and management, 
especially of school libraries. These courses, 
which are increasing in number, vary widely in 
scope and value. College and university courses 
vary from courses. similar to those given by 
normal schools or apprentice classes for student 
assistants, to advanced work in bibliography or 
library technique. 

Miscellaneous Agencies.— Many _ library 
commissions conduct local library conferences 
or “institutes” of from one day to two weeks’ 
duration. ‘The American’ Library “Association 
and many State and local library associations 
regularly hold meetings for professional dis- 
cussion. These meetings are important aux- 
iliary forces in promoting professional spirit 


LIBRATION 


and ‘encouraging library training. Several 
States employ library organizers who give per- 
sonal instruction in library matters to librarians 
whose libraries they inspect or organize. Corre- 
spondence and extension courses in library 
work have so far made little material progress. 
The near future..will probably see important 
developments in both directions. 

Library Training Outside the United 
States.—As early as 1877, Italy had prescribed 
examinations. for library. positions but, as a 
whole, libraries outside the United States still 
depend chiefly on the apprentice system to_re- 
cruit their staffs. Most of the training given 
is primarily bibliographical. Extended service 
and rigid examinations are required in Prussia 
and Bavaria, and schools for women hbrarians 
are maintained in Berlin and Leipzig. - 

In England, regular extension courses in 
library subjects, with: prescribed examinations, 
are held. under the auspices of the Library 
Association, chiefly to provide assistants for the 
public libraries. 

In Canada, summer courses have been held 
at McGill University, Montreal. A nine weeks 
course is regularly conducted by the Ontario 
Department at Toronto. 

The number of Scandinavian librarians 
trained in American library schools is steadily 
increasing. Norway has elementary library 
courses, in the interest of the rural libraries, 
in. most of her normal schools, and several 
general library summer courses have been held, 

Successful library courses, modeled on 
American lines, were conducted by Mme. Haff- 
kin-Hamburger, at Shaniawsky University, Mos- 
cow, 1913-17. In India two library courses 
have been established: at -Baroda by W. A. 
Borden and at the University of Lahore by 
A. D. Dickinson. 

Bibliography.— Cannons, H. G. T., ‘Bibli- 
ography of Library Economy? (London 1910) ; 
‘Librarianship as a Profession? (Albany 1912) ; 
Plummer, Mary W., ‘Training for Librarian- 
ship? (Chicago 1913); ‘Library Instruction in 
Universities, Colleges and Normal Schools? 
(United ‘States Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
606; Washington 1914). For library schools 
and short courses consult current American 
Library Annual, New York; ‘First Quarter 
Century .of the New York State Library 
Schoo? (Albany 1912); the circulars of the 
various schools and library commissions; Amer- 
ican Library Association Proceedings, 1917; 
Reports of the Committees on Summer Schools 
and Apprentice Training Classes (Chicago 


1917). 
FraANK K. WALTER, 
Vice-Director, New York State Library School. 


LIBRATION, in astronomy, an apparent 
oscillatory motion of the moon which causes 
parts near the edge to appear and disappear 
from time to time. It is threefold in character 
and was first recorded by Galileo who noted 
the longitudinal and diurnal libration, while 
the latitudinal libration was demonstrated by 
Johann Hevelius, the German astronomer, in 
the 17th century. The longitudinal libration is 
due.to the moon’s rotation in her orbit. being 
irregular from our viewpoint, so that two small 
strips or gores from pole to pole are visible 
alternately in the east and west sides, increasing 
the area. we can see. The latitudinal libration 


LIBRI CAROLINI— LICENSE 


arises from. the moon’s axis being at a slight 
angle from the, perpendicular of its orbit, so 
that at times. we see more of the north polar 
and at other times more of the south polar 
region. The diurnal libration is very minute, 
arising from the altered position of an observer 
on the rotating surface of the earth. The re- 
sult of all the apparent eccentricities of move- 
ment is that there falls under human observa- 
tion almost 60 per cent of the lunar surface 
instead of the half we would see if only one 
surface was continually toward. us. 


LIBRI CAROLINI. See Carottne Books. 


LIBRI-CARRUCCI DELLA SOM- 
MAIA, Guillaume Brutus Icile Timoléon, 
gé-yom broo-tiis é-sél té-m6-la-6n le’bré ka- 
roo’ché dél’la s6m-ma'ya, Count, French mathe- 
matician: b. Florence, Italy, 2 Jan. 1803; d. 
near Fiesole, Italy, 28 Sept. 1869. His father 
was an Italian adventurer, in 1816 condemned 
at Lyons to 10 years’ imprisonment at hard 
labor and to branding for counterfeiting goods, 
and who finally became a secret agent of the 
king of the Netherlands. The son became pro- 
fessor at the University of Pisa, ‘where he 
published in the scientific journals several arti- 
cles on the theory of numbers, on analysis and 
the resolution of indeterminate equations of 
the first degree. Having been compromised by 
his political views, he fled in 1830 to France, 
where the friendship of Arago introduced him 
to the world of science. Naturalized in. 1833 
as a Frenchman, he was called to the Academy 
of Sciences as successor of Legendre. He be- 
came. inspector-general of public instruction, 
obtained the cross of the Legion of Honor 
and was appointed inspector-general of the 
libraries of France, an office created expressly 
for him: Several works published by him dur- 
ing this period gave him a widely extended 
reputation. Among these were ‘Histoire des 
Sciences Mathématiques en Italie depuis la 
Renaissance jusqu’a la fin du 17e siécle? (1838- 
41); ‘Souvenirs de la jeunesse de’ Napoléon? 
(1842).;'and ‘Lettres sur de clergé et la liberté 
de l’enseignement? -(1844). During the latter 
part of the reign of Louis Philippe, he was 
suspected of having made use of his office of 
inspector-general of libraries to plunder them 
extensively. After the minutest investigation, 
Libri, who had escaped to London, was found 
guilty and condemned in June 1850 to 10 years’ 
imprisonment and degradation from public em- 
. ployment. A remarkable paper was written on 
his behalf by Paul Mérimée entitled, ‘Le procés 
Libri,’ and published in 1852 in the Revue des 
Deux Mondes. 

LIBURNIA, li-bér’ni-a, in ancient geog- 
raphy, a district of Illyricum along the coast 
of the Adriatic, now included partly in Croatia 
and partly in Dalmatia. The country is moun- 
tainous and the inhabitants were celebrated 
from early times as sailors, They occupied the 
northern islands of the Adriatic and had set- 
tlements on the Italian coast. Their chief towns 
were Scardona and Iader. 

LIBYA, lib’i-a, the geographical term of 
the ancients for Africa. At first it had mythical 
boundaries. Though Herodotus seems to have 
known that Africa was a peninsula, the moderns 
knew little about this till. the Portuguese 
doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, 
Homer and-Hesiod comprised under Libya all 


395 


the territory west of Middle and Lower Egypt. 
Macedonian kings of Egypt, on the development 
of commerce, necessarily acquired a more 
exact knowledge, and the wars of Rome with 
Carthage first gave men accurate knowledge of 
the interior. The sandy tract in which the 
Sahara is included was called the Libyan 
Desert, and that portion of the Mediterranean 
extending between the coast of Africa and 
Crete was known as the Libyan Sea. See 
AFRICA. 


LICENSE, in law, permission by proper 
authority, as to enter upon land, sell liquor, 
etc.; also, the. written or printed document 
giving such authority. Among the most im- 
portant of private licenses are licenses to enter 
land, licenses to make or sell patented articles 
and licenses granting the sole right to print or 
to sell certain books. Among the most im- 
portant of public licenses are those given by 
municipalities or other governmental authority 
to persons pursuing certain callings, trades, 
professions or the like, as for sale of liquor, 
the practice’ of medicine, driving of public 
vehicles, peddling of goods, etc. 

A license to enter land vests no estate in the 
licensee, and the death of either party revokes 
the license. A license of this kind may be for 
a consideration or purely gratuitous, but in 
either case it may be revoked at any time by 
the licensor. However, if the licensee has paid 
a consideration for the license and it is revoked 
by the licensor in such a way as to amount to 
a breach of contract, the licensee can sue, if 
there is no fault on his part, for damages for 
breach of contract. If the licensee refuses to 
leave after his license has been revoked, he 
ordinarily becomes a trespasser, whether the 
time agreed upon has expired or not. Occa- 
sionally courts of law and more frequently 
courts of ‘equity modify this doctrine. A 
license to enter land, being personal, is not 
assignable, and it is revoked if the licensor 
conveys the premises to a third party. A 
licensee who has been granted exclusive use 
to land by the owner cannot bring an action 
against a third party who uses the same land. 
Similarly, the licensee of a copyright cannot 
bring an action against one who infringes the 
copyright. The same rule applies to patents. 

Licenses to sell intoxicating liquor and li- 
censes regulating certain callings, as peddling 
of goods, are usually regulated by State stat- 
utes or municipal ordinances, and a fixed fee 
therefor is generally charged. Usually a high 
fee is charged for a license to sell intoxicating 
liquor, either for the purpose of raising revenue 
or to restrict its sale, or both. Thi’ restriction 
is justified on the ground of public policy, as 
experience shows that a low license fee favors 
an increase in the number of places where 
intoxicating liquor is sold, which in turn leads 
to an increase in the amount of intoxicating 
liquor consumed by the general public. The 
State, under its police power, exercises the right 
to regulate the practice of certain trades, pro- 
fessions, etc., and this has proved by experi- 
ence to be a policy in the interest of the people 
as a whole. See Loca Option. 

Certain licenses imposed by municipalities 
or States have been held unlawful by the 
Federal courts of the United States, as a tax 
upon drummers soliciting orders for firms in 
another State,.a license tax upon an agent of a 


396 


railroad company doing interstate business, 
and likewise upon a telegraph company doing 
interstate business. 


LICH OWL, or LITCH OWL (A. S. lic, 
a body, and ule, an owl), a provincial British 
name for any owl, which screams at night, 
and is superstitiously regarded as portending 
death. From the earliest ages the hoot of the 
owl has been regarded as ominous. Ovid, 
Virgil and Shakespeare contain many __ illus- 
trations of this common superstition. See 
OwLs. 


LICHENS, li-kénz (Lat. lichen, lichen, Gr. 
Aecxyv ), a large but artificial group of the 
higher fungi (Carpophyta), characterized by 
parasitic growth upon the lower blue-green and 
yellow-green alge (Protophyta, Chlorophy- 
ce@). Lichens are of the wildest occurrence 
in nature, appearing as gray, yellow and brown 
crusts or masses almost everywhere upon trees, 
rocks and soil. The number of genera and 
species differs more or less with the authority 
cited: the valid genera number not far from 
250, while the species are in the neighborhood 
of 4,000. 

The vegetative body or thallus varies from 
a fraction of a millimeter to several decimeters 
in size, though it. shows relatively little varia- 
tion in ‘thickness. In texture it is powdery, 
leathery, paper-like, or, in the case of many 
forms with blue-green alge, gelatinous; the 
prevailing colors are gray, brown and yellow, 
while green and black sometimes occur. The 
shape of the thallus is typically orbicular or 
stellate; it is often irregular, especially in 
branched forms. In general appearance the 
thallus varies within wide limits; as a rule, 
however, three types, crustose, foliose and 
fruticose, may be clearly distinguished. The 
crustose ‘type is the primitive one, showing in 
its granular, warty and areolate forms the 
various stages through which the thallus has 
passed in its development from the original 
mycelium.. The crustose thallus is so closely 
in contact with its substratum that. it cannot 
be separated from it without tearing. .The 
foliose type is a higher development of. the 
crustose. It is usually a definite, leaf-like 
structure, more or less lobed at the margin and 
attached to the stratum somewhat loosely or 
at but a ‘single point. The fruticose type is a 
special modification of the foliose, in which 
the latter is more or less flattened or cylindrical 
and erect or pendulous. This form is prob- 
ably an adjustment to conditions of diffuse 
light. It is especially characteristic of~ tree- 
lichens and of certain ground forms, such as 
Cladonia, where it is termed the podetium. In 
the latter there is also developed an accessory 
or secondary thallus, consisting of minute, leaf- 
like scales. 

The simplest thallus consists merely of a few 
fungus threads enclosing the irregularly dis- 
posed cells of the host or alga. Ordinarily, 
however, the algal cells not only have a definite 
position, but the fungal portion of the thallus is 
likewise highly specialized. Naturally, this dif- 
ferentiation is least in the crustose forms and 
greatest in the fruticose ones. The structure 
of the foliose type may be taken as fairly rep- 
resentative, except of the gelatinous lichens, in 
which the alge are scattered throughout the 
thallus. A definite epidermal layer is wanting 


LICH OWL — LICHENS 


except in a few of the higher lichens, where the 
outer filaments have been gelatinized, resulting 
in the formation of a structure closely resem- 
bling a cuticle. As a rule, however, the upper- 
most part of the thallus is the cortical layer. 
This consists of hyphe (filaments) compacted 
in such a way as to produce a tissue which looks 
much like parenchyma and is called in conse- 
quence pseudoparenchyma. The function of the 
cortical layer is in part mechanical or sup- 
portive and in part protective. Its structure 
seems to depend primarily upon the latter func- 
tion: it is least in those forms growing in for- 
ests and greatest in those found in the open. 
Below. the cortical layer and continuous with it 
is found the host or algal layer, consisting of 
filaments more or less loosely intertwined with 
the alge. This is the nutritive layer, in which 
the fungal hyphz draw their nourishment from 
the host-cells. The connection between the two 
may be merely by contact or by. penetration. 
In the latter case the fungal hyphz either pene- 
trate the protoplasm of the host and finally 
destroy it, or merely pierce the cell-membrane 
and lie in contact with the protoplasm. In 
either event, the hyphe develop special branches 
for contact or penetration, which are called 
haustoria. The algal layer is a specialized por- 
tion of the medulla which lies just below it. 
The hyphe of the two layers are continuous, © 
but they do not develop haustoria in the me- 
dulla, where they tend also to run more or less 
parallel with the direction of growth. The med- 
ullary layer primarily serves the function of 
transport; it is likewise used for the storage 
of lichenin (lichen-starch) and fats. The lower 
surface of the thallus is covered with a cortical 
layer similar in structure to that of the upper 
surface. Generally, however, it is somewhat 
thinner and is designed rather for absorption 
than for protection. It is frequently produced 
into facicles of hyphe termed rhizoids and cilia. 

The thallus of many lichens exhibits several 
peculiar structures, which are the direct result 
of the symbiosis of fungus and alga. The most 
frequent and most important of these is the 
soredium. This is a minute irregular mass of 
fungal hyphz and algal cells, readily carried by 
wind or water, and able to grow directly into a 
lichen thallus under the proper conditions of 
moisture and warmth. Soredia occur upon the 
upper face of the thallus of many lichens as 
elevated powdery masses or tubercles. They 
arise in the algal layer of the thallus by the re- 
peated branching of a fungal filament in such 
fashion as to completely enclose one or more 
cells of the alga, which also increase in number. 
The hyphz become more or less gelatinized and 
compacted into a surface very resistant to desic- 
cation. The soredia are pushed upward through 
the thallus by the growth of the filaments below 
and are finally extruded through a rift in the 
cortical layer, constituting a sorus. Normally, 
the soredia are carried away from the sorus and 
develop independently, but in some cases they 
grow while still in contact with the mother- 
thallus, producing minute, leaf-like scales upon 
the latter. These are the so-called isidioid 
growths or phylloclades, found in Usnea and 
related genera. Soralia are structures which 
arise from the medulla or even from the lower- 
most layer by the upgrowth of a mass of par- 
allel filaments which penetrate the algal layer 


LICHENS 


and there develop into normal soredia. Cepha- 
lodia bear the general appearance of soredia, 
but in origin and function they are quite differ- 
ent. They are distinguished as external and 
internal. The cause of their development is 
unknown: they are said to arise from the soredia 
of other lichens, which have lodged upon the 
thallus. They have never been produced ex- 
perimentally, however, and it seems much more 
probable that they are modifications of the 
thallus due to a change in the life form of the 
algal element. The cyphelle are flat or concave 
gaps in the lower cortical layer of the thallus 
of Sticta and Stictina. They are filled with 
variously branched hyphe of the medullary 
layer and probably function as organs of ab- 
sorption and respiration. The spermagonia are 
minute black dots occurring on the upper face 
of many lichens, especially near the margin of 
the thallus. Structurally they are identical with 
those propagative organs of black fungi that 
are termed pycnidia. They are spherical bodies 
with a membranous or carbonaceous envelope, 
containing a layer of rod-like filaments which 
bear at their tips tiny spore-like bodies called 
spermatia. As the names indicate, the sper- 
magonia were supposed to be male reproductive 
organs and the spermatia the fertilizing cells. 
There now seems to be little doubt, however, 
that they are propagative organs or pycnidia 
inherited from fungus ancestors. In a few 
cases they may be pycnidial parasites, such as 
Phyllosticta. 

The fruit (sporocarp) of those lichens which 
bear spore-sacs (ascolichens) is called a peri- 
thecium when the fungus is one of the black 
fungi (Pyrenomycetales), a hysterothecium, 
when it belongs to the cleft fungi (Hysteriales), 
and an apothecium when the lichen is a cup 
fungus (Discomycetales). All these agree es- 
sentially in structure, though they differ in 
form: the perithecium is globoid, opening by a 
minute pore at the top, the hysterothecium, 
linear or irregular, opening by a cleft, and the 
apothecium usually open and disc- shaped. The 
essential parts in each are the same, namely, 
spore-sacs (asci), the spores, and the sterile 
threads (paraphyses). The apothecium is the 
highest type of spore-fruit and the most widely 
distributed. It consists usually of the following 
parts: the thecium, the central portion. consist- 
ing of the asci, sometimes called thekes, and the 
paraphyses; the epithecium, which lies above the 
_asci; and the hypothecium which is found be- 
low them. The latter often extends around the 
sides of the thecium also, and is there termed 
the exciple (proper exciple, parathecium). All 


of these consist of densely compacted elongate 


hyphe (prosenchyma) which are without alge 
and are often more or less dark colored. In 
most of the higher lichens the exciple is sur- 
rounded by the tissue of the algal layer, pro- 
ducing a thalline margin (thalline exciple) 
about the apothecium. The apothecium usually 
sits directly upon the thallus; occasionally it is 
stalked, and less frequently it is immersed or 
innate. Lichens show the same differences with 
respect to paraphyses, asci and spores that are 
to be found among the other cup-fungi and 
black fungi. The paraphyses are simple or re- 
peatedly branched, continuous or septate, gelat- 
inized or non- -gelatinized, persistent or evanes- 
cent. They are often compacted and dark- 
colored at the tip, appearing to be continuous 


397 


with the epithecium. The spore-sacs of lichens 
are cylindrical or calvate in form, more rarely 
obovoid. Their walls are thin, though some- 
times gelatinized; they do not react to iodine 
as a rule, except when very young. The asci 
usually open by a terminal slit; in a few cases 
the entire wall breaks away. The number of 
spores in an ascus varies from one (Pertusaria) 
to many (Acarospora); the normal number is 
eight, six or four. The arrangement of the 
spores is usually irregular, though they are 
sometimes in one row (monostichous), or in 
two rows (distichous). Lichen spores are or- 
dinarily colorless and simple, less frequently 
dark brown and many-celled. They may be 
two-celled (bilocular), several-celled (pluriloc- 
ular), or muriform, when the partitions run 
in both directions. The wall of the spore is 
smooth and without appendages; the contents 
may be hyaline, granular or guttulate. 

Physiology and Reproduction.— The func- 
tions of lichens are essentially those involved in 
the relation between parasite and host, modified 
to an important degree in those forms with 
well-developed thallus. Absorption of water 
takes place readily upon both surfaces of the 
thallus, but especially on the under side, where 
hyphe, cilia and rhizoids all act more or less 
efficiently as absorptive agents. According to 
Zukal, the hyphal hairs are capable also of 
absorbing moisture directly from the air, in 
Physcia, Peltigera, Sticta, etc. Water-storage 
takes place in the algal and medullary layers. 
It is effected primarily by the algal membranes, 
especially of the blue-green slimes, and to a 
degree also by the lichenin of the hyphez. 
Zukal has suggested that the cephalodia, be- 
cause of their blue-green alge, are probably to 
be regarded as structures for the storage of 
water. The ability of the lichen thallus to re- 
tain water arises from its complexity, and from 
the presence of the gelatinized cortex. Lichens 
exhibit a number of somewhat primitive devices 
for the exchange of gases. These are often 
mere rifts in the thallus, or degenerate pycnidia; 
sometimes definite openings are present, or 
absorption takes place through loose protuber- 
ances. A specialized organ for this purpose is 
found in the cyphelle of Sticta and Stictina, 
which are primitive breathing pores, making 
direct connection between the air and_ the 
medullary layer. The latter serves as a path- 
way for the transport of water and gases to 
the various parts of the thallus. 

The relation of the lichen thallus to the 
environment is obscure. Of all macroscopic 
plants lichens resist drying-out the most suc- 
cessfully. With respect to the temperature ex- 
tremes which they can endure, they are sur- 
passed only by the bacteria. Many lichens 
withstand temperatures greater than 65° C.,, 
and nearly all are able to resist the intense cold 
of Arctic and Alpine winters, with minima of 

° to —60° C. Lichens exhibit very different 
sensibility to light: the majority of them grow 
in the fullest sunlight, while some, Evernia, 
Usnea, Peltigera, Graphis, etc., are adapted to 
more or less intense shade. In Alpine regions 
especially, orange and yellow thalli occur almost 
exclusively on the under, or shaded, side of 
rocks. This fact is explained by Zukal’s re- 
searches, in which he found that the algal layer 
was most highly developed under a cortex 
orange or yellow in color, these colors being 


398 


most penetrable by the rays active in carbon 
assimilation. The color of the cortex is also 
thought to be a protection against excessive 
illumination, though this explanation can 
scarcely hold for those lichens in which the 
lower cortex is highly colored. According to 
Schwendener, the growth of the thallus is 
largely intercalary, marginal or apical growth 
being relatively insignificant. In lichens with 
yellow-green alge, the growth of the thallus is 
determined by the fungus, and the development 
of the algal layer takes place subsequently. In 
this process, the alge and hyphe show a tend- 
ency to aggregate into tubercles, which modify 
the surface of the thallus. Somewhat similar 
sculpturings are produced by tensions in: the 
growing thallus, especially by the alternation of 
wet and dry periods. In nearly all the gelati- 
nous lichens, and particularly those parasitic on 
filamentous ‘algze, growth is controlled by the 
alga, and the fungus has little or no influence 
upon it. 

The propagation of lichens occurs ordinarily 
by means of soredia. It may take place also by 
fragments of the thallus, whether abstricted 
naturally or cut off by accident. The propaga- 
tive value of the pycnidium (spermogonium) in 
nature is unknown. The conidia have been 
germinated in cultures with difficulty, and at 
present there is no evidence that they grow 
more readily under normal conditions. Repro- 
duction is a characteristic feature of the lichens: 
a few species produce apothecia rarely, while 
in certain sterile forms they are never de- 
veloped. It is still an open question whether 
the apothecium is the result of fertilization. 
Some investigators have thought to demonstrate 
the presence of a carpogone and trichogyne, 
and to follow the development of a spore fruit, 
which results from the contact of spermatium 
and trichogyne. The germination of many 
spermatia points strongly to the conclusion 
that these are mere conidia and not male sexual 
cells. No fusion of sexual cells has yet been 
seen in lichens, and, until this is seen, it is 
impossible to settle the question of their sexual 
nature. The apothecium arises usually from 
certain more or less distinctly twisted hyphe 
lying between the medulla and the algal layer. 
Sometimes the point of origin is just beneath 
the cortex, especially near the margin, and in 
crustose forms it is in the hyphal layer just 
above the substratum. The development is 
essentially the same as in the other cup-fungi; 
the hyphal fundament increases in size, and be- 
comes differentiated above into two sorts of 
threads. The first to grow up are the para- 
physes, in the centre of which push up the club- 
shaped branches, which become the asci. Spore 
formation in the ascus follows the method 
typical of all sac-fungi. The escape of the 
spores takes place through a terminal rift in 
the ascus or by the breaking up of the latter. 
The mature spores germinate readily under the 
proper conditions, usually sending out a single 
filament from each cell; large spores, however, 
such as those found in Megalospora and 
Pertusaria, produce many germinating filaments. 
The young mycelium is capable of slight de- 
velopment only, unless it comes in contact with 
the proper alga, when it grows at once into 
the thallus. The uncertainty that the spores 
will germinate in a place where the proper host 
occurs makes A gp chat by spores much 


w 


LICHENS 


less sure than by soredia. In a few cases 
(Endocarpon, Staurothele, etc.), this disad- 
vantage has been overcome by the develop- 
ment of alge in the thecium between the para- 
physes and spore-sacs (hymenial gonidia). 
These are ejected with the spores, and, clinging 
to the latter, furnish a certain substratum for 
the germination of the spores. 

Origin and _ Classification.— Lichen are 
sac-fungi and rod-fungi which show more or 
less similarity in their vegetative body because 
of their parasitism upon certain alge. The 
clew to their origin and relationship is to be 
found in the inherited reproductive organ. the 
sporocarp, and not in the thallus. From this 
standpoint, the group is highly artificial, con- 
taining representatives of two distinct: classes 
of fungi, the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomy- 
cetes. The basidiolichens are a small group, 
containing but a few genera: the ascolichens 
consist of the representatives of several un- 
related families. It is evident that the lichens 
have not arisen from a single point, as members 
or offshoots of one line of development, but 
that they have originated at several widely 
separated points. They are of multiple origin; 
that is, they are polyphyletic. In ascolichens, 
the form of the sporocarp indicates the ‘main 
places of origin: the Verrucariacee, with 
perithecia, are Pyrenomycetales; the Graphi- 
dacee, which show. the hysterothecium, be- 
long to the Hysteriales; the remaining families, 
Cahciacee, Collemacee, Parmeliacee, ete., be- 
long to the Pezizales. 

The following synopsis will indicate the re- 
lationship and limits of the various families of 
lichens: 

Class Ascomycetez: | fruit a sporocarp, 
spores borne in sacs (asci). 

OrDER PyRENOMYCETALES : 
thecium. 

Family Spheriacee: mycelium filamentous, 
saprophytic or parasitic on tissues. 

Family Verrucariacee@: mycelium  thalloid, 
parasitic on yellow-green alg. 

OrDER HyYSTERIALES : sporocarp a hysterothe- 
cium. 

Family Hysteriacee: mycelium filamentous, 
hysterothecium carbonaceous. 

Family Hypodermatacee: mycelium flanren- 
tous, hysterothecium membranaceous.. 

Family Graphidacee: mycelium thalloid, on 
alge, hysterothecium membranaceous or Car- 
bonaceous. 

ORDER PEZIZALES: Sporocarp an apothecium. 

Apothecia and thallus leathery, waxy or car- 
bonaceous, never gelatinous. 

Family Patellariacee: mycelium filamentous, 
mostly saprophytic. 

Family Lecidiacee: mycelium thalloid, apo- 
thecium sessile, exciple without algz (proper). 

Family Cladoniacee: mycelium thalloid of 
two sorts, primary and secondary; apothecia 
borne on stalks (podetia), proper exciple. 

Family Parmeliacee: mycelium thalloid, al- 
ge yellow-green, exciple with alge (thalline). 

Family Pannariacee: mycelium _ thalloid, 
alge blue-green, proper exciple. 

Apothecia and mycelium gelatinous. 

Family Bulgariacee@: mycelium filamentous. 

Family Collemacee: mycelium thalloid, on 
blue-green algze. 

Class Bustawrnpcetedk: fruit a hymeno- 
phore spores borne on stalks (basidia). 


sporocarp a peri- 


1 Parmelia stellaris 
2 Cladonia retipora 
3 Parmelia olivacea 
4 Cladoma perfoliata 


LICHENS 


5 Sticta pulmonaria 
6 Cladonia verticillata 
7 Parmelia caperata 


C. fimbriata (left) ; 
copie (right) 
9 Hagenia crinalis 


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LICHFIELD — LICHNOWSKY 


OrpdER HYMENOMYCETALES : hymenophore ex- 
posed on a pileus. 

Family Thelephoracee: hymenophore smooth, 
mycelium filamentous or thalloid (in Cora, 
Rhipidonema, Dictyonema, and Laudatea). 

- Orper GASTEROMYCETALES: hymenophore en- 
closed in peridium. 

Family Sclerodermatacee: peridium broad 
subsessile, gleba excavate, mycelium filamen- 
tous, or thalloid in Emericella. 

Distribution and Role.— Lichens are dis- 
tributed over the entire earth; they are least 
numerous in the tropics and reach their maxi- 
mum development in Alpine and polar lands, 
where they often form the principal vegetation 
over immense stretches. Many species are 
widespread, especially in the northern hem- 
isphere: some of these, such as Cladonia rangi- 
ferina, Urceolaria scruposa, Usnea barbata, etc., 
are truly cosmopolitan. In the tropical and 
temperate zones, the greatest wealth of lichens 
is found upon bark and wood. In Alpine and 
polar regions the stone and earth forms are 
predominant. In these places lichens play their 
most important part in the economy of nature. 
They take the initiative in the disintegration of 
the hardest rock by virtue of the acids secreted 
by the thallus; they are likewise very effective 
in binding together the new soils which result 
in this way and in contributing organic ma- 
terial by their decay. In all rocky habitats they 
are the pioneers which prepare the way for the 
appearance of more highly organized plants, 
mosses, grasses, etc. In the case of tree-lichens, 
the tree is not affected by the lichen, except in 
so far as the bark may be ruptured by it mechan- 
ically. It is a question whether lichens exert 
any really injurious effect upon timber, though 
they probably hasten the decay of boards, posts, 
etc., by increasing the amount of moisture 
present. 

A few lichens are of value as food. The 
most important among these is the so-called 
“reindeer moss,» Cladonia rangiferina, which 
covers vast stretches in the north and consti- 
tutes an invaluable supply of food for the rein- 
deer and caribou. In Japan, Gyrophora escu- 
lenta, which is collected in abundance in the 
mountains, is of sufficient importance to be an 
article of export. The arid regions in northern 
Africa and western Asia produce large quan- 


tities of the manna-lichen, which is used to ° 


make bread, especially by the Tartars. This 
lichen is readily torn away from the substratum 
by the wind and is carried often to considerable 
distance before falling as “manna rain.» This 
phenomenon has been observed repeatedly in 
modern times, and, probably accounts for the 
manna of the Israelites. “Trip-de-roche” is an 
edible Umbilicaria of Arctic America, but the 
presence of-the bitter principle so common in 
lichens restricts its use as a food. Lichens 
owe their food value almost wholly to their 
high content of lichenin, or lichen-starch. 
Lichens, though once of extensive application 
in dyeing and in medicine, have fallen almost 
completely into disuse in both. The various 
kinds of orseille, which were made from Roc- 
cella tinctoria and held in high esteem for their 
brilliant purples, have been entirely replaced by 
the aniline dyes. Litmus, which is a similar 
dye made from a species of Lecanora, is still 
extensively used in chemistry because of its red 
coloration in the presence of an acid. “Iceland 


398 


moss,” Cetraria islandica, is still used officially: 
it contains cetrarin, a bitter principle which is 
tonic and astringent, and a large amount of 
lichenin. 

Consult Hale, E. H., ‘Flowerless Plants? 
(New York 1909); Massee, G. E., ‘British 
Fungi? (ib. 1912); Marshall, ‘Mosses and 
Lichens? (ib. 1907); Tuckerman, E., ‘Synopsis 
of the North American Lichens? y aateea 
1882) ; Schneider, A., ‘A Textbook of General 
Lichenology? (1897) ; Schneider, A., ‘Guide to 
the Study of Lichens? (Boston 1898); Sar-— 
gent, F. L., ‘Lichenology for Beginners? 
(Cambridge 1906). 

2 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS, 
Head of the Department of Botany, University 
of Minnesota. 


LICHFIELD, lich’féld, England, episcopal 
city and civic county of Stafford, 17 mules 
southeast of Stafford. The principal edifice 
is the cathedral, a noble structure of early 
English and transitional architecture with a 
«richly decorated west front, and three spires — 
two on the west, each 180, and one in the 
centre 280 feet high. Its length internally is 
370 feet, and breadth of nave 68 feet. Among 
other notable monuments is Chantry’s celebrated 
recumbent figures’ of. the “The Sleeping Chil- 
dren” The cathedral suffered greatly during its 
sieges in the civil wars from 1643 to 1646, and 
was restored by Wren. The see of Lichfield 
was founded in 656, and the city’s charter 
dates from 1549, The city has interesting 
literary associations, Johnson, Addison and 
Garrick, born in the town or neighborhood, 
having been educated at the old grammar 
school. Johnson’s house is now a Johnson Mu- 
seum. Brewing and carriage and harness 
pare form the principal industries. Pop. 


LICHNOWSKY, Prince Karl Max, Ger- 
man diplomat: b. 8 March 1860. His father 
was Prince (Fiirst) Lichnowsky, a general of 
cavalry, and his mother a Princess of Croy. He 
is the head of an old noble Bohemian family 
and of immense wealth, possessing estates at 
Kuchelna in Silesia and Gratz in Austria. Asan 
hereditary member of the Upper House of the 
Prussian Diet he has played some part in 
domestic politics, adopting in general a moder- 
ate attitude and deprecating party legislation. 
Though a Roman. Catholic, he steadily avoided 
identifying himself with the Clerical party in 
Germany. Entering the diplomatic service, the 
prince was appointed an attaché at the Lon- 
don embassy in 1885 and later served as 
legation secretary at Bucharest and as coun- 
cillor of. the German embassy in Vienna. He 
was for a time employed in the Foreign Office 
in Berlin, and on his marriage, in 1904, to the 
Countess Mechthilde von und zu Arco-Zinne- . 
berg, he retired to his estate with the rank of 
Minister. “I spent my time on my farm and 
in. my garden, on horseback and in the fields, 
but I read industriously and published occasional 
political articles. ... Thus eight years passed.” 
For several years newspaper rumor in Ger- 
many had connected the name of Prince Lich- 
nowsky with practically every important dip- 
lomatic post vacant from time to time, and 
even with the Imperial Chancellorship. No 
official appointment was forthcoming, however, 
beyond the designation of “Wirklicher Geheim- 


400 


rat? or Privy Councillor, in 1911. In Octo- 
ber 1912, Prince Lichnowsky, “to his great 
surprise,» was offered the post of Ambassador 
to Great Britain. In May of that year Count 
Wolff-Metternich, then German Ambassador 
in London, retired and was succeeded by Baron 
Marschall von Bieberstein (q.v.). The latter, 
however, died in September. Prince Lichnow- 
sky, who was “inclined to think that they 
settled on him as no other candidate was 
available,» held the post. in London until the 
outbreak of the European War. He had al- 
ways been credited in England with a sincere 


desire to encourage friendly relations between” 


his country and Great Britain, and on numer- 
ous occasions at festive gatherings in London 
and the provinces had expressed his earnest 
wish that the two nations should work har- 
moniously in the cause of civilization. Little 
mention is made in official publications of the 
prince’s diplomatic activity in London, espe- 
cially during the final crisis. Various inter- 
pretations' have been placed upon the reports 
he submitted to his government on the attitude 
of England. After his return to Berlin he 
assured the American Ambassador there that 
he had “correctly reported the sentiments of 
England in saying that England did not want 
war” (Gerard’s ‘My Four Years in Germany, 
pp. 100-102). At all events, according to Mr. 
Gerard, “the Germans. quite unfairly treated 
him as a man who had failed.» An illumi- 
nating analysis of German foreign policy, writ- 
-ten by Prince Lichnowsky in retirement during 
1916 for his private family archives, found its 
way into the press and created a profound 
sensation in March 1918. Prince Lichnowsky 
was expelled from the Prussian House of 
Lords in: July 1918. See  LicHNowsxKy 
MerEMoRANDUM; War, EUROPEAN — DIPLOMATIC 
HIstTory. 


Henri F. Kien, 
Editorial Staff of The Americana. 


LICHNOWSKY MEMORANDUM, a 
remarkable document and a valuable contribu- 
tion to the pre-history of the European War, 
written in retirement of Prince Lichnowsky 
(q.v.), former German Ambassador in London. 
Under the title of ‘My Mission to London, 
1912-1914 and dated “Kuchelna_ (Prussia) 


August 1916,” the ex-Ambassador reviewed. the : 


course of German foreign policy and diploma- 
tic relations, which, in his opinion, were directly 
responsible for the war. The document, it 
“appears, was written by -the prince for his 
private family archives. as. well as to explain 
and justify to his personal friends his. posi- 
tion as the representative of Germany in Eng- 
land at the outbreak of the war, and the part 
he had played during the crisis. Its contents 
were of a kind which would normally not have 
been available till after many years, till the 
chief actors had passed away. At first only a 
few typewritten copies: were made, one of 
which — by a breach of confidence — reached 
the German Foreign Office, while another copy 
appears to have fallen into the hands of the 
minority Socialist party in the Reichstag, by 
whom, in all probability, it was communicated 
to the Politiken, a Socialist newspaper in Stock- 
holm, Sweden. Early in March 1918 that jour- 
nal began to publish extracts from the memo- 
randum, the omitted portions having been 


LICHNOWSKY MEMORANDUM 


a 


suppressed by the Swedish government. In 
April it transpired that a member of the Ger- 
man deputy general staff, Capt. Hans von Beer- 
felde, had had numerous copies made and 
had sent them to the Crown Prince and various 
military and. political leaders, After the first 
partial publication by Politiken, the German 
government made strenuous efforts to prevent 
further disclosures, but by the end of March 
1918 the whole document had become public 
property and caused a profound sensation. 
Reproduced all. over Europe, as. well as in 
Vorwarts, the German Socialist organ, the 
“revelations” of Prince Lichnowsky were for- 
mally debated by the Main Committee of the 
Reichstag on 16 March 1918. On that occasion 
the Vice-Chancellor, Herr von Payer, read a 
letter of apology, dated 5 March and addressed 
to the Imperial Chancellor by Prince Lichnow- 
sky, in which the latter expressed his regret 
that the document had been made public against 
his wishes, and declared that it had leaked out 
in the summer of 1917, after the fall of Beth- 
mann-Hollweg (q.v.). The prince resigned his 
rank as Minister and was placed under police 
surveillance on his estate. Criminal proceed- 
ings, on a charge of high treason, were ordered 
to be instituted against him. Captain Beerfelde 
was. later arrested and charged, at. first, with 
having taken part in promoting a peace. strike 
in Berlin during January 1918. So far as could 
be gathered outside of Germany, no further 
steps had been taken in the matter up till the 
summer of 1918. 3 
Although the memorandum contained much 
information that was already embedded in of- 
ficial and unofficial publications, there still re- 
mained certain gaps to be filled in the knowl- 
edge hitherto inaccessible — evidence. which 
could only be supplied by the man who was the 
mouthpiece of the German government during 
the critical days immediately preceding the con- 
flict, and who was the recipient of the proposals 
put forward by the British government. . The 
general style of the document, with its small 
personal touches and certain unimportant in- 
accuracies, indicates that it was not intended 
for publication; in tone it is a clear and simple 
testimony to what really happened by one who 
played a prominent part in the events which 
he recalls. In effect it is an indictment of 
the whole policy of the German Foreign Office 
spread over many years, and a severe criticism 
of the cardinal point of that, policy — the alli- 
ance with Austria-Hungary. That alliance, the 
author contends, has ever been .a source of 
weakness to Germany, in that it. ruined. any 
hopes of an understanding with Russia, : with 
the result that instead of being made subsery- 
ient to German interests, Germany had eventu- 
ally found herself in the position in which 
she was compelled to subordinate her own 
interests to those of a weak and decrepit ally. 
Prince Lichnowsky raises some great historical 
questions.on which divergent views will always 
exist. These, however, are mainly of interest 
to Germany. By far the most important state- 
ments. he makes are those in which he en- 
deavors to fix the responsibility for the Euro- 
pean War. He emphatically asserts that the 
British government, and particularly Sir Ed- 
ward (now Viscount) Grey and Mr. Asquith, 
went to the very limit of what .was_ possible 
in order to prevent the conflict. He ridicules 


LICHTENBERG — LICK 


the German theory that the war was treacher- 
ously plotted by “vengeful France, barbaric 
Russia and envious England” against a peace- 
loving fatherland. “I was treated like a de- 
parting sovereign. Thus ended my London 
mission. It was wrecked, not by the perfidy 
of the British, but by the perfidy of our policy 
... | had to support in London a policy which 
I knew to be fallacious.» In conclusion, Prince 
Lichnowsky prophesies that “the program of 
the great Rhodes, who saw the salvation of 
mankind in British expansion and British Im- 
perialism, will be realized” As a result of 
the war he believes that the world will belong 
to the English-speaking races, the Russians and 
the Japanese, while Germany will remain 
alone with Austria and Hungary . . . The Ger- 
man appeared too late, and the World War 
has destroyed the last possibility of catching up 
the lost ground, and of founding a Colonial 
Empire.” See War, EuropEAN — INTRODUC- 
TION; DipLoMATic History. Consult ‘Current 
History? (New York, May-June 1918); New 
York Times of 21 April 1918; ‘Revelations of 
Prince Lichnowsky? (pamphlet, New York 
1918). 
Henri F. KLeIn, 
Editorial Staff of The Americana. 


LICHTENBERG, Georg Christoph, ga- 
Org’ kris’tof lih’ten-bérg, German satirical 
writer and physicist: b. near Darmstadt, 1 July 
1742; d.. Gottingen, 24 Feb. 1799. He was 
educated at the University of Gottingen and be- 
came professor there in 1767. During frequent 
visits to England he collected material for his 
explanations of Hogarth, whom he thus as- 
sisted to popularize in Germany. He gained 
great celebrity as a lecturer on physical science. 
He being a hunchback may very possibly have 
embittered him and sharpened a naturally sa- 
tirical disposition, _The best of his satires 
are those on the notorious literary pirate, 
Tobias Gobhard; the essay on ‘The German 
Novel’; ‘Timorus, ridiculing Lavater’s zeal 
for proselytizing; and ‘Pronunciation of the 
Wethers of Ancient Greece, aimed at Voss’ 
system of pronouncing Greek. His brilliant 
sayings have been collected and published in 
a separate volume, ‘Lichtenberg’s Thoughts 
and Maxims: Light Rays from his Works? 
(1871). 

LICHTENBERG, Leopold, American mu- 
sician: b. San Francisco, Cal., 22 Nov. 1861. 
‘In early childhood he showed his fondness 
for the violin and received careful training. 
In his 12th year was asked by Henri Wieniaw- 
ski, then on a visit to California, to become 
his pupil, and accordingly spent three years at 
Brussels Conservatory. Fresh from his Euro- 
pean successes, he was engaged in 1877 in Theo- 
dore Thomas’ orchestra and then spent three 
years more abroad playing in the chief cities. 
On his return to America he became a member 
of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and later 
was appointed head of. the violin classes at 
the National Conservatory of Music, New 
York. With Adéle Margulies (piano) and the 
cellist, Leo Schulz, he formed the Margulies 
Trio, which became one of the foremost cham- 
ber-music organizations of the United States. 

LICHTENSTEIN, one of the most popular 
of German historical novels (1826) and the 
masterpiece of Wilhelm Hauff, a Suabian noy- 

VOL. 17—26 


401 


elist and poet who died full of promise at the 
age of 29, was a romantic and patriotic Ger- 
man’s tribute to the work of Sir Walter Scott. 
No foreign author was more popular than 
Scott in the Germany of the early 19th cen- 
tury. His novels, translated in full, were so 
generally read that it was said that the soil 
of old Scotland was more familiar to Germans 
than their native land. Yet the hills of Scot- 
land, Hauff said, were not of a richer green 
than the German Harz, the waves of the 
Tweed were no bluer than those of the Donau, 
Scot¢h men were no braver, Scotch women no 
lovelier than the old Suabians and Saxons. 
Lichtenstein, modeled after the Waverly novels, 
was a direct protest against the novel with a 
foreign historical background and was an at- 
tempt to recreate the romance of a bit of 
Suabian history (the reign of Ulrich of Wiirt- 
temberg in the 16th century) as Scott had 
done for the country of Ivanhoe and Waverly. 
But Hauff lacked the genius and scholarship of 
Scott, although he was a brilliant story-teller, 
full of the enthusiasm and the romance of 
youth, full of his own love-story which he 
permitted to add a glow to his pen-portraits, 
and with a rare sense of humor. And Lich- 
tenstein, failing of historical value, has suc- 
ceeded in making its own place as one of the 
picturesque love stories of German literature. 
Eprtru J. R. Isaacs. 


LICINIUS, | li-sin’i-is, Gaius, Roman 
tribune. He came of a plebeian family, but 
rose to the rank of tribune, receiving the sur- 
name of Stolo, or Useless Sprout, by reason of 
the law which he established forbidding any 
one to possess more than 500 acres of land. 
His reason for this was that when more land 
was cultivated by any one owner the latter 
could not pull up the useless shoots (stolones) 
which grew from the roots of trees. Another 
law of his enactment allowed the plebeians to 
share the consular dignity with the patricians; 
and he himself became one of the first. plebeian 
consuls, 364 B.c. 


LICINIUS, Gaius Flavius, Roman em- 
peror: b. Dacia, about 270; d. 324. He was 
made Augustus by the emperor in 307, and be- 
came emperor of Rome after the death of 
Galerius about 312. He was defeated by his 
brother-in-law, Constantine, 323, and put to 
death the year following. His son, Flavius 
Valerius, declared Cesar in 317, was slain at 
Constantinople in 326. — 


LICK, James, American philanthropist: b. 
Fredericksburg, Lebanon County, Pa., 25 Aug. 
1796; d. San Francisco, Cal., 1 Oct. 1876. In 
1821 he set up in the pianoforte business at 
New York, and later was a manufacturer of 
musical instruments at Buenos Aires, Philadel- 
phia, Valparaiso and elsewhere. In 1847 he 
went to California, where he gained wealth 
through investments in real estate and various 
enterprises. In 1874 he placed $3,000,000 at the 
disposal of seven trustees, by whom they weré 
to be applied to specific uses. The principal 
divisions of the funds were: To the University 
of California, for the construction of an ob- 
servatory and the placing therein of a tele- 
scope to be more powerful than any other in 
existence, $700,000 (see Lick OBSERVATORY) ; 
for the building and maintenance of free public 
baths in San Francisco, $150,000; to found and 


402 


endow an institution of San Francisco to be 
known as the California School of Mechanic 
Arts, $540,000; for the erection of three appro- 
priate groups of bronze statuary to represent 
three periods in Californian history and to be 
placed before the city hall of San Francisco, 
$100,000; to erect in Golden Gate park, San 
Francisco, a memorial to F. S. Key, author of 
‘The Star-Spangled Banner,» $60,000. 


LICK OBSERVATORY, astronomical 
department of the University of California. 
James Lick (q.v.), by deeds made in 1874 and 
1875, charged a board of trustees:to expénd the 
sum of $700,000 for the purpose of purchasing 
land and constructng “a telescope superior to 
and more powerful than any telescope yet 
made ... . and also a suitable observatory...,; . 
to be made useful in promoting science.” Un- 
der the provisions of this deed a site was se- 
lected in 1876 on the summit of Mount Hamil- 
ton about 26 miles, by road, from San José, 
Cal. The land (about 3,000 acres) was granted 
at various times by the United States and by 
the State of California. 

Astronomical observations of precision and 
delicacy require a steady atmosphere as well as 
a. very transparent one, and the site chosen is 
favorable in both respects. This was thoroughly 
tested in 1879 by Prof. S. W. Burnham before 
any buildings were erected. The first board 
of trustees (D. O. Mills, president). chose as 
chief advisers Profs. Simon’ Newcomb and 
Edward S. Holden, and appointed Professor 
. Holden as director. In October 1874 the latter 
submitted a:plan for the building of the ob- 
servatory and a program of work, which 
were accepted by the trustees, according to 
which the buildings were constructed and the 
work carried on from 1874 to 1897. The county 
of Santa Clara built a fine mountain road to 
the summit, in 1876, at a cost of $78,000. The 
work of construction was begun in 1880 by the 
third board of trustees (Capt. R. S. Floyd, 
president) with Thomas Fraser as superintend- 
ent. To obtain a level platform for the ob- 
servatory 70,000 tons of rock were blasted from 
the summit. The instruments were ordered 


from specifications by Dr. Holden, except the © 


object-glass of the great telescope. After a 
series of experiments Professor Newcomb ad- 
vised the construction of a'refracting telescope 
for the main instrument of the observatory. 
The glass discs were founded by Feil and 
Mantois of Paris and figured by Alvan G. 
Clark. The finished objective is 36 inches in 
diameter, and has a focal length of 56 feet 
2 inches. Besides the visual objective, there 
is a third lens of 33 inches aperture. When 
this is placed in front of the visual objective 
the combination becomes a photographic ob- 
ject-glass of 570 inches focal length (the di- 
ameter of the photographic image of the moon 
is about 5.2 inches), The cost of the visual 
objective was $50,000, of the photographic cor- 
rector about $13,000, and of the mounting of 
the telescope about $45,000. The cost of the 
dome complete was about $85,000; of the whole 
obseryatory about $610,000. The mounting of 
the great telescope was made by Warner and 
Swasey, of Cleveland. The whole weight of 
iron pier and mounting is about 37 tons. The 
moving parts of the latter weigh about seven 
tons; the tube weighs nearly three tons. |The 


LICK OBSERVATORY 


telescope is used for visual purposes, and mi- 
crometer measurements; it is also used for 
photographic and for spectroscopic observa-. 
tions, Its steel dome is 75 feet in diameter, 
and weighs 100 tons. It was built by the Union 
Iron Works of San Francisco. The floor of 
the dome is movable vertically (about 16% 
feet), according to a plan by Sir Howard 
Grubb, which ensures a convenient position for 
the observer, no matter whether the telescope 
is pointing horizontally or vertically. Other in- 
struments are a 12-inch and a 6-inch refractor, 
a 4-inch comet-seeker, a 6-inch meridian-circle, 
a 5-inch photographic telescope, a 4-inch tran- 
sit, a 5-inch photoheliograph, etc. 

The great telescope has been in constant use 
since its erection, and its optical quality has 
been proved to be excellent. The admirable 
design and construction of its mounting and 
dome have much facilitated its work. In 1895 
Edward Crossley, M.P., of Halifax, England, 
presented to the observatory his 3-foot reflector, 
which has been a powerful auxiliary to the 
great refractor. The observatory constitutes 
the Lick Astronomical Department of the Uni- 
versity of California. Its staff has comprised 
many noted observers: Messrs. Burnham, Bar- 
nard, Schaeberle, Tucker, Perrine, Hussey, 
Aitken, Wright and others. 

- The observatory was one of the very first 
to be located on a site specially chosen for its 
adaptation to astronomical work, and its suc- 
cess has had an important effect upon the sci- 
ence of practical astronomy. No one would 
now think of locating a great observatory 
without careful consideration of the site to be 
occupied. The mountain observatories of the 
world owe much to the experiments made at 
Mount Hamilton. 

The principal objects of research have been: 
The visual and photographic observation of 
planets and satellites; the fifth satellite of 
Jupiter was discovered here by Barnard in 1892. 
A systematic search for comets has been kept 
up and 14 unexpected comets have been discoy- 
ered — Barnard (3), Perrine (9), Coddington 
(1), besides a comet discovered by Schaeberle 
during his observations of the solar eclipse in 
Chile. Many periodic comets have also been 
detected and observed. The orbits of new 
comets have always been promptly computed at 
the observatory and ephemerides sent out to 
other stations. Four asteroids were discovered 
by Coddington in 1898-99. Meteors have been 
observed and photographed, and their orbits 
calculated. Double stars have been assiduously 
observed and many new discoveries made by 
Burnham, Hussey and Aitken; the orbits of a 
considerable number of binaries have been cal- 
culated. Observations of the zodiacal light and 
of the atirora have been made by Barnard and 
others. Successful expeditions have been sent 
to observe all total solar eclipses since 1888, and 
very much has been added to our knowledge of 
solar physics in this way. The transit of Venus 
of 1882 and three transits of Mercury have been 
observed and photographed here. The posi- 
tions of a large number of fixed stars have ~ 
been determined with great precision by Tucker. 
Many photographs of the sun and moon have 
been made. The negatives of the moon have 
been utilized in the preparation of an atlas 
of the moon (scale 10 feet to the moon’s diam- 


LICKING — LIDDON 


eter) by Professor Weinek, and on a scale 
of three feet by Messrs. Holden and Colton. 
A great number of important photographs of 
the milky way were made here by Professor 
Barnard and others, and of comets and nebule 
_ by Keeler, Hussey, Perrine and others. A com- 
plete outfit of seismometers for recording the 
intensity of earthquake shocks was installed at 
the observatory in 1888, and it was supple- 
mented by similar instruments at Berkeley and 
at other points in California and Nevada, which 
regularly report to Mount Hamilton. In_ this 
way the elements for seismometric record for 
the State were collected and regularly pub- 
lished. At the same time a list of all recorded 
shocks on the Pacific coast since 1769 was 
compiled and discussed by Dr. Holden. Spec- 
troscopic observations of nebule, new. stars, 
comets, stars and planets have been made in 
great number and with previously unattained 
precision by Messrs. Keeler, Campbell, Wright, 
Perrine and others. 

The chief problem of the great telescope. is 
to determine the motion of the solar system by 
spectroscopic observations. The photography of 
stellar spectra was proposed in the plan of 1874 
and attacked in 1888, and it has been followed 
with marked success, especially in the hands of 
Professor Campbell. Since 1896 more than 
2,000 negatives of stellar spectra have been 
secured. A preliminary discussion by Camp- 
bell leads to the result that the solar system 
is moving toward a point in 277° R. A. and 20° 
N. D., at a speed of 19.89 kilometers (12.35 
miles) per second. An expedition was sent 
(at the expense of D. O. Mills) to the southern 
hemisphere in 1903*to extend this research to 
southern stars. 

The observatory publishes a series of octavo 
“Contributions? (No. 1 in 1889, No.5 in 1895), 
of quarto ‘Publications? (1887 et seq.).and a 
quarto Bulletin since 1901—a journal. The 
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, founded 
by Professor Holden in 1889, has close rela- 
tions with the observatory, and has printed 
15 octavo volumes.* Visitors are freely ad- 
mitted to the observatory in the day time to 
the number of 5,000 or more annually. On 
Saturday evenings visitors are admitted to look 
through the telescopes, and as many as 150 to 
200 are frequently registered. In this way the 
observatory has rendered important services to 
popular education. 


_ LICKING, (1) a river of Kentucky, rising 
in Floyd County, among the Cumberland Moun- 
tains, and, after a course of about 200 miles, 
falling into the Ohio at Newport, opposite 
Cincinnati. (2) A river of Ohio, the former 
Indian Pataskala, rising near the centre of the 
State, and, after a course of 80 miles, flowing 
into the Muskingum near Zanesville. It fur- 
nishes valuable water power. 


LICORICE, or LIQUORICE, a genus of 
perennial herbs (Glycorrhiza) of the order Le- 
guminose. About a dozen widely. dispersed 
species are recognized, of which G. glabra is 
the most important, since it furnishes the licor- 
ice of commerce. It is characterized by long 
rootstocks, odd-pinnate leaves and racemes of 
separated flowers of various colors, usually 
pale violet. The plant is a native of southern 
Europe and western Asia, and is cultivated in 
Spain, Italy, Russia and some other countries 


* 403 


of the Old World, the best grades coming from 
the first two countries mentioned. The roots 
and the extracted sweetish principle, of which 
about $500,000 worth are imported into the 
United States annually, are used in making 
plug tobacco and porter, to flavor cooling 
drinks and by druggists to disguise the un- 
pleasant taste of some drugs. Attempts to cul- 
tivate the plant. in Louisiana and California 
have proved partially successful; but the crop is 
not profitable, since three to four years must 
elapse before it can be dug, and the selling 
price is small. Cuttings of rootstock are 
planted about three feet apart, and when estab- 
lished the plants are allowed to shift for them- 
selves until harvest, when the land is plowed 
and the rootstocks are pulled by hand. No 
further planting is necessary, since the bits of 
root left will restock the land. 


LICTORS, in ancient Rome, a name given 
to those public servants who attended upon the 
chief magistrates to fulfil their commands, bear- 
ing axes tied up in bundles of rods, which 
were called fasces. When a magistrate of high 
rank appeared in public the lictors preceded 
him in a file, following each other. It was 
their duty to clear the road of the populace. 
The dictators were preceded by 24 lictors; the 
consuls, decemvirs and military tribunes, by 12; 
the provincial pretors, master of the horse and 
propretors, by six; and the questors by five. 


LIDDELL, lid’él, Henry George, English 
classical scholar and Anglican clergyman: b. 
near Bishop, Auckland, 6 Feb. 1811; d. Ascot, 
Berkshire, 18 Jan. 1898. He was educated at 
the Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford; 
took priest’s orders in 1838; and for some years 
lived in Oxford as a tutor of Christ Church. 
He took no part in the theological controver- 
sies which stirred the Oxford of his time, but 
worked steadily with R. A. Scott of Balliol, 
afterward dean of Rochester, at the ‘Greek 
Lexicon? — the well-known ‘Liddell and Scott? 
of successive generations of students — which 
forms his chief title to remembrance. It first 
appeared in 1843, but has undergone extensive 
revision and enlargement in subsequent edi- 
tions, of which the eighth appeared in 1897. In | 
1846 Liddell was appointed the head-master of 
Westminster School, and from 1855-91 was 
dean of Christ Church. Besides the ‘Lexicon, 
founded on the Greek-German lexicon of Pas- 
sow, he wrote a ‘History of Rome? (1855), 
afterward abridged as ‘The Student’s Rome.? 
Consult Thompson, ‘A Memoir of H. G. Lid- 
dell? (1899). ‘ 


LIDDON, lid’6n, Henry Parry, English 
preacher and theologian: b. North Stoneham, 
Hampshire, 20 Aug. 1829; d. Weston-super- 
Mare, 9 Sept. 1890. He was educated at King’s 
College School and. Christ Church, Oxford, 
where he was graduated in 1850. He was or- 
dained to the priesthood in 1853, and in the fol- 
lowing year he was appointed vice-principal of 
Cuddesdon College, which Bishop Wilberforce 
of Oxford had recently founded, but as his wn- 
compromising High Church teaching made him 
the object of suspicion, he resigned in 1859 and 
became vice-principal of Saint Edmund’s Hall, 
Oxford. In 1870 he was chosen as Ireland pro- 
fessor of exegesis at Oxford, but after the Uni- 
versities Commission had. completed its work 


404 


and issued its reforms, which he looked upon 
as desecration, he resigned (1882): From 1870 
till his death he was canon of Saint Paul’s and 
his sermons under the dome attracted crowds of 
breathless hearers. He was in fact the last 
prominent survivor of the theological school 
represented by Pusey and Keble and carried its 
tradition even into the period of the new Ox- 
ford movetnent represented by ‘Lux Mundi, a 
work by Charles Gore (q.v.) which he ardently 
controverted. He also was prominent in the 
controversies concerning the Public Worship 
Regulation Act, which he opposed, ae the 
Athanasian Creed, which he defended. *An in- 
flexible High Churchman, an uncompromising 
theologian of the Nicene school and the great- 
est Anglican pulpit orator of his generation, he 
had much influence even where his rigid dog- 
matism carried no conviction, through the 
loftiness of his personal character, his trans- 
parent sincerity and a noble eloquence, whose 
power and sweetness recalled the best utter- 
ances of Bossuet and Massillon, preachers on 
whom he palpably bestowed much earnest study. 
During the last years of his life he was en- 
gaged in writing Pusey’s life on a voluminous 
scale, but had completed but three volumes 
when he died. He was elected bishop of Edin- 
burgh, in 1886, while traveling in the East for 
his health, but his decline prevented him from 
accepting. He published many sermons, but 
the only series likely to prove of permanent im- 
portance is his Bampton Lectures ‘On the Di- 
vinity of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ? 
- (1866), which has run into many editions. Con- 
sult Donaldson, A. B., ‘Five Great Oxford 
Preachers? (London 1900); Johnston, J. O., 
‘Life and Letters of H. P. Liddon? (London 
1904) ; Russell, G. W. E., ‘H. P. Liddon? (Lon- 
don 1903). 


LIE, lé, Jonas Lauritz Edemil, Norwegian 
novelist: b: Eker, Norway, 6 Nov. 1833; d. 
Christiania, 5 July 1908. He was educated at 
the University of Christiania, where he culti- 
vated the friendship of Bjérnson and Ibsen, and 
in 1859 settled as a lawyer at Kongsvinger. He 
went to Christiania in 1868 to support himself 
by journalism and literary work and in 1870 be- 
came famous with his novel ‘The Visionary.” 
The profits from its publication enabled him 
to spend some time in northern Norway and 
to visit Holland, Belgium, France and Italy. 
Returning in 1874, he received the poet’s pen- 
sion from the Storthing, resided in Dresden 
1877-81 and from 1882 till 1891 lived in Paris 
in comparative retirement, writing hic most not- 
able works, and in the latter year he went to 
Rome, from which he returned in 1892 to Nor- 
way. The following are his chief novels and 
stories: ‘Stories and Sketches of Norway? 
(1872), containing the story entitled ‘The 
Horse of Nordfjord? ; ‘The Three-Master Fu- 
ture, or Life in the North (1873), a series of 
loosely connected stories or sketches dealing 
with the life of Norwegian seamen; ‘The 
Pilot and his Wife? (1874), showing a ‘consid- 
erable advance on his earlier works; ‘Thomas 
Ross? (1878); ‘Adam Schrader? (1879) ; 
‘Rutland? (1880) : ‘Forward! Scenes of the 
Sea” (1882); ‘Life’s Slaves’ (1883), a pow- 
erfully realistic study of a soul involved in the 
net of circumstance; ‘The Family of Gilje 
(1884), a lighter story of Norwegian life; 
‘The Gulf? (1885), treating of the gradual de- 


LIE 


cline of an old Norwegian family; ‘Eight 
Stories? (1885); ‘The Commandant’s Daugh- 
ters? (1886), by. many regarded as his master- 
piece; ‘Two Lives? (1887), a penetrating study 
in the psychology of marriage; ‘Maisa Jons” 
(1888) ; “Mischievous Powers? (1889) ; ‘Trold 
(1891-92) ; ‘Niobe? (1893), in which his sub- 
ject is family troubles arising out of differing 
social, political or religious views held by par- 
ents and children; and ‘Grandfather? (1895) ; 
“Wulffie and Co.» (1901). He published a vol- 
ume of poems in 1867 and he also wrote sev- 
eral dramas, ‘Faustina Strozzi? (1875); ‘Gra- 
bow’s Cat? (1880) and ‘Merry Wives? (1894). 
In 1894 he published an important critical 
work, ‘Honoré de Balzac, The Man and the 
Artist.2. Lie’s chief works were translated into 
German, English and other languages. He was 
a realist who, however, avoided the excesses of 
his school, was especially happy in his por- 
trayal of sailors and the sea and yas gifted 
with a fine sense of humor and profound sym- 
pathy with the humble and the unfortunate and 
was a master in psychological analysis. A uni- 
form edition of his works was published at Co- 
penhagen in 15 volumes (1902-04). See THE 
Pitot AND His WIFE. 


LIE, a statement, which is thought to be 
false by the person who utters it and is in- 
tended to be believed by another. Lying has 
been recognized as an evil by many different 
religions and civilizations and there is prob- 
ably no race which does not consider a lie as 
evil, provided it is asserted under some sacred 
form of oath. The evil of lying is due to the 
fact that communication between different in- 
dividuals is a necessity of life, and that unless 
the truth is communicated much more often 
than a falsehood, a communication will come 
to have no meaning to its recipient — that is, 
will come to be no communication at all. This 
was well brought out by Kant, who pointed out 
that a community would be impossible in which 
lying was the rule, for then a lie, by ceasing 
to convey the false opinion which it is meant to 
convey, would cease to be a lie at all. There is 
no need, however, of making the evil of lying 
depend, after the fashion of Kant, on a cate- 
gorical imperative which permits no action that 
cannot be willed as an example of a universal 
maxim of conduct. While lying involves in 
general evil consequences, it does by no means 
follow that every lie is an evil deed, in the 
sense that it is worse than the telling of the cor- 
responding truth, or even worse than silence. 
Though a word is a medium of communication, 
it is often much more. To tell a burglar the 


combination of the safe is as much the act of 


an accomplice as to put a key into his hands. 
To tell a sick man that he is incurable may be 
on the same moral plane as to blow out his 
brains. On the other hand, the deception of an 
enemy spy has consequences not very different 
from those of repelling a hostile attack. Thus 
it may be seen that besides its truth-value, a 
proposition very generally has a moral value 
only indirectly connected with its usefulness in 
communication and often directly counter to 
the latter. Which of the two shall then pre- 
ponderate is a matter which must be decided 
on the merits of each particular case. A great 
many accusations are brought against the sin- 
cerity of modern society on the basis of little 
untruths popularly called white lies. These 


LIEBER — 


range from the “Dear sir? and “Respectfully 
yours” which begin and end a letter, to the con- 
ventional “not at home” of a person who does 
not wish to be disturbed, or the perfunctory ap- 
plause which follows a boresome lecture. These 
are in no proper sense lies, for the essence of 
“lying resides in the wilful transmission of a 
false belief to another,» and not in any form of 
words used in an especial sense. It is, therefore, 
useless to speak of a conventional lie, for a con- 
ventional form of expression is an expression 
which by frequent repetition has come to have 
a single universal interpretation — perhaps the 
interpretation of a meaningless form. It must, 
therefore, be interpreted by its hearer or reader 
in the precise sense intended by its user unless 
its user has gone out of his way to employ it in 
an extraordinary and unconventional sense. A 
lie need not be conveyed by written or spoken 
language. A look or a gesture may well be 
intended by one person to give a definite im- 
pression to another. If this impression is 
thought to be false by the person who conveys 
it, the look or gesture is a lie. Silence itself is 
enough to constitute a lie if it has the purpose 
of deception. 


LIEBER, 1é’bér, Franz, American publi- 
cist: b. Berlin, Germany, 18 March 1800; d. 
New York, 2 Oct. 1872. He volunteered as a 
soldier at 15 and was in the battles of Ligny, 
Waterloo and Namur. He served also in the 
Greek war of independence, recording his ex- 
periences in ‘Journal in Greece? (1823). He 
settled in the United States in 1827 and during 
the next five years was occupied with the com- 
pilation of an ‘Encyclopedia Americana? (13 
vols.). While professor of history and political 
economy in South Carolina College (1835-56), 


he wrote the three great works by which he is . 


best known, ‘Manual of Political Ethics? 
(1838) ; ‘Legal and Political Hermeneutics or 
the Principles of Interpretation and Construc- 
tion in Law and Politics? (1839); ‘Civil Lib- 
erty and Self Government? (1853). In 1857 he 
became professor of history in Columbia and 
later of political science in the Columbia Law 
School. During the Civil War period he was a 
firm supporter of the Federal government and 
was frequently consulted by the Secretary of 
War. His war code, officially designated as 
‘Instructions for the Government of the Armies 
of the United States in the Field? (1863), made 
him still more widely known. He was a mem- 
ber of the French Institute and of many learned 
societies at home and abroad. Consult ‘Lives? 
by Perry (1882); Harley (1899). 


LIEBER, Oscar Montgomery, American 
mineralogist and chemist: b. Boston, Mass., 8 
Sept. 1830; d. Richmond, Va., 27 June 1862. He 
was a son of Franz Lieber (q.v.) and was edu- 
cated at the universities of Berlin and Gottin- 
gen and the School of Mines at Freiberg, Sax- 
ony. In 1850 he became State geologist of Mis- 
sissippi and afterward engaged in the survey 
of Alabama and South Carolina. In 1860 he 
went to Labrador as geologist of the American 
astronomical expedition. During the early 
part of the Civil War he served in the Con- 
federate army and was fatally wounded at the 
battle of Williamsburg. He published ‘The 
Assayer’s Guide? (1852); ‘The Analytical 
Chemist’s Assistant» (1852); ‘Geology of Mis- 
sissippi? (1854). 


LIEBIG 405 


LIEBIG, Justus, yoos’toos 1é’big, Baron 
von, German chemist: b. Darmstadt, 12 May 
1803; d. Munich, 18 April 1873. He studied in 
Bonn and Erlangen, was graduated in 1822 and 
the same year went to Paris, where he gained 
the favor of Humboldt by his paper on fulminic 
acid and the fulminates, read before the French 
Academy (1824). He ‘thus obtained access to 
the private laboratory of Gay-Lussac. In 1824 
he was appointed extraordinary professor and 


-in 1826 ordinary professor of chemistry at 


Giessen. Here he opened the first experimental 
laboratory for college students and the uni- 


- versity soon became the European centre of 


chemical studies. He had remarkable success 
as a teacher and pupils streamed into his class- 
room from every country. The most illustrious 
chemists of the last century acknowledged their 
obligations to him as their master. He gave 
chemistry a settled position in Germany and 
turned it into a real science to be taught and 
learned by means of experiment. As an original 
investigator in the domain of chemistry he has 
shown himself a reformer of the sciences of 
physiology and agriculture. He may be said 
to have been the founder of modern organic 
chemistry and its necessary method of analysis. 
He analyzed many organic acids; discovered 
chloroform and chloral; he made the theory of 
the composition of ether and the oxidization of 
alcohol subjects of new experiments, in the 
course of which he discovered aldehyde. He 
determined the basicity of many acids; ana- 
lyzed the chemical composition of urine and the 
products of uric acid and made profound in- 
quiries into the juice of flesh and its compo- 
nent substances. He raised chemistry from a 
position of obscurity and unprofitable hypothe- 
sis into its present all-dominating position by his 
theory of the constitution of alcohol, ether, etc., 
and his work on the benzoyl compounds i is espe- 
cially remarkable in this connection. The in- 
dustrial importance of his discoveries is great. 
Cyanide of potassium is now largely employed 
in electroplating and in the manufacture of fer- 
rocyanides. His improved method of produc- 
ing this cyanide has cheapened its manufacture, 
just as the discovery of aldehyde has led to 
improved methods in the making of vinegar and 
looking-glasses... The result of his great dis- 
coveries has been especially felt in medicine, 
agriculture and food-hygiene. His great gen- 
eralization that the mineral and organic worlds 
were composed of the same chemical elements 
and were subject to the same chemical muta- 
tions revolutionizing science. He ‘traced for 
the first time the transformation of inorganic 
into organic substances in plants, from which 
they were transferred to the organisms of ani- 
mals. His exact statement of the elements re- 
ceived by plants from the soil and air enabled 
him to prescribe the composition of efficient fer- 
tilizers and thus, in the treatment and analysis 
of soils, to raise the fundamental operations of 
agriculture to the level of exact science. Con- 
sult Liebig, ‘The Natural Law of Husbandry’ 
(1863); ‘Animal Chemistry in its Application 
to Physiology and Pathology? (1846); ‘Hand- 
book of Organic Analysis» (1853) ; Hoffmann, 
‘The Life-Work of Liebig in Experimental and 
Philosophical Chemistry? (1876). See CHEM- 
ISTRY ; AGRICULTURE. 


406 


LIEBKNECHT, leép’knéht, Karl (PauL 
AucusT FERDINAND), German Socialist leader: 
b. Leipzig, 13 Aug. 1871; d. 15 Jan. 1919.. The 
eldest son of the famous Socialist, Wilhelm 
Liebknecht (q.v.), he was a lawyer by profes- 
sion and, since 1912, a member of the 
Reichstag representing the  constitutency 
wherein the ex-Kaiser resided— Potsdam. A 
fearless and outspoken critic of the government 
militarist policy, he came into frequent colli- 
sions with the authorities. He earned consid- 


erable notoriety by bringing grave charges of © 


corruption against the Krupp firm at Essen, 
charging it with tampering with petty officials 
of the German War Office and Admiralty. He 
was sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment in 
1907 for publishing an anti-militaristic pam- 
phlet, and in 1912 attacked the government for 
permitting the Tsar of Russia to visit Germany. 
He was the only member of the Reichstag to 
oppose the war, which he condemned with 
fiery eloquence from the beginning. Much has 
been written on the failure of the German So- 
cial Democratic party to live up to their prin- 
ciples in supporting the government policy of 
aggressive war. But it is only just to bear in 
mind that the storm fell upon the German So- 
cialists as suddenly as upon France and Eng- 
land; they knew less of the causes of that 
storm than the French or British knew; like 
those two peoples, they saw that their country 
was in danger and resolved, as they also did, 
to subordinate everything to the pressing duty 
of saving it from ruin. The isolation of Lieb- 
knecht, therefore, was more apparent than real. 
Though he alone uttered his thoughts, they 
were shared by many of his colleagues. Early 
in the war he visited Belgium and explained to 
the Belgian Socialists that, although the vast 
majority of German Socialists were in favor 
of fighting the war to the bitter end, there were 
numerous representatives of the party in the 
Reichstag who maintained that the misguided 
foreign policy of their country had been largely 
responsible for the war. When» Liebknecht’s 
father and August Bebel (q.v.) resisted in the 
Reichstag the proposal in 1870 to annex Alsace- 
Lorraine, both were thrown into prison. Karl 
went much further than his father. It was 
he, who, when the German press was fan- 
ning the flame of hatred against the Belgians 
by stories of atrocities committed against Ger- 
man soldiers, hunted the stories to their source 
in hospitals and elsewhere, proved them to be 
baseless and denounced them as such in Vor- 
warts. On 2 Dec. 1914, while those of his fel- 
low Socialists who opposed the war walked out 
of the Reichstag while the credits were voted, 
Liebknecht remained to utter his protest. The 
president would not allow him to speak and 
when he handed in his speech in writing the 
president refused to insert it in the records. 
In that undelivered speech, later published in 
England, he denounced the war as having been 
“prepared by the German and Austrian war 
parties” and wound up with a scathing indict- 
ment of the violation of Belgium and Luxem- 
burg. In March 1915 he spoke against the gov- 
ernment repudiation of. its promise to abolish 
the property suffrage in Prussia, but the Diet 
fied at his rising. With the death of Bebel in 
1913 Liebknecht became the foremost figure in 
the most powerful party in Germany, his opin- 


LIEBKNECHT — LIECHTENSTEIN 


ions uncompromising, his honesty unquestioned, 
his courage equal to any occasion. In June 1916 
he was charged with attempted high treason and 
sentenced to 30 months’ imprisonment. He had 
been expelled from his party five months earlier 
by a vote of 60 against 25; he was now dis- 
missed from the army, in which he was serv- 
ing as a private.. He was liberated in Novem- 
ber 1918. In the same month a volume of his 
speeches was published in New York entitled 
‘The Future belongs to the People.  Lieb- 
knecht led the radical Spartacus group against 
the Ebert government during the disorders fol- 
lowing on the Kaiser’s flight.. He was arrested 
and later shot down by a soldier on the al- 
leged grounds of attempting to escape. 


LIEBKNECHT, Wilhelm, German So- 
cialist: b. Giessen, 29 March 1826;'d. Berlin, 
6 Aug. 1890. He studied at the University of 
Giessen and later at Marburg and Berlin. He 
was early interested in the writings of St. 
Simon, and in 1848 went to Paris to take part 
in the revolution there; then joined in the un- 
successful attempt to make Germany a republic, 
and was imprisoned nine months without trial. 
When released he went to Switzerland, where 
he tried to unite the trade unions ona social- 
istic basis, was again arrested, handed over to 
the French authorities and banished to Eng- 
land. While there he became an intimate friend 
of Marx and Engels (qq.v.) and was a member 
of the Communist League. In 1862 he returned 
to Germany, continued his socialistic agitation 
and in 1865 was banished from Prussia. He 
went to Leipzig, where he met Bebel. (q.v.), 
was active in trade union organization and 
was one of the founders of the Saxony Volks- 
partei soon absorbed by the German Social 
Demonta iit party (1868), of which he was. froni 
the first a leading member. In 1867 he was 
candidate for the North German Parliament, 
but was under arrest and lost the election; he 
was, however, elected later. In 1868 he was 
made editor of the Demokratisches Wochen- 
blatt, the next year enlarged and published un- 
der the name of Volkstaat. In 1870 he de- 
nounced the Franco-Prussian War, for which 
he was imprisoned three months, and later so 
bitterly attacked Bismarck that he was again 
imprisoned. In 1874 he was elected to the 
Reichstag of which he was a member almost 
constantly till his death. He was one of the 
strongest leaders of his party in that body, and 
very popular and highly respected among Ger- 
man workingmen. In 1890 the name of the 
Volkstaat was changed to Vorwarts, and Lieb- 
knecht was retained as editor. He wrote ‘Die 
Grundund Bodenfrage? (1874), a discussion of 
the land question from the Socialist standpoint; 
“Fin Blick in die neue Welt? (1887), an ac- 
count of his visit to the United States; “Robert 
Blum und seine Zeit? (1890); ‘Robert Owen? 
(1892), and ‘Socialism, what it is and what it 
seeks to accomplish? (translated and published 
in the United States). Consult Aveling, ‘Wil- 
helm Liebknecht and the Social Democratic 
Movement? (1896). 


LIECHTENSTEIN, léh’tén-stin, a small 
independent municipality, practically a portion — 
of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and united 
with the, Austrian Customs-Union since 1866, 
between Vorarlberg, Tyrol, and Switzerland: 
area, 65 square miles; population about 10,000. 


LIED VON DER GLOCKE — LIEUTENANT-GENERAL 


The surface has a fertile soil, yielding abun- 
dance of pasture, corn, wine, fruit and flax. 
The capital, Vaduz, has about ‘1,000 inhabitants. 
The reigning family date from the 12th cen- 
tury, and are descendants of free barons who 
became princes of Liechtenstein in 1608. 


LIED VON DER GLOCKE, Das. This 
poem of Schiller’s deals with the casting of a 
bell from the moment when the mold is com- 
pleted to the one in which the new bell is lifted 
from the pit. In 10 stanzas distributed all 
through the poem the different stages of its 
making are described. Between these stanzas 
reflections on and scenes from human life, sug- 
gested by certain data in the different stages of 
the casting, are inserted.. Such happy and un- 
happy events and conditions in the life of the 
individual and of the community as are usually 
announced by the ringing of bells are portrayed, 
e.g., wedding and family life by the wedding 
bells, revolution by the alarm bells. The whole 
is spoken by the master bell-founder to his 
assistants during the work. ‘The Song of the 
Bell,» composed in 1799, gives better evidence 
of Schiller’s genius than any other of his 
shorter poems. It is distinguished alike by 
matter-of-fact accuracy, vivid description, ideal- 
ism and practical wisdom of life. In form the 
stanzas dealing with the casting are all of the 
same fixed structure and constitute the back- 
bone of the poem, while the other portions 
allowing full sway to the spontaneous flow of 
conceptions display the most diverse means of 
versification. On 10 Aug. 1805 Goethe had 
‘The Song of the Bell? produced on the stage 
as a memorial to Schiller (died 9 May 1805), 
and he himself composed for this occasion his 
famous poem ‘Epilogue to Schiller’s Bell. 
Consult edition of Schiller’s works in ‘Deutsche 
National-Literatur? (Vol. I, 1882-98); Schil- 
ler’s poems selected by J. S. Nollen (1905); 
special edition by C. P. Otis (1885); English 
translation in “German Classics» (Vol. III). 

Ewap EISERHARDT. 


LIEGE, 1é-azh, Belgium, (1) the eastern- 
most province bordering on Rhenish Prussia 
and the Netherlands. Area, 1,117 miles. The 
surface is diversified with heights varying from 
300 to 2,000 feet and well wooded. It contains 
rich coal and iron mines. The northern part 
called Herveland is exceedingly fertile and 
highly cultivated, affording pasturage for cattle 
and producing large quantities of butter and 
Limburg cheese. Pop. about 896,649. (2) An 
episcopal city and the capital of the province 
at the confluence of the Ourthe and Meuse, 54 
miles southeast of Brussels. The city has been 
considerably modernized since 1860 by the con- 
struction of fine quays and bridges along the 
course of the Meuse throughout. the city.- It 
has numerous striking public buildings including 
the Gothic cathedral of Saint Paul, the Palais 
de Justice and the celebrated university, occu- 
pying extensive grounds, with special institutes 
for various sciences, a school of mines, a school 
of arts and manufactures, and an important 
library. Liége is one of the largest manufac- 
turing towns of Europe, owing principally. to 
its situation in a district abounding with ‘coal, 
iron, lead, copper and marble... Cannons and 
firearms of every description, steam engines 
and machinery, hardware of every kind, 
watches, jewelry, bronze and other ornaments, 


407 


woolens, cottons, etc., are made. 
from the 6th century. Pop. about 170,634, 
chiefly Roman Catholic. Liege was defended 
by a girdle of forts, six on the left bank and 
six on the right bank of the Meuse. At the 
outbreak of the Great War in August 1914 the 
town was taken possession by the Germans on 
7 August, but the defense of the forts was 
maintained until after the arrival of heavy and 
siege artillery, and the German advance was 
thus delayed for more than a week. 


LIEN, 1lé’én or lén, a legal claim on or 
upon property; a legal Tight in one person to 
detain the goods of another until some claim of 
the former against the latter has been satisfied. 
Blackstone says a lien may be either particular 
or general; the former where the claim of 
retainer is made upon the goods themselves, in 
respect of which the debt arises, a claim which 
the law favors. The other, or general lien, is 
where goods are retained in respect of a gen- 
eral balance of account, which is less favored. 
Though general liens are not favored by law, 
yet in some cases they have been allowed and 
established by usage, as in the case of attorneys 
upon the title-deeds and documents of their 
clients; and factors, warehousemen and others, 
upon goods confided to them in the ordinary 
course of business. 


LIEUELY, Greenland. See GoDHAVEN. 


LIEUTENANT, li- or léf’tén’ant, a mili- 
tary term, which, like captain and many others, 
has acquired gradually a much narrower mean- 
ing than it had originally. Its true meaning is 
a deputy, a substitute, from the French lieu 
(place, post) and tenant (holding). A lieuten- 
ant-général du royaume was a person invested 
with almost all the powers of the sovereign. 
Lieutenant-general is the title of the command- 
ing general of each division of an army, per- 
sonating the  general-in-chief. Lieutenant- 
colonel is the officer between the colonel and 
major. The term lieutenant by itself, in mili- 
tary language, signifies the officer next below a 
captain, whether in the cavalry or infantry. 
There are also second lieutenants ranking be- 
low lieutenants. A lieutenant in_ the United 
States and British navies is the officer next in 
rank to the commander of a ship who is next 
to the captain. He takes rank in both these 
services with a captain in the army, and after 
eight years’ service he ranks in Britain with a 
major. In the United States a lieutenant rank- 
ing with a major is called lieutenant com- 
mander. 


LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, a. military 
title, given the officer next in rank to a colonel, 
and the senior of a major. He assumes com- 
mand of the regiment only in the event of the 
disability or temporary ad of the colonel 
of the regiment. 


LIEUTENANT-GENERAL, formerly 
general officer in the United States army, rank- 
ing above a major-general and below a general. 
The office of lieutenant-general was first created 
by Congress for George Washington in 1798, 
during the troubles between the United States 
and France. It then lapsed till renewed by 
Congress for Gen. Winfield Scott, who was 
made lieutenant-general by brevet. In 1864 it 
Was again revived for Gen. U: S. Grant, and 
continued for Generals Sherman and Sheridan. 


Liége dates 


408 


The grade was also conferred on Gen. John M. 
Schofield, 5 Feb. 1895, who held it till his re- 
tirement, 29 September following. An act of 
Congress of 6 June 1900° provided that “the 
senior major-general of the line commanding 
the army shall have the rank, pay and allow- 
ances of a lieutenant-general”; and on the re- 
organization of the army in February 1901 the 
grade was revived and President McKinley ap- 
pointed Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles its incum- 
bent. In 1903 the rank was again abolished, an 
act of Congress providing for a general staff, 
the chief of staff to take the place of the lieu- 
tenant-general. 


LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR, an execu- 
tive office of several of the States, ranking 
next to the governor. He performs the duties 
of a governor in case of the latter’s death, ab- 
sence from the State or inability to act, and is 
presiding officer of the State senate. 


LIEZEN-MAYER, lé’tsén-mi’ér, Alexan- 
der, Hungarian painter: b. Raab, Hungary, 24 
Jan. 1839; d. 1898. He studied at Vienna and 
Munich, attending the art academies in those 
places and afterward entered the studio of 
Piloty (1862) in the latter city. Under this 
master he painted his ‘Queen Maria and Eliza- 
beth of Hungary at the Grave of Louis le 
Grand and ‘The Coronation of Charles of 
Durazzo in the cathedral of Stuhlweissenburg.’ 
Three years later he carried off the first prize 
at the Munich Academy exhibition. In 1867 
he painted ‘Maria Theresa?; ‘The Child of a 
-Poor and Sickly Mother’; and as drop-scene 
for the Munich Theatre, ‘Poesy Surrounded by 
the Muses.’ In 1867 he began to paint por- 
traits, and also furnished illustrations for the 
works of Goethe and Schiller. During a resi- 
dence in Vienna (1870-72) he executed por- 
traits of the emperor and many of the nobility. 
On his return to Munich he painted some ideal 
figures from Shakespeare’s ‘Cymbeline? and 
esome scenes from Goethe’s ‘Faust,’ and in 
1873 ‘Elizabeth Signing the Death Warrant of 
Mary Stuart? (in the museum at Cologne), and 
‘one of his masterpieces, although its principal 
merit lies in the perfection of the technique. 
He produced also many cartoons for wood- 
cut reproduction as illustrations of the poets. 
For three years he was director of the Art 
School at Stuttgart (1880-83), when he was ap- 
pointed professor of historical painting in. the 
Munich Academy. 


LIFE. No definition of life has ever 
proved quite satisfactory. Some include too 
much, others omit certain phenomena, a third 
class assumes conditions purely hypothetical, 
while many are unintelligible. Bichat says that 
life is “the sum total of the forces that resist 
death»; Treviranus, that it is “the constant 
uniformity of phenomena with diversity of ex- 
ternal influences”; Duges, that it is “the special 
activity of organized bodies,” and Beclard, that 
-it is “organization in action.» De Blainville’s 
definition is: “Life is the twofold internal 
movement of composition and decomposition, at 
once general and continuous.» But according to 
Herbert Spencer this conception is in some re- 
spects too narrow and in others too wide. Of 
his own definition, that it is “the co-ordination 
of actions,» he says—“ike the others this 
definition includes too much, for it may be said 
of the solar system with its regularly recurring 


‘combination of heterogeneous changes, 


LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR — LIFE 


movements and its self-balancing perturbations, 
that it also exhibits co-ordination of actions.” 
His amended conception of life is: “the tie, 
ot 

simultaneous and sticcessive, in correspondence 
with external coexistences, and sequences.” 
G. H. Lewes suggests the definition: “Life is a 
series of definite and successive changes, both 
of structure and composition, which take place 
within an individual without destroying its 
identity.» However, this amounts to defining 
ignotum per ignotius. The most recent at- 
tempts have been in the direction of proving 
that life is merely a form of energy or motion, 
and show the influence which the physical sci- 
ences have had in recent years over knowledge 
and speculation, which formerly were mainly 
based on biology and theology. The simplest 
answer to the question probably is: Life is 
metabolism. 

Leaving the subject of attempted definition, 
it will be profitable to observe some of the char- 
acteristics of life as compared with its absence; 
that is, substantially, a. comparison of the or- 
ganic with the inorganic part of the universe. 
The boundary between living and not-living mat- 
ter is much less distinct than rough inspection 
suggests, but some of the most striking charac- 
teristics which distinguish living organisms from 
other objects of our experience which are not- 
living may be pointed out. The distinctive prop-. 
erties of living matter are, first, the fact that it 
is organized; second, that it has the power of 
perpetuating itself within . definite limits by 
chemically taking and adapting (assimilating) 
suitable material from the surrounding media, 
and in the process generating heat (energy) in 
the absence of which it disappears; and, third, 
that it has the power of self-reproduction. Life 
cannot exist without that chemical interchange 
between the organism and its inorganic environ- 
ment, and between the constituent parts of the 
organism which is summed up in the word 
metabolism (q.v.).. Objections have been made 
to some of the definitions quoted above, and to 
others, that they assumed the existence of or- 


ganization. But so far no evidence is present: 
of any living thing without organization. The 
simplest one-celled animals and plants (see 


AMeEBA; PROTISTA) consist of organized proto- 


plasm. This fundamental living substance, 
called protoplasm (q.v.), is of complicated 
structure and chemical composition. Its struc- 


- ture differs in different organisms; but it every- 


where consists of a combination of viscous 
“plasma” and water. The plasma contains the 
chemical substances upon whose changes life 
depends. Protoplasm is, however, not homo=- 
geneous. At least two kinds are found in 
every mass, the cytoplasm, constituting the 
major part of the whole; and usually the 
nucleus, the nutritive and reproductive centre. 
The combination of cytoplasm and nucleus 
forms a cell. Combinations of cells constitute 
the bodies of all organisms, large or small, past 
or present. These combinations are accumula- 
tions resulting from the property, characteristic, 
regularly and fundamentally, only of living 
organisms, of the doubling of molecules, by 
which growth is effected. 

The fundamental vital phenomena may be 
regarded as (1) nutrition and (2) reproduction. 
The conditions under which these activities may 
be manifested are narrow in general, and the 


LIFE AND ADVENT UNION — LIFE-BOAT 


more closely limited in respect to a particular 
organism in proportion as its organization is 
more or less complicated. These conditions be- 
long to the environment, from which the organ- 
ism must take the elements necessary to its 
continued. repair of loss—din other words, get 
food. Essential elements are oxygen, water and 
certain salts; in a word, all the constituent ele- 
ments of protoplasm, at the least, must be ob- 
tainable from the air or water, in order that 
vitality may persist. It is needful, however, 
that certain harmful things (poisons) should be 
absent, or the organism will be killed. Death 
will also follow excess or deprivation of the 
proper proportions of the food elements; too 
much or too little water; a raising or lowering 
of the temperature above certain points; ex- 
cess or defect of light, improper electrical con- 
ditions, etc. The simplest animals and plants, 
consisting of little except protuplasm and water, 
have great power of resistance to untoward 
conditions, and the range of diversity in cir- 
cumstances in which they are able to survive 
is very wide. Life in its higher manifestations 
is dependent upon the maintenance of a few 
well-defined conditions, and that innumerable 
accidents may bring it to a permanent end (see 
DEATH), whereupon the material which it ani- 
mated instantly becomes inert matter subject 
only to the laws that governing the inorganic 
world 

Reproduction is the means of securing that 
continuity of life which is one of its primal 
characteristics, and consists in the separation 
from the original organism of a part, relatively 
greater or less in proportion as the organiza- 
tion so divided is simple or complicated, which 
part is equally endowed with the potentialities 
of living and reproduction, and normally will 
reproduce its kind in turn. 

For an account of. the speculations and rea- 
soning as to the origin of life on the earth, see 
EvoLution, History oF; Protista; MECHANISM 
AND. VITALISM: 


LIFE AND ADVENT UNION. 
ADVENTISTS. 


LIFE-BOAT, a specific type of boat. de- 
signed especially for saving the lives of persons 
on ships wrecked near a shore. It must be con- 
structed with strength sufficient to resist violent 
shocks from the waves, the rocky beach or 
collision with the wreck; be buoyant enough to 
avoid foundering, and to float though loaded 
-with men and filled with water; have facility 
in turning, and when capsized be able to right 
itself. Such boats are now maintained at most 
of the life-saving stations in America and 
Europe, ready to put to sea at once if their 
services are required, and provided with the 
means of being conveyed to the beach and 
launched with all possible rapidity. The first 
distinctive lifeboat was designed by Lionel 
Lukin, an English coach-builder, in 1785. He 
called his boat an “immergible” and gave it the 
desired non-capsizable. qualities by affixing to 
the frame a thick projecting gunwale of cork. 
He also provided watertight air-chambers at 
the bow and stern, and along each side, and 
ballasted it with a heavy iron keel. Following 
him, William Wouldhave and Henry Greathead 
simultaneously invented a boat on the curved- 
keel principle—in general shape very like a 
sixth part cut lengthwise from a longish musk- 


See 


409 


melon. This provided a self-righting model, 
but that idea alone did not prove altogether 
successful in practice, and many cubic feet of 
cork were built into the two boats. Great- 
head’s model was accepted officially and several 
of hts boats were put in use and saved many 
lives, Till 1851 Greathead’s invention was al- 
most the sole one in use, though numerous 
others had been either introduced or proposed; 
but in that year no fewer than 50 models of 
improved lifeboats were sent to the London 
Exhibition in competition for a prize offered 
by the Duke of Northumberland for improved 
construction. The prize was won by. James 
Beeching, a practical English boat-builder, with 
a boat that was self-righting when capsized and 
self-bailing when water entered. The model 
utilized the principle of  water-ballasting. 
James Peake of Woolwich Dockyard, by com- 
bining the excellencies of the competing boats, 
and adding others suggested by his own ex- 
perience, designed a boat which, gradually im- 
proved from time to. time, became the recog- 
nized model, and has been adopted as the stand- 
ard for lifeboats in all countries. This life- 
boat possesses great lateral stability or resist- 
ance to upsetting; speed against a heavy sea; 
facility for launching and taking the shore: 
immediate self-discharge of any water break- 
ing into it; strength; stowage-room for a large 
number of passengers. The great breadth of 
beam (eight feet) in proportion to her length 
(33 feet) is to diminish the liability to capsize 
in a heavy sea. The relieving-tubes, by which 
any water that breaks into the boat is immedi- 
ately self-discharged, are most ingeniously con- 
trived. The self-righting characteristic, at first 
considered of prime importance, was soon 
found to militate against other qualities more 
desirable, and while the self-righting principle 
is applied to the small surf boats, the lifeboat 
is now made very difficult to capsize, and the 
crew are specially drilled im the process of 
righting the boat if by any rare accident it 
should be overturned. Such are the precautions 
for the safety of the crew in these English 
boats that loss of life in the conduct of the 
boat is of rare occurrence. Some are made 
with two centreboards for greater stability. 
The lifeboat transporting carriage or truck is 
an important auxiliary to the boat. The life- 
boat is kept on this carriage in the boat-house 
ready for immediate transportation to the spot 
most favorable for launching to the wreck. In 
this way a greater extent of coast can secure 
the benefits of the lifeboat than could otherwise 
be the case. Even when the launch is from the 
immediate vicinity of the boat-house. the use of 
the carriage saves much time, which in a case 
of shipwreck may prove of ‘vital importance. 
Besides, a boat can be readily launched, from.a 
carriage through a high surf, when without a 
carriage she could not be got off the beach. 
The machine is admirably contrived, and the 
boat may be launched from it in_an upright 
position with her crew on board. To render it 
more manageable and of the greatest possible 
utility the fore and main bodies can be detached 
from each other by the withdrawal of a fore- 
lock pin. The British Life-Saving Institution 
now maintains a fleet of about 300 lifeboats at 
stations along the English coast, and expends 
about $600,000 a year.in their maintenance. . In 
the 94 years up to 1917 they had saved. more than 


410 


50,000 lives. Since 1890 the institution has been 
introducing steel lifeboats, 50 feet in length 
and of 20 beam, with steam engine power and 
propellers operated on a turbine principle. A 
little later the motor-boat type was introduced 
and is now preferred to the steam-propelled 
lifeboats. Practically all* European countries 
maintain coast life-saving stations equipped 
with lifeboats and other apparatus, but in 
India, Australia, New Zealand and Japan these 
services are maintained by voluntary associa- 
tions. 

American Lifeboats.— These ‘were orig- 
inally patterned on English models, but through 
a system of steady improvement have developed 
along slightly different lines, and’ now exhibit 
distinct types. The earlier boats used air-com- 
partments fore and aft, and sometimes along 
the sides or under the seats. It was more 
common, however, to stow the lines, grapnel- 
ropes, etc., under the seats. The whaleboat type 
of rowboat was’ preferred, owing to its 
strength; they were built quite broad of beam, 
and high at the ends, so as to bring the air- 
chambers above the water-line as much as possi- 
ble. At first tanks were built of galvanized 
iron, but copper was found much more service- 
able, and gradually it has become customary to 
cut up the tanks into an increasing number of 
compartments, so that late models comprise a 
series of copper boxes, fitting into their places 
in the hull. The ship’s lifeboat pattern dis- 
appeared from land use, and they became dif- 
ferentiated into surf-boats and power-boats. 
The surf-boat is based on the fishermen’s boats 
that are shaped to come readily through the 
surf, and that can be landed with little danger 
of overturning. The typical American surf- 
boat of the Coast Guard is of the Beebe-Mc- 
Lellan type, 26 feet over all, 7 feet beam and 
214 feet deep. It carries four oars, is clinker- 
built, of cedar, sharp at -both ends, gracefully 
curved, very light and strong. There are three 
thwarts, seats around the sides, a centreboard 
and a place for stepping a mast. A water-tight 
deck is placed high up in the framing, so that 
when the boat capsizes the water can be led 
off by gravity, being thus what is termed “self- 
bailing.» It is so buoyant that it can be upset 
and righted in 20 seconds by a crew on drill. 
Lines are rigged especially so that the crew can 
grasp them when in the water and obtain a 
leverage for righting the boat. More and more 
of these surf-boats are being equipped with 
gasoline motors. At first eight horse-power 
motors were installed, but now they are always 
12 horse-power and higher power is under con- 
sideration. Some special types of surf-boats 
have been built for localities, after which they 
are named, as the Jersey and Race Points surf- 
boats. Power lifeboats are increasing in num- 
ber and every good-sized station now has at 
least one. The typical power-boat is 36 feet 
in length by nearly 9 feet beam and 4% feet in 
depth. There are five thwarts or seats and 
steps for two short masts. The upper part of 
the deck is arranged to be self-bailing, and there 
are large air-compartments fore and aft, and a 
great number of small copper compartments 
stowed wherever there is space for them. The 
gasoline motor, usually 35 horse power, is car- 
ried in the water-tight after bulkhead, and so 
arranged that if the boat overturns the engine 
is automatically stopped The starting crank 


LIFE-BOAT 


and reversing clutch are set in the bulkhead, 
out of the way and safe from accident. The 
twin engine shafts run at a slightly inclined 
angle down to the propellers; which are quite 
small and above the keel-line. Often the pro- 
peller shafts are hinged, so that the. propellers 
may be raised when the boat is to be beached. 
The keel is made preferably of gun-metal. The 
rudder is ham-shaped. The gasoline tanks are 
forward near the centreboard, which is of brass 
in the-best boats.. A speed of 10 to 12 miles 
an hour is obtained. These boats are designed 
to be loaded on a beach-wagon at a life-saving 
station, and as they weigh only 3,000 pounds 
can be easily launched with less than the full 
crew of eight men. A smaller type of power- 
boat is built, 34 feet over all and 8.4 feet beam, 
3.6 depth, with 5 thwarts. These were mostly 
designed for sail or oar propulsion, but have 
been fitted with 25 horse-power motors, giving 
a speed of seven to nine miles an hour. The 
Revenue Service and Life-Saving Service hav- 
ing been combined in 1915, under the title of 
the Coast Guard, all the lifeboats of the two 
United States coasts and the Great Lakes are 
in their custody, divided among the 270 stations. 
There are about 50 of the best class of 36-foot — 
power-boats, and some 200 second-class power- 
boats, perhaps 300 surf-boats and a number of 
smaller rowboats for various purposes. The 
larger fleet in the Coast Guard service, some- 
times referred to’ as lifeboats, consists of 23 
cruising cutters, mostly steel boats from 150 to 
210 feet. These cutters are armed with four 
six-pounders and carry rockets and radio appa- 
ratus. In cruising off coast they discover and 
help many vessels in distress, and if near 
enough may summon the lifeboats of some 
station ‘by S O S calls. There are also 24 
harbor cutters and launches under the Coast 
Guard’s jurisdiction, used mostly in the im- 
portant harbors for dealing with accidents to 
pleasure boats, assisting in putting out fires on 
the water-fronts and the like. There is rarely 
a day that the Coast Guard does not rescue 
some vessel somewhere in trouble, and perhaps 
five a day:is a fair average, while in bad 
weather sometimes 12 and 15 rescues are re- 
corded in a single day. In 1916 they rescued 
2,153 persons from peril, rendered assistance to 
1,594 vessels, removed or destroyed 11 derelicts, 
and a lot of miscellaneous work that the reve- 
nue service and the navy puts upon them for 
convenience. 

Steamship Lifeboat Requirements.— The 
United States Steamboat Inspection Service has 
control over the lifeboat regulations in all 
classes of vessels in Umited States waters. 
Their rulings require pleasure steamers on short 
routes to carry one lifeboat to every 180 cubic 
feet of capacity. Ocean steamships and mis- 
cellaneous passenger carrying steamers are 
obliged to carry enough boats and life-rafts 
combined to accommodate all their passengers 
in case of need. Many of their lifeboats arc 
collapsible affairs with cork floats or compart- 
ments designed to be blown up and filled with 
air before they can float. Coastwise steamships, 
in the summer-time, are allowed to carry some 
excess of passengers above their lifeboat ca- 
pacity, and two-thirds of their equipment may 
be life-rafts or collapsible equipment. Lake, 
bay and sound steamers, and others going over 
shallow waters not over five miles from land, ~ 


LIFEBOATS 


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LIFE-BUOYS — LIFE EXTENSION 


are permitted to carry lifeboat equipment for 
only 10 per cent of their passenger capacity, in- 
cluding crew; but if 'they go beyond: five miles 
from land they are required to carry 30° per 
cent equipment. Of this three-fourths.may be 
collapsible. Only 10 per cent equipment is: re- 
quired of ordinary river steamers. Consult 
Cameron, ‘The Life-Boat and Its Work? (Lon- 
don 1911); Haydon, A. L., “The Book of the 
Lifeboat? (London 1909) ; Sawman, ‘The Life- 
Boat? . (Brooklyn 1912) ; ‘Annual Reports 
mae States Coast Guard? (Washington, 


LIFE-BUOYS. See LIFE-PRESERVERS. 
LIFE IS A DREAM (‘La. vida es sue- 


fio). Calderon’s ‘Life is a Dream). was writ- 
ten about 1635 and published in 1636. The play 
was probably composed for the theatre of the 
Royal Palace at Madrid. In grandeur of. con- 
ception, if not in style and execution, it is one 
of the masterpieces of Spanish dramatic litera- 
ture. To develop the theme that “life is such stuff 
as dreams are made of,” and that this transitory 
life is but a preparation for the real life of the 
next world, Calderon adapted to his purpose 
a story told of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, 
but of Oriental origin. The jest of bewildering 
a drunken man found in a market place into 
the idea that he is a duke, who, upon meditating 
on the princely life he has led for a day, is un- 
certain whether it has been reality or a dream, 
was also used by Shakespeare, but for comic 
effect, in the induction to the ‘The Taming of 
the Shrew.? Not content with one theme, 
Calderon wove into his play another, suggested 
to him by the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, 
likewise of Oriental origin, which he found in 
one of the many lives of the saints and in Lope 
de Vega’s play, ‘Barlan y Josafa,? 1611. This 
story of a prince who is brought up in a prison 
in order to forestall the predictions of astrolo- 
gers was used by Calderon to illustrate the doc- 
‘trine of free will, a subject hotly debated at the 
time in Spanish universities. Finally, as all 
Spanish plays had a love element, and ended 
happily in the marriage of all the characters, 
the dramatist added a further complication,— 
love intrigue. This element of his play Cal- 
deron treated as an unwilling concession to the 
taste of the time, interlarding the dialogue de- 
voted to it with hackneyed quibbling about 
honor, and the conventional, euphuistic verbiage 
so popular in comedies of the 17th century. 
The main themes he developed with great sim- 
plicity of diction, and a wealth of fine lyrical 
passages which atone for the blemishes just 
noted. Chief of these lyrical outbursts is the 
soliloquy of Segismundo, “Ah, woe is me.. » 
(Il. 102-172), in which the physical limitations 
and Promethean promptings of an imprisoned 
soul are contrasted with the freedom of birds 
that fly at will and of “fishes that tipple in the 
deep.” This monologue, like many another fine 
passage in Calderon’s works, was not original 
with the author, but was a mosaic of words and 
imagery borrowed from other writers. Almost 
as famous are the closing lines of the second act, 
in which Segismundo expresses his disillusion- 
ment. “What,” he asks, “is life? An illusion, 
a shadow, fiction, and the greatest good is small, 
for all life is a dream, and dreams are dreams.” 
Such a pessimistic, non-Christian conception of 
life, the poet makes haste to correct in the last 


411 


act (ll. 2359-2371, 2423-2427). There too he 
defines his conception of free will: “No mortal 
can forestall the decrees of fate (predestina- 
tion), but the wise man can so prepare himself 
by prudence, moderation and humility that he 
is fortified against its blows.» (ll. 3215-3227). 
The strength of the play lies in its grandiose 
conception and its lyrical passages. The de- 
fects are equally conspicuous. Chief of these 
is the failure— common to most Spanish plays 
of the 17th century —to develop the character 
of the protagonist. The transition from a sav- 
age state, in which Segismundo is a Caliban 
without knowledge of the world; his titanism 
and eagerness to rule and impose his will on 
everybody when brought to the palace; his disil- 
lusionment upon realizing that life is only a 
dream, and the final conviction that if life is 
only a dream, truth is eternal, and that he must 
curb his passions, as the safest procedure 
against the time when he may awake — all 
these transitions are abrupt and unconvincing, 
and mar one of the world’s masterpieces. Con- 
sult the edition by Buchanan (Toronto 1909) ; 
‘La Vita é un Sogno,? Farinelli (Torino 1916) ; 
the translation in the metre of the original by 
D. F. McCarthy in ‘Calderon’s: Dramas? (Lon- 
don 1875), and the adaptation by Edward Fitz- 
gerald, ‘Letters and Literary Remains? (Lon- 
don and New York 1889). 
Mitton A. BUCHANAN. 


LIFE-ESTATE, in the common law, as 
applied in England and the United States, a 
freehold not of inheritance; an estate or inter- 
est in real property for a life, and which is 
either conventional or legal. A conventional 
life-estate is expressly created by the act of the 
parties, and is for the life of the owner, or for 
the life of another, in which case it is called 
an estate pour autre vie. A legal life-estate is 
either tenancy-in-tail after possibility of issue 
extinct; or what in the older country is tech- 
nically designated courtesy of England, that is, 
the life-interest held by a husband in his wife’s 
fee-simple or fee-tail estates, general or special, 
afters her death; or dower, that is, the right 
which a wife has for her life in the third part 
of the lands and tenements held in fee-simple, 
fee-tail-general or as heir in special tail by her 
husband at the time of his decease. The tenant 
for life may cut wood to repair fences and for 
household fuel. If there is an open mine on 
the estate he may work it for his own profit, 
but he cannot open one. See Estate; Fee Sim- 
PLE; ENFEOFFMENT; FORFEITURE. 


LIFE-EVERLASTING, one of the ever- 
lasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), called the 
pearly or large flowered; also silver-leaf, cotton- 
weed, none-so-pretty, etc. See EVERLASTING. 


LIFE EXTENSION. Among the many 
facts which have been revealed by the investiga- 
tions of scientific shop management none has 
proved more startling than the disclosure of the 
economic waste involved in the sickness and 
premature death of skilled workers in all in- 
dustries. While it may, at first thought, seem 
contrary to the spirit of modern industrial 
management to speak of men as “machines,” 
those who are: most interested in the promotion 
of the principles of sickness prevention and life 
extension insist that it is necessary that this 
view should be taken if one is to fully com- 
prehend the fact that the human body is a great 


412 


laboratory which transforms food into the 
energy that industry requires in its work of 
production. As Dr. F. C.. Wells said, in an 
address before the Executive’s Club of New 
York: “We should look upon the men at work 
in the shops and stores as human machines — 
marvelous human machines, yet still machines. 
It. is tremendously important to you as em- 
ployers that these human machines are work- 
ing properly. . We often hear it said that 
a man has died a sudden death. This is a mis- 
take. This apparently stidden death is merely 
the end of a long-preceding process of decay, 
and this decay, which is during every working 
day attacking some of your men, ought to be 
detected so that, as with a turning lathe, the 
proper methods of upkeep may be provided. 
Each machine has what may be called its nor- 
mal load, under which it works without strain. 
With men, too, it is not unusual for strains to 
be so serious that they crumble up. The 
machine is working poorly. You cannot tell 
how much work a man should do unless you 
give him a physical examination. The amount 
of work which he does, and which anybody can 
see, is no proper test.” 

This is the principle back of life extension 
work in industry. How badly such activities 
are needed was shown by the investigations of 
the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 
under whose direction seven community sur- 
veys were made, in widely separated localities, 
to determine the extent of sickness, especially 
among the wage-earning population. The per- 
centages of those sick as. well as the percentages 
of those who were so sick as to be unable to 
work are given in the following table: 


Percentages 
aS Se 
Unable 
to 
COMMUNITY Survey made Sick - work 
Rochester, N. Y..-...... -... September 1915 2.31 1.92 
‘Preriton} Nagaiett2. in ret October 1915... 2.55 1.98 
State of North Carolina... .. April 1916..... 2.85 2.29 
WROSEOIL = MaSSpase ne os aula ies July 1916... ...... 1.96 1.80 
Chelsea Section, New York 

City .o6t .,2t .fen.. qAavw April 1917...... 1.48 1.38 


Cities in Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia (white and 


colored)274; 4 AR We ee March 1917.... 1.96 1.85 
Cities in Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia (colored).... Merch 1917,... .2.31- 2.18 
Cities in Pennsylvania (white) March 1917.... 1.75 1.65 
Cities in West Virginia (white) March 1917.... 3.30 ° 3.11 
Pittsburgh, Pa. (white)...... March 1917.... 1:62 1.55 
Kansas City..MLO-a aepone 43,5 April 29474. ef. 2.52, 2.39 
‘Average; all SUurveyseict. vet ce hee ess 2.02 1.88 
While comprehensive figures as to the ex- 


tent of sickness throughout the United States 
are not. obtainable, the surveys of the Metro- 
politan Life Insurance Company are illumina- 
tive, for they also show that the average loss 
for the 376,573 persons covered by these in- 
vestigations was 8.4 days per year, or 6.9 work- 
ing days, and if the same ratio applies to the 
entire industrial population of the country, it 
can easily be estimated that the annual wage 
loss through sickness for 40,000,000 workers 
would be in excess of $500,000,000. 

Although there are no figures on which even 
estimates of the loss due to premature death 
from preventable disease can be based, the 
United States army statistics disclose conditions 
which must exert an important effect upon the 
earning capacity of the individual and, naturally 


LIFE EXTENSION 


and inevitably, upon national efficiency. Such 
are the facts relating to individual defects and 
disabilities which not only impair the produc- 


‘tive capacity of the worker thus afflicted but 


which later result in disabling disease and death. 
For example, of the 2,500,000 mén between the 
ages of 21 and 31 years who were examined 
for military service in 1917, approximately 33 
per cent were rejected because physically unfit, 
while a more particular study of the reasons 
for rejection shows the prominence of such 
disabilities as defective hearing, impaired vision, 
decayed teeth, heart affections, defects of the 
nose and throat, flatfoot, etc., not to mention 
the more serious organic ills, all disabilities 
that are certain to constitute a handicap to.the 
victim in any line of work that he may pursue, 
for all are physical defects that would in all 
probability have an effect upon the worker’s 
capacity for production. Even in cases where 
the disabilities do not result in extended absence 
from work, it is obviously impossible to expect 
anything like maximum efficiency from a work- 
ing force, 25 per cent of whom are suffering 
from disorders or deformities of the eyes, nose, 
heart, lungs or other organs. 

Modern industrial management is endeavor- 
ing to meet these conditions by insisting that 
all employees submit themselves to a thorough 
physical examination, not only at the time of 
employment but at subsequent periods, with a 
view to seeing that those who are found to be 
suffering from preventable defects shall re- 
ceive proper medical or surgical treatment and 
so be restored to the highest position in the 
ranks of the wage-earner that it is possible for 
them to attain. 

In the. beginning the workers have often 
been suspicious of the physical examination on 
the ground that it is designed to afford a means 
of detecting the less desirable operatives with a 
view to discharging them but this is a fear that 
is soon overcome. Following the examination, 
the results are gone over in detail with the man 
and, where medical, dental or surgical treat- 
ment is deemed necessary, he is advised con- 
cerning it, and, not infrequently, he is given 
substantial aid in carrying out the directions 
of the examiner. If the examination shows 
that the worker is suffering from a disability 
that unfits him for the particular task in which 
he is engaged and remedial treatment promises 
small results, as in affections of the heart, he is 
assigned to a job which he can hold with less 
danger and with higher possibilities of efficient 
service. 

The question of sickness prevention and 
life extension was considered a matter of such 
great importance to the nation that the National 
Industrial Conference Board made a- special 
investigation of the subject and, in May 1918, 
its findings and recommendations were pub- 
lished in ‘Research Report No. 6. It declared 
that existing “conditions call for a vigorous 
policy of remedial action”; and continued: 

: all sickness and disability which can 
i be prevented should be prevented 
instead of being allowed to remain unremedied 
until they impose a burden of misery and 
poverty on the individual and a burden of cost 
on society. 

“Preventive work in the case of such com- 
municable diseases as typhoid fever, tuberculosis, 


LIFE INSURANCE — LIFE-RAFTS 


pneumonia and diphtheria has been brilliantly 
successful. - The results already achieved 
; _ through local effort with limited funds 
establish beyond a doubt the urgent need of a 
thoroughgoing investigation of its further pos- 
sibilities under a definite national policy. : 
Periodic physical examination, not only of in- 
dustrial workers but of the entire population 
is another important matter for consideration. 

“First a national study of prevailing disease 
and its causes; then a national program for 
the prevention of all preventable sickness, with 
liberal but intelligent provisions for unpre- 
ventable sickness, through compensation or 
otherwise, as a duty of society to its members: 
—this is submitted as a rational, constructive 
and humane program for dealing with the 
sickness problem in its individual as well as its 
social and industrial aspects.” 

In many manufacturing plants and com- 
mercial houses where no regular examining 
physician is a member of the staff, this servicé 
in prevention of disease is obtained through 
one of the commercial agencies engaged in 
such work. 

Joun R. MEADER, 
Late of Labor and Service Department, Brighton 
Mills, Passaic, N. J. 


LIFE- INSURANCE. 
LIFE. 


LIFE INSURANCE, Commercial. 
COMMERCIAL LIFE INSURANCE. 


LIFE INSURANCE STATISTICS. See 
INSURANCE, LIFE, STATISTICS. 


LIFE OF JESUS, The (‘Vie de Jésus,” 
1863), by Renan, is: the effort of an Oriental 
scholar and Biblical critic, who was also a subtle 
psychologist, to disengage the Gospel narratives 
from what he believed to be legendary accre- 
tions and to show the “incomparable man” Jesus 
“not as a founder of dogmas, a maker of 
symbols, but as the initiator of a new spirit” 
who, indeed, founded “the true religion,” for 
those who came after to develop and make fer- 
_ tile. (13th ed., pp. 460, 461). The book was 
begun in Syria in 1860 at the suggestion of his 
sister Henriette, to whom it is dedicated, with 
the New Testament and Josephus for his only 
library. It is saturated with the atmosphere of 
the East; it reveals intimate knowledge of the 
Bible, of theological speculation, of Syria and 
of the Syrians; but its method of dealing with 
documents is more eclectic than scholarly. For 
Renan the miraculous does not exist because it 
cannot (pp. 5, 9). All that is certain in the 
life of Jesus, he says, can be told in a few lines 
(p. 16). His concern is with the thoughts and 
feelings of the time, its hopes, its expectations 
and how the idea of the kingdom of God ger- 
minated in Galilee and found its fruition in Je- 
rusalem. Published 23 June 1863, the book im- 
mediately evoked wide attention. By November 
60,000. copies had been sold; in Renan’s lifetime 
300,000. It evoked many protests and answers, 
notable among them Tulloch’s, ‘The Christ of 
the Gospels? and ‘The Christ of Modern Criti- 
cism? (1864). Consult P. Schaff and N. 
Roussel, ‘The Romance of M. Renan and The 
Christ. of the Gospels” ; and R. H. Hutton’s ‘M. 
Renan’s Christ,’ in his ‘Theological Essays? 
(1902). There are translations by W. G. 
Hutchinson and others. 

BENJAMIN W.,. WELLS. 


See INSURANCE, 


See 


413 


LIFE-MORTARS. See LIFE-ROCKETS. 


LIFE-PRESERVERS are inventions for 
the preservation of life in cases of shipwreck. 
In the mercantile marine and passenger ships 
there are now life-belts for every passenger 
and every member of the crew. Buoys are car- 
ried on the bridge and at the stern of most 
ships in the mercantile marine. Sometimes the 
handiest life-buoy is an empty water-cask, well 
bunged up and with ropes around it to hold on 
by. There are various kinds of buoyant pillows, 
life-jackets of india-rubber cloth and mat- 
tresses. The cork-mattress can float three men 
in an upright position. 

The life-belt commonly used was designed 
by Admiral Ward of England. It is made of 
cork covered with canvas and is both strong 
and buoyant. It has four. separate compart- 
ments, so that if one is punctured and bursts, 
the belt’s buoyant power is not entirely de- 
stroyed.. Each life-belt must have sufficient 
extra buoyancy to support’ a man_ heavily 
clothed, with his head and shoulders above the 
water, and to enable him to support another 
person besides himself, It must be flexible in 
order to fit tightly to the wearer. There is a 
division between the upper and lower parts so 
that it can be securely fastened round the waist 
and will not impede breathing or the muscular 
action of the chest or arms. See LIFEBOAT; 
LIFE-RAFTS. 


LIFE-RAFTS are various floating appa- 
ratus for saving life in case of shipwreck. The 
primitive ones are merely square frames buoyed 
up by a cask at each corner. Empty water- 
casks well bunged up are very ready and ef- 
fective instruments of safety in shipwreck and 
should have ropes attached to them to hold on 
by. Frames of bamboo and inflated skins have 
long been in use as life-preservers among dif- 
ferent nations, and contrivances more or less 
ingenious to preserve the buoyancy of the body 
in case of accidental immersion in water are re- 
sorted to in all countries. Whatever is lighter 
than water, if used on account of its buoyancy 
as a means of personal safety, may be consid- 
ered a life-raft.. A life-raft invented in Eng- 
land in 1870 is triangular in shape and con- 
structed of wood, cork and rope-netting. It has 
the advantage of being handy and could be 
easily hauled to and fro between a ship in dan- 
ger and the shore. The typical modern life- 
raft consists of two metal cylinders, usually 
cone-shaped on the ends, with a frame-work 
built between them. Owing to the large amount 
of air space in the cylinders, these have great 
supporting capacity and will carry all the peo- 
ple who can ‘climb on to or hang on them when 
in the water. Steamships prefer them to life- 
boats because they can be stored in less space 
on board ship. Their character is regulated by 
the United States Steamboat Inspection Serv- 
ice, and those for lake and river steamers must 
have three and one-half cubic feet of air space 
to each person accommodated. For ocean 
steamships four and one-half feet must be pro- 
vided. Another and less popular form of life- 
raft consists of a copper compartment tube 
in the form of an O, this being covered with 
cork and protected with canvas. <A platform 
of slats and lines, oars, etc., complete the equip- 
ment. Steamers are usually permitted to use 


414 


rafts instead of boats for half or two-thirds of 
their life-saving equipment. 


LIFE-ROCKETS are cylinders of metal 
carrying a small projectile in front and an ex- 
plosive mixture in the rear for propulsion and 
are so framed because used to communicate be- 
tween a distressed ship and the shore. These 
are especially useful where ‘no lifeboat can be 
had, or where it cannot be used on account of 
the roughness of the sea. They are available, 
however, only at moderate distances from the 
shore. By means of them a rope is thrown 
either from the ship to the shore; or from the 
shore to the ship, generally the latter, and when 
communication is thus established a slinging ap- 
paratus may bring the crew ashore one by one. 
Of the primitive projectiles for life-preserving 
purposes, one of the simplest is the heaving- 
stick, which can be discharged by hand, but 
cannot be relied on for distances greater than 
50 yards. A piece of stout cane two feet long, 
one end loaded with two pounds of lead and 
the other attached to a thin line, is whirled ver- 
tically twice or thrice, and then discharged. 
Kites have been tried, but cannot be relied on 
with certainty. The first trial of the explosive 
rocket is believed to have been in 1791 by Ser- 
geant Bell, of the English artillery, who fired 
his projectile from the ship to the shore, but it 
was soon perceived that it was better to fire 
from the shore to the ship. John Dennett, of 
Newport, Isle of Wight, is believed to have 
been the first. to use rockets with success. His 
faking box for paying out the line is still util- 
ized. The rocket is fired in the same way as a 
signal rocket, but has a light cord attached de- 
signed to fall across the ship.. This is hauled in 
by the crew and brings a start rope strong 
enough to carry a breeches-buoy (q.v.). A 
light mortar or gun firing a projectile is now 
generally preferred to the life-rocket. See 
LiFE-SAVING SERVICE. 


LIFE-SAVING GUNS. See LIFE-ROCKETS. 


LIFE-SAVING SERVICE, The United 
States, for many years an important and ef- 
fective branch of the public service, under the 
direction of the Treasury Department, lost its 
distinct individuality on 28.Jan. 1915, when it 
was merged with the Revenue Cutter Service 
to form the Coast Guard... The system was 
inaugurated in 1871, by Sumner I. Kimball, then 
chief of the Revenue Cutter Service. In June 
1878, by act of Congress, it was organized into 
a separate bureau.. The service covered the 
coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific, the Gulf of 
Mexico and the Great Lakes. 

The first life-saving stations in the United 
States. were established by the Massachusetts 
Humane. Society at Lovell’s Island and Co- 
hasset. All efforts for saving life and. property 
in cases of shipwreck were made by this society 
till 1837, when the President of the United 
States was authorized to employ ships to 
cruise along the shores and render assistance 
to distressed navigators. William A. Newell, 
afterward governor of New Jersey, witnessed a 
fearful shipwreck off. Barnegat Island in which 
many bodies were washed ashore, and was so 
impressed by the sight that when he was elected 
to Congress itn 1848 he introduced:a: bill for the 
relief of shipwrecked persons. The result of 
the passage of this bill was the placing of a 
‘few life-saving stations between Sandy Hook 


LIFE-ROCKETS — LIGAMENT 


and Little. Egg Harbor, N. J. and a little later 
a few stations were established on the coast of 
Long Island. Volunteer crews were depended 
upon at all the stations until the introduction of 
government organization and control. 

The last. report issued by the Life- Saving 
Service under that title is for the year ended 
30 June 1914.. In that year aid was given to 
1,937. vessels, having on board 9,296 persons, 
whose lives were in more or less danger. Of 
the whole number 8&2 vessels were totally lost, 
and with them 38 lives: The property loss, 
including vessels and cargoes, was $2, 724,660. 
The value of the vessels and cargoes saved 
amounted to $18,783,000. The number of lives 
actually saved, of persons brought to shore, and 
of those. who were removed to places of safety 
-—as in. the Texas flood rescues — numbered 
4,762. Succor was given to 920 persons for an 
aggregate of 1,234 days at the stations. The 
work was carried on from 285 stations, 203 
being on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 68 on 
the Great Lakes and 19 on the Pacific coast. 

The figures for the remaining seven months 
of existence of. the Life Saving Servicé were 
incorporated with those of the new Coast Guard 
in its first annual report. With the passing of 
this notable organization into history it is 
appropriate to present a summary of its accom- 
plishments from its initiation in 1871 to the 
close of its last official season. .The records 
show that in the 33 years aid was given to 
28,121 vessels on which were 178,741 persons 
in danger. The total number of lives lost’ was 
1,455, attributable in many instances to the 
great distance from stations at which disasters 
took place. The total value of vessels and 
cargoes in the cases in which aid was given 
amounted to $355,401,084, of which’ a value of 
$288,871,237 was saved. 

Besides the usual. official activities of the 
Life Saving Service many instances are on 
record of aid given in other ways. The crews 
at the stations aided in extinguishing fires 
along shore; captured burglars; rescued lost 
property — among which are mentioned aero- 
planes and balloons, automobiles, fishing nets, 
domestic animals and small boats; resuscitated 
persons near death by drowning; supplied pilots 
in dangerous waters; replenished failing sup- 
plies of water, provisions and fuel to vessels 
in need; and cared for sick and injured boat- 
men and sailors. 

In the reorganization of the service the 
personnel has been increased and the’ life- 
saving work goes on much as before. But, 
whereas the duties formerly were along shore 
exclusively, they now cover also the open seas, 
wherever the revenue cutters go. See Coast 


‘GUARD. . 


LIFFEY, lif’i, Ireland, a river which rises 
in Wicklow ‘County, flows west into Kildare, 
then turns northeast and passes through the 
county and city of Dublin into the Irish Sea 
after a course of 50 miles. 


LIFT BRIDGES. See Brinces, Lirt. 


' LIGAMENT, in anatomy, human and com- 
parative; a band of white fibrous tissue which 
connects bones. To this class of tissue also 
belongs the tendons or sinews of muscles, by 
which these structures are attached to the sur- 
faces of bones. Ligaments differ from tendons 
in being of a stouter structure, and less liable 


LIGAO — LIGHT 


to give way or to be ruptured... When. liga- 
ments break during life they seldom snap across 
or transversely, but generally tear in an irregu- 
lar manner. Tendons, on the contrary, when 
subjected to great strains, break across. Liga- 
ments possess little or. no elasticity, and when 
stretched do not recover. To the. same. class 
of structures as ligaments and tendons, the 
fasciz or sheet-like bands of white fibrous tis- 
sue spread over muscles and regions also be- 
long. Microscopically examined, both ligament 
and allied. structures exhibit sets.of fibres ar- 
ranged in parallel bundles, embedded among 
which little nucleated bodies known as connec- 
tive-tissue corpuscles are seen. These latter are 
minute corpuscles of various shapes, and. their 
function has been assumed to be that of minis- 
tering to the growth and nutrition of the fibres 
amidst which they are placed. 

LIGAO, 1lé-ga’6, Philippines, a town of the 
province of Albay, Luzon, situated near the 
Inaya River, 22 miles northwest of Albay, the 
provincial capital, on the main road. It is in 
one of the best hemp growing regions in the 
archipelago. Pop. 17,900. i 


LIGATURE, in surgery, a cord, thread, 
bandage, etc., by means of which structures are 
tied or bound. A ligature is used for tying a 
bleeding artery or other vessel; for tying the 
pedicle of a tumor to prevent effusion of blood 
or other fluid after its removal. It may be 
tightly fastened around the base of a tumor 
to cause its subsequent removal by arrest of 
its blood-supply and consequent death. Thread 
of silk or hemp was formerly employed. Liga- 
tures of animal material are now mostly used 
such as catgut, silkworm gut, etc., also those of 
silver wire, which are usually rendered anti- 
septic by steeping in carbolic acid or other 
antiseptic solution. 


LIGATURE. See Monocram. 


LIGHT. The word light is used in two 
distinct senses, namely, to designate the sensa- 
tion which is characteristic of the organ of 
vision (q.v.), and also as a name for the usual 
cause of that sensation. This double meaning 
of the word would result in little inconvenience 
if there were always a definite relation between 
the sensation and its cause; but this is far 
from being true. For example, when we speak 
of white light, we may mean a sensation which 
is perfectly definite: and familiar to all persons 
of normal vision, or we may mean that form 
of energy which can give rise to such a sensa- 
tion. In this second sense the term is wholly 
indefinite, since there is an infinite variety of 
forms of energy which may give rise to the 
sensation of whiteness. The difficulty, which 
is a serious one in ‘scientific language, may be 
avoided by restricting the use of the word to 
one of its significations, preferably to that of 
sensation, after the analogy of the use of the 
word sound. But such a restriction would 
not be in accordance with well-established 
usage, and it would necessitate the frequent 
employment of awkward circumlocutions.,. An- 
other means of avoiding confusion is to so 
divide the subjects treated’! that the sense in 
which the word is used is unmistakable. This 
second method has the advantage of conciseness 
as well as that of being in accordance with 
the usage of most writers. The present article 
treats of light as a phenomenon of wave mo- 


415 


tion, wholly independent of the sense organ 
which betrays its existence to us. In it. the 
eye is regarded as a simple optical instrument, 
quite like the photographic camera. This 
limitation admits of a satisfactory definition of 
the terms “white light,” “yellow light, etc. 
Thus, by the former term we mean. such waves 
as are emitted by a solid body at a very high 
temperature, as, for example, the incandescent 
lime in the lime-light. Any other kinds of 
waves, even if indistinguishable from these by 
the unassisted eye, are not white light. Again, 
yellow light, green light, etc., are the simplest 
waves which excite in a normal retina the sen- 
sations yellow, green, etc. 

Theories Concerning the Nature of Light. 
—It is now a little more than two centuries 
since the Dutch philosopher, Huyghens, pub- 
lished a paper in which he explained the fa- 
miliar phenomena of light by waves in a 
medium that pervades all space and_is called 
the luminiferous ether. His reasoning was. so 
convincing, the explanations so simple, and the 
experiments supporting his views so apt, that 
except for the labors of the single philosopher 
then living who was greater than Huyghens 
himself, they could hardly have failed to re- 
ceive at an early day the universal accept- 
ance which they. now command. Nine years 
earlier, in 1669, Newton had commenced his 
labors; in the field of optics, by which, largely © 
on account of fame and authority won in the 
domain of mechanics and astronomy, he estab- 
lished a theory of light which remained al- 
most unquestioned for nearly a century and a 
half. Newton supposed light to consist in ex- 
tremely small particles of matter projected 
from shining bodies with enormous velocities. 
We. now know that this hypothesis was. not 
only less fruitful than that of Huyghens, but, 
even within the comparatively limited range of 
optical phenomena known to Newton and his 
contemporaries, was also less probable. 

According to this. view of Newton, visual 
sensations are produced by the impact upon the 
retina of minute corpuscles emitted from lu .i- 
nous bodies which pass freely through trans- 
parent substances, differences of color, being 
due to differing size in these small. bodies. 
When these corpuscles approach the boundary 
of an optically denser medium they are. sub- 
jected to a force of attraction which causes 
them to deviate from their otherwise rectilinear 
paths. This is the explanation of the phenom- 
enon of refraction. The secondary phenome- 
non of dispersion was very simple and naturally 
explained by an assumption that this attracting 
force varies with differing size. Singularly 
enough, the explanation: of. one of the most 
common phenomena, that of partial reflection at 
the boundary of a transparent medium, offered 
formidable difficulties: How is an attraction 
which is necessary to account for refraction 
also to act as arr apparent repulsion for those 
corpuscles which are thrown back from the 
surface in. reflection? .This.is a. difficulty 
which the advocates of the Newtonian theory 
have never been able to meet in a satisfactory 
manner. 

Wren-Newton attempted to extend his theory 
to’ the explanation of, the colors of thin plates, 
a subject which he was the first to investigate 
in’ a: scientific manner, it was found even less 
satisfactory... He was. obliged to. supplement. it 


416 


with the highly artificial hypothesis that the 
corpuscles experience periodic changes in the 
ease with which they enter a refracting body. 
Even this addition to the theory fails to yield 
more than a rough approximation to an explana- 
tion of the phenomena, since the blackness of 
the central spot in Newton’s rings apparatus, 
when the plates are brought into contact, is in 
contradiction with it. But it was only on ac- 
count of a subsequently accumulated knowledge 
of optical phenomena which refused to adjust 
themselves to this theory, no matter how it 
might be modified, that its final overthrow came 
about. This not only required a long time, but 
also a champion of transcendent power to 
break with a system which had the force of 
tradition as well as the authority of the greatest 
of all philosophers to support it. 

From 1704, the date of the publication of 
Newton’s ‘Optics,’ until 1815, the corpuscular 
theory was hardly questioned; at any rate, it 
reigned supreme in all treatises on light, and it 
was questioned only by a very few investigators 
who failed to acquire an influence that was any- 
where decisive. In the latter year Augustin 
Fresnel, a young French government engineer, 
entered upon a career of scientific activity which 
proved of almost unprecedented brilliancy and 
success. This, as far as it bears upon the purely 
physical theory of light, may be regarded as 
completed in 1826. Beginning with a highlv 
philosophical criticism of some of the accepted 
doctrines of optics, supported by the most apt 
appeals to ingenious experiments, he quickly 
extended his investigations until he embraced 
nearly all phenomena of light known to: his 
contemporaries; and this with such success th t 
he not only established as beyond question the 
essential truth of a wave theory but brought it 
to so high a degree of completion that his views 
were long supposed to be practically final. On 
account of the importance of this work of 
Fresnel in the history of physical science of the 
past century, it is well worth while to briefly 
review its character. 

The phenomena of diffraction first -engaged 
the attention of Fresnel. It had long been 
known that the shadow of an opaque body cast 
by a point-source of light is somewhat different 
from what would be supposed from simple 
geometrical considerations, the difference con- 
sisting chiefly in an encroachment of the light 
upon the borders of the shadow. Newton, who 
called this phenomenon inflection, attributed it 
to an attractive force exerted by the opaque 
body upon the corpuscles while in its neighbor- 
hood, thus causing an inbending of their paths. 
Fresnel showed that this explanation: was quite 
untenable, since the inflection caused by the 
back of a razor is exactly the same as that 
caused by the edge, although in the former 
case it is manifest that the time during which 
the corpuscles are subject to the deflecting force 
is far greater than in the latter. By similar ap- 
peals to ingenious crucial experiments he 
demonstrated that none of the current theories 
was sound; but far from resting here, he 
showed that all the observed phenomena could 
be perfectly accounted for in the undulatory 
theory of light, by an application of the prin- 
ciple of Huyghens. Extending this principle, 
so fertile in his hands, to wider fields in the do- 
main of optics, he found in every case that the 
new method’ was adequate to yield perfectly 


LIGHT 


satisfactory results. With quite simple and 
natural hypotheses as to the conditions which: 
must exist at the common boundary of two 
transparent media, he was even able to deduce 
quantitative laws governing the phenomena of 
reflection and refraction, which accord sur- 
paetnely well with experiments devised to test 
them. 

A few years before the commencement of 
Fresnel’s activities, Malus, while looking 
through a double-image prism, observed that 
the two images of a distant window which hap- 
pened to be in such a position as to reflect light 
strongly to his eye were quite different in 
brightness, and that under some conditions 
one image might entirely disappear. Further 
study showed that all ordinary transparent 
substances were capable of thus modifying light 
by reflection, and that the modification is com- 
plete at an angle which is simply related to the 
refractive index; moreover, that under the lat- 
ter conditions the light would be transmitted 
through doubly refracting crystals in certain 
directions without bifurcation. Such modified 
light is called polarized light, and the phenom- 
ena thus briefly described are two of the sim- 
plest of an enormously extensive class, many 
of which are of extraordinary beauty. This 
discovery and those which quickly followed in 
the same field presented a host of new and 
difficult problems to physicists. Of the many 
active and able workers in this domain Fresnel 
was easily the leader. In a very few years he 
had proposed and developed a general theory of 
light which embraced these new phenomena 
and which stood almost unquestioned until our 
own day; and even now the most essential 
principles of his theory are wholly unshaken. 
In its barest outlines the theory may be 
described as follows: Fresnel assumes that- 
the motion of the particles which constitutes the 
vibrations of light is always in a direction at 
right angles to the line of propagation of the 
waves. When the paths of the particles are 
quite irregular or without order, the light is 
ordinary light; but when the paths are similar, 
whether straight lines, ellipses with their axes 
parallel, or circles with a common direction of 
motion, the light is said to be polarized. From 
this simple hypothesis he succeeded in erecting 
an extraordinary structure which harmonized 
and explained nearly every known phenomenon 
of light in a manner that until the most recent 
times practically withstood all destructive criti- 
cism. Even recent achievements in this field of 
science have been supplementary to, rather than 
subversive of, Fresnel’s general work. Of the 
phenomena known to his contemporaries, that 
of dispersion alone was unconsidered by him, a 
phenomenon which obviously depends upon the 
ultimate molecular structure of the refracting 
substance and which has recently been reduced 
to comparatively simple laws. This great work 
of Fresnel was looked upon, as indeed it well 
deserves to be, as one of the greatest monu- 
ments to the human understanding — compar- 
able to Newton’s doctrine of universal gravita- 
tion — and it long remained of almost unques- 
tioned authority. Ultimately, however, one of 
its fundamental postulates, namely, that the 
vibrations are always at right angles to the 
direction of, the motion of the light, began to 
give rise to difficulties. The fact also that the 
theory could not determine specifically whether 


418 


possible, 2 measure directly this velocity, if 
one knows the wave-length and the period it is 
perfectly easy to deduce the velocity from these 
two elements, since in its period every wave 
moves a distance equal to its own length. In 
these experiments the period was calculated 
from the elements of the electric circuit; it only 
remained therefore to determine the length of 
the waves. Hertz accomplished this in the fol- 
lowing simple and ingenious manner: At a con- 
siderable distance from the source of the waves 
he placed a large sheet of metal perpendicular 
to its direction from the source. From this 
sheet the waves were returned upon them- 
selves by reflection. Now, a well-known fact 
in wave motions is that when two systems of 
waves of like period are moving in opposite 
directions, they combine to form a system of 
standing waves of half the length of the free 
waves. The regions where motion is destroyed 
by this kind of interference are called nodes. 
Hertz demonstrated the existence and position 
of these nodes by means of an apparatus which 
possessed the same electrical period as the 
source. This apparatus he called a resonator. 
The value of the velocity of these waves de- 
duced from his observations differs no more 
from the known velocity of light than would be 
expected from the unavoidable errors of obser- 
vation; thus it complies with the requirements 
of Maxwell’s theory. These waves, therefore, 
are shown to differ from light waves only in 
their enormously greater wave-lengths, and 
that they must be subject to all the established 
laws of optics which are independent of the 
length of the waves. The last conclusion was 
thoroughly tested by Hertz by a series of most 
interesting and convincing experiments. He 
found that strictly according to the laws of 
optics these waves are reflected from the sur- 
faces of all bodies which conduct electricity ; 
that they readily pass through substances which 
behave as insulators; and that in passing from 
one insulating medium to another the direction 
of propagation is altered in accordance with the 
law of sines. Further than this, he showed 
‘het, such electrical waves. admit of polariza- 
tion, ana they are, therefore, characterized by 
motions at right angles to the direction of 
propagation. During the time which has elapsed 
since these investigations a host of experi- 
menters have improved the methods and ap- 
paratus of Hertz, and have largely extended the 


‘range of wave-lengths that can be observed. 


On the other hand, many investigators have 
been employed in the application of analysis to 
both the old and the new problems in optics. 
The difficulties which attach to Fresnel’s mode 
of regarding the optical phenomena of crystal- 
line media are found to disappear, and all the 
complex phenomena of light admit of explana- 
tion from a consistent body of premises. 
Reflection — Refraction — Dispersion.— 
When light waves originating at a point fall 
upon a surface separating two media, the sys- 
tem of waves is broken up into two systems, 
one of which remains in the first medium, 
though moving in a changed direction, and the 
other entering the second medium. The former 
system constitutes reflected light, and the latter, 
also in general changed in direction, is called 
refracted light. If the bounding surface is 
smooth the phenomena of reflection and of re- 
fraction are regular and the modified paths of 


LIGHT 


the light can be calculated. The total intensity 
of the reflected light varies greatly with the 
nature of the media on either side the interface 
and also upon the angle at which the wave sur- 
faces meet this surface. If we consider only 
the case of the first medium being air, we may 
describe two general cases of interest. (1) If 
the second medium is a transparent substance, 
like most liquids, ice, glass, etc., the reflected 
light is ordinarily of small intensity as com- 
pared to the incident light, but increases with 
increasing angle of incidence, until, as this angle 
approaches 90 degrees, the rate of increase be- 
comes very great. (2) If the second medium 
is a metal the reflected light is ordinarily a 
large portion of the whole, but its intensity does 
not vary greatly with the angle of incidence. 
Turning now to a consideration of the light 
which passes the interface and enters the second 
medium we find that in some substances these 
waves will go a great distance without notable 
diminution of intensity. Such substances are 
called transparent. In others, described as 
opaque, the light waves are converted into 
other forms of energy in longer or shorter dis- 
tances, and are destroyed as light. In the case 
of metals and other good conductors of electric- 
ity this destruction follows a penetration of 
only a few millionths of an inch. The laws 
which determine the directions of the reflected 
and refracted light are simple. Let us call the 
angles which the incident, the reflected and the 
refracted waves make with the surface separat- 
ing the two media, the angles respectively of 
incidence, of reflection and of refraction. For 
the law of reflection, the angle of reflection. is 
then equal to the angle of incidence. For re- 
fraction, the sine of the angle of incidence 
divided by the sine of the angle of refraction 
is equal to the velocity of the propagation of 
the waves in the first medium, divided by the 
velocity is the second medium. The angle of 
incidence being the polarizing angle for trans- 
parent substances, the tangent of the polar- 
izing angle equals the index of refraction. 
This is known as Brewster’s law. These laws 
are not absolutely without geometrical am- 
biguity, but are made so by the addition that 
the change of direction in both cases is the 
least possible. If the refracted light is ob- 
served critically it will be found that the di- 
rection varies somewhat for lights of different 
colors, so that, if white light is incident, the 
light will be arranged in direction according to 
its component colors, the red being least 
changed, then yellow, green, blue, and, most of 
all, violet. This phenomenon is called dis- 
persion. Since the maximum difference of de- 
viation for small angles of incidence is never 
more than a small part of the whole — very few 
substances exhibiting a ratio greater than one- 
twentieth — dispersion should be regarded as a 
secondary phenomenon of refraction. 

Optical Images — Optical Instruments.— 
When light waves originating at a point are 
modified by one or more smooth surfaces — 
either by reflection, or refraction, or by a com- 
bination of the two—so that after these modi- 
fications they either pass through a new point 
or seem to do so, this new point is called the 
optical image of the first. To distinguish the 
cases of real points: from those which only ap- 
pear to be new centres, the terms real image 
and virtual image are emploved. 


aN 


LIGHT 417 


the direction of vibration of plane polarized 
light is in the plane of polarization or perpendic- 


ular to it was not only a manifest incomplete-. 


ness, but it was a constant stimulus to a critical 
inspection of its premises. The more these 
points were studied the more insoluble the dif- 
ficulties appeared, until there came to be a 
tolerably widespread belief that the theory was 
not only incomplete, but that in some way it 
must be essentially in error. To acquire a 


notion of what modern science has done to 


clear up these points, we must first review a 
class of phenomena which seem to be totally 
unconnected with optics, but which in the end 
will afford a very remarkable example of the 
tendency of all science toward unity. 

In 1845 Faraday discovered that if polarized 
light is passed through a transparent substance 
in a magnetic field and in the direction of the 
field, the plane of polarization is rotated. The 
amount of rotation for a given substance is 
found to be proportional to the strength of: the 
magnetic field and to the length of the path in 
the material. As many substances, such as 
turpentine, a solution of common: sugar, quartz 
crystals in the direction of their crystalline 
axes, etc., present us with a similar fact, this 
would not be so surprising save for a remark- 
able difference in the two cases which may be 
thus described: When the plane of polarization 
is rotated by passing through a sugar solution 
or a similar body, and the transmitted light is 
reflected back upon its course so as to retrace 
its path, it is found that the original angle of 
polarization is perfectly restored by a precisely 
equal rotation in the opposite direction in the 
return; but a similar experiment upon the body 
given the magnetic rotation shows a doubled 
change of angle. This indicates that, although 
in the first case we must explain the rotation 
by the molecular constitution of the material, 
we are not permitted to suppose that the mag- 
netic field has produced a similar molecular 
structure in the second case, since the rotation 
is constant in direction irrespective of the di- 
rection of motion of the light. Of course, from 
the known nature of magnetism, this is equiva- 
lent to asserting that there must be some rela- 
tion between light and electricity. But this is 
not the most obvious connection between these 
two classes of phenomena, for as we now know, 
the earliest division of materials in accordance 
with their electrical properties involved a classi- 
fication according to their most characteristic 
optical properties also. Thus all conductors of 
electricity, excepting only .those liquids which 
undergo a chemical decomposition when they 
transmit an electrical current, and therefore be- 
long to an obviously different class, are ex- 
tremely opaque to light; conversely, all sub- 
stances which are good insulators are also trans- 
parent to light, at least to an extent which 
would make a sheet a few hundred-thousandths 
of an inch in thickness appear perfectly trans- 
parent, although such a sheet of metal or simi- 
lar conductor would not differ greatly in opacity 
from a thick plate. An excellent illustration of 
the generality of this law is furnished by: the 
element carbon, which in the dense opaque 
form — like graphite, for example —is a very 
good conductor of electricity, but in the form 
of the transparent diamond is an insulator. 

Before the middle of the 19th century two 
methods of measuring electrical magnitudes had 

vou. 17 —27 


been developed; one of these is based upon the 
repulsion which exists between two electrically 
charged bodies, and the other upon the repul- 
sion which exists between two similar magnet 
poles. Elaborate and repeated investigations 
have demonstrated that if a given electrical 
magnitude is measured according to one of 
these systems, and the value thus found is 
compared to a measurement of the same quan- 
tity in the other system, the ratio involves a 
velocity only. This statement is quite inde- 
pendent of the kind of magnitude chosen for 
the experiment. Within the limit imposed by 
unavoidable errors of observation the value of 
this velocity always appears to be the same as 


_ the velocity of light. 


Here, therefore, are three distinct relations 
between light and electricity, which have long 
been known and ‘to no one of which it is pos- 
sible to attach any a priori reason. It was left 
to Maxwell to illuminate this obscure field. His 
long and successful investigations in electricity 
and magnetism, especially his efforts to reduce 
Faraday’s brilliant discoveries to correlation and 


to a consistent scientific statement, led him to 


the conclusion that light itself consists of elec- 
trical vibrations. He attempted to test the va- 
lidity of this hypothesis by every means at his 
command. For example, according to his theory 
a non-magnetic substance ought to have a die- 
lectric constant, or what Faraday named its 
specific inductive: capacity, equal to the square 
of its index of refraction. This indicated 
relation was found to hold with all expected 
precision in some cases, but to be widely re- 
moved from the truth in others. Again, since, 
according to the theory, only those substances 
are transparent which will offer a resistance to 
the motion of electricity within them analogous 
to elastic reaction, there ought to be a de- 
terminable relation between electrical conductiv- 
ity and opacity. Maxwell attempted to find 
this relation in the case of gold-leaf, which is 
sufficiently thin to transmit a measurable por- 
tion of the light falling upon it. Notwithstand- 
ing that the discrepancy was here found dis- 
appointingly great, the gradual accumulation of: 
knowledge of the more recondite phenomena of 
the electrical field had led the great majority of 
physicists to, the conclusion that Maxwell’s 
theory was at least a close approximation to the 
truth, and accordingly one of the most brilliant 
discoveries of the 19th century. This may be 
regarded as a fair statement of the attitude of 
the world of science in 1888, when Hertz, a 
German physicist, made a series of remarkable 
experiments which have eliminated all possible 
doubt as to the essential verity of Maxwell’s 
theory of light. Fortunately it is not difficult 
for us to gain a sufficient knowledge of the 
character of these experiments to make clear 
their general bearing. 

It had long been known that a Leyden jar 
suddenly discharged through a thick wire gives 
rise to an oscillatory current of very brief dura- 
tion, and that in certain simple cases the period 
of the oscillations can be calculated with con- 


siderable accuracy. Hertz recognized that dur- | 


ing the time of discharge such an electrical 
circuit must be. a source of oscillatory changes 
in the magnetic field, -which, if the views of 
Maxwell are in accordance with fact, should be 
propagated through space with the velocity of 
light. Although it is difficult, if not quite im- 


LIGHT 


If an optical system can form an image, real 
or virtual, of a point, it follows from the law of 
continuity that it will also form simultaneous 
images of near lying points with a like degree 
of precision; the images of remoter points, 
however, may be, and in general will be, im- 
perfect. The simplest of all optical systems 
is a plane mirror, and it is the only optical in- 
strument which is absolutely perfect, provided 
only that it is not of too small dimensions. 
Such an instrument forms virtual images of 
all points in front of it, the sources and images 
being symmetrically placed with reference to 
the plane of the mirror. Bodies of transparent 
substances bounded by smooth curved surfaces, 
ordinarily spherical surfaces, are called lenses. 
Almost all optical instruments employ lenses 
for producing the required modification on 
transmitted light. If a lens increases the curva- 
ture of the wave-surfaces which pass through 
it— which in general requires the middle of 
the lens to be thicker than its periphery — it 
will produce real images of remote objects near 
its geometrical axis. Such a lens is called a 
positive-lens. A screen to receive the images 
and an opaque enclosure to shield it from ex- 
traneous light constitutes the important instru- 
ment known as the camera obscura. One of 
the earliest optical instruments invented, it 
has only been of importance since the discovery 
of a method of fixing the images-a short time 
before the middle of the last century. The re- 
quirements of modern photography, especially 
the demand for brightness and wide angular 
extent in the images, have led to inventions of 
wonderfully complex camera lenses, so that 
ordinarily they are made of combinations of 
from 4 to 10 different lenses, involving two 
or three different kinds of glass in their con- 
struction. 

The eye is properly a camera obscura, in 
which images of objects neither too near the 
observer nor too far from the axis of vision are 
formed upon the retina as a screen. The most 
important difference between the eye and the 
photographic camera lies in the fact that the 
interior of the eye is filled with a substance 
optically different from air, which introduces 
some remarkable modifications in the phenom- 
ena of vision. These may be ignored in this 
casual review of the construction and func- 
tion of optical instruments. 

In almost all optical systems, excepting the 
camera obscura, the eye is a necessary part in 
use, and it is, therefore, convenient to specify 
the conditions under which distinct vision is 
possible. To a normal eye, any object very 
near the axis of vision can be distinctly seen 
if it lies at a distance comprised between five or 
six inches for a nearer limit and infinity for 
the farther. Thus, the moon and a printed 
page held at the customary distance for reading 
can be seen equally well. We shall assume a 
distance of 10 inches as a_ standard of 
comparison. 

Microscope — Telescope.— If a small ob- 
ject be brought quite close to the eye it will 
appear larger, but when too close vision will be 
indistinct. This is because the refractive 
power of the eye is insufficient to cause the 
light waves to form new centres at the retina; 
but if the refractive power of the eye be 
suitably increased by the aid of a positive lens 
placed between it and the object, vision is 


419 


rendered distinct with the increased apparent 
size. A lens so used is called a_ simple 
microscope and the ratio of the apparent diam- 
eter of the object to that which it would have 
at the conventional distance of 10 inches is 
called the magnifying power of the miscroscope. 
Since nature presents us with innumerable ex- 
amples of such microscopes in small drops of 
water, of transparent resins, etc., the phenom- 
enon has doubtless been known since prehis- 
toric times, and we have the best of reasons 
for believing that some of the -artisans of 
antiquity employed magnifiers as aids in their 
work, 

There is no theoretical limit to the magnifi- 
cation attainable with simple microscopes ex- 
cept that set by the nature of light itself, but 
very high powers demand inconveniently small 
lenses and such close approximations to the 
eye that illumination of the object becomes 
difficult. These difficulties can be greatly re- 
duced by employing two systems of positive 
lenses, one of which serves to form a real and 
enlarged image of the object, while the other 
is a simple microscope used to observe the 
real image quite as if it were the object itself. 
The former system is called the objective, or 
object-glass, and the latter the ocular, or 
eyepiece. The instrument thus constituted is 
called the compound microscope, and its magni- 
fying power is equal to the product of that of 
the objective into that of the ocular. The com- 
pound microscope was invented about the mid- 
dle of the 17th century, but it was not perfected 
so as to be of real value as an instrument for 
scientific research until after the second dec- 
ade of the 19th. 

If a lens, or lens system, is employed to 
form a real image of a distant object and this 
image be viewed through a microscope, the 
combination forms a telescope. Since the real 
image is in general inverted, the object ap- 
pears inverted to the observer if he employs a 
simple magnifier as an ocular, but it appears 
erect if the ocular is a compound microscope. 
The inverting telescope is optically superior 
and is universally used for astronomical obser- . 
vations, but for terrestrial observations the 
second type is ordinarily preferred, which, 
when it is desired to distinguish it by a name, 
is called a terrestrial telescope, or a spy-glass. 
The terms objective and ocular are also applied 
to the two lens systems in the telescope. 

Since concave mirrors can also produce 
real images of distant objects they may be used 
in place of the objective. Such instruments 
are called reflecting telescopes; they have been 
very extensively used for astronomical purposes 
in the past. 

Achromatism — Achromatic Combina- 
tions.— Newton was led by his experiments to 
conclude that the secondary phenomenon of 
dispersion bears a constant ratio to the refrac- 
tion. It follows from this that a separation of 
composite light into colors is the inevitable 
concomitant of change of direction by refrac- 
tion, and that this imposes a somewhat narrow 
limit upon the power of all optical instruments 
involving refraction. This belief led him to 
invent the reflecting telescope, which remained 
the leading form for astronomical purposes for 
more than a century. About the middle of 
the 18th century, however, Dolland found that 
Newton’s conclusion was founded upon too 


420 


limited a range of experiment and showed 
that it is possible, by a combination of two or 
more materials, to secure a change ot-direction 
of light by refraction with little or no. evident 
dispersion. Thus, he found that a prism of 
crown glass, say of 10 degrees, combined with 
a prism of flint glass of 5 degrees, turned in an 
opposite direction, would yield a deviation 
nearly as great as a prism of crown of 5 de- 
grees and without the colors of dispersion. 
Such a combination is called an achromatic 
combination, and a pair of lenses similarly 
combined to give colorless images-is called an 
achromatic lens. All refined optical instru- 
ments utilize this invention of Dolland. In 
telescopes the objective ordinarily consists of 
two members only, a positive crown lens com- 
bined with a negative (diverging) flint lens; in 
microscopic objectives there are rarely less 
than four lenses, and sometimes, in the case 
of very high powers, not less than 10. 
Interference Phenomena — Diffraction.— 
That light is in fact some form of wave-motion 
does not appear from the phenomena of reflec- 
tion and refraction in their commoner mani- 
festations, although if the acting surfaces are 
made very small there are deviations from the 
simple laws given above which inevitably lead 
to a wave theory for an adequate explanation. 
For the present purposes it seems far better to 
describe some of the simpler and easily produced 
phenomena which demonstrate the wave-motion. 
One of the most striking properties of all 
-yarieties of waves is their propagation independ- 
ently of the state of motion of the medium in 
which they exist, for example, water waves of 
all possible lengths and having all possible di- 
rections of propagation may coexist on a sin- 
gle surface of water. In familiar acoustic phe- 
nomena we have excellent analogies which will 
greatly help in the comprehending of the less 
familiar optical phenomena. If two tuning- 
forks of exactly the same pitch be sounded to- 
gether it is found that there are regions where 
all evidence of sound vanishes, provided that 
the forks are equally loud. These regions of 
silence are those where the maximum of density 
due to one set of waves corresponds with the 
minimum of the other set, and they are so sim- 
ply related to the positions of the two forks 
that having established their places, it is easy 
to deduce from the geometrical relations the 
length of the waves. Could we get two sources 
of light which emitted waves. exactly alike, 
there should be corresponding regions where 
illumination from the two sources would be 
wanting, provided that light is in fact. pro- 
duced. by a wave-motion. Since, however, the 
ultimate sources of light are the molecules of 
luminous bodies and we are unable to control 
such small bodies, so simple a test is impos- 
sible; but a perfect optical image of a source is 
exactly. like the source itself, hence, if light is 
allowed to fall upon a screen and a portion of 
the same radiation is reflected by a mirror 
upon the screen, the conditions for interference 
are met. The experiment is a delicate one and 
liable to escape observation, only, however, be- 
cause. of the shortness of the waves. Fresnel 
tried the experiment, not only by using two 
mirrors, enclosing an angle a very little less 
than 180 degrees, but also by using two prisms 
of very small angle, with complete success. 
The advantage of using a pair is obvious when 


LIGHT 


similarity of the two sources — here two virtual 
images of the same source—is considered. 
His measurements showed that the waves which 
are found in ordinary white light have all 
lengths between those of s3}55 and ashes of 
an inch, the former being that of the extreme 
red of the prismatic spectrum, and the latter 
of the extreme violet. The mean value for 
white light may be taken as zs4g5 of an inch. 
A much ‘easier, though less simple, method 
of exhibiting interference phenomena is the fol- 
lowing: If a hole, less than »5 of an inch in 
diameter, be pierced in a piece of paper, a 
distant bright point, such as an arc light or the - 
bright point of a mercury thermometer-bulb in 
sunshine, will appear to an eye looking through 
the hole as a disc surrounded by one or more 
concentric rings. If now a second similar hole 
be made within less than 34 of an inch from 
the other and the experiment be repeated, the 
disc will appear brighter and traversed by a 
series of dark lines perpendicular to the di- 
rection of a line joining the two holes. These 
dark lines mark the regions of complete inter- 
ference and are exactly like the dark bands 
produced by Fresnel’s method. The fact that 
the point-source of light appears as a disc of 
appreciable magnitude is also explicable by: ‘the 
fact that light is a wave-motion. Broadly 
stated the condition is this: if light consists of 
waves, we ought not to expect that the laws of 
reflection and of refraction will hold unmodi- 
fied when the acting surfaces are no longer 
large with respect to the length of a light-wave. 
These deviations from the laws are called dif- 
fraction. cr 
Since most of the light with which we ordi- 
narily experiment is composite, that is, made 
up of a combination of many different wave- 
lengths, the places of complete destruction of 
illumination differ for differing wave-lengths. 
Such phenomena are, therefore, generally, some- 
times splendidly, colored. Familiar cases of 
simple interference are presented by thin re- 
flecting plates, such as soap-films, rifts in trans- 
parent media, as in precious opal, etc. In these 
cases we have the two sources produced by re- 
flection from the two sides of the plates, and 
the phenomena are generally known as the 
colors of thin plates, first studied by Newton: 
Diffraction phenomena are even more com- 
monly seen. The peculiar lustre of satin spar, 
of the gems known as cat’s eye and of the star 
sapphire find their explanation here. The iri- 
descence of mother-of-pearl and of certain 
feathers, and the brilliant-colored pattern seen 
when an electric arc light is viewed through a 
fine and uniform fabric, like silk or the web of 
many feathers, are diffraction phenomena of 
greater regularity than the former group. 
Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere. 
— Of the many optical phenomena which belong 
either to the air as a transparent body or be- 
cause of foreign bodies temporarily suspended 
in it, mirages, coronas, rainbows and halos are 
among the most striking. The refractive power 
of the air increases with its density, and, as this 
is increased both by pressure and by lowering of 
temperature, there results varying effects of re- 
fraction. With the normal condition of the air, 
in which the density increases in a geometrical 
ratio as we rise above the surface of the earth, 
the only very obvious effect is to prolong the 
length of the day to twice the time which it re- 


LIGHT 


quires the sun to sink at the horizon by its own 
diameter. Atmospheric reflection is well illus- 
trated by. twilight; this reflection takes place 
partly from the air itself and partly from 
minute, solid particles in the atmosphere. It 
commonly remains visible until the sun has sunk 
18 degrees below the horizon, which indicates 
that at a height of 50 miles above the earth’s 
surface the air is still dense enough to reflect an 
appreciable amount of light. Atmospheric dis- 
persion is also present, but is not sufficiently 
marked to be-detected by the unaided eye, al- 
though conspicuous enough with a telescope 
under favorable conditions. The’ scintillation 
of the stars, however, is a direct effect of 
atmospheric dispersion. 

In the not infrequent cases when the air de- 
parts widely from the normal law of continu- 
ous decrease of temperature with increasing 
height above the surface of the earth, the paths 
of the light waves which are nearly horizontal 
may change the direction of curvature between 
the object and the observer, in other words, may 
have points of inflection. In low latitudes the 
prevailing condition, when such abnormal re- 
fraction may be: observed, corresponds to a 
lower layer of air at a higher temperature than 
that immediately above. In such cases distant 
objects near the horizon appear lifted above 
their real positions and portions of these much 
elongated vertically. A further development 
shows inverted images, generally without much 
distortion, underneath the raised images. Over 
sun-heated plains the inverted image is that of 
a portion of the sky, whence the effect of a 
sheet of water between the observer and the 
horizon: In high latitudes ‘it is sometimes pos- 
sible to find the condition of a layer of much 
cooler. air in contact with sheets of ice or of 
cold water, in which case the inverted image is 
seen above the erect image. These phenomena 
are known under the name of mirage. 

When the atmosphere is not quite clear one 
may ‘sometimes see colored circles concentric 
with the sun or moon, generally not more than 


«four or five times the diameter of the sun and 


invariably having the inner edge blue. Such 
circles are called coronas. They are diffraction 
phenomena produced by very small spherical 
drops of water suspended in the air, and their 
diameters are in an inverse ratio to the diameter 
of the drops to which they are due. The only 
necessary conditions for well-developed coronas 
are smallness and general uniformity of size in 
- the drops. 

When sunlight falls on drops of water which 
are not small compared to the length of a light 
wave, an entirely different phenomenon, involv- 
ing reflection, refraction and dispersion, results. 
It can be shown that, when flat wave-surfaces 
of light enter a sphere of water, there are two 
cases in which a portion of the wave emerges 
from the drop still nearly flat, and that in these 
directions, therefore, the light will be trans- 
mitted with relatively great intensity. The first 
case corresponds to refractions at entrance and 
emergence with a single interior reflection; and 
the second case to the two refractions separated 
by two interior reflections. The total change of 
the direction of the light in the former case is 
138 degrees and in the latter 231 degrees. It, 
therefore, follows that all drops at these two 
angular distances from the sun should appear 
telatively bright, in other words, that opposite 


421 


to the sun there should appear two concentric 
circles under proper conditions of illumination, 
one, much the brighter of the two, of 42 degrees 
radius and the other of —51 degrees radius. 
The secondary phenomenon of dispersion causes 
these angles to vary continuously for different 
wave-lengths, hence the circular arcs, constitut- 
ing the double rainbow when perfectly devel- 
oped, appear as bands of prismatic colors. It is 
not difficult to see that the primary bow, often 
the only one which can be traced, must be red on 
the outer border, whence we conclude from the 
algebraic sign attached to its radius, that the 
secondary bow should present the red border on 
the inner margin. 

_ When the temperature is low, water cannot 
exist in the form of drops, but only in that of 
snow crystals and of a perfectly transparent 
vapor. On those occasions when there are nu- 
merous ice crystals of very regular form sus- 
pended in the air and illuminated by the sun or 
the moon, we may see one or more of a series 
of highly complicated phenomena which bear 
the names of halos, parhelia, sun-dogs, etc. A 
bare description of all the features which have 
been observed and recorded would demand far 
more space than is available; only the most 
common ones can be noted here. The simplest 
form of ice crystals, and the only form which is 
necessary to produce all the known forms of 
halos, is that of a right hexagonal prism. Such 
a body supplies two refracting angles, namely, 
that of 60 degrees contained between two alter- 
nate faces of ‘the prism, and that of 90 degrees 
embraced between each of these faces and a 
base. As light traversing a 60-degree prism of 
ice has a minimum deviation of 22 degrees, if 
there are present a sufficient number of such 
prisms between the sun or moon and the ob- 
server, the luminous body would seem to be 


surrounded by a concentric circle of 22 degrees 


radius, having, on account of the secondary 
effect of dispersion, a red inner margin and a 
pale bluish outer one. Similarly the rectangular 
edges would give rise to a colored circle of 
44 degrees radius. The smaller circle can be 
seen very frequently — perhaps on 60 to 80 days 
a year in our latitude— while the 44-degree 
circle is rarely seen. 

When the length and width of a small hex- 
agonal prism differ greatly, it will not remain 
while falling through quiescent air in a purely 
chance position, but it will set itself more or 
less perfectly in a definite position with respect 
to a vertical. Thus a flat prism will fall with its 
base horizontal, and an elongated crystal will 
maintain its axis nearly horizontal. This pecu- 
liarity in falling crystals produces a-large num- 
ber of features in complicated halos which are 
generally recognizable -because they are all sym- 
metrical with respect to a vertical circle pass- 
ing through the sun. Some of these are com- 
parable with the most brilliant rainbows in their 
coloring. The most familiar of this class of 
phenomena are the two bright prismatic spots 
to the right and left of the sun, respectively, 
having the same altitude as the sun and their 
red side turned toward the sun. When the sun 
is very low they are 22 degrees distant and 
appear merely as bright portions of the inner 
halo, but as the altitude of the sun increases 
they increase their angular distances, and above 
a moderate altitude they disappear. These spots 
are called parhelia, or sun-dogs; they are some- 


422 


times the only feature of the halo visible and 

are by no means infrequent. See also CAMERA; 

ELectRicity; ELectric LIGHT; MIcROSCOPE; 
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT, TELESCOPE; VISION. 
Cuares S. HAstTINGs, 

Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. 


LIGHT, Therapeutics of. In medicine 
light has been. used from the earliest times, and 
the therapeutic application of sunlight is an 
empirical mode of treatment, in many diseases, 
which has been handed down through genera- 
tions. The reaction of the human body to 
different degrees of light is very striking, and 
however various the sources of light, the mode 
of reaction is often marvelously similar. Thus, 
the surface capillaries of the skin are dilated, 
there is exudation of serum into the subcutane- 
ous tissues, and the nerve-endings are stimu- 
lated. The results of the application of light 
widely vary, the variations depending upon the 
area exposed and the part affected. At the 
present time sunlight is used as a general tonic 
and as a special tonic to the skin, while as a dis- 
infectant its powers are systematically applied. 
There is undoubtedly a life-giving principle or 
growing stimulus in sunlight. Men and animals 
require it as well as vegetation. It is markedly 
helpful in tuberculosis and in numerous sani- 
toriums it is now customary to give sun-baths 
to the patients. The solarium (q.v.) is being 
revived and ought to regain popularity, for 
people who lead an indoor life require some 
such stimulus to maintain health. 


i LIGHT, Velocity of, the rate at which 
light is propagated. This may be found either 
from astronomical observations or by direct 
terrestrial measurements. Of the former there 
are two methods, the first by observations of 
the satellites of Jupiter and the second by 
measurement of what is known as the “aberra- 
tion» of the stars. The satellites of Jupiter 
revolve regularly around the planet; when the 
earth is farthest away from Jupiter there is a 
delay of 16 minutes, 38 seconds in the times 
at which they are seen to enter the planet’s 
shadow, as compared with the corresponding 
times when the earth is nearest Jupiter. Thus it 
is found that it takes light 16 minutes, 38 sec- 
onds to pass across the earth’s orbit, a distance 
of 186,000,000 miles: the velocity thus found is 
186,330 miles a second. As the passage of a 
moon into the planet’s shadow is, however, a 
gradual phenomenon, the true instant of its 
disappearance cannot be accurately determined. 
This method of determining the velocity of light 
is hence not susceptible of accuracy; it has, 
however, a high historic interest, since it was 
in this way that Roemer, in 1675, first dis- 
covered that light requires a definite time to 
pass through space. 

The second astronomical method depends 
upon the aberration of the fixed stars. It can 
be shown that if the transmission of light is not 
instantaneous, then when a star is viewed from 
our moving earth it will appear constantly dis- 
placed by a small amount from its true position. 
This displacement will be a forward one in the 
plane in which the direction of our own motion 
at the instant lies and which also contains the 
ray of light from the star; the amount of the 
displacement varies as the quotient of the 
observer’s velocity divided by the velocity of 
light, The total effect of all displacements as 


LIGHT — LIGHT OF ASIA - 


the earth passes around its orbit is that each 
star appears to describe a small orbit in the 
course of a year about its true place. The mo- 


tion of the earth in its orbit carries the spec- - 


tator at one time so as to increase the relative 
velocity of the light from the star and at an- 
other time so as to diminish this velocity. The 
maximum displacement of a star due to this 
cause 1s the so-called “constant of aberration” ; 
its value is 20.47”. The velocity of light corre- 
sponding to this is about 186,000 miles a second. 

The most accurate method of directly meas- 
uring the velocity of light on the surface of 
the earth is by causing a ray to be reflected 
from a very rapidly rotating mirror to a dis- 
tant fixed mirror and finally back to the first 
mirror again. If the time occupied by the ray- 
in passing from the first to the second mirror 
and back again is sufficiently long so that the 
first (revolving) mirror has taken a new direc- 
tion, the ray after its last reflection will take 
a different course than it would have done had 
the first mirror been at rest. From the known 
velocity of rotation of the mirror, and the 
measured amount of the deflection, the time 
taken by the ray in passing twice over the 
course which separates the two mirrors can 
readily be computed. In this manner Newcomb, 
in 1882, determined the velocity of light in air 
to be 186,273 miles a second. From theoretical 
considerations it is known that the velocity 
in a vacuum should be slightly greater, and 
upon applying a correction for this cause the 
final value of 186,324 (in a vacuum) resulted. 
An equally accurate determination afterward 
made by Michelson led to the value, 186,320. 
The uncertainty of these values hardly can 
exceed 15 or 18 miles a second. 

It is a matter of importance and interest to 
ascertain whether the above value of the veloc- 
ity for white light also represents the velocity 
of transmission of light waves of different 
colors. But this question is readily answered by 
a consideration of the behavior of eclipsing 
variable stars. Even with such stars so dis- 
tant that their light requires from 30 to 100 
years to come to us, we find that rays of all 
colors reach us simultaneously upon the eclips- 
ing body being removed. It is thus certain that 
to a very high order of approximation the 
velocities of transmission of light waves of all 
different wave lengths are equal. 


LIGHT OF ASIA, The. The story of the 
life and teaching of Gautama, founder of Bud- 
dhism, was published in 1879. Sir Edwin 
Arnold, then editor of the London Telegraph, 
had gained through some years of life in India 
and study of its literature the interest in its 
thought and poetry that produced not only ‘The 
Light of Asia? but ‘The Indian Song of Songs? 
and other translations and reproductions. Out 
of the mass of tradition, legend, and record 
that sprang up about the life of Buddha, Sir 
Edwin has drawn a figure of real dignity and 
charm. The poem narrates Gautama’s renun- 
ciation of wealth, royalty, and love for the sake 
of sharing the common lot and delivering 
his people; his attainment, after years of suffer- 
ing and solitude, of the Nirvana of Enlighten- 
ment. A greater artist might have given us a 
poem of greater imaginative beauty and poetic 
power. The bent of this poet-journalist and 
the taste of his public produced an elaborate 


LIGHT-HORSE HARRY — LIGHT AND SHADE 


Orientalism of descriptive detail that is often 
effective, but less convincing to a Kipling-fed 
generation. The exposition of Buddhism has 
been criticized both by scholars and by theo- 
logians. In substance it is not inaccurate but 
inadequate, not only because of the exigencies 
of poetic form but because of a lack of the 
completer data produced by the critical scholar- 
ship of the last 30 years. The verse, though 
sometimes stately, is often prosaic or pompous. 

To us, the chief interest of ‘The Light of 
Asia? is its testimony to the 19th century con- 
cern with the Orient, which, expressed in the 
romanticism of ‘Lalla Rookh,? was to inspire 
the scholarship of the Pali Text Society. So 
successfully did Sir Edwin Arnold. popularize 
Buddhism, we are told, that.in spite (or be- 
cause) of the opposition of English pulpits, 60 
editions of the poem were sold in England and 
80 in America. To-day ‘The Light of Asia? at 
least fulfils the author’s wish by preserving “the 
memory of one who loved India and the Indian 
peoples.” 

FRANCES W, CUTLER. 


LIGHT-HORSE HARRY... See 
HENRY. 


LIGHT AND SHADE.* We are able to 
distinguish objects owing to our ability to dis- 
cern differences in brightness and in hue or 
differences in light, shade and color. If we 
did not possess the gift of color-vision the 
magical drapery of color would disappear and 
the gray of dawn would persist throughout the 
day. The color-blind eye, which is otherwise 
normal, sees only the series of neutral grays 
from white and black. These the artist terms 
“values.” -Brief consideration is convincing that 
“Light and Shade” is an extensive subject of 
great importance to us because of its relation 
to vision, to the appearance of objects, to the 
imitation of objects and to everything, with the 
exception of hue, which appeals to human con- 
sciousness through the doorway of vision. Al- 
though color is useful and appealing to man, 
generally he is much less conscious of its exist- 
ence than he is of form, or brightness distribu- 
tion. It is the distribution and modulation 
of light and shade which model form, so that as 
an essential to vision the perception of color 
is much less important than the perception of 
“yalues” or brightnesses. 

Objects are visible usually because they 
emit light either by transmission or by reflec- 
‘ tion but there must be a contrast either in 
brightness or in hue in order that they be dis- 
tinguishable from their surroundings. Further- 
more, objects are modelled by the distribution 
of light, shade and color upon their surfaces. 
In order to eliminate the necessity of including 
color in the present discussion the objects 
which may be considered will be assumed to 
have neutral surfaces, that is, white or gray. 
Even the surface characteristics of objects play 
an important part in their appearances. There 
are many kinds of surfaces from the regularly 
reflecting mirror to the diffusely reflecting sur- 
face such as blotting paper, or powdered zinc 
oxide. A study of these surfaces and of their 


LEE, 


* The courtesy of D. Van Nostrand Co. is hereby 
.acknowledged for their permission to use the accompanying 
illustrations and other material which have been taken from 
the author’s book on ‘Light and Shade and Their Applica- 
tions,’ 1916, 


423 


appearances under different kinds of lighting 
is of vast importance in relation to vision and 
to the imitative arts. 

For example, assume two gray spheres, iden- 
tical in every respect except that one has a 


‘glossy surface and the other a dull one. If 


lighted by a small light-source at a considerable 
distance from them, they will appear identical 
when in the same position with respect to the 
light-source except for the brilliant high-light 
on the glossy sphere... This high-light 
is an image of the light-source formed by the 
glossy convex surface. If the surface -is 
optically convex the image will be seen to be 
reproduced in accurate minute detail. If the 
two spheres be illuminated outdoors under an 
overcast sky, the comparatively less brilliant 
high-light will extend over a large area and 
will be unnoticed. The minute high-light of the 
small light-source in general will not be at a 
point on the sphere nearest the light-source or 
the observer but will be found to lie on an 
element of surface which is so oriented that 
the angle of. incidence of the beam from the 
source is equal to the angle of reflection of the 
beam of light reaching the eye by regular re- 
flection from the object. On changing his 
position the observer will note that the position 
of the high-light changes so that this simple law 
of optics is always fulfilled. 

The character of the lighting has much to do 
with the appearance of an object. If the dull 
sphere receives equal amounts of light from 
all directions it will not appear spherical but 
will appear to be a flat disc. No modulation 
of light and shade is present to model it. If 
the glossy sphere be placed at the centre of a 
diffusing glass globe which is uniformly illumi- 
nated over its exterior, the sphere will appear 
flat. However, under most conditions the 
brilliant high-lights will reveal its form under 
lighting conditions which would “flatten” the 
dull sphere. 

Metallic moldings owe their appearance 
quite predominantly to these bright high-lights 
which are more or less perfect images of the 
light-sources. It is interesting to note the effect 
of the medium on the expression of sculptured 
objects. A Venus in white marble of dull sur- 
face is most beautifully expressive of the 
human body but the same figure in polished 
bronze is sometimes hideous with grotesque 
metallic high-lights. These effects are illus- 
trated in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. On the 
other hand, a bay horse may be well represented 
in polished bronze and the appearance of a 
sculpture of a swarthy- skinned Indian is quite 
congruous if done in semi-polished bronze. 
This does not mean that the artist may not dis- 
play his skill in any medium but it brings forth 
the fact that the medium influences the final 
appeal of the sculpture to us through the 
appearance for which it is partly responsible. 

Shadows are of utmost importance from 
many standpoints. The cast shadow is the 
shadow of an object upon another surface and 
the shadow is that on the object itself. Al- 
though these two classes of shadows are sub- 
ject to different minor influences they are in 
general subject to the same major influences. 
In this brief discussion they will be considered 
together. There are three dominant factors 
which influence the appearance of shadows: (1) 
The position of the doin ifienrt light-source de- 


424 


termines their general direction; (2) the solid- 
angle subtended by the light-source determines 
the character of the shadow-edges; (3) the 
amount of light scattered or diffused by the 
surroundings determine the brightnesses of the 
shadows. By controlling these three factors 
the sculptor, the photographer, the lighting 
specialist, the architect, the museum director 
and others are able to produce the desired 
modelling of the subject. 

The sculptor does not actually strive to re- 
produce an object in true relative dimensions. 
He paints in light and shade with his chisel 
by leading lines and areas of light and shade in 
order to fix an expression of light. The 
appearance of a model depends upon the light- 
ing and in a similar manner the final product 
should receive a proper lighting resulting from 
thoughtful consideration of these factors. But 
these factors appear not to be considered in 
many museums because we often find sculpture 
displayed collectively in large rooms in which 
these factors differ widely. A large skylight 
flattens the objects especially if the surround- 
ing walls and floors are highly reflecting. In 
general, sculpture should be exhibited amid 
brighter surroundings than paintings because 
the shadows should not be too dark.’ Dark, 
sharp shadows produce a harshness and severity 
appropriate to a relatively few subjects but in 
general the light-source should be extended to 
a moderate solid-angle and the shadows should 
receive an appreciable amount of light from the 

surroundings. 
The effects are usually more satisfactory if 
the object is so placed with respect to the 
dominant light-source that the shadows fall 
aslant. In large rooms sculptured objects are 
usually displayed to the best advantage when 
near the walls and properly oriented. Such 
rooms when illuminated by windows are usu- 
ally less satisfactory owing to the multiple 
shadows due to two or more light-sources 
(windows) and to the nearly horizontal direc- 
tion of the dominant light. The effects of the 
position of a small light-source are shown in 
the upper four illustrations in Fig. 3. The 
lower four illustrations show various lighting 
effects as noted in each case. The head is a 
plaster cast of the head of Laocoon and it is 
evident that some of the lights fail to suggest 
the tragic expression of this wonderfully ex- 
pressive antique sculpttire. In the lightings 
shown in Fig. 3 an attempt has been made to 
illustrate the influence of the three factors 
already noted so that they do not represent com- 
plete lightings which would ordinarily. be en- 
countered. However in Fig. 4 are shown three 
lightings which were just as found in practice. 
The head was placed on the wall at a height 
of five or six feet in a room having windows 
on two sides and equipped with direct and in- 
direct lighting fixtures hung from the centre of 
the ceiling. The harsh effect of the direct light- 
ing is evident. This is due to the small solid- 
angular extent of the light-source measured at 
the object and to the relatively less light which 
falls upon the shadows. The indirect lighting, 
in which the ceiling is the dominant source of 
light, produces softer shadows, because their 
edges are less defined and brighter. The un- 
satisfactory direction of daylight and the effect 
of multiple shadows from the three windows — 
two on one side and one on an adjacent side 


LIGHT AND SHADE 


—is evident in the third illustration in Fig. 4. 
The best lighting of this subject as is usually 
the case is from a source at an angle between 
thé horizontal and the vertical. The ideal 
method of exhibiting three-dimensional objects 
is to provide an environment and lighting suit- 
able to the object. This ideal is seldom pos- 
sible of attainment in practice but it may be 
approached in various ways. Objects may be 
placed near the walls and properly oriented if 
the light-source is a ceiling skylight, an in- 
directly lighted ceiling or a central fixture. 
They may be placed in alcoves and thus obtain 
an approximation to an individual environment 
or they may be grouped in small rooms which 
are properly lighted. If windows are used they 
should be located high as a general rule. It 
is interesting in this connection to study various 
museums for there are many unsatisfactory con- 
ditions to be found and some which indicate 
distinct steps toward the ideal in respect to 
lighting and other environments. | 

_ Low relief is not so susceptible to careless 
lighting although highly diffused light or such 
a condition as approximately equal intensities 
of light from several directions has a greater 
tendency to flatten it and it should be lighted in 
general with more directed light than sculpture 
of true dimensions. Incidentally it is of inter- 
est in this connection to note that low relief 
approaches the principles of drawing usually 
more closely than the principles of sculpture in 
true dimensions. 

The portrait photographer and also the por- 
trait painter deal with ‘the same modelling 
characteristics of light and shade. Large sky- 
lights, especially on dark days, cannot be 
sufficiently reduced in area to render  satis- 
factory modelling in most cases without re- 
ducing the intensity of illumination to a low 
value which is often wnsatisfactory. Artificial 
light-sources are much more adaptable to the 
needs of both the photographer and the portrait 
painter because they are more readily con- 
trolled as to solid-angular extent, position and 
general distribution of light. Such units are 
available and are being adopted for this work. 
One of the chief principles of obtaining light 
and shade effects in the studio is shown in Fig. 
5. If ab represents a vertical skylight the same 


Fic. 5.— Illustrating the effect of the size of the light-source. 


light and shade effects will be obtained at o 
by a light-source of the size of cd or cf if the 
other dimension is reduced a corresponding. 
amount in each case. Thus the same effect may 
be obtained with a smaller source placed closer 


LIGHT AND SHADE 


to the subject and it is evident that a smaller 
room may be used. 
The architect depends finally upon light, 
shade and color to realize his desired effect. 
By means of modelled ornament, pigments, 
lighting effects and relative brightnesses of the 
various important areas, the architectural pic- 
ture is completed. Numberless architectural in- 
teriors testify to the lack of a common goal 
for all those who contribute toward the light 
and shade effects. The distribution of light 
and shade largely influences the mood or 
spirit of the interior and the simple laws which 
govern light and shade effects should be applied 
with the final aim definitely in mind. The im- 
portance of lighting in architecture may be 
seen in any interior and it may be illustrated 
by photographing an interior under different 
lightings or by means of a detail. In Fig. 6 


Fic. 6.— Different lightings of the same moulding. 


are shown the various expressions of the 
same molding under five different lightings. 
Lighting is often responsible for certain illu- 
sions aS well as for the expression or mood of 
the interior as a whole. For example, if a row 
~of columns or pilasters be of high brightness as 
contrasted with a dark background they will 
appear more massive than when they are in 
deep shadow against a bright background. 
Innumerable effects of light and shade are 


425 


visible on every hand. Notwithstanding this 
fact the author is perhaps the first to attempt 
to formulate the science of light and shade and 
to relate it to the art. 

The decorator arranges his values in an in- 
terior just as a painter would in a landscape or 
other scene, but these values do not depend 
alone upon his pigments for they must borrow 
light and reflect it in order to be effective. 
Therefore the relative values of the different 
areas in an interior depend also upon the inten- 
sities of illumination. But usually the decorator 
and the lighting specialist work independently 
and the final effect is not that which either 
had contemplated. It is a compromise depend- 
ing upon the relative effectiveness of the illumi- 
nation intensities and of the pigments. The 
decorator usually decides upon his. values in 
the daytime and the distribution of light is 
playing a part in the values which he chooses 
for the various areas. The lighting specialist 
who installs the artificial lighting provides a 
radically different. distribution of light with the 
result. that it is not always harmonious. 

The stage presents a picture in light, shade 
and color. Here more than in any other activity 
is lighting used for its expressive value. But 
bound by tradition and prejudice and handi- 
capped by lack of familiarity with the simple 
laws of light and shade, the stage picture is full 
of incongruities and even grotesque effects. 
The footlights, common to the theatre, produce 
unnatural expressions of the human face as well 
as of the entire scenes. Throughout the ages 
during which the prejudices and artistic tastes 
of mankind have been formulated, dominant 
light from below the horizontal has never been 
a factor. The effects which it produces are un- 
natural and have no logical place in the stage 
picture excepting for unusual purposes. The 
footlights are of value in contributing, along 
with the borders and sidelights, a dim “fog” 
of light for illuminating the shadows but there 
is an opportunity for someone to come forth 
with a combination of architecture and lighting 
in the theatre which will produce artistic light 
and shade effects. The possiblities in such ef- 
fects range from a concentration of light to a 
flood of it and from a picture in silhouette 
against a bright background to the reversed ef- 
fect of a bright picture against a dark back- 
ground. The modernists in the theatre are 
striving to eliminate such incongruities as the 
grotesque effect of footlights, the conflict of 
painted and real shadows and perspective. Not 
long ago a stage-setting often consisted of mea- 
gre furnishings and all kinds of objects and 
shadows were painted upon the enclosing 
scenery. The painted shadows were usually in- 
congruous with the real shadows and the 
perspective could not be correct from all view- 
points. Later some producers introduced fur- 
nishings in great detail which have the advan- 
tage of real shadows but may be criticized from 
many viewpoints, the chief one perhaps being 
the distraction from the drama: itself. In the 
modern theatre the aim is to produce harmony 
of action, lighting and setting with the drama 
and this appears best brought about by sim- 
plicity in lighting and in setting. This is 
accomplished by proper light and shade (also 
color) effects and by real shadows; in fact by 
utilizing the language of light, shade and color. 


426 


The skeleton of any picture is its values or 
distribution of light and shade. Painting is an 
imitative art which depends upon pigments but 
the limitations of these are a great handicap to 
the artist. The greatest range of contrast on 
an artist’s palette is represented by white and 
“black,” but the latter is never a total absorber 
of light, and white is merely a relative term. 
The amount of light reflected by the best white 
pigment is about 90 per cent and the purest 
black pigment ordinarily found among commer- 
cial pigments reflects several per cent of the 
incident light. Therefore the ordinary range 
of contrast in brightness which the artist is able 
to command is about 30 to 1; that is, his 
white is only 30 times brighter than his black 
under equal intensities of illumination. With 
these he must represent the extreme range of 
values in a landscape in which the sky is com- 
monly hundreds and even thousands of times 
brighter than the deepest shadow. This is one 
of the reasons why the artist must resort to 
illusions in imitating nature. In photography 
the same difficulties are met and when the sci- 
entific facts are realized it is quite wonderful 
that the painter and photographer are able to 
satisfy us with their products. This approaches 
the psychological aspect of light and shade and 
we must conclude that the imagination of the 
observer supplies much that is missing in the 
painting or in the photograph. In fact it is 
perhaps true that nearly all that we experience 
in viewing such a work of art we must supply. 
The work of art is merely an object which taps 
the imagination of the observer and by associa- 
tions, memories and imagination he is capable 
of putting into the picture that which he de- 
sires. Of course this does not apply to the 
zsthetic value of the picture which arises from 
its own harmony of parts, its rhythm and its 
grace of line. A simple example of interest 
from the psychological aspect is the appearance 
of a white hemispherical cup lighted by a 
source of fairly large solid angle. If the sur- 
roundings-are such that no inkling of the posi- 
tion of the light-source is possible, this object 
will invariably be taken for a hemispherical 
solid lighted from a source exactly opposite to 
the actual position of the source. It is called a 
hemispherical solid or even a sphere because 
the light and shade distribution is similar but 
reversed and because these objects are more 
commonly encountered than the hemispherical 
cup. 

Inasmuch as values are such an important 
factor in painting, photography, . architecture, 
sculpture and in everything which appeals to 
the human organism through the doorway of 
vision, it is of interest to have a standardized 
value-scale. Textbooks on art usually include 
a scale of shades from white to black but such 
a scale should be standardized in order to have 
a definite meaning. From an acquaintance with 
pigments and with the practical, requirements 
of a value-scale the author has proposed the fol- 
lowing standardization which is applied to the 
nine values commonly used by the artist. 


Reflection Reflection 
factor factor 

Value (per cent) Value (per cent) 

Black Sari ages 0 to 10 Low: light. ::. ..- 50 to 60 

Low. dark. .. 2°... 10 to 20 Light; Seva eae 60 to 70 

Dark.) /. 90541 * }41920'f0:30 High light..... 70 to 80 

High dark... 4: 30 to 40 Whiteis ssa 80 to 90 
Medium........ 40 to 50 


LIGHT AND SHADE 


The whitest pigment reflects about 90 per 
cent of the total incident light and, although 
white is a relative term, those pigments which 
reflect 80 per cent or more of the incident light. 
are commonly considered white. The ordi- 
nary black pigments often reflect as much as 10 
per cent of the incident light but usually less. 
These facts have formed the basis of this 
standardization and a value-scale can be di- 
vided in this manner and subjected to measure- 
ment. If the scale be printed upon the best 
grade of white paper the highest value will be 
about 80 per cent or slightly above and the 
lowest value will be somewhat under 10 per 
cent because the best black ink, under the 
conditions of printing, reflects an appreciable 
amount of the incident light. Such a stand- 
ardization at least eliminates the ordinary cru- 
dity of visual estimates and should have a 
place in the scientific aspects of light and 
shade. : 53 

It is an obvious conclusion from the fore- 
going that the distribution of light and shade 
is not fixed by pigments but depends upon the 
relative illumination intensities as well. For 
example, a black pigment which reflects 10 per 
cent of the mcident light will appear as bright 
under nine units of illumination as a white pig- 
ment which reflects 90 per cent of the incident 
light will appear under one unit of illumination. 
If both pigments are perfectly neutral (without 
hue) they will appear identical under these 
conditions of illumination. This is often a 
startling revelation to those who use pigments 
and it emphasizes the fact that black and white 
are merely relative terms. This indicates that 
uneven distribution of light on large flat areas 
and on paintings may be very effective in en- 
hancing contrasts. Experiment shows this to 
be true and that along this line there are possi- 
bilities in lighting. : 

In practice, color is seldom separated from 
values or distribution of light and shade and it 
has its»influence upon values. For example, 
let us take two pigments, red and blue of a 
given tint or shade. They possess certain val- 
ues or relative brightnesses under a given il- 
lumination. Let us assume that their values 
are the same twnder daylight illumination, then 
under the illumination from a tungsten lamp 
the red will appear considerably brighter, not 
uncommonly twice as bright. On the value- 
scale this change under the latter illuminant 
would often amount to enough to raise the 
value of the red to the next higher value. 
There are many interesting influences of color 
on light and shade as will be apparent from ob- 
servation and from a study of the science of 
color. All of these have their place in the art 
of light, shade and color but unfortunately rela- 
tively few artists are familiar with the under- 
lying scientific principles. It is a noteworthy 
fact that masterful artists are commonly fa- 
miliar with the sciences underlying their art 
and this is to be expected because there is noth- 
ing mysterious about art. Mysteries are merely 
facts which are not understood and to the sci- 
entist in light, shade and color there are fewer 
mysteries in art than to the artist himself. It 
is true that the esthetics of light, shade and- 
color have less scientific foundation than the 
physics and physiology of the subject but 
esthetics is a science which is not yet com- 
pletely explored or unraveled. 


LIGHT AND SHADE 


Above Below Side Side 


Point source on left Point source on left Diffused light Four point sources 
Diffused light on right Diffused light on right 


Fig. 3 Different lightings of the head of the Laocoon 


Direct lighting Indirect lighting Natural lighting from windows 


Fig. 4 The Laocoon head in the same position in a room lighted by three ordinary lighting systems 


LIGHT AND SHADE 


By courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Art 


1 Clytie, by W. H. Rouchart in marble 2 Venus, by C. G. Allegrain in polished bronze 


LIGHT THAT FAILED 


Having had a glimpse into various aspects 
of light and shade it should be of interest to 
note a few facts pertaining to nature. We go 
to nature for many lessons, for here we find 
a picture gallery containing an infinite variety 
of canvasses. Any individual scene is continu- 
ally changing, so nature provides unlimited op- 
portunities for studying light and shade as well 
as color. Some idea of the variety in nature’s 
lighting is obtained when it is noted that on a 
cloudless day the direction of light from the 
sun varies throughout the day from horizontal 
to vertical and again to horizgntal at sunset. 
Most of this time the sky is contributing from 
10 to 30 per cent of the total light. Here we 
have a combination of a powerful directed light 
with a weaker light from the hemisphere of 
sky. Add to this variety that from an infinite 
number of different combinations of light from 
clouds, sky and sun, and end the brief review 
with the perfectly overcast sky, and it must be 
concluded that the light and shade effects in 
nature are numberless. 

It is an interesting fact that on a perfectly 
overeast day no object on the earth’s surface 
can be brighter than the sky unless it be self- 
luminous. On cloudless days a white object 
may be as much as 10 times brighter than the 
sky although usually it is about six times 
brighter. Incidentally the clear noon sun is 
many million times brighter than the shadows 
in a landscape. 

It is difficult to discuss the artistic aspect of 
light and shade in nature because this involves 
taste which, in general, is more or less inde- 
terminate. However a few points will be 
brought forth because they appear so definitely 
established after years of observation. Variety 
is perhaps the keynote of nature’s beauty. Take 
a scene which may appear commonplace at mid- 


day on a clear day and it is not uncommon for: 


it to be enchanting in the early morning or 
late afternoon. A study of this scene ap- 
pears to indicate definitely that the beauty near 
the ends of the day is due to the long shadows 
and hence a greater variety in light and shade. 
A clear sky may ‘be pleasing in its tranquillity, 
but to be beautiful or powerfully effective 
variety is necessary and this is obtained by 
cloud effects. Great areas of uniform bright- 
ness such as an overcast sky conspire with the 
absence of defined: shadows to produce an effect 
toward which we are indifferent and often dis- 
pleased. 

It is interesting to note that the sharply 
defined shadows outdoors on a clear day are not 
annoying and are even very pleasing yet 
shadows of a similar sharp contour are usually 
displeasing indoors under artificial lighting. 
The difference may be accounted for by the 
much greater luminosity of the shadows out- 
doors and the adaptation of the eye to a much 
higher level of illumination intensity so that 
the contrasts are less violent. These points 
might well be borne in mind in the practice of 
artificial lighting. A symmetrical distribution 
of light in interiors produces effects which ap- 
proach the light and shade of nature and the 
finer sensibilities recognize that there is much 
to be gained in departing from the common 
symmetrical distribution of light in artificial 
lighting systems. 

It is seen that light and shade is of great 
importance in many activities, both from the 


427 


scientific and artistic viewpoints. It is the 
most important factor in vision because every- 
one is more conscious of form than of color; 
however color plays a part in vision even 
though unconsciously. For example, in provid- 
ing an illumination for a certain activity it is 
well to study how the perception of .the ob- 
jects is best accomplished. It may be that cer- 
tain small objects may be best seen outlined in 
shadow against a bright background or vice 
versa. If they have polished surfaces, the 
regularly reflected high-lights may be of the 
greatest importance. Thus it is seen that the 
background is a large factor in the discrimina- 
tion of objects. 

The shadow is an important factor in model- 
ling an object and the cast shadow likewise 
lends its aid. Under the illumination of an 
overcast sky or an indirect lighting system, ob- 
jects are less distinctly visible because in these 
cases only the profile or silhouette is the 
dominant factor. Under such conditions of 
illumination much of the advantage of the 
modulation from light to shadow and of the 
form of the cast shadow is absent. Although 
somewhat disadvantageous in the perception 
and recognition of fine detail, such types of 
light-distribution are exceedingly applicable to 
some classes of problems. Perhaps no system 
of lighting has been as successful as the so- 
called indirect lighting in producing light and 
shade effects befitting the spirit or mood of an 
interior. An excellent field for such observa- 
tions is in churches because so many types of 
architecture are available and the different 
creeds call for different expressions of the 
interior. This is not commonly recognized but 
it is nevertheless true and the possibilities of 
lighting in this respect have been recognized 
to some extent even though subconsciously. 

_ Without taking the space to summarize this 
article, which in itself is a brief summary of 
an extensive subject, it may be repeated that 
light and shade must be ranked as one of 
the most important factors in human existence 
because it is the most essential factor in vision. 
It is a many-sided subject, embodying the 
scientific aspect of the appearance and hence 
of the discrimination of objects, the zsthetic 
aspect of many scenes, the psychology of light, 
the aims and limitations of the imitative arts 
and many other aspects. See Art DRAWING. 

M. LuUcKIEsSH, 
Nela Research Laboratory, National Lamp 

Works, General Electric Company. 


LIGHT THAT FAILED, The, by Rud- 
yard Kipling, a novel first published in 1891, 
tells of Dick Heldar, a young artist, who after 
vivid experiences of war in Egypt scores a 
decided success in London. There he again 
meets his boyhood sweetheart, Maisie, striving 
for fame as a painter. He loves her but she is 
wholly bound up in her ambitions. Dick sud- 
denly goes blind. He finds that Maisie is incap- 
able of making a sacrifice for his sake and goes 
back to Egypt to be killed in a skirmish. Opin- 
ions in regard to this book are widely divergent, 
many critics finding fault especially with 
Maisie, whom the Edinburgh Review found to 
be “utterly uninteresting, which is the one thing 
that a heroine may not be” On the other 
hand there is undoubted power and interest in 
the portrayal of the hero, his adventures, his 
friends and acquaintances. Furthermore, Rich- 


428 


ard Le Gallienne, by no means an. unqualified 
admirer of Kipling, said, “Nowhere else that I 
know of has the hopelessness of blindness been 
so brought home to us. . . . ‘The Light that 
Failed? is perhaps the story of all Mr. Kip- 
ling’s stories that strikes the most universal note 
of human pathos.» The story, before its issu- 
ance in book form, appeared in Lippincotts 
Magazine with a conventional “happy ending.” 
This version, though rejected by the author as 
not his original conception, has been used in 
the successful dramatization of the novel. 
ARTHUR GUITERMAN. 


LIGHTER, a flat boat or barge for trans- 
porting merchandise on rivers and canals, and 
to and from vessels moored in a stream, or 
where they cartnot be laden from or discharged 
on to a wharf or pier alongside. 


LIGHTHOUSE, a structure on some con- 
spicuous point of seashore, island or rock, or 
on the bank of rivers and lakes, from which 
a light is exhibited at night as a guide to 
mariners. Lighthouses are generally placed on 
salient points, each requiring structures specially 
designed to meet the exigencies of varied sites. 
When placed on headlands or large islands 
lighthouses. are very much alike in general 
features, the differences being mainly in the 
height of the towers, depending on the dis- 
tance at which the light requires to be seen, 
and the lighting apparatus. ‘Towers erected on 
isolated, wave-swept rocks in the open sea, such 
_as the Minot’s Ledge and Spectacle Reef in 
the United States, the Eddystone, the Bell 
Rock, Skerryvore and Chickens Rock light- 
houses in Great Britain, and that of Bréhat in 
France, are triumphs of engineering. 

History.— The history of lighthouse build- 
ing and illumination may be said to extend 
over a period of more than 2,000 years; but 
the regularly organized life-preserving system 
of modern lighthouse engineering goes back 
very little further than the beginning of the 
19th century. None of the early lighthouse 
buildings now exist. The Pharos of Alexan- 
dria (331 B.c.) gave its name to its’ successors. 
The Romans built lighthouses at Ostia, Ra- 
venna, Puteoli and other ports. The Phcenician 
Pharos at Corufia, repaired during the reign of 
the Roman Emperor Trajan, was re-established 
as a lighthouse about 1634, and in 1847 had a 
dioptric apparatus placed in it. On the cliff at 
Boulogne there are the remains of a lighthouse 
ascribed to Caligula (40 a.p.), and at Dover 
there are remains of another Roman’ Pharos. 
Until the end of the 18th century the light- 
houses of the United States and of Great 
Britain were few in number, and of an inferior 
description in the great essential of a lighthouse, 
namely, sending the greatest number of rays 
of light toward the horizon. In the United 
States of America the first act. of Congress 
relating to lighthouses was passed in 1789. 
Many of the public lights in England were 
private property, as was also the case with 
the Isle of May in Scotland, the patent for 
which was ratified in 1641.’ There were only 
25 lighthouse stations and six floating lights 
in England at the beginning of the 19th. cen- 
tury. The coast and harbor lights in Great 
Britain and Ireland are now upward: of 1,000 
in. number. 

The early lighthouse towers had on their 


LIGHTER — LIGHTHOUSE 


summits grates or chauffers, in which billets 
of wood or coal were burned, but. though ex- 
pensive to maintain—some of them using 400. 
tons of coal yearly — were uncertain in their 
appearance, varying with the ever-changing 
character of the atmosphere... Such coal-lights 
survived. in, Scotland till 1816, in England till 
1822 and’on the Baltic till 1846. 

Construction.— The difficulties of building 
are very great, the greatest usually being to 
effect a landing of men and material, At 
Minot’s Ledge, off the Massachusetts. coast, 
General Alexander got only 30 hours of work 
in the first year, and 157 in the second, and 
the earlier histories of the Bell Rock, Skerry- 
vore, Dhuheartach, Chickens, Eddystone in 
Great Britain and others tell the same tale. The 
cost of lighthouses may vary much; for in- 
stance, Spectacle Reef, on Lake Huron, cost 
$300,000; an ordinary land station, fully 
equipped, will cost much less—as a matter of 
fact, about $25,000 to $50,000. Light-vessels 
cost about $45,000. 3 

These towers are constructed of steel, or 
hard stone, such as granite, or cement-concrete 
faced with hard stone, and of such a mass and 
strength as to prevent their being overturned 
or destroyed by the. waves. A. typical. stone 
lighthouse is built of granite, say 140 feet in 
height, with a diameter at the base of 42 feet 
and at the top of 16 feet, and contains 58,580 
cubic feet, or about 4,308 tons of masonry.. A 
staff of four light-keepers is attached to such 
rock lighthouses, three residing in the light- 
house and one on shore, the reliefs being fort- 
nightly, so that each man has six ‘weeks on the 
rock and two weeks ashore. At land light- 
house-stations, where women and children can 
be stationed, the keepers’ families reside with 
them, and the staff. consists of three men 
when there is a fog-signal, and two men- when 
there is only the light to attend to. It is 
considered essential that a constant watch be 
kept in the light-room during darkness to 
ensure the proper exhibition of light. . 

Optical Apparatus.— The object of using 
optical apparatus in a lighthouse is to direct, 
as far as possible, all the rays of light that 
proceed from the radiant, or source of light, so 
as to be visible only on the sea between the 
near sea and the sea horizon. In the Eddy- 
stone lighthouse, up to the commencement of 
the 19th century, the lighting apparatus con- 
sisted of a chandelier of tallow candles, though 
parabolic reflectors made of facets of silvered 
glass mirror, set ina mold of plaster of Paris, 
were introduced in 1768 and used in several 
lighthouses, the effect of these reflectors being 
to concentrate and throw seaward the rays of 
light from a flat-wick lamp placed in the focus. 
At a later date reflectors composed of sheet 
copper, plated with silver and formed into a 
parabolic curve, were largely introduced and 
are still in use. ‘These reflectors, where a fixed 
light was desired, were arranged in two tiers 
on a frame, as many as 26 being necessary to 
show a light of equal power all around the 
horizon, and in the case of flashing lights 
seven were grouped on each of four faces.of 
a frame that was rotated by clockwork. This 
mode of lighting is termed catoptric, or reflect- 
ing system. The method of building lenses of 
separate rings or prisms of glass, so as to 
form a larger lens. than could be obtained from 


LIGHTHOUSE 


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1 New Revolving Light, Barnegat, N. J. 4 Fixed Dioptric Light 
2 Holophotal Univaive Apparatus with Dioptric Mirror 5-7 Parabolic Reflector with Oil-fountain Lamp 
3 Sectional Plan of Bell Rock Tower 6 Elevation of Triple-flashing Apparatus 


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LIGHTHOUSE 


a mere bull’s eye formed of one piece of glass, 
was first adopted for lighthouses in 1822. For 
a fixed light the built-up lens was so arranged 
as to form a polygon with one burner in the 
focus, and for a flashing light annular lens 
panels were grouped round the one central 
burner and revolved by clockwork. In. 1892 
Charles A. Stevenson made the lenses spherical 
in form in the vertical plane, and in 1895, with 
great advantage of the power of the light, abol- 
ished the old section of the elements and gave 
them an equiangular section.. This equiangular 
profile also permits of the refracting elements 
being extended to 80 degrees of focal open- 
ing, and indeed farther, without loss of effi- 
ciency. The setting of lenses eccentrically has 
rendered possible a diminution in the diameter 
and consequent saving in cost of lantern and 
tower. Besides the fixed-light apparatus and 
the lens panels many other: forms of prisms 
for various purposes have been introduced. 
Thomas Stevenson’s catadioptric mirror, formed 
of totally-reflecting prisms, and subsequently 
improved by James I. Chance, is largely used; 
and vertical straight prisms, placed in front 
of either fixed light or holophotal panels, are 
used to deviate the light azimuthally over par- 
ticular arcs where the light is required. The 
desire to increase the power of the lights in- 
duced some lighthouse authorities to advocate 
the use of larger burners without increasing the 
focal distance of the apparatus, with the result 
that little advantage was gained, as most of 
the light was ex-focal. It was not, however, 
till 1885 that the first hyper-radiant lens was 
constructed, with the result that when tested 
it was found to produce a beam twice as 
intense as that from the previous lenses with 
the same large burners in the foci. This hyper- 
radiant lens is now largely used where great 
power is desired. See PLATE. 

Radiants.— The radiants used in the focus 
of the apparatus in foreign lighthouses are 
generally 1-, 
cylindrical paraffin burners, though gas burners, 
incandescent burners and the electric light, both 
are and incandescent, are also in use.. The use 
of paraffin resulted in a large saving. The elec- 
tric light is now generally used in the United 
States. The popular idea that the electric light 
is not so good in fog as oil or gas lights was 
confuted in 1885, when it was found that oil 
and gas were usually affected by atmospheric 
variations, that the electric arc light is absorbed 
more largely proportionately to its initial power 
by haze or fog than oil or gas lights, but that 
in all weathers and at all distances its pene- 
trative power was found superior to the gas and 
oil lights, and that all three are nearly equally 
affected by rain.» These results-are confirmed 
by practical experience in our lighthouses. 

Characteristics— To enable the sailor to 
_ distinguish one lighthouse from another, lights 
in proximity to one another are arranged to 
exhibit different characters. The characters in 
common use are: fixed light; flashing light, 
showing one flash at regular intervals of a few 
seconds; group flashing lights; showing two or 
more flashes in quick succession, followed by a 
longer period of darkness than that which 
separates the flashes; occulting lights, which 
show a fixed light and are eclipsed for a few 
seconds at* regular intervals. Colored lights, 


réd and* green, are-also used with any of the. 


2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, or even 10-wick 


420 


foregoing characters to. produce further dis- 
tinctions, but in general only. to mark danger 
arcs, or in conjunction with a white flash, as 
the tinted-glass. shades, interposed to produce 
the desired: color seriously cut down the power 
of the light, and are not, unless of a very dark 
shade, easily distinguishable in foggy weath r 
from a white light. 

Machines.— To produce these various char- 
aoters the lenses are placed on a carriage which 
revolves on conical. rollers,.or is floated in a 
mercury trough, and is driven round by clock- 
work actuated by a falling weight. The tend- 
ency has been’ in recent years to drive the 
apparatus faster, so as to make the period 
phase of the light as short as possible. While 
this is a desirable object it involves at the same 
time shortening the duration of the flash on 
the eye of the sailor, to which there is ob- 
viously a limit, if distinct vision is to be ob- 
tained under practical conditions. A flash of 
about half a second in length is regarded as 
what should be aimed at. The light on 
the Navesink Highlands above Sandy Hook, 
N. J., is one of the largest of modern flash- 
lights. 

Lanterns.— The apparatus is placed in a 
glazed lantern erected on the top of the light- 
house tower. With the view ot intercepting as 
little light as possible, the framing or sashes are 
made of as small sectional dimensions as is con-- 
sistent with strength, and are made either 
diagonal, with diamond-shaped flat panes, or 
helical with curved panes. The upper part of 
the lantern is made dome-shaped with a ven- 
tilator to carry off the fumes from the lamp. 
The size of the lantern varies with that of the 
apparatus, the usual size for a first-class light 
being 12 feet in diameter and 10 feet height 
of glazing. 

Lightships.— In certain situations, such as 
on rocks where there is not sufficient room to 
get a large enough base for a tower, or on 
sandbanks where the sand is liable to shift, it is 
impossible, except at a prohibitive cost,. to 
erect towers to carry the light. In such situa- 
tions recourse is had to mooring in the vicinity 
a vessel which carries the light on a mast. The 
light is generally shown from a lantern formed 
round the mast, and the apparatus consists of 
parabolic reflectors or small dioptric apparatus. 
These light-vessels have a crew consisting of a 
master, mate and nine men. 

Beacons and Buoys are used in situations 
where powerful lights, such as can be shown 
from lighthouses and lightships, are not neces- 
sary, and where the extinction of the light 
would cause inconvenience and not disaster, but 
where some guidance is desirable, as, for ex- 
ample, in narrow sounds, rivers and estuaries. 
Beacons are now frequently lighted with small 
dioptric apparatus, the illuminant being either 
compressed oil-gas stored in a receiver, in 
which case they need no attention for several 
weeks, or with oil-burners, in which case they 
must be trimmed every three days. Buoys are 
made of various shapes to denote on which side 
of them the safe channel: lies. Thus, can- 
shaped buoys, those with a flat top, are to be 
passed on the port hand, and conical-shaped 
buoys on the: starboard hand when. the. ship 
is going up an estuary or with the: flood-tide, 
and vice versa. ‘Spherical buoys denote a mid- 
dle danger which may be passed on either hand. 


430 


Buoys for particular places are further differ- 
entiated by color and top marks. See Buoy. 

Fog-signals.— During the prevalence of fog 
and snowstorms the most powerful lights are 
obscured, and it becomes necessary to guide the 
mariner by sound signals. Hence a fog-signal 
has become a necessary adjunct of a fully- 
equipped lighthouse station. Various instru- 
ments, such as bells, gongs, guns, steam- 
whistles, explosive charges of tonite, reed 
trumpets and sirens sounded by steam, elec- 
tricity or compressed air, are used. The most 
efficient and powerful fog-signal is the siren 
sounded by compressed air. In ‘spite of the 
recent improvements in fog-signals they are 
undoubtedly the weak point in coast protec- 
tion, as the exact direction from which a sound 
iS coming is not easy to locate, and owing to 
the capricious and uncertain range at which 
sound can be heard. Submarine signals have 
been developed in recent years and have a 
more effective and constant range than signals 
sounded in the air. The usual type consists of 
a bell of special design, submerged to a 
distance free from wave disturbance and with 
a striking mechanism attached. At light sta- 
tions the bell is oftten supported on a tripod 
on the sea bottom and the striking mechanism 
is operated electrically by means of a cable; a 
characteristic number of blows at intervals may 
be given in this manner to identify the station. 
To obtain the best results with submarine sig- 
nals, a receiving apparatus is attached to ships; 
it is similar to a telephone and by it the bear- 
ing of the signal can be determined approxi- 
mately. The sound is heard on ships without 
the apparatus when the observer is below the 
water line, and particularly in iron or steel 
ships, but in this case the bearing of the signal 
is not easily determined. 

Administration.—The United States Light- 
house Board was formed in 1789, and recon- 
structed in 1852; a reorganization of the Light- 
house Service under Act of Congress took 
effect 1 July 1910. In Great Britain, the Trin- 
ity House of London, the Irish Lighthouse 
Board and the Northern Lighthouse Board are 
the lighthouse authorities. The two last named 
were not constituted till 1786, but the Trinity 
House may be said to have originated in 1514. 
The French Commission des Phares was con- 
stituted in 1792 and remodeled in 1811. In 
Sweden, Norway, Holland, Denmark, Russia 
and Austria the lighthouse administration is 
under the Admiralty or Minister of Marine. 
In Spain, the system of administration is similar 
to that of France. For American administra- 
tion see the article LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE OF THE 
Unitep STATES. 

Progress in America.— From one of the 
poorest-lighted coasts, the American Atlantic 
seaboard, within a quarter of a century, be- 
came one of the best in the world, with a 
new system of lighthouses and signal lights 
far more comprehensive than anything hereto- 
fore attempted. The Cape Hatteras region, and 
the scarcely less important Cape Cod district, 
early received special attention. Both of these 
capes were in the direct route of commerce, 
and the storms and shoals that made them 
dangerous to navigators had to be offset by 
adequate lights which would warn mariners of 
their proximity. The first attempts at light- 
house construction were consequently made at 


LIGHTHOUSE 


a few such danger points along the coast, and 
from these in either direction new lights were, 
gradually erected. They formed the begin- 


‘ning of the new system which sought to make 


all of our coast so well protected that. navi- 
gators need have little apprehension in ap- 
proaching the land from any direction at any 
point. 

The full extent of the lighthouse service can 
best be appreciated by simply stating that there 
are some 14,550 warning lights and signals 
stretched along the American coast, forming a 
perfect link so that the navigator need never 
be beyond the sight of one’ of the beacons. 
The “aids,” so-called, include a great variety 
of modern inventions, from the tall flashlight 
lighthouse, with its base of steel and stone, 
and costly lamp operated by electric power, to 
the modern gas and electric-lighted ‘buoys, bea- 
cons and lightships. The advances made in 
lighthouse and buoy construction represent some 
of the marvels of modern engineering science. 

The most important light in the United 
States, the great tower at Barnegat, N. J., 
was completed in 1903, with a light equipment 
equal to 30,000,000 candle-power. Steam and 
power are generated for local use, for the heart 
of the light is a 6,000 candle-power arc light. 
This is intensified by a great lens built up of 
rims of prismatic glass, with a bull’s eye in the 
centre 18 inches in diameter. This monster 
light can be seen from the lookout at a dis- 
tance of 100 miles; but, taking the world’s 
curvature into consideration, from the deck it 
is seen while still over 20 miles away. The 
Barnegat station is a most important one, be- 
ing located on the most easterly point of the 
dangerous, low-lying Jersey coast. See PLATE. 

More than 40 lightships are stationed at 
points along our coast where beacons are neces- 
sary, but where the building of lighthouses is 
impracticable. The Diamond Shoal: lightship 
warns the navigator of his approach to dreaded 
Cape Hatteras. For years the Lighthouse Board 
tried to build a lighthouse on Diamond. shoal, 
but at last, after more than $250,000 had been 
spent and several lives lost, the attempt was 
given up. 

The Fire Island lightship is one of the line 
of ocean lampposts which mark the entrance to 
New York Harbor. It is equipped with a steam 
engine, electric lights, a steam whistle and 
many other improvements. The new South 
Shoal lightship, which is anchored 26 miles off 
Nantucket, is farther from shore than any 
other lightship in the world. It is the first 
American outpost and guards a shoal which 
in times past was a veritable graveyard for 
ships. | 

Steel Tubular Structures. One of. the 
most noted advances in modern times has been 
the abandonment’ of the old towers of stone or 
brick and the adoption of the steel tubular — 
structures in their places. The latter are built 
more easily on a solid, rocky foundation than 
the old huge piles of masonry. The steel skele- 
ton is bolted into the solid rock or anchored 
there by means of long spindle-like legs, which 
sink many feet down into the firm foundation, 
These huge cylindrical towers of steel withstand 
the pressure of wind far better than the stone 
and brick structures, and their strength is so 
great that there is practically no danger of their 


-ever being seriously injured by the elements. 


LIGHTHOUSES 


Nex 


Courtesy of William Elliot Griffis, Ithaca, 
e tip of South Japan 


1 Rock Island Lighthouse, Japan 2 Lighthouse at Satonomisaki, at the extrem 


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LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Even where the lighthouses are built in the 
water to mark shoals or dangerous reefs, the 
steel tubular style of structure is adopted. 
The foundation work of the structure is built 
up above the water with stone or concrete, and 
to this the steel tower is bolted. The latter 
looks more like a giant smokestack than any- 
thing else, and it stands as a permanent bea- 
con of the sea to warn mariners of their 
danger. Not only is additional strength and 
security obtained through the adoption of the 
steel tubular lighthouses, but the cost of con- 
struction is greatly reduced. Modern _light- 
houses cost far more than they did in former 
days, but that is due to the fact that they are 
built on a larger and more enduring scale, and 
the lights are of far greater power and inten- 
sity. A modern American lighthouse frequently 
costs $125,000, and often one-third of this is 
spent in the electric light and apparatus alone. 
In the old system the lights represented a com- 
paratively small proportion of the expense. 
Bibliography.— Adams, W. H. D., ‘Light- 
houses and Lightships» (London 1870); Barn- 
ard, J. G, ‘Lighthouse Engineering? (New 
York 1879) ; Heap, D. P., ‘Ancient and Modern 
Lighthouses’? (Boston 1889); Jenkins, H. D., 
‘The Lights, and Tides and Fog-signals of the 
World? (London 1900); Smiles, S., ‘Harbors, 
Lighthouses, Bridges» (London 1874); Steven- 
son, D., ‘Lighthouses? (London 1865) ; Steven- 
son, T., ‘Lighthouse Construction and Illumi- 
nation? (London 1881); ‘List of the Lights 
of the World?; Wryde, J. L., ‘British Light- 
houses: Their History and Romance.’ 


LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE OF THE 
UNITED STATES. Under the act of 17 
June 1910 the present general organization of 
the service is as follows: The commissioner of 
lighthouses and the deputy commissioner pre- 
sidé over an office in Washington, D. C., which 
is the executive centre of the service. In this 
office are an engineering construction division, 
under the chief constructing engineer; a naval 
construction division, under the superintendent 
of naval construction; a hydrographic division, 
under an assistant engineer, and the general 
office force, under the chief clerk. Outside of 
Washington the service is divided into 19 light- 
house districts, each under the charge of a 
lighthouse inspector. In each district there is 
a central office and one or more lighthouse 
depots. Each district is provided with light- 
house tenders for distributing supplies to the 
various stations and light vessels for transpor- 
tation of materials for construction or repair 
and for care of buoys. On Staten Island, New 
York Harbor, there is also a general lighthouse 
depot where supplies are purchased in quanti- 
ties, special apparatus is manufactured or re- 
paired and various experimental work is con- 
ducted. 

The total number of aids to navigation on 
30 June 1915 was 14,544 as compared with 11,713 
on 30 June 1910, representing a total net in- 
crease during the five years of 2,831, or 24 per 
cent, an average of 566 per year. For the pre- 
ceding five years from 30 June 1905 to 30 June 
1910 the total increase was 1,793, or an average 
of 359 per year. 

Careful consideration was given, in the in- 
terests of economy and efficiency, to the dis- 
continuance of lights and other aids no longer 


431 


required by navigation, so that the above figures 
represent a net increase, after allowing for 
2,850 aids to navigation which were discon- 
tinued during the five years. 

Careful attention was also given to the im- 
provement of apparatus and equipment, in ac- 
cordance with the best modern practice of coast 
lighting. Gas buoys, which are more appreci- 
ated by mariners than any other recent addition 
to coast lighting, were increased from 225 in 
1910 to 479 in 1915, a total increase of 254, or 
113 per cent. 

The use of oil-vapor lamps increases the 
illuminating power from a given quantity of 
kerosene oil by about eight times, and these 
lights have been greatly appreciated, because of 
their superior brilliancy. The number of oil- 
vapor installations at light stations were in- 
creased from 80 in 1910 to 286 in 1915, a total 
increase of 206 stations, or 257 per cent. Most 
of the primary coast lights are now provided 
with oil-vapor lamps. On the Atlantic coast, of 
the 70 primary lights 16 used oil-vapor in 1910 
and 64 in 1915; on the Pacific coast 2 used oil- 
vapor in 1910 and 32 out of the 34 primary 
lights used oil-vapor in 1915. 

Many of the older lights were fixed and did 
not have a characteristic which would distin- 
guish them from other lights. Steady progress 
was made in changing such lights, where doubt 
might occur, to flashing or occulting, and 169 
lights were so improved in the five-year period 
mentioned. Especially marked progress in this 
respect was made on the Pacific coast, where of 
the primary lights in 1910, 11 were fixed lights, 
whereas in 1915 only 2 out of 34 are fixed 
lights; of the total primary lights on the Atlan- 
tic and Pacific coasts in 1910, 65 were flashing 
or occulting and 37 fixed, and in 1915, 80 were 
flashing or occulting and 24 fixed. 

There was a strong demand for improved 
lighting of Alaskan waters, and the number of 
lights on the coast of Alaska were increased 
from 37 in 1910 to 112 in 1915, an increase of 
75, or 203 per cent. ° 

The total number of fog signals, including 
sounding ‘buoys, increased from 844 in 1910 to 
1,044 in 1915, an increase of 200, or 24 per 
cent. Classified as to types, the increases were: 
Fog signals on shore, 498 to 527; whistling 
buoys, 104 to 149; ‘bell buoys, 200 to 318; sub- 
marine bells, 42 to 50. 

Although the number of aids to navigation 
steadily increased, as shown in the preceding 
paragraphs, involving an increase in all the 
operations of the service, it was possible to 
maintain this increased number of aids with a 
less number of lighthouse tenders, owing to 
the simplification of work and concentration of 
authority under the reorganization. Thus in 
1910 there were 51 lighthouse tenders, in 1913 
44 tenders and in 1915 47 tenders. With the 
considerable increase of 24 per cent which was 
made in the total number of aids to navigation, 
a gradual increase in tenders became -necessary. 
Both for this reason and because of the neces- 
sity of replacing tenders as they are worn out 
in service, three tenders were being constructed 
and estimates accepted for others. 

The number of light vessels and light-vessel 
stations diminished by a slight amount, two 
vessels and stations during the five years’ period, 
the increase which might normally have been. 
expected having been offset by the large in- 


432 LIGHTNING ARRESTER — LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING-RODS 


crease in gas buoys, many of them equipped 
with whistles, bells and submarine bells, thus 
supplying important aids to a much larger num- 


ber of localities and at much less expense than. | 


would have been possible with light vessels. 
There was, however, a steady construction of 
new light vessels to replace those worn out in 
service. 

Typical of the more important, aids which 
were established or materially improved. dur- 
ing a recent year are: New light vessels with 
flashing lights and compressed air fog signals 
at Poe Reef, Straits of Mackenac, Lake Huron, 
Mich., and Buffalo Entrance, Lake Erie, N.Y. 
Both of these were former light-vessel stations 
which had been temporarily discontinued, one 
having been discontinued during 1915. New 
light and fog signal stations were constructed 
at Brandywine Shoal, Del., and Thimble Shoal, 
Va., in place of former structures.. A complete 
new system of lighted aids was established at 
the approaches to the Cape Cod Canal, Mass.; 
important coast lights were changed from fixed 
to flashing or. occulting in Alaska, Washington, 
Hawaii and Florida, while fog signals, electric 
bells, electric and automatic sirens, submarine 
bells, important gas buoys, flashing acetylene 
gas lights and systems of minor aids and buoy- 
age were established, extensively rearranged or 
improved in important localities, all over the 
States and dependencies. The systematic in- 
spection and relief of all buoys at least once a 
year is carried out throughout the service with 
a greater degree of completeness than in prior 
-years, particularly in those districts where diffi- 
culties had been previously. experienced on ac- 
count of the large number of inaccessible buoys, 

A. systematic plan was developed of keeping 
records of extinguishments of various types of 
automatic gas lights, both on fixed and floating 
aids, with arrangements for reporting the per- 
centage of nights extinguished as compared to 
the entire period under observation. This is be- 
lieved to be useful in compiling information as 
to the comparative efficiency of various types in 
service and the degree of reliance which may 
be placed on such lights. Further improve- 
ments in publishing notices to mariners were 
undertaken during the year, by adopting a more 
concise form, giving only such facts as are of 
principal interest to the mariner. The light 
lists for the Atlantic, Lake and Pacific coasts 
were each issued in octavo form, which, it was 
believed, would increase their usefulness to 
mariners. Special effort was made to publish 
the seacoast light lists as. soon after the first 
of the calendar year as possible, and the Lake 
list was issued immediately prior to the open- 
ing of the season of navigation. 

During the five years. from 1910 the organi- 
zation and business methods of. the lighthouse 
service were thoroughly examined and, revised 
wherever it appeared advantageous to. do so; 
19 persons were appointed as civilian lighthouse 
inspectors, all selected solely on their technical 
qualifications; .15 of these were promoted in 
the Lighthouse Service, where each had served 
from 5 to 40 years, and-the other four had had 
experience of from 8 to 13 years each on other 
government vessels engaged in related technical 
work. -The two offices. in each. district. were 
combined into one, and the office force and the 
use of the lighthouse tenders rearranged on a 
business basis. A general inspector and an ex- 


seaman it oan A 


aminer were appointed, who make periodic in- 
spections of the technical and business methods 
in each district. A cost-keeping system for the 
whole service was inaugurated. The regulations 
and instructions, were thoroughly revised. An- 
nual conferences of lighthouse inspectors are 
held, and a monthly lighthouse bulletin is issued 
to the service. Aids and cadets have been ap- 
pointed for training in lighthouse engineering 
and nautical.work. The lighthouse publications 
have been simplified and systematized. Import- 
ant economies and improvements have been in- 
troduced in the use and handling of supplies 
and accounting for property. The form of ap- 
propriations has been simplified. Full co-opera- 
tion has been arranged between the Lighthouse 
Service and other branches of the Department 
of Commerce, other correlated bureaus of the 
government and maritime interests. Radio in- 
stallations have been made on several tenders, 
and many improvements of apparatus have been 
perfected or introduced. he 

In securing increased efficiency and economy 
the welfare of the staff and assistants has also 
been constantly considered. Legislation has 
been secured providing for compensation for 
injuries received in hazardous work of. the 
Lighthouse Service, the subsistence arrange- 
ments on vessels and the accommodations for 
crews have been improved, leave of absence has 
been. granted to employees engaged by the day, 
a medical handbook has been published and the 
co-operation of the Public Health Service ar- 
ranged for. A retirement system is also being 
persistently advocated for deserving employees 
who have earned this consideration. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTER, a contrivance 
for guarding against passage of atmospheric 
electricity through electrical apparatus... The 
line wires are attached to a plate of brass, 
usually serrated on the under side. This plate 
rests on another plate connected with. the 
ground, the two being separated by a thin layer 
of. insulating material. See ELecrricAL TERMS. 


LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING-RODS. 
Franklin in 1751 proved that lightning was 
simply a visible display of electricity—an ex- 
tended spark; and until a generation ago little 
was added to his exposition to define the differ- 
entia of this phenomena. The origin of atmos- 
pheric electricity is believed to be simple fric- 
tion. Faraday showed that a powerful current 
could be excited by steam-driven spray against 
a water surface, and the friction of wind-driven 
mist on. the earth’s surface may produce a great 
difference of potential between the latter and 
the upper air, possibly though not probably as- 
sisted by the friction on dust particles in’ the 
air. In any event, rain conducts a portion of 
it to earth; so that a period of dry weather 
causes a great accumulation of electricity, the 
particles of air distributing their charges 
through each other. This would make the earth 
and sky, in Lodge’s comparison, the two coat- 
ings of a Leyden jar, but ordinarily the dis- 
tance is too great for a spark to pass.» The 
effect of electrical discharges on vapor; how- 
ever, is to condense it into larger globules; this 
causes it to sink toward the earth as cloud, and 
the enormous tension relieves itself by passing 
from one cloud. to another or to the earth or 
objects upon it, preferably projections of some 
height. If conduction through the cloud were 


LIGHTNING AND 


* 


instantaneous, it would be drained of its charge 
in one immense flash; but it being a poor con- 
ductor, several flashes at different points are 
common. 

The discharge is determined by the tension 
of the air, the maximum of which without 
rupture is one-half gramme per square centi- 
meter. If the rupture is local, there is no flash, 
but only a brush; but it is often the case that 
when the weakest spot has given way, a gen- 
eral breach follows for a long distance, some- 
times miles, creating the flashes which pass 
either from cloud to earth or from cloud to 
cloud; and as the discharge of this portion 
draws the remaining current toward it, a second 
flash or set of flashes is made probable. But 
this analysis shows what experiment proves, 
that this flash is not a single discharge, but the 
successive discharges of a countless number of 
vapor particles or raindrops toward the earth or 
other electrified particles in the air, with such 
rapidity of progress that they seem simultane- 
ous; since it is most improbable that if vast 
numbers of points gave way at once, they should 
all give way in the same line. It has been 
further proved by Prof. Ogden N. Rood that 
the flash is not a single sequence merely too 
swift for the eye to individualize; but although 
it lasts only a fraction of a second, it is itself 
composed of primary flashes in irregular se- 
quence, each lasting but from a thousandth to 
a few thousandths of a second. This result was 
obtained by photography, which has invaluably 
supplemented laboratory experiment. By the 
latter, Prof. John Trowbridge has formed arti- 
ficial flashes of lightning many feet long, made 
up of a combination of small discharges from 
a great number of petty cells. It had been long 
before proved by Joseph Henry that every elec- 
tric discharge is an alternating or oscillating 
current, the periods of oscillation being only a 
few millionths of a second each and diminish- 
ing very rapidly in intensity; the entire dura- 
tion depending on the magnitude and distance 
of the bodies. Hence it has been inferred that 
the small primary flashes are instances of these 
alternating discharges. Photography steadily 
. tends to confirm these views. 

Lightning according to its manifestations is 
divided into three classes. The “flash”. or 
“stroke” lightning is the one had in mind when 
the name is used without qualification; it ap- 
pears either as.a sharp zigzag line of extreme 
brilliancy, or the same forked, but as more 
clearly revealed by photography shows a wavy 
line oscillating with enormous. rapidity, or in 
tree shapes with endless branches, or ribbon 
shape, or in a mass of strands of close but dis- 
tinct parallel flashes like unraveled rope, or still 
other shapes. Dark flashes in photographs are 
only photo-chemical decompositions on the 
plate. The second sort is sheet lightning, a 
sudden glow of a golden or reddish tinge on 
the horizon, with no definite shape or bounds. 
It is not usually an actual discharge in that 
form, the very genesis of lightning making it 
rare; but is the reflection of lightning flashes 
out of sight beyond the horizon, cast on the 
clouds or atmospheric haze, and visible some- 
times for many scores of miles beyond the 
place of the actual storm which causes the 
flashes. A third is ball lightning, which for a 
long time was not admitted as a genuine form 
of electric discharge, and is still a very difficult 

“ VOL. 17—23 


LIGHTNING-RODS 433 


and in some points unexplainable phenomenon. 
It has not been photographed, though some- 
thing like it has been produced on a small scale 
in the laboratory. It is described as a ball 
or globe of brilliant light moving slowly a 
short distance above the surface of the earth, 
as if rolling on an invisible support a few feet 
high, and it has been said on occasion to float 
through an open door or window into a house, 
as though drawn in by a draft of air; it usually 
explodes, but without doing much damage. Un- 
der the head of lightning is sometimes included 
Saint Elmo’s fire or corposant—jets and 
brushes. of light seen not only at the tips of 
masts and yards of a ship in a thunderstorm, 
but on mountain tops, in hissing tongues of 
Dre R white and blue light several inches 
ong. 

The rope-strand lightning is not wholly ac- 
counted for; though there is general agreement 
that the first flash makes a rent or tube-like 
break in the air, along which succeeding dis-. 
charges rush back and forth. Of the multiple 
flash, the explanation most conformable to 
laboratory experiment — where a spark between 
electrodes has been made to assume a like shape 
by blowing across it —is that the tube or open- 
ing does not close for a fraction of a second, 
and the wind, always violently present in a 
thunderstorm, moves the mass of air sidewise 
simultaneously enough to keep the tube intact 
for a moment. Another theory holds that the 
tube or break in the air closes up too quickly 
for this, but is so large that the alternate flashes 
appear side by side. 

The thunder and the large raindrops accom-. 
panying lightning are well understood. The 
heat produced by the electric discharge travers- 
ing the atmosphere causes a sudden expansion 
of the particles next it, with a sharp compres- 
sion of those beyond, in a great wave; on its 
passage the particles contract as suddenly, and 
the waves roll violently back, producing the 
noise of thunder. From the relatively slow 
passage of sound in the air and the increased 
and uneven refraction due to. differences of 
temperature and wind movement, the thunder- 
waves very soon begin to rise and pass inaudi- 
bly overhead; so that it is rarely heard more 
than 15 or 20 miles off. The reason why the 
thunder follows the lightning usually at an ap- 
preciable interval is due to the fact that light 
travels so much faster than sound. When a 
flash occurs at the distance of a mile, the 
thunder is heard about five seconds later, and by 
noting the interval an observer can judge with 
considerable accuracy the distance of the dis- 
charge. Any flash of lightning within an eighth 
of a mile seems instantaneous with the thunder 
because the light persists and is retained in the 
vision for a short interval. The consolidation 
of the vapor into drops has been exactly imi- 
tated in the laboratory by electrifying spray, 
which causes the mist particles at once to begin 
aggregating in large globules. It has been 
shown that the mutual repellence of particles 
ceases as soon as a difference of potential is es- 
tablished by electrification, which substitutes a 
sort of suction around centres of force. 

Protection from Lightning.— The annual 
destruction of life and property. by lightning is 
very considerable; the former cannot be pre- 
vented to any great extent — though common- 
sense as to exposure can be instilled,— the latter 


434 


could in part. In the United States during 1899, 
563 persons were killed and 820 injured; parts 
of the Rockies and the upper Missouri Valley 
were the most dangerous. This rate, about 5 
per 1,000,000, is larger than in other countries, 
from our great population of outdoor agricul- 
tural and ranching laborers. Fatalities are 
everywhere increased by the-tendency to seek 
shelter from the rain when caught out in a 
storm, and these isolated shelters, as trees, 
barns, monument buildings in public parks, etc., 
are among the most liable to be struck. Statis- 
tics of buildings struck are in some respect sig- 
nificant, in others not detailed enough for util- 
ity. Thus, in Schleswig-Holstein during 1874— 
83, the annual average of strokes for wooden 
and thatched roofs was nearly two and one- 
half times greater than for slate or metal roofs, 
that for chimneys over 16 times as many even 
as the former, and that for windmills over one- 
third larger still. On the other hand, we learn 
nothing from the fact that in the United States 
during 1900, out of 1,847 buildings struck, 40 
had lightning-rods, 855 had not and there is no 
report of 952, because not knowing what pro- 
portion of all buildings had them — probably a 
very small one —we have no percentages. On 
the other hand, it is notable that in nine years 
ending. 1892, 2,335 barns, 104 churches and 664 
dwellings were struck, and the larger fire-in- 
surance companies have generally ceased insur- 
ing farm buildings. Isolated buildings in gen- 
eral were in five times as great danger as those 
in city blocks, perhaps partly because protected 
by. metal cornices, etc. The: Chronicle Fire 
Tables in 1902 recorded 3,012 fires in the United 
States caused by lightning, with a property loss 
of $3,397,000. This total is considered so small 
that since there has been no effort to gather 
the statistics. : 

Is it worth while attempting to protect build- 
ings in general from lightning? Aside from 
the fact that we are never sure a building struck 
may not involve a loss of life, the matter re- 
solves itself into a question of cost, and it is 
clearly demgnstrated that it is not worth while. 
The problem was decided by the insurance com- 
panies some years ago. In the eight years 
1885-92, in the United States, there were 3,516 
fires from lightning, with a loss of $12,663,835, 
or a little over $1,500,000 a year The insurable 
part of this was nearly all insured and the prac- 
tical question for: property-holders is whether 
lightning-rods secure lower rates. Notoriously 
they do not. ‘The companies make not the least 
difference in rates for “protected” buildings, as 
to insurability or rates, and the officials rarely 
put them on their own dwellings; the lightning- 
rod business is virtually extinct in this country. 
The public would, therefore, gain nothing by 
the outlay; except that with uninsurable isolated 
buildings, it would probably pay to enmesh 
them with metal points rather than undergo the 
risk. Of course also there are many cases where 
even a heavy expense ought to be incurred, as 
with buildings or their contents not replaceable 
with money — historic’ or noted architectural 
structures, museums, etc.. But the fact remains 
that to reduce this $1,500,000 to. one-third that 
amount would cost probably 50 times the sav- 
ing in gross and several times the amount in 
yearly interest. 


If protection is desired, however, it is fully 


LIGHTNING-STROKE 


en ae ores 


proved that a great quantity of scattered metal 
points — whether iron or copper is immaterial, 
and iron is cheaper —is the most effective; a 
mesh of barbed-wire fence over the roof and 
chimneys would be not only the cheapest, but 
one of the most effective protections. The 
great steel buildings in New York City have all 
been struck time and again by lightning with- 
out damage. The numerous metal points and 
corners draw the electricity and it is promptly 
absorbed and distributed through the massive 
steel framework. Perfect safety is thus ob- 
tained by enclosing the building in a metal 
sheath, as no electric discharge can penetrate 
into an enclosed metal safe. The consensus of 
expert opinion now is that if a building is to 
be protected at all, numerous light iron rods 
are best, supported at a little distance from the 
structure and with numerous points. The old 
“conduit” theory of draining off the lightning 
and having a good conductor to prevent re- 
sistance and insulators to prevent jumping is 
now discarded: it is recognized that there is an 
enormous amount of electric energy to be dis- 
charged almost instantly, it is almost certain to 
distribute itself around a considerable area and 
all that the points can do is to ensure and regu- 
late that distribution. If lightning-rods are 
used there should always be a good “ground” 
or “earth” at the bottom, as a ton of coke or a 
water ditch. The last statistics on lightning 
damage gathered and published by the United 
States Weather Bureau was in 1900, giving fig- 
ures for the previous year, as nearly as they 
could be obtained.. A total of 5,527 “strikes” 
were recorded, injuring 6,256 buildings. The 
property loss was a little over $3,000,000 and 
4,251 head of livestock were killed, of a value 
of $130,000. Most of this latter was due to 
cattle contacting barbed wire fences in thunder 
storms. Consult Lodge’s ‘Lightning Conduc- 
tors and Lightning Guards (1892); and the 
report entitled ‘Modern Lightning Conduc- 
tors, edited by Lodge, of the Lightning Re- 
search Committee of the Royal Institute of 
British Architects (1905). 


LIGHTNING-STROKE. About five or 
six persons per million die annually from 
lightning-shocks. The effects of lightning- 
stroke on the body are similar to those pro- 
duced by large amounts of electricity at high 
voltage. Persons subjected to the influence of 
lightning-stroke may suffer very slightly or may 
be killed, and between these extremes a vast 
variety of minor or major injuries may result. 
The most characteristic form of injury is some 
sort of burn. This occasionally shows on the 
skin as an arborescence, which was formerly 
thought to resemble the tree under which a 
patient had sought shelter during a storm, but 
is, of course, solely an effect of the zig-zagging 
of the electrical discharge. In many persons 
mental shock and prolonged nervousness are 
frequent symptoms. Mild stunning, with a 
sense of suffocation, may be experienced when 
an electrical bolt strikes near a person, and oc- 
casionally nervous and hysterical attacks are in- 
duced. Suppression of menstruation and 
abortion have been reported. Numbness and 
prickling of various areas of the body; paraly- 
sis of the muscles; deafness; loss of smell and 
taste; and paralysis of the bladder and rectum 
have all been described. Occasionally insanity, 


LIGHTON — LILAC 


has followed lightning-stroke. Other experi- 
ences of persons who have been exposed ir 
clude flashing in the eyes, buzzing in the ears, 
general tremor, which may go on to convulsions, 
with or without loss of consciousness, and peo- 
ple who have been seen in this stage have been 
described as being blue, with muscles tightly 
contracted, the pupils dilated, the breath deep 
and snoring and pulse feeble. Since there are 
more than 30 deaths by suicide to one by light- 
ning-stroke, it would seem wholly unnecessary 
for the average individual to worry over the 
likelihood of his earthly career berng ended by 
lightning. 

In death by lightning, changes in the nerv- 
ous system have been found and it is probable 
that the cause of death may be either the re- 
sult of minute hemorrhages, which take place 
in the important centres of breathing and of 
the heart-action and in the medulla; or death 
may be the physiological effect of the electric- 
ity on the heart, causing a form of heart-tet- 
anus, with rapid cessation of the movement of 
this organ. 

The treatment of lightning-stroke, as well 
as of other forms of electrical injuries, should 
be promptly instituted. If commercial currents 
are the cause they should be removed at once, 
care being taken to use insulating materials to 
remove live wires. External heat to the body 
with hot-water bottle, cardiac stimulation with 
whisky, ammonia, etc., with artificial respira- 
tion, should be simultaneously used. 

No method of artificial respiration or other 
attempt to produce consciousness should be 
abandoned under three to six hours, as often 
no signs of life may be brought out in less than 
two to three hours. It is seriously advised by 
some observers that, before giving up all hope, 
an injection of an alkaline solution into the 
blood should be used. Hot saline solution may 
be thrown into the rectum and the treatment 
should be continued until all possible methods 
of resuscitation have been employed. Consult 
Jelliffe, ‘Death by Lightning and Electricity? 
(in ‘Text-book of Legal Medicine and Toxi- 
cology,» 1903); ‘Death by Electric Currents 
and by Lightning? (in British Medical Journal, 
London 1913). 


LIGHTON, William Rheem, American 
prose writer: b. Lycoming County, Pa., 13 July 
1866. ._He was admitted to the Kansas and Ne- 
braska bar in 1891 and has published ‘Sons of 
Strength: a Romance of the Kansas Border 
Wars? (1899) ; “Lewis and Clark,? in ‘River- 
side Biography? Series. 


LIGNIN, tthe substance of wood-fibre, 
formed in part at least by conversion from cel- 
lulose (q.v.), and contained within the cellular 
tissue, giving hardness and weight to the woody 
parts of plants. Its chemical composition is not 
determined, but it is characterized by being sol- 
uble in weak alkalis and insoluble in water. 


LIGNITE, a partially carbonized fossil 
wood, retaining its woody fibre and intermedi- 
ate in its qualities between peat and coal. It is 
found in the Mesozoic and Tertiary strata, but 
chiefly in the latter. Much of the coal of the 
Gulf States, the Great Plains and Alaska is lig- 
nite. For description of lignite and especially 
for composition of American lignites, see CoAL. 


LIGNUM VITZ&, vi'té. See GuatAcum. 


of Sant Agata de’ 


435 


LIGNY, lé’nyé‘, a village in Belgium, prov- 
ince of Namur, nine miles northeast of Charle- 
roi and 14 ‘miles northwest of Namur. Here 
was fought the prelude to the battle of Water- 
loo on 16 June 1815. The Prussians were sta- 
tioned at Ligny and the British at Quatre- 
Bras. Napoleon made a simultaneous attack 
on the two forces, striking at 84,000 Prussians 
under Blucher with his own 60,000. After a 
long and desperate struggle the Prussians were 
driven from the field with a loss of about 12,000. 
Napoleon lost 8,000 killed and wounded. Two 
days later came Waterloo (q.v.). 


LIGUORI, lé-gw6’ré, Saint Alfonso Maria 
de, Catholic prelate, founder of the religious 
order called Redemptorists: b. Naples, 26 Sept. 
1696; d. Nocera, Italy, 1 Aug. 1787. He was 
originally a lawyer, but became a priest in 1722, 
joined the Congregation for the Propagation of 
the Faith, tnstituted in Naples, and occupied 
himself as a missionary in the instruction of 
the ignorant peasantry. In 1732 he founded a 
monastery at Villa Scala, the members of which 
comprised the Order of the Most Holy Re- 
deemer as it was called and were to be em- 
ployed in the instruction of the people. This 
order, approved by Pope Benedict XIV in 1749, 
rapidly extended in Italy, Germany, Spain and 
France. Liguori was in 1762 appointed bishop 
Gotici by Clement XIII, 
from which office he resigned in 1775. He was 
canonized in 1839 and in 1871 was declared a 
doctor of the Church. His ‘Theologia Mo- 
ralis> has appeared in several recent editions 
(Ratisbon 1881; Turin 1892; Genoa 1898) and 
there is a German edition of his letters ( Ratier 
bon 1893, et seq.). 


LIGURIA, li-gi’ri-a, in ancient Greek and 
Roman geography that portion of northern 
Italy extending along the Mediterranean from 
the frontiers of Gallia Cisalpina to those of 
Etruria, bounded on the north by the Po, east 
by the Macra and west by the Varus. These 
were its limits at the time of Augustus, but at 
an earlier period it extended to the borders of 
Gaul, or even to the mouths of the Rhone. In 
1797 Genoa received from Napoleon I a demo- 
cratic constitution, under the appellation of the 
Ligurian Republic. This republic ceased to ex- 
ist in 1805, when the emperor incorporated it 
with France. After 1814 it formed part of the 
kingdom of Sardinia and now of Italy, and 
comprises the provinces of Genoa and Porto 
Maurizio. 


LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. See Licuria. 
LIJA, a fish. See FILE-FISHES. 


LILAC, a genus of ornamental, deciduous 
shrubs and trees (Syringa) of the order Olea- 
cee. The species are characterized by opposite 
slender-staiked leaves and purplish or white 
and usually fragrant flowers in erect panicles. 
Nearly all the species which have developed 
many horticultural varieties are valued for park 
and garden planting, on account of their hardi- 
ness and free-blooming qualities. The common 
lilac (S. vulgaris) is a native of southwestern 
Asia, whence it was taken to Vienna during 
the closing years of the 16th century. It is 
probably the most widely planted of all the 
species. "The wood of its larger specimens, 
which sometimes attain a height of more than 


20 feet, is valued by cabinet-makers, for turn- 


436 


ing andinlaying. About a dozen species are cul- 
tivated in America.. They do best in deep, rich 
soil, but will succeed almost anywhere; indeed, 
they are likely to become a nuisance from their 
habit of suckering, a habit taken advantage of 
for propagating purposes. Cuttings are also 
used, and some of the newer and choicer varie- 
ties are grafted upon ordinary lilac or upon 
privet stocks. During the closing years of the 
last century the plant came into vogue as a 
florists’ flower, large quantities being forced 
for the winter and early spring markets. 


LILBURNE, lil’bern, John, English sectary 
and political agitator: b. Thickney Puncharden, 
County Durham, about 1614; d. Eltham, Kent, 
29 Aug. 1657. For putting forth tracts hostile 
to the Anglican Church he was whipped and 
imprisoned in 1637, but was released by the 
Long Parliament in 1640, and his conviction 
having been declared illegal and tyrannic, he 
received $15,000 indemnity. He then joined the 
army and rose‘to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
He was one of the party known as the “Level- 
lers” (q.v.), and for his attacks on Cromwell 
and others was several times committed to the 
Tower. Having been exiled and having re- 
turned without leave, he was put in prison and 
tried for his life, but was acquitted although 
not liberated for some time. Subsequently he be- 


came a member of the Society of Friends. 


Hume describes him as “the most turbulent, but 
also the most upright and courageous of men.” 

LILIACEA, lil-i-a’seé-e, or LILY 
FAMILY, one of the most important orders 
of plants because of the uses made by man of 
many of its species, about 2,500 of which are 
comprised in nearly 200 genera. The character- 
istics of the group are . monocotyledonous 
seeds; usually herbaceous stems which arise 
from bulbous, tuberous or rarely fibrous roots; 
generally narrow, simple leaves; and six-parted 
or toothed flowers, solitary or arranged in vari- 
ous ways, such as panicles, racemes, etc. In 
habit, many are adapted to deserts, some to 
ponds and streams, others are climbers, etc. 
Among those useful for food may be men- 
tioned asparagus, onion, garlic, leek, chive, 
rocambole, shallot, camass and various species 
of lilies. A very large number of species are 
used for ornament; for example, lily, hyacinth, 
tulip, fritillary, lily-of-the-valley, tuberose, al- 
lium and yucca. Several species of Xanthorea 
and Dracena yield useful resins; some of. the 
genus Chloragalum furnish a _ substitute for 
soap; and certain. species of yucca, sanseveria 
and of other genera yield valuable fibres. Iso- 
lated species of various genera have been used 
in medicine. 


LILIENTHAL, Max, American rabbi: b. 
Munich, Bavaria, 15 Nov. 1815; d. Cincinnati, 
Ohio, 5 April 1882. Graduating from,the uni- 
versity of his birthplace he was called to the di- 
rectorship of a Hebrew school tn Riga, Russia, 
and at government expense traveled through 
the 17 western provinces of Russia to encour- 
age the Jews to make educational reforms. In 
1842 this mission was ended and until 1845 he 
remained in Saint Petersburg, perfecting his 
educational system, when the Tsar Nicholas is- 
suing orders. which aimed at the conversion of 
the Jews to the Greek Church, he emigrated to 
America.. On his arrival in 1844 he was made 


rabbi of three synagogues, but in 1850 resigned | 


LILBURNE — LILIUS 


to establish a school. In 1855 he accepted a 
call as rabbi of the B’nai Israel Congregation of 
Cincinnati, a position he held until his death. 
He was foremost in civic and educational. re- 
form, an active member of the board of educa- 
tion and a director of the Cincinnati Univer- 
sity. He was prominent in the councils of the 
Free Religion Associations and always cham- 
pioned the cause of progressive Indians with 
his voice and pen. He aided largely in the es- 
tablishing of the Hebrew Union College and as 
an orator did much in his addresses in churches 
and on the public platform to promote social 
and religious reform. 

LILIENTHAL, 1é’li-én-tal’, Otto, German 
aeronautical engineer: b. Anklam, Prussia, 23 
May 1848; d. Rhinow, Prussia, 9 Aug. 1896. 
He studied at the Berlin trade school and then 
worked for Schwartzkopff and Hoppe at Ber- 
lin. Early in 1880 he founded a factory of his 
own, at which he made boilers, wrought-iron 
pulleys and sirens of his own invention. He also 
devoted himself to aeronautics and tried to 
solve the problem of flight by heavier-than-air 
machines. He invented the glider and made 
several successful glides, but met his death in 
an accident to one of his machines. He wrote 
‘Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst? 
(Berlin 1889; tr. as ‘Birdflight as the Basis of 
Aviation, 1911); ‘Die Flugapparate: allge- 
meine Gesichtspunkte bei deren Herstellung 
und Anwendung? (ib. 1894). See Arronau- 
Tics, History OF. 


LILIS, or LILITH, a character in Jewish 
mythology. The Talmudists say that Adam had 
a wife before Eve, whose name was Lilis. Re- 
fusing to submit to Adam, she left Paradise for _ 
a region of the air. She still haunts the night 
as a spectre and is especially hostile to new- 
born infants. Some superstitious Jews still put 
in the chamber occupied by their wives four 
coins with labels on which the names of Adam 
and Eve are inscribed with the words “Avaunt 
thee, Lilith!? Our word “lullaby” is said to be 
a corruption of “Lilla, abi” (Lilith, avaunt). 

LILIUOKALANT, 1é-lé-w6-ka-la’né, Ly- 
dia Kamekeha, ka-ma-ka'ha, ex-queen of Ha- 
wail: b. Honolulu, 2 Sept. 1838; d. 11 Nov. 1917. 
She was a sister of King Kalakaua and suc- 
ceeded him in 1891. She was. married to 
John O. Dominis, a native of Boston (d. 1891) 
who became governor of Oahu. She attempted 
to substitute a less liberal constitution for that 
of 1887, and this course resulted in her being 
deposed 30 Jan. 1893. The islanders then 
adopted a provisional government, which soon 
became a republic. She endeavored to secure 
assistance from the United States, visiting 
Washington in 1896 for that purpose, but on 
the annexation of Hawaii to the United States, 
in 1898, returned to the island. She revisited 
the United States in the winter of 1901-02 to 
press her claims for indemnity on the Crown 
lands, afterward residing in California and 
making a visit to Hawaii in 1914. See Hawan. 


LILIUS, Aloisius, author of the Gregorian 
calendar, originally called Aloigi Giglio. Noth- 
ing is known about him outside of his connec- 
tion with the reform of the calendar and the 
fact that he was professor of medicine at the 
University of Perugia in 1552. He is some- 
times mistakenly known as Luigi Lilio Giraldi. 
See CALENDAR. | 


LILIES AND AMARYLLIS 


1. Golden Lily (Lilium auratum). la. Blossom, enlarged. 2.Garden Amaryllis. 2a. Blossom, enlarged. 3, Crinum 
scabrum. 4. Eucharisamazonica. 4a. Root-stock. 5. Jacob’s Lily (Amaryllis formossima). 


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LILLE — LILY 


LILLE, 1él, France, an important town, 
capital of the department of the Nord and chief 
fortress of the north, 154 miles north of Paris 
and seven miles from the frontier of Belgium. 
It is well built and has spacious, regular streets, 
lined with large, massive houses. In the north- 
west of the town stands the citadel, a master- 
piece of Vauban. New fortifications include a 
circle of detached forts. Among the churches 
are Saint Maurice, in the flamboyant style, re- 
cently restored; Notre Dame de la Treille, in 
13th century Gothic; Saint Catherine; the 
Madelaine; and the Protestant Church. Among 
secular buildings are the Hotel de Ville, with 
rich collections of pictures, drawings, etc.; the 
exchange (1652); the prefecture; the palace of 
justice; the arsenal; the Paris Gate, a trium- 
phal arch in honor of Louis XIV; the general 
hospital; the theatre; and the concert-hall. 
Lille possesses a state university with four 
“faculties,” a Roman Catholic university, ly- 
ceum, communal college, school of art, con- 
servatory of music, public library of 100,000 
volumes, botanic garden, zoological garden, etc. 
The industries include cotton spinning and 
weaving, fine linen thread, linen and cotton 
twist, broadcloth, beet-sugar (raw and refined), 
soap, oil, ribbons, tulles, tobacco-factories, en- 
gine-works, foundries, dye-works, bleach-fields, 
breweries and distilleries. Its situation on the 
frontier and extensive railway and water com- 
munication made. Lille a great entrepot of 
trade. Lille is said to have originated in 1030, 
when Count Baldwin IV of Flanders fortified 
the little settlement around the castle of Buc. 
From this as a nucleus, the town grew rapidly 
until it gained communal privileges. Its his- 
tory has been a stormy one. It was destroyed 
in 1213 by Philip Augustus, rebuilt by Joanna, 
Countess of Flanders, and was retaken in 1297. 
It was finally given to the king of France in 
1312. It became a Burgundian possession 
through Margaret, wife of Philip’ the Bold, 
during which régime it grew in prestige. It 
fell into Austrian and then into Spanish power 
and was finally recaptured by Louis XIV of 
France in 1667. Captured in 1708, it was re- 
stored to France by the Treaty of Utrecht. The 
Austrians were unable to conquer it in 1792. 
In 1914, after a stubborn resistance by the al- 
lied English, French and Belgian armies, dur- 
ing which the city changed hands many times, 
Lille was captured by the Germans and a 
heavy tribute was exacted. See War, Evuro- 
PEAN. 

LILLIBULLERO, lil’’i-bi-lé’rd, a_politi- 
cal ballad that “sung James II out of three 
kingdoms.» A scurrilous attack on the Irish re- 
cruits, it is said to have been written by Lord 
Wharton in 1686 and the setting is ascribed 
to Henry Purcell. 


LILLIPUT, lil’i-puit, the name of a fabu- 


lous kingdom described by Jonathan Swift. 


(q.v.) in ‘Gulliver’s Travels,’ of which the in- 
habitants were not greater in size than a man’s 
finger. 


LILLO, lil’6, George, English dramatist: 
b, London, 4 Feb. 1693; d. there, 3 Sept. 1739. 
The son of a Dutch jeweler, he was brought 
up to his father’s trade, and was for several 
years in partnership with him. ‘Silvia, or the 
Country Burial» (1730), a ballad opera, was his 
first piece; and was followed (1731). by the 


437 


famous ‘London Merchant, or the History of 
George Barnwell,’ nowadays better known by 
its subtitle, which made its author famous, and 
held the stage for nearly a century. It hada 
marked influence in its day, and may be re- 
garded as a precursor of the “domestic drama.” 
His other dramatic productions include ‘Britan- 
nia, or the Royal Lovers? (1734); ‘Fatal Curi- 
osity? (1736); ‘Arden of Feversham, an 
adaptation of an Elizabethan play, revised or 
completed by John Hoadly after Lillo’s death. 

LILLY, lili, William, English astrologer: 
b. Diseworth, Leicestershire, 1 May 1602; 
d. Horsham, Surrey, 9 June 1681. In 1632 he 
became interested in astrology, and two years 
later was associated with others in an unsuc- 
cessful search for treasure in the cloisters of 
Westminster Abbey. In 1644 he published the 
first volume of his almanac, ‘Merlinus Angli- 
cus Junior, the English Merlin Revived, ora 
Mathematical Prediction upon the Affairs of 
the English Commonwealth, which appeared 
annually till his death. The king of Sweden 
sent him a gold chain and medal in 1659 in 
recognition of a favorable horoscope cast for 
him a short time before. He published many 
works, and was frequently engaged in contro- 
versy. His chief writings are ‘Christian As- 
trology, modestly treated in Three Books? 
(1647), reprinted in 1852 by Zadkiel as ‘An 
Introduction to Astrology”; ‘An Astrological 
Prediction of the Occurrences in England for 
the Years 1648, 1649, 1650? (1648) ; ‘Monarchy 
and No Monarchy? (1651); ‘True History of 
King James I and King Charles I? (1651); 
‘Annus Tenebrosus? (1652); ‘Anima’ Astrol- 
ogiz (1676) ; and ‘Catastrophe Mundi? (1683). 
Butler satirizes Lilly in Hudibras under the 
name of Sidrophel. His autobiography was 
published in 1715. 


LILLY, William Samuel, English contro- 
versial writer: b. Fifehead, Dorsetshire, 10 July 
1840. He was educated at Cambridge and has 
been secretary to the Catholic Union of Great 
Britain from 1874. His works include ‘A Cen- 
tury of Revolution? (1899); ‘First Principles 
in Politics? (1899); ‘Essays and Speeches? 
(1897); ‘A Year. of Life? (€1900) ;..SRenais- 
sance T'ypes? (1901); ‘India and Its Problems’ 
(1902); ‘Studies in Religion and. Literature? 
(1904); ‘Many Mansions? (1907); ‘Idola Fori? 
(1910); ‘The New France? (1913). 


LILY. The type genus (Lilium) of the 
family Liliacee (q.v.). The several hundred 
well-marked species which have been described 
are succulent herbs with scaly bulbs and usually 
leafy upright stems terminated by solitary or 
variously grouped six-segmented flowers of 
very diverse colors and markings. In general, 
lilies are among the most popular of garden 
flowers, having held this position for centuries. 
But in the United States they have not taken 
the high rank that they hold in Europe, espe- 
cially in Great Britain. This is probably due 
largely to the dryer, hotter climate, and the 
injudicious planting of the bulbs where they 
cannot long survive. : a 

The various species and their varieties are 
adapted to a wide range of soils, a few, such 
as L. tigrinum, L. canadense and L. superbum, 
often succeeding in heavy land if well drained, 
and some, such as L. washingtonianum, L; phila- 
delphicum and L. concolor withstanding the 


438 


peculiar conditions of slaty ridges if deeply 
planted and well mulched during the growing 
season. But the greater number thrive best 
upon fairly rich, well-drained, deep, sandy loam, 
especially if sheltered from prevailing winds 
and the hot sun of midsummer. Not that the 
stems cannot stand sunlight; but the bulbs and 
roots should be cool and well but not exces- 
sively supplied with moisture and food. The 
bulbs should always be planted deeply, six 
inches or more, and the soil stirred to double 
the depth of planting. This not only assists in 
keeping the roots cool but protects the bulbs 


from excessive freezing, which seems to have, 


some effect upon the vitality of shallow-planted 
specimens of even the hardiest species. Since 
vitality is also impaired by the exposure of 
the bulbs to the air, great care should be taken 
in transplanting to place the bulbs back in the 
soil as soon as possible after their removal. 
Transplanting is best done in early spring, the 
clumps being dug up, divided, the large bulbs 
planted in new, permanent quarters and the 
small ones and the bulb scales in nursery beds, 
where they should remain from one to three 
years, according to size when planted and to 
the species. One reason why bulbs obtained 
from seedsmen fail is because of undue drying. 
Orders for lilies should be given before the 
seedsmen can obtain the bulbs, and they should 
be filled by him without delay after the bulbs 
arrive. Often bulbs become so flabby from 
loss of moisture that they may fail to grow 
until the second year. Hence it is advisable to 
plant all but plump and turgid bulbs in a nurs- 
ery bed, or where they may remain undisturbed 
for a year or two before being placed in per- 
manent quarters. Propagation by means of 
seeds is slow in most cases; and many species 
rarely produce seeds in the United States. 
The Bermuda Easter lily (L. longiflorum, 
var. eximium) is the only kind that is forced 
upon a commercial scale in the United States, 
though several other kinds are to be found in 
the principal florists’ stores and in private con- 
servatories. For forcing, the bulbs of this vari- 
ety are planted as soon after their arrival from 
Bermuda as possible, generally before the end 
of September, and are kept in a cool, dark place 
until roots are well developed and the tops 
commence to form, when they are brought into 
the light, and by judicious management of heat 


are hastened or retarded to ensure their blos- 
soming at desired seasons, especially Easter 
Sunday The management of other varieties 
used in greenhouses is more or less closely 
similar. 

In general, lilies are most effective when 
mixed in small masses among shrubbery and 
hardy flower borders, the various kinds being 
sufficiently separated either in distance between 
the groups, or in season of blossoming, to 
avoid the clashing of inharmonious colors. 
Many of them have been used ‘thus for orna- 
mental planting, but though the great majority 
are well worth growing, scarcely a dozen have 
become widely popular in the United States, 
and of these not one is a native American 
species. 

The following are probably the best-known 
species: Tiger lily (L. tigrinum), a Japanese 
species, often exceeds three feet in height and 
bears a loose raceme of sometimes a dozen nod- 
ding dark-red, purplish-spotted flowers. It is 


LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY 


a very hardy, useful species for the border, 
where it does best in masses. Madonna lily 
(L. candidum), a native. of southern Europe, 
often attains three feet, bears from ‘half a 
dozen to two dozen large, pure white, fragrant 
flowers in a raceme. It is a highly ornamental 
species, will do well upon sandy soils and in 
full sunlight. .The Siberian coral lily» (L: 
tenutfolium), which seldom exceeds two feet in 
height, bears from one to a score of scarlet, 
nodding flowers. Being very easy to prop- 
agate from seeds and bulb scales and of sim- 
plest culture, it is especially popular with be- 
ginners. Gold banded or Japan lily (L. aura- 
tum), which sometimes attains four feet, bears 
a few yellow banded, purple-spotted, white 
flowers in a short raceme. It is less persistent 
than the-tiger and the showy lily, and’ some- 
what less easy to cultivate, but is particularly 
useful for planting among groups of dark- 
colored shrubbery. Showy lily (L. speciosum), 
a Japanese species, often exceeds three. feet, 
bears six or more white or pinkish, red-dotted 
flowers in a raceme. It is a specially hardy, 
thrifty and satisfactory species both for out-of- 
door planting and for greenhouse use. Next to 
the Bermuda Easter lily and L. longiflorum it is 
probably more widely grown by florists for cut- 
ting than any other kind. It has both white 
and red varieties. L. longiflorum, the original 
species of the Bermuda Easter lily, is forced 
in the same way as its variety. It is a native 
of Japan, from which country most of the 
bulbs are imported. 

Besides the species mentioned the following 
are considered worthy of wide popularity: 
L. chalcedonicum, elegans, testaceum, maximo- 
wicsu, martagon, maculatum, henry, monadel- 
phum and superbum. These do well with little 
care upon ordinary light loamy soils. L. cana- 
dense and superbum succeed upon the same 
soils but require rather shady places. For cold 
climates even as far north as Ottawa, Canada, 
the following have proved ‘successful: L. 
brown, wallacet, citrinum, croceum, melpomene, 
pardalinum, pomponium, dahuricum and. bate- 
manne. The odors of L. croceum and pom- 
ponium are very offensive even in the garden, 
and. when they are planted they should be at 
some distance from the house. Among the 
most fragrant are L. longiflorum, auratum, can- 
didum and varieties. Consult Bailey, ‘Stand- 
ard Cyclopedia of Horticulture? (1916); EI- 
wes, ‘A Monograph of the Genus Lilium? 
CA Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, p. 235, 
1899). 


LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY, a low-growing 
perennial herb (Convallaria majalis) of the lily 
family, with creeping rootstocks from which as- 
cend radical leaves and little white or pink 
fragrant flowers arranged in racemes upon 
scapes. The plant being a native of western 


.Asia is one of those popularly supposed to 


be referred to in the Sermon of the Mount, 
the tulip being another. It is a native also 
of Europe and of the mountains of the south- | 
eastern United States. The plants are perfectly 
hardy. They thrive in partially shaded, fairly 
rich loam, and may be readily propagated by 
means of the underground parts. Since beds 
are apt to run out they should be renewed 
every few years. The strong terminal buds 
known as pips are extensively used by florists 


MOUTH OF THE RIVER LIM 


t 


~ Z 


TRE UIBRARY 
ee OE WES oe 


MANERSITY OF LIMO 


LILYBAUM —LIMANTOUR 


for forcing the flowers throughout the year. 
Several horticultural varieties have been pro- 
duced, some with variegated or striped foliage, 
others with pink, variegated, or double flowers. 
A highly esteemed perfume, eau d’or, is made 
in France from the flowers; and the rootstocks 
have been used by druggists, but are less popu- 
lar than formerly. 


LILYBEU\M, lil-i-bé’tim, the ancient name 
of Cape Boeo (q.v.). 


LIM, a picturesque affluent of the Drina 
River, which rises on the northern slope of the 
Albanian Alps in Montenegro, between Beda- 
vero and Priboy forms the boundary with Ser- 
bia, and after the first 30’ miles of its entire 
course of 140 miles, flows beyond the border 
through Bornia to its junction with the Drina. 


LIMA, li’ma, Ohio, city, county-seat of Al- 
len County, on the Ottawa River, and on the 
Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Cincinnati, Hamil- 
ton and Dayton, the Detroit Southern and the 
Lake Erie and Western and other railroads, 
about 70 miles north of Dayton and 80 miles 
south of Toledo. It is situated in an agricul- 
tural region and in the natural gas and petro- 
leum belt of the State. The oil fields extend 
into six counties in the northwestern part of 
the State. The chief industrial establishments 
are locomotive and car works, machine-shops, 
petroleum refineries and railroad shops. The 
shipping trade is chiefly in petroleum, farm 
and dairy products and railroad car equip- 
ments. The city is the seat of Lima College, 
opened in 1893 under the auspices of the Lu- 
therans. The city owns and operates the water- 
works. The Ohio State Hospital for the Crim- 
inal Insane, one of the largest institutions of 
its kind, is located here. Pop. (1920) 41,306. 

LIMA, lé’ma, Peru, South America, a de- 
partment in the western part, on the Pacific 
Ocean; area, 13,310 square miles. It is moun- 
tainous in the east, but along the coast the land 
is low, and in the river valleys productive. A 
number of villages and towns are in the val- 
leys. One of the principal agricultural produc- 
tions is sugar. There are rich mineral deposits, 
but as yet the mines are undeveloped. Pop. 
about 300,000. The capital is Lima (q.v.) and 
the chief port, Callao, is, with a few miles of 
surrounding territory, now a separate depart- 
ment. 


LIMA, Peru, South American city, capital 
of the department of Lima, on the Rimac 
River, seven miles from the Pacific. Callao, on 
the Pacific, at the mouth of the Rimac, is the 
port of Lima; it is connected with Lima by two 
railroads, one on each side of the Rimac. 
Another railroad extends from Lima to Con- 
cepcién, a town on the eastern slope of the 
Andes. This railroad is in one place 15,000 
feet above the sea. The city was founded by 
Francisco Pizarro, 1535, and named Ciudad de 
los Reyes, “City of the Kings,” because the site 
was chosen on 6 January, the feast of the 
“Wise Men,” or the “Three Kings.» It is about 
500 feet above sea-level. The climate is un- 
healthful and dense fogs are prevalent. The 
city is triangular in form, and its streets are 
straight if narrow. Lima contains several 
promenades adorned with ornamental plants 
and statues and several notable plazas. The 
principal of these are the Plaza de Bolivar, the 
Plaza Mayo, and the Plaza del Acho with its 


439 


bull ring.. The exposition grounds form a fine 
pleasure garden and here are also zoological 
and ‘botanical gardens. Lima’s houses are in 
the Spanish style with the central patio and are 
mostly of- adobe stuccoed with plaster. The 
cathedral, begun in 1535 and reconstructed. in 
1758, is the most notable building. There are 
about 70 other churches, some of architectural 
merit and several fine hospitals. Lima has 
considerable manufacturing industries including 
furniture, iron and copper articles, dyestuffs, 
pottery and is developing rapidly. The adobe 
walls which surrounded the city were destroyed 
in 1870, and boulevards made in their place. 
The city has long been famed for its educational 
institutions; the national university, chartered 
in 1551, is the oldest university in America. It 
has courses in theology, law, medicine, applied 
science, political science, art and music. The 
National Library, founded in 1822, with some 
books from older libraries, was destroyed in 
1880 by ‘the Chileans. It contained then 60,000 
volumes. It now contains about 50,000 volumes. 
There are several other libraries in the ‘city. 
There are several technical schools, professional, 
classical, naval and military, and about 100 ele- 
mentary schools, besides a number of small pri- 
vate schools. Several scientific and literary so- 
cieties provide public lecture courses. The city 
is noted for being the home of the first Ameri- 
can canonized by the Roman Catholic Church, 
Saint Rose of Lima (1586). It has frequently 
suffered from earthquakes; the most destructive 
of which any record exists occurred in October 
1746. The water supply and sewage system are 
good and the city is lighted by electricity. In 
Spanish colonial times Lima was the capital of 
the vice-royalty of Peru, which then included 
the greater part of Spanish South America: At 
the time of the war between Peru and.Chile, 
Lima capitulated and the Chileans kept posses- 
sion for two years. Many of its finest treasures 
and monuments were destroyed at this time. 
Pop. about 143,000, mostly Indian. or mestizo. 
Consult Enoch, C. R., ‘Peru? (London 1908) 
and Pradié-Fordéré, C., ‘Lima ct ses environs? 


(Paris 1897). 
LIMA E SILVA, Luiz Alves. de, loo’és 


al’vés, da lé’ma é sél-va, Duke of Caxias, Bra- 
zilian. soldier and politician: b. Rio de Janiero, 
25 Aug. 1803; d. Santa Monica, province of 
Rio de Janeiro, 7 May 1880. He became briga- 
dier in the Brazilian army, was President: of 
Maranhao, Vice-President and military com- 
mandant of. Sao Paulo and President of Rio 
Grande do Sul; and in 1851-52 commanded the 
Brazilian army. In 1855 he became Minister of 
War; and from 3 Sept. 1856 to 3 May 1857 and 
again from 3 March 1861 to 4 May 1862 was 
Prime Minister. He commanded the army: of 
Brazil against Paraguay in 1866-69, and from 
25 June 1875 to 5 Jan. 1878 was a third time 
Premier. 


LIMANTOUR, José Ives, Mexican states- 
man: b. Mexico City, 26 Dec. 1854. He-was 
graduated from the National Preparatory 
School of Mexico City in 1871; and from the 
National School of Law in 1874, receiving his 
lawyer’s diploma at the age of 20, after having 
successfully passed the required examinations, 
both in that institution and the National School 
of Jurisprudence. He traveled and_ studied 
abroad until 1876 and soon after his return to 
Mexico was appointed assistant professor and 


240 


subsequently professor of political economy in 
the National School of Commerce, and still later 
professor of international law in the National 
School of Jurisprudence. In 1881 he was 
elected to the Mexico City council and after- 
ward served several terms in the lower branch 
of the national Congress, of which he was sev- 
eral times presiding officer. During the 10 
years prior to 1892 he served in various diplo- 
matic and financial positions and was con- 
nected with the Department of Formento much 
of that time. In 1892 Mr. Limantour was ap- 
pointed assistant Secretary of the Treasury and 
Secretary on 9 May 1893. During his admin- 
istration many important financial reforms 
were inaugurated. In recognition of his pub- 
lic services he has been decorated by several 
foreign governments. He has written much on 
financial and other subjects. 


LIME, also known as caustic lime, quick- 
lime or calcium oxide (CaQ), is snow white in 
color and strongly alkaline, being one of the 
strongest bases. In contact. with water, for 
which it has great affinity, it increases in ‘bulk, 
evolves much heat and changes to the hydrate 
(CaH.O:). Unless kept in a dry place it will 
absorb moisture and carbonic acid gas from the 
air and change to the carbonate (CaCOs) (see 
CaLciuM). Lime, except for certain impurities, 
is entirely soluble in water, the principal insolu- 
ble impurities being silica, alumina and iron 
oxide. It is never found native, but limestone 
may contain a very large percentage. For 
ordinary commercial uses lime is obtained by 
heating limestone, shells, or other material com- 
posed of calcium carbonate, to a temperature 
high enough to drive off the carbonic acid gas. 
As the materials used vary in purity, so is 
there a corresponding difference tn the purity 
of the lime produced. Owing to its property of 
hardening, by change to calcium carbonate, 
and its comparative cheapness, lime is the most 
important of building materials: For commer- 
cial purposes the many yarieties of lime are 
grouped into, (1) common or fat limes con- 
taining less than 10 per cent of impurities, (2) 
poor or meagre limes containing 10 to 25 per 
cent of impurities, 
taining 15 to 40 per cent of impurities and (4) 
hydraulic cements which may contain as high 
as 70 per cent of impurities. 

Common or fat limes in slaking evolve much 
heat and increase in bulk from two and a half 
to three times; they are soluble in water. In 
hardening they shrink, and hence in making 
mortar require the addition of a large amount 
of sand. As fat limes are cheap and abundant 
and can take a large proportion of sand in 
making mortar, they are generally used for 
masonry. The poor or meagre limes are seldom 
used in this country. The hydraulic limes, so 
called from their property of hardening under 
water, though valuable for certain purposes, 
are also seldom used in the United States for 
masonry. They slake more slowly than ordi- 
nary limes with little rise of temperature and 
little increase in volume. Hydraulic cements 


(see CEMENT) do not slake and do not require. 


the addition of sand to form mortar. They 
also set or harden much more quickly than 
ordinary limes, as the formation of calcium car- 
bonate is a slow process that may under certain 
conditions take years, while in some quick-set- 


(3) hydraulic limes con-. 


LIME 


ting cements the formation of the calcium sili- 
cates and aluminates to which setting is due 
may take place in a few hours. 

Limestone, marble and shells are burnt to 
lime by exposure to a temperature of 850 to 
900° C. in a current’ of air. The harder the 
limestone the longer the time required for burn- 
ing, but the better the product. Impurities in 
the limestone may or may not-be injurious,’ de- 
pending on the quality of lime desired. Mois- 
ture in the limestone, or added to: the charge, as 
by a steam jet, helps carry off. the carbonic 
acid and hastens burning. Lime burning may 
be done in heaps or kilns. Heap burning in 
which pieces of limestone are piled on a grate 
of wood, then covered with fines or clay and 
fired, is now little used.. Of kilns there are vari- 
cus types, intermittent and continuous . firing. 
Of intermittent kilns the old “dug out” kilns 
built of ordinary brick on masonry into the side 
of a hill require about 72 hours for each firing. 
Heat is supplied bya coal or wood fire at the 
bottom. For continuous firing vertical kilns 
20. to 25 feet high with draw openings, prefer- 
ably below the fire line, are used, the lime 
being drawn about every six hours. To sup- 
ply moisture, water is kept in an iron pan in the 
ash-pit.. In the kilns most commonly used there 
is no grate, but the fuel, preferably charcoal or 
anthracite, is charged with the limestone.:.The 
lime is not as pure as from furnaces. with a bot- 
tom grate, but the consumption of fuel per 
pound of lime made is less. In such kilns burn- 
ing is started by partly filling the kiln with lime- 
stone, putting in a thick layer of kindling wood 
and coal, starting the fire, and then adding alter- 
nate layers of coal and limestone. The type of 
continuous kiln in most favor is vertical, about 
25 feet high, bottle-shaped and made of boiler 
iron lined with fire-brick. Such a kiln may use 
petroleum for. fuel, the oil being iniected 
through openings in the wall just above the 
widest part..of the. furnace.. Vertical kilns 
fired with gas have not proved successful. The 
type of kiln that requires. the least. fuel for 
amount of lime produced is the horizontal cir- 
cular Hofman kiln, also used for, making brick, 
drain, tile, etc. The fuel is fine coal or even 
coal dust, and is put in through openings in the 
top. The lime produced is lighter than that 
from vertical kilns, slakes more easily and 
hence cannot be stored as well. 

Most of the lime made is used fan building 
purposes, or mixed with clay for cement (q.v.), 
but lime is also used for making glass and 
artificial stone, as an agent in many chemical 
processes, as whitewash, and was formerlv 
largely used in sugar-making to-separate sugar 
from molasses... The statistics of the amount of 
lime annually made in the United States show 
that the value of the 1909 output was over $13,- 
800,000; but at present the largest use of lime 
is in the Portland cement industry, which mines 
vast quantities of limestone, this being now the 
most valuable stone in the United States. See 
LIMESTONE; PoRTLAND CEMENT. . 

Lime has some medicinal value, counteracting 
excessive acid conditions. Various preparations 
of limewater are recommended for dyspeptics 
and pregnant’ women. Mixed with milk it 
often reduces the tendency to vomit. Lime- 
water with glycerine has been found useful in 
cases of creeping eczema. As an alkaline, 


‘ 


LIME — LIMESTONE 


lime has many uses in the arts and in chemical 
processes. It softens “hard” water; neutral- 
izes acids, as in soils, and is indispensable in the 
making of sulphite for paper and gaseous am- 
monia. Consult ‘The Mineral Industry? (New 
York 1916). 


LIME, a shrub or small tree (Citrus au- 
rantifolia), related to the citron (q.v.), re- 
sembling the lemon in habit ‘but rather more 
prickly and spreading; its fruits, also, are more 
nearly spherical, more acid and rather more bit- 
ter than commercial varieties of lemon. It is a 
native of southeastern Asia, whence it has spread 
to other warm countries where its juice is 
highly valued for making cooling drinks. In 
Florida and the West Indies and Mexico, 
which supply the American market, large 
thickets of wild limes are to be found and 
these add to the crops from the cultivated 
groves, In California the lime is little culti- 
vated because the cheapness of Mexican fruit 
prevents the realization of a profit from 
orchards. The lime is one of the most im- 
portant sources of citric acid (q.v.). The trees 
are propagated, cultivated and trained much 
like. lemon trees, but are planted closer to- 
gether. They will stand poorer, stonier soil 
and nearer proximity to the ocean than other 
citrous fruits. The name is given in the 
Orient to various sour-fruited trees related to 
the true lime; in Europe and occasionally in 
the United States to the lindens (q.v.); and 
locally in the Southern States to the sour 
tupelo (q.v.), whose tart fruit is eaten. 


LIME AS A FERTILIZER. See Ferr- 
TILIZERS. 


LIME LIGHT. See Catcitum Licurt. 


LIMERICK, lim’é-rik, Ireland, a city and 
civic county, capital of Limerick County, at 
the interior extremity of the estuary of the 
Shannon, 120 miles by rail southwest of Dub- 
lin. It consists of three portions connected 
by five bridges, English Town on King’s 
Island, and Irish Town and Newtown Perry 
or New Town on either side of. the ‘river. 
Limerick is of very ancient foundation, being 
mentioned by Ptolemy as Regia. The principal 
buildings are the Episcopal and Roman Catholic 
cathedrals, custom-house, chamber of commerce, 
town-hall, exchange, assembly house and linen- 
hall. The manufactures include the curing of 
bacon, the preparation of butterine and the 
making of army clothing and fish hooks. There 
are, besides, distilleries; breweries, tanneries, 
corn mills, a patent slip for vessels of 500 
tons, and a large graving dock for vessels up to 
2,500 tons and a floating dock for vessels of 
3,000 tons. Limerick is the leading port on the 
west coast for the shipment of raw produce. 
Bacon, butter, oats, salmon, condensed milk, 
are the chief articles of export and grain, 
petroleum and sugar the chief imports. Lime- 
rick is the seat of a consular agent of the 
United States. The harbor, naturally a fine 
one, has been improved at a considerable outlay. 
The strategic position of Limerick rendered its 
capture extremely important to the Danes, who 
arrived in the 9th century and_ practically 
founded the city and port. They held posses- 
sion of it until the closing years of the 10th 
century when Brian Boru weakened them 
sufficiently to_exact a yearly tribute. It passed 
definitely to Irish hands after the rout of the 


441 


Danes at Clontarf in April 1014. The Norman- 
English occupied the city soon after their ar- 
rival in 1172 and in 1210 King John visited it 
and erected fortifications. Edward Bruce led ~ 
his forces against it in 1314 and while only 


partially successful burned a great part of the 


city. The Catholic party supporting Charles I 
against the Parliamentarians occupied Limerick 
in 1641 but were obliged to surrender to Ireton 
in 1651. In the Revolutionary War of 1688-91 
Limerick was the scene of the last stand of the 
Irish forces under Sarsfield who supported the 
house of Stuart. After the disasters of the 
Boyne, Athlone and Aughrim, Sarsfield was 
besieged in Limerick by William’s army under 
Ginkel. The defense was brilliant and success- 
ful, and after a train of siege artillery had 
been intercepted and destroyed by Sarsfield on 
its way to the city, an armistice was proposed by 
William, after which a treaty was signed under 
the terms of which Irish Catholics were to be 
permitted the free exercise of their religion, 
and those who’'so desired were permitted to 
leave the country. The greater part of Sars- 
field’s force immediately departed for France, 
where they formed the nucleus of the famous 
Irish Brigade. William’s adherents soon forced 
him to violate many provisions of the treaty, 
particularly that granting to Catholics the free 
exercise of their faith, and an era of persecu- 
tion was soon ushered in. In Irish history, 
Limerick is known as “the City of the Violated 
Treaty» The “Treaty Stone» marks the spot 
where the treaty was signed. Pop. 38,518. 
Consult Begley, J., ‘Diocese of Limerick, An- 
cient and Medizval? (Dublin 1906) and Leni- 
han, Maurice, ‘Limerick: Its History and 
Antiquities» (2d ed., ib. 1884). 
LIMESTONE, a common and widely dis- 
tributed rock, consisting essentially of car- 
bonate of lime and varying greatly in com- 
position, color and texture. Most limestones 
are of organic origin and represent the calcare- 
ous remains of sea animals, such as corals, 
foraminifera and mollusks. These remains 
may be reduced to a fine ooze by the action 
of the waves and in other ways, and the rock 
resulting from the consolidation of this ooze 
may show no trace of organic origin. Some 
limestones have been formed by the precipita- 
tion of calcium carbonate from sea water 
through evaporation in confined estuaries. 
Other limestones (travertine, calcareous tufa) 
have been formed by the deposition of calcium 
carbonate from springs, while still others repre- 
sent calcareous deposits in fresh-water lakes. 
The varieties of limestone are almost endless, 
including the crystalline limestones or marbles. 
Thus starting with nearly pure calcium car- 
bonate, the calcium may be replaced gradually 
by magnesium till finally we have dolomite, the 
double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. 
Magnesian limestone is the proper designation 
until the ratio of calcium carbonate to mag- 
nesium carbonate becomes 100 to 84, beyond 
which it is dolomite. Pure dolomite contains 
21.72 per cent of magnesia, but limestones con- 
taining over 5 percentare said to be dolomitic. 
Again the lime may be replaced by silica, with 
a gradual transition from limestone through 
cherty limestone to pure cherts; or again iron 
oxide may replace lime with a resulting transi- 
tion from limestone to merchantable iron ore. 
Besides these chemical transitions silicious or 


442 


argillaceous sediments may be laid down with 
the calcareous material, and in the resulting 
rocks we may trace gradual changes from 
limestone through limy sandstones to pure 
sandstone and from limestone through marls or 
calcareous shales to ordinary shales. Bitu- 
minous matter may make limestone black or 
give rise to asphaltic varieties. | Besides all 
these varieties of composition, limestones are 
often classified according to their texture, as 
earthy limestone, odlithic limestone with a’ con- 
cretionary texture, like the ‘roe of fish, etc. 
Under rock stresses, with possible rise in tem- 
perature, limestone becomes recrystallized and 
is then known as marble. Chalk is a soft and 
powdery textured limestone. Limestones are 
also classified according to the uses to which 
they are put, and thus we have cement rock or 
hydraulic limestone used for making cement, 
lithographic limestone, st-‘uary marble, etc. 

The various limestones and marbles are 
widely used for building» purposes, and a great 
amount of limestone is annually burnt to lime 
or'to cement, though no statistics of the amount 
thus used are available (see CEMENT; LIME). 
Limestone is also used as a flux in smelting 
iron and other ores, the total amount thus used 
in the United States in 1902 amounting to fully 
9,000,000 tons. Of the limestones used as build- 
ing stone, particular mention may be made of 
the buff or dark gray odlitic Bedford limestone 
of Indiana and of the marbles of Vermont, 
Georgia and Tennessee. Marble or limestone 
is also used as a source of carbonic acid gas for 
‘aérated waters. 

The uncertainty of composition of a lime- 
stone deposit is a constant difficulty in utilizing 
it for cement and flux. It is a matter of com- 
mon experience among quarrymen that to obtain 
uniform stone they must follow the beds of 
desirable composition, rather than to cut in 
straight lines. Limestone is found in horizon- 
tal deposits in successive layers, on what was 
once a sea bottom, and it varies in composition 
with depth. That which was laid at one period 
is most likely to be uniform, and this means 
quarrying along the strata selected, and also 
following what was formerly the shore line, if 
this can be determined. / 

Limestone is one of the most common rocks, 
and is found in almost every State and Terri- 
tory of the United States. Being heavy for 
its value, it does not pay to freight it. great 
distances, hence efforts are made to quarry it 
in. various localities for nearby consumption. 
About 15 per cent of the area east of the 
Rockies bears limestone. Most of the New 
England limestone occurs in the form of mar- 
ble, but deposits suitable for lime are found 
in large quantities in Berkshire County, Mass., 
and Litchfield and Fairfield counties, Conn. 
New York and Pennsylvania are both rich in 
limestone beds. There are extensive quarries 
near Buffalo that supply the blast furnaces. 
The Lehigh district of Pennsylvania contains 
immense quantities of cement rock and purer 
limestone beds. The valley of Virginia. con- 
tains great deposits suitable for lime-burning, 
and easily accessible. This limestone belt. ex- 
tends across the corner of West Virginia, 
through Maryland into Pennsylvania. Calcare- 
ous rocks predominate in Tennessee, northern 
Alabama and northern Georgia. -The greater 
part of the lime made in Wisconsin is burned 


LIMICOLZ — LIMINA 


from Silurian magnesian limestone found in 
the eastern part of the State. An extension of 
this belt of rock runs into Michigan. In In- 
diana’ the Bedford limestone, which is light 
gray, has attained a reputation as a building 
stone. Limestone is quarried in the southern 
part of Mississippi, and at intervals all the 
length of the Mississippi River. There is also 
a wide distribution in Missouri and Kansas, as 
well as. Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, 
etc. 

The total value of the limestone produced 
in the United States in 1909 was fully $32,000,- 
000. See Cauc-TuFaA; CALciITE; CHALK; 


‘CorAL; DOLOMITE; MARBLE and Mart. 


LIMICOL/:, li-mik’6-lé, a group of birds, 
within the order Charadriuformes, containing 
the plovers, sandpipers, snipes, sheathbills, 
coursers, seed-snipes, stone-curlews, jacanas 
(qq.v.) and their immediate allies, most of 
which are known to gunners as “shore birds” 
or “beach birds,” because they haunt the shore 
of the sea or of inland bodies of water. They 
are mostly small, with slender bills of varying 
length, grooved for the nostrils, and in some 
families flexible at the tip, where nerves come 
close to the surface and enable the bird to feel 
about in the mud for its food. The legs are 
rather long, and the toes are ordinarily quite 
free, as these birds run about, and do not wade 
or swim as a rule; some, indeed, rarely approach 
the water, but dwell upon dry plains. The 
wings are strong and the powers of flight con- 
siderable; the most extensive migrations known 
are performed by some of the limicoline birds. 
All make their nests on the ground, and many 
breed only in the far north; the young run 
about as soon as freed from the shell. Light 
and pleasing, but not conspicuous, colors pre- 
vail, but some species display great beauty. 
Nearly all are edible and are the objects of 
skilful sport by the aid of dogs, decoys and 
other devices to overcome their wit and wari- 
ness. Consult Evans, ‘Birds? (Vol. I, ‘Cam- 
bridge Natural History,’ 1900); Steineger, 
‘Birds? (Vol. IV, ‘Standard Natural History,” 
1885) ; Elliot, “North American Shore Birds” 
(1895); Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, ‘North 
American Water Birds? (1884); Sclater and 
Hudson, ‘Argentine Ornithology? (1888); and 
general works on ornithology and shooting. 


LIMINA. Among the most interesting 
phenomena of psychology are those that have 
to do with the relation between the intensity of 
a sensation and the intensity of the stimulus 
that excites it. It is found that it requires a 
certain definite amount of stimulus before any 
sensation whatever ensues. This is called the 
sensation-limen or lower threshold of sensation. 
Furthermore, even in the region within which 
the stimulus excites a sensation, an increment 
of the stimulus to produce a noticeable incre- 
ment in the sensation must exceed a certain 
amount, known as the difference-limen. After 
a certain intensity of stimulus is attained no 
further increase in sensation-intensity can re- 
sult. This is known as the terminal stimulus. 
According to Weber’s Law, which is very nearly 
attained for moderate stimuli, the difference- 
limen for a given,sense is a definite fraction of 
the intensity of the stimulus. Limina of, €x- 
actly the same nature as those for intensity exist 
for the quality, duration, extension and prob- 


LIMITATION OF ACTIONS — LIMNANDER DE NIEUWENHOVE 


ably for clearness (though this case has not 
been so thoroughly investigated), and have the 
‘same properties and obey the same laws as those 
for intensity; The domain of feeling is like- 
wise subject to limina. For a discussion of the 
history of psychology work on limina and of 
the theories that have been put forward to ex- 
plain their existence and for a bibliography, see 
EBER’S Law. 


LIMITATION OF ACTIONS, a legal 
limitation to the period within which actions 
may be brought, varying usually in the United 
States from 6 years or less to 20 years. The 
sound policy of placing a reasonable limit to 
the time within which actions might be brought 
was early recognized in the law, and among 
those who enforced this were the Romans, who 
looked upon it as a proper punishment for the 
person who failed to assert his rights. They 
qualified it, however, by exempting lunatics and 
minors under 14 years of age—an exception 
that is recognized, with some modifications, in 
modern codes. The difficulty of preserving evi- 
dence for a long time, the death of witnesses, 
the probability that old demands are bad ones, 
the necessity of obviating uncertainties in titles 
and claims, and the discouragement of long 
credits, are also given as grounds for placing 
limitations on actions. In English law, it was 
first adopted in the reign of Edward I by stat- 
ute. Equity likewise recognized at an early 
period the justice of the principle. 

By the weight of authority, actions for de- 
termining a status, and not to adjust clajms 
against a particular defendant, are not limited. 
Examples of these are the validity of a mar- 
riage or other legal relation, the genuineness 
of a written instrument, or the like. 

In actions on contracts not under seal, as a 
general rule, both in England and in the United 
States, no action can be brought after six years, 
and the time is computed from the time the 
plaintiff could legally have brought his action. 
In the case of a bill of exchange payable at 
sight, the time is computed from the date of 
presentment. In actions upon contracts under 
seal or actions affecting the title to real estate, 
suit must be brought within 20 years. Any 
part payment of the debt or interest thereon or 
a new promise to pay it operates to suspend the 
statute, but it begins to run again immediately 
after the part payment or new promise. The 
promise may be expressed or implied. It has 
been held that an unqualified acknowledgment 
ot the debt will be considered in law an implied 
promise to pay. It is provided generally by 
statutes in the United States and Great Britain 
that the limitation will not run if the plaintiff is 
under disabilities, as coverture, minority, im- 
prisonment, lunacy or absence from the coun- 
try. Fraud of the defendant which prevents 
the plaintiff from asserting his right will also, 
as a general rule, prevent the statute from run- 
ning until the plaintiff discovers such fraud. 
In actions of tort there is less uniformity in the 
statutes of the United States than in actions of 
contract as to the time when suit is barred. 
This varies in the case of torts from two to six 
years. 


LIMITED LIABILITY, in modern ‘stat- 
ute law, a principle whereby the persons liable 
are bound under certain clearly defined condi- 
tions. The phrase is chiefly used in connection 
with stock companies, meaning that the stock- 


443 


holders. shall not be called upon, under any cir- 
cumstances, to contribute more than the par 
value of the shares of stock for which they 
have subscribed. If the debts of such a com- 
pany, when wound up, amount to more than 
the resources of the company can meet, the 
creditors must bear the loss. In the United 
States shareholders in national and other banks, 
insurance companies, etc., are held to a specific 
and strict liability; in the case of the national 
banks, it is for twice the amount subscribed. 
In England the shareholders of a limited com- 
pany from whose name the word “limited” is 
omitted must pay its debts in full. The United 
States Congress has adopted the rule followed 
by the British Parliament, and prevailing in 
European countries generally, with respect to 
the maritime law (q.v.) whereby a ship- 
owner, by surrender of the ship and the freight, 
may absolve himself from liability for negli- 
gence on the part of master or crew. Under 
the amended United States Revised Statutes the 
principle of limited liability is clearly main- 
tained and defined as applicable in this country; 
wherefrom it appears that “the owner of any 
vessel, whether steamer or canal-boat, employed 
whether in seagoing or inland navigation, 
whether he be an American citizen or a 
foreigner, may obtain a limitation to the value 
of his interest in the vessel and her pending 
freight, of his liability not only for the results 
of a single disaster, but for the results of a 
disastrous voyage, including all debts due on 
account of the vessel save seamen’s wages.” 
If the ship and freight are lost, the owner 
must abandon all claims in regard to the 
vessel and cargo to the injured party. If he 
collects these he is liable to the injured parties 
to the extent of the proceeds. This limitation 
is confined to the owner of a vessel who is not 
in charge thereof and master and seamen are 
not exempted from liability if the injury is 
due to their misconduct. Consult Benedict, E. 
C., ‘The American Admiralty, its Jurisdiction 
and Practice? (New York 1898). 


LIMITED MONARCHY. 
ARCHY. 


LIMITS, Theory of. See REAL VARIABLE, 
THEORY OF FUNCTIONS OF THE; SERIES; CAL- 
CULUS, THE INFINITESIMAL; ASSEMBLAGES, 
GENERAL THEORY OF. 


LIMN/A, the central genus of the pulmo- 
nate family Limneide, containing the typical 
fresh-water snails. See PoND-SNAILS. 


LIMNANDER DE NIEUWENHOVE, 
lim’nan-dér da né’vén-hd’vé, Baron ‘Armand 
Marie Guislan, Belgian composer: b. Ghent, 
1814; d. Paris, 1892. He studied at the Jesuit 
College of Saint Acheul, near Amiens, later at 
Fribourg, and Fétis was his instructor in har- 
mony and composition. He became conductor 
of an amateur symphonic society, and founded 
the “Réunion Lyrique,” a choral society, at 
Mechlin, where he started his career as a 
composer after his return from Switzerland. 
He published a ‘Stabat Mater? with orchestra, 
a ‘Requiem Mass? with organ. ‘Les Druides? 
operatic scenes, produced at the Paris Con- 
servatory in 1845; ‘La fin des moissons,? a sym- 
phony; a ‘Te Deum,» a sonata for piano and 
violoncello, choruses for unaccompanied male 
voices and cantatas. He settled in Paris in 
1847, and his opera ‘Les Monténégrins? was 


See Mon- 


444 


performed at the Opéra Comique in 1849. This 
was followed by ‘Le chateau de la barbe bleue? 
in 1851 and ‘Yvonne? in 1859. His ‘Maitre- 
chanteur? presented at the Opéra in 1853 was 
revived as ‘Maximilien? in Brussels in 1870. 


LIMNO, LIMNOS, a name given to the 
island of Lemnos and also applied to the town 
of Kastro or Kastrow (q.v.). 


LIMOGES, lé-mozh, France, an episcopal 
city, capital of the department of Haute- 
Vienne, situated on a hill sloping to the Vienne, 
here crossed. by three bridges, 88 miles west of 
Clermont. The streets are narrow and _ tor- 
tuous; but the fortified walls which  sur- 
rounded the town have been replaced by fine 
shady boulevards. The principal edifices are 
the. cathedral, commenced in 1273, presenting 
both Romanesque. and Gothic features; the 
Gothic church of Saint Michel des Lions; the 
church of Saint Pierre du Queyroix; a modern 
town-hall, palace of justice, bishop’s palace, 
public library of 90,000 volumes, school of 
decorative art, and meteorological observatory. 
It is the headquarters of tiie 12th army corps. 
The art of enamel is said to have flourished 
here from the 12th century, and the city is not- 
able for a series of artists eminent for beautiful 
paintings in enamel. The principal industry is 
the manufacture of porcelain, b:gun in 1736, 
and employing thousands of workpeople; there 
are also wool and cotton spinning mills, paper 
mills, and shoe and clog manufactures. Book 
printing is of importance; a press was set up 
in 1496. It has a considerable trade in cereals, 
wine and spirits, wood and cattle. 

Limoges was originally the capital of the 
Gallic tribe, the Lemovices, and an important 
city as the Roman “Augusboritum Lemocicum.” 
There are some remains of the Roman occupa- 
tion inscriptions and other fragments. The city 
has been twice depopulated by pestilence, in the 
10th century when 40,000 are reported to have 
perished, and in 1630-31, when 20,000 were 
taken. It was taken by assault by Edward. the 
Black Prince in 1370, when a massacre of 
3,000 of the inhabitants ensued. Pop. 92,181. 


LIMON, 1lé-mén’, or PUERTO LIMON, 
poo-ar't6 lé-mén, Costa Rica, Central America, 
a port on the northeast coast, 72 miles (103 by 


rail) east of San José, the capital at the eastern. 


terminus of the interoceanic railway. The port 
has been greatly improved by modern docks 
and iron piers, and a growing export trade is 
carried on especially in coffee, also in ‘bananas, 
rubber, mahogany, dyewood, etc. The town 
has ice factories, a brewery, a fine water supply 
and a modern sewerage system. Pop. 7, 


LIMONITE, an ore of iron (q.v.), varieties 
of which are bog iron ore and yellow ochre. 
It is a hydrated oxide of iron (2Fe.03.3H:O), 
of a brownish color, occurring in mammillated 
or botryoidal masses, which when broken across 
show a fibrous radiating structure, and also in 
compact and earthy masses. It is opaque, 
rather brittle, moderately hard, and has specific 
gravity 3.6 to 4. It dissolves in warm aqua 
regia; when heated it loses water and becomes 
magnetic. It is an important ore of iron, and 
is found abundantly in the United States, es- 
pecially in Virginia and Alabama, and in other 
parts of America; also on the continent of 
Europe, and in some parts of Great Britain. 
In 1914 the United States produced 1,537,750 


LIMNO, LIMNOS — LINACRE > 


long tons of this ore, that is, about 3 per cent 
a the total iron ore production. See also Iron 
RES. 


LIMPET, a gastropod mollusk, with a low, 
conical, non-spiral shell; properly a representa- 
tive of the families Patelide and Acmeide. 
The former has no ctenidia or true gills, ‘but 
breathe by means of a ring of special branchial 
filaments between the mantle and the foot; in 
the latter the left ctenidium functions as a gill 
and there is no accessory ring. By means of a 
muscular, sucker-like foot, the limpets adhere 
so firmly to rocks near: low-water mark that 
they defy the beating of the heaviest surf and 
are difficult to detach without injury. At high- 
tide they move about in search of the alge on 
which they feed, but are said to return to 
exactly the same place and position, the muscle 
in time wearing a smooth spot or “form” on the 
rock, and the shell becoming adapted to its 
irregularities. A widely distributed circum- 
polar species (Acmea testudinalis) is common 
on the New England coast, and may ‘be recog- 
nized by its low, conical, smooth shell with 
the eccentric apex slightly turned forward. In 
Europe limpets are utilized as food and in this 
country for bait. The key-hole limpets belong 
to the family Fissurelide, in which the shell is 
usually perforated like a key-hole at the apex 
to permit the protrusion of a process of the 
mantle. Numerous species occur in the littoral 
zone of warm seas. The Haliotide, ear-lim- 
pets or abalones. (q.v.), are closely related. The 
cup-and-saucer limpets and _ slipper-limpets 
(Calyptreide) have flat shells usually provided 
with an internal lip or shelf. Several species 
of Crepidula, having interesting commensalistic 
habits, are abundant on our coasts, and are 
known to fishermen as “half-decks.» Finally 
the fresh-water limpets (Ancylus and Gund- 
lachia) belong to the pulmonate family Lim- 
neide. Numerous species of these true air- 
breathing limpets are found abundantly on 
stones and plants in the fresh-water streams 
and ponds of the United States. "They feed on 
conferve. Limpets, especially Acm@ea and 
Patella, are of very ancient race, having existed 
almost unchanged since the Silurian’ Age. 
Consult Cooke, “Molluscs” (‘Cambridge Natu- 
ral History,» Vol. III, London 1895); ‘Stand- 
ard Natural History? (Vol. I); Arnold, ‘Sea 
Beach at Ebb-tide? (New York 1901); Mayer, 
“Sea-shore Life» (New York 1906). 


LIMPKIN, a crane-like bird of the swamps 
of tropical America, known and superstitiously 
feared by the ignorant natives on account of its 
sombre plumage and wailing cry. Two species 
exist, Aramus scolopaceus and A. pictus. 


LIMPOPO, lim-pd’p6, or CROCODILE 
RIVER, South Africa, a river which rises to 
the south of Pretoria in the Witwatersrand, 
flows northwest through the Transvaal, then 
northeast, forming for a considerable distance 
the northern boundary of the Transvaal proy- 
ince, then southeast into the Indian Ocean north 
of Delagoa Bay; length about 1,100 miles. Its 
largest tributary is, the Olifants, which flows 
through the Transvaal and joins it in Portu- | 
guese territory. La 

LINACRE, lin’'a-kér, Thomas, noted Eng- 
lish physician and scholar: b. Canterbury, Eng- 
land, 1460; d. London, England, 20.Oct. 1524. 
He was the projector of the College of Physi- 


LINARES — 


cians in London and the founder of lectureships 
in both Oxford and Cambridge. 


LINARES, José Maria, ho-sa’ ma-ré’a 1é- 
na’rés, Bolivian statesman: b. Potosi, 10 July 
1810; ‘d. Valparaiso, Chile, 1861. He was ad- 
mitted to the bar, was appointed one of the 
commissioners to prepare a legal code for 
Bolivia, in 1839 became Minister of the Interior, 
later Minister to Spain, and in 1848 president 
of the Senate. In 1857 he was chosen President, 
but was deposed by revolutionists in January 
1861. 


LINARES, Chile, (1) a southern province 
bounded north, south ‘and west ‘by the provinces 
of Talca, Nubile and Maule, and on the east by 
the Andes: area, 3,942 square miles; pop. 112,- 
966. Its surface is mountainous, but there is a 
large acreage well adapted to grazing. Stock 
raising is the chief industry. A railway, one 
of the main arteries of Chile, traverses the 
province from north to south. (2) A town, the 
capital of the above province, 10 miles south- 
east of Talca, 55 miles from the coast and 
about 85 miles north ‘by east of Concepcion. It 
has a large trade and is the distributing centre 
for the commerce of the province. It is 
reached by rail from Santiago. Pop. 11,122. 


LINARITE. A basic hydrous lead-copper 
sulphate PbO.CuO, SOs. H:O. in Cerro Gordo 
mine, Inyo County, Cal., and Silver Horn mine, 
Beaver County, Utah. 


LINCOLN, Abraham, 16th President of 
the United States: b. in a rude farm cabin near 
Hodgensville, Ky., 12 Feb. 1809; d. Washington, 
D. C., 15 April 1865. The birthplace is marked 
by a memorial structure dedicated on his 
hundredth anniversary. He was the first son 
and second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy 
Hanks, both born in Rockingham County, Va., 
of parents who were among the earliest emi- 
grants to the new country beyond the moun- 
tains. They were married in Washington 
County, 12 June 1806, at the home of Richard 
Berry, guardian of the bride and husband of 
Lucy Shipley, her aunt. Thomas was not yet 
six. when his father, Abraham, was killed by 
lurking Indians while he was at work on his 
farm. .The estate, mostly of wild land, de- 
scended by the existing law to his eldest. son. 
No account remains of the widow’s subsequent 
life. - Probably she did not long survive the 
tragedy. Thomas grew up utterly without edu- 
cation and apparently without a definite home. 
Principally occupied as a farm and forest la- 
borer he acquired some knowledge of the tools 
and trade of a carpenter. For reasons not 
uncommon in the lives of families separated by 
distant migrations the President had little 
knowledge of his forbears beyond the paternal 
grandfather. Long after his death it tran- 
spired that the first American progenitor was 
Samuel Lincoln who came from England as a 
weaver’s apprentice in 1637. Two elder brothers 
had previously settled at Hingham, Mass.; 
named after the English shire town of County 
Norwich, their ancestral home. Samuel joined 
them there after completing his apprenticeship 
at Salem. Neither of the brothers left issue, 
the name being perpetuated through Mordecai, 
son of the young weaver; Mordecai 2d, his 
_ grandson; John, a great- -grandson who lived 
for a time in Berks County, Pa., removing to 
Virginia; Abraham, the Kentucky pioneer; and 


LINCOLN 445 


Thomas, fifth in the order of American birth. 
The pedigree has been further traced through 
four generations in England. In both the old 
home and the new the main and converging 
lines of heredity gave promise of family  dis- 
tinction should time and occasion propitiously 
meet. It was mistakenly believed for a time 
that Thomas and his wife were first cousins. 
She was the daughter of Joseph Hanks and 
Nancy Shipley (“Nanny” as named in the hus- 
band’s will), who was a sister of Lucy Shipley, 
wife of Richard Berry before mentioned. 
Another sister, Mary by name, had married 
Abraham Lincoln the elder, and it was assumed 
that she was the mother of all his children. In 
fact, however, Mary Shipley died prior to the 
Kentucky migration and was succeeded by 
Bathsheba Herring, daughter of Leonard Her- 
ting, a Virginian of English parentage. 
Thomas was the son and only child of this 
second marriage and therefore unrelated by 
blood to Nancy his wife. It is worthy of 
passing mention that still another of the Ship- 
ley sisters was married to Thomas Sparrow 
and went with him to the Kentucky wilderness. 
Through the marriage of their daughter with 
one Charles Friend she became the grand- 
mother of Dennis Friend who somehow came 
to be known as Dennis “Hanks”; and was no 
credit to either name. The irresponsible 
chatter of this waif did much to mislead the 
biographers both as to the story of Lincoln’s 
youth and the Hanks genealogy. (Consult 
Lea and Hutchinson, ‘The Ancestry of Abra- 
ham. Lincoln,’ Boston 1909). The first home 
of Thomas and his wife was at Elizabethtown, 
Ky., where he pursued his trade as carpenter. 
Two adventures in farming ensued, the first 
on the Nolin Creek place where their famous 
son was born. A second son, also born there, 
lived but a few weeks. Upon neither farm 
apparently were payments made sufficient to 
create a salable interest. In 1817, several re- 
lated families accompanying them, they moved 
to Indiana, settling on a wooded tract near 
Gentryville in Spencer County; so named after 
the keeper ofa cross-roads store. A railroad 
junction point called Lincoln City: occupies a 
part of the chosen homestead. In October of 
the following year a mysterious epidemic swept 
the district, Mrs. Lincoln being one of many 
victims. - During the next 14 months, the 
daughter, but two years older than Abraham, 
kept house for the sorrowing family. On 2 
Dec. 1819, Thomas took another wife from 
Kentucky, Sarah Johnston (née Bush), a 
widow with three children residing at Eliza- 
bethtown. Her advent greatly improved the 
family circumstances, for besides household 
conveniences such as the children had never 
known she brought a kind and cheerful na- 
ture. Among other benefits conferred she en- 
couraged the boy in studies, which his father 
regarded as a form of idleness. Less than a 
year of school attendance is all that fell to his 
lot, but with this meagre help he learned to 
read and write and to “cipher to the rule of 
three» Luckily there were a few good books 
within reach, all of which he eagerly read. He 
remembered. well, thought. much and diligently 
exercised the knowledge gained. In other re- 
spects he was a boy among boys, loving fun and 
not enamored of manual toil. He was made to 
work at home or on the neighboring farms, 


446 


clerked at odd times in Gentry’s store and at 
the age of 19 accompanied the son of that 
worthy on a flat-boat trip to New Orleans, 
trading along the way and returning by river 
packet. On that memorable venture he first 
came into conscious contact with slavery, wit- 
nessing, it is said, an auction sale of negroes 
and vowing that if ever the opportunity came 
to “hit? that system he would “hit it hard 
In the spring of 1830 at the beginning of his 
majority the family moved to Illinois to settle 
(temporarily as it proved) near Decatur. After 
helping to fence and break up part of a prairie 
farm and to erect a cabin thereon for the fam- 
ily shelter the young man turned to face the 
world on his own account. Besides the cloth- 
ing he wore, he had nothing but his well-mus- 
cled frame of six and one-third feet in height, 
a mind matching his great stature in native 
strength and manners, rude and quaint, to be 


sure, but springing from a brave and generous | 


soul. After a few weeks of labor with axe and 
hoe he engaged with John Hanks, one of his 
mother’s tribe, to conduct another flat-boat 
down the great river. Their employer, Dennis 
Offut, had failed to provide the boat as prom- 
ised whereupon the two men proceeded to build 
one. The delay caused Hanks to abandon the 
voyage but Lincoln with other help completed 
it. Offut, a merchant, loosely planted at New 
Salem, on the Sangamon, near Springfield, 
formed a liking for the stalwart youth, with 
the result that Lincoln became a resident of 
the mushroom village and a helper in the varied 
and often disastrous enterprises of his new- 
made friend. Offut soon drifted away but Lin- 
coln remained, serving the small community as 
a mill-hand, clerk in the village stores, post- 
master, deputy surveyor and the like, rapidly 
growing in public esteem. Indian disturbances 
(the Black Hawk War) called for the creation 
of a military force. Lincoln volunteered as a 
private and was elected captain. No fighting 
occurred in his vicinity and the “war” soon 
ended. Returning to New Salem he became a 
candidate for the legislature, failing of elec- 
tion but receiving nearly the entire vote of his 
precinct. Settled in nothing save the desire for 
self-improvement, he ventured, with another as 
poor as himself and wholly on credit, to pur- 
chase a failing store. It continued to fail till 
only the debt remained. This burden, which he 
whimsically called “the national debt,” fell 
upon himself alone and was not fully discharged 
until his pay as Congressman at last provided 
the means. To business disaster was added 
the discipline of love and a lover’s bereavement. 
He wooed and won Ann Rutledge, who shortly 
after the engagement died of a sudden illness. 
She was one of the Southern family of Rut- 
ledges, her father having been caught with the 
rest in the New Salem eddy along the inflow- 
ing stream of settlers. He was so nearly un- 
manned by this blow that his friends were 
alarmed, but it passed. By the election of 1834 
he was sent to the legislature and was thrice 
re-elected. Largely through his efforts the 
State capital was removed from Vandalia to 
Springfield in his own county. Measuring him- 
self against his fellows, many of them lawyers, 
he dared to enter the bar. With no help: ex- 
cept from borrowed books, he had so far ad- 
vanced by the autumn of 1836 as to gain ad- 
mission. On 15 April of the following year 


LINCOLN 


he moved to Springfield ore engaged in the 
practice. That day 28 years later, at the sum- 
mit of national power and: fame, an ‘assassin’s - 
shot was to lay him low. 

In politics the young statesman was of the 
minority faction. The Democratic party was 
dominant in both his State and the nation, such 
opposition as there was holding loosely to- 
gether under the nondescript name of Whigs; 
but it gradually strengthened until in 1840 its 
presidential candidate (Harrison) was elected. 
In 1838 and again in 1840 Lincoln received the 
Whig vote for speaker of the assembly. He 
was also on the Whig electoral ticket in the 
campaigns of 1840, 1844 and 1852. His one 
election to Congress occurred in 1846, the term 
ending at the inauguration of the second Whig 
President (Taylor) 4 March 1849. He did not 
seek re-election, his district being governed by 
a kind of a “gentleman’s agreement” that the 
honor should be passed around. Meanwhile (4 
Nov. 1842) he was married to Mary Todd, 
daughter of Robert S. Todd of Louisville, Ky. 
She with two of their four sons lived to mourn 
his untimely death. One of the sons died in 
early infancy, another in the White House at 
the age of 12. Mrs. Lincoln was of high social 
rank, brilliant, cultured and ambitious. . She 
proved a devoted wife and mother, but by rea- 
son of a cerebral ailment not generally known 
her married life was not altogether happy. Her 
last days (1882) were clouded by a mild insan- 
ity, hastened no doubt by the awful tragedy en- 
acted in her presence and by the loss of her 
young son Thomas (“Tad”), who died 15 July 
1871. The political activities referred to of 
course retarded Mr. Lincoln’s progress in the 
law. Besides the legislative attendances at © 
home and in Washington, there were repeated 
canvasses of his district and State to be cared 
for and no end of letters and conferences. As 
a “case” lawyer, however, his reputation stead- 
ily widened. The death of President Harrison 
almost at the beginning of his term and ‘the 
early apostacy of Tyler, his successor, left noth- 
ing of Federal preferment to the Whig poli- 
ticians. The advent of Taylor opened the door 
to a hungry crowd. Lincoln had supported 
him by speeches in Congress and elsewhere 
and the new Congressman from the Spring- 
field district was of the opposite party. By 
current practice, therefore, Lincoln was en- 
titled to a voice touching Federal appointments. 
The office of land commissioner was accorded 
to Illinois. After recommending others with- 
out success he sought the place for himself. 
Instead he was offered the governorship of Ore- 
gon Territory, a post which seemed to prom- 
ise early promotion to the Senate. His wife 
rejected it and thus he was saved for greater 
things. During the next five years he practised 
law more assiduously than every before, ad- 
vancing to high rank among the leaders of the 
Illinois bar. He appreciated the handicap of a 
defective education and strove mightily to over- 
come it. As he had studied grammar and sur- 
veying at New Salem he now grappled geom- 
etry, in order as. he said to master the art of 
“demonstration.” But political events were. 
soon to reclaim his attention. The controversy. 
over slavery, measurably quieted by the Mis- 
souri Compromise of 1820, broke out afresh 
30 years later and was again partially sup- 
pressed through a series of Congressional acts 


ee 


ABRAHAM LINCOLN 


Sixteenth President of the United States 


ee 


LINCOLN 


known as the compromise measures of 1850. 
Within a short four years the slave-holding 
South demanded and obtained the overthrow 
of all legislation which tended to confine or dis- 
credit her favorite institution. Stephen A. 
Douglas, the leading senator from Illinois, was 
chairman of the Committee on Territories. He 
had championed the settlement of 1850, and in 
doing so had proclaimed undying allegiance to 
the Missouri Compromise whereby “Mason and 
Dixon’s Line» was made the northernmost 
limit of slavery. Now he had fathered the 
“Kansas-Nebraska bill,» the act which both in 
terms and by necessary implication rejected the 
compromises and denied their legality. His 
agency in the matter made the storm of pro- 
test especially violent in Illinois and Lincoln 
was thoroughly aroused. Douglas had great 
ability and towering ambition. He desired and 
expected to be President, having already con- 
tested the nomination of 1852. His advocacy 
of the repeal was likely, he believed, to ensure 
undivided support in the South which, with but 
a fraction of the Northern party strength, 
would give him the prize. His term in the 
Senate had yet four years to run but his col- 
league and friend from Illinois, James Shields, 
would be re-elected or replaced by the legisla- 
ture shortly to be chosen. Lincoln entered the 
contest with vigor, speaking throughout the 
State and (against his own preference) stand- 
ing for election to the lower house from San- 
gamon, his home county. ‘Anti-Nebraska” 
won by a slender margin and by general ac- 
claim Lincoln became its candidate. To avoid 
a legal quibble touching eligibility he resigned 
his membership, only to see the vacancy filled 
by a Democrat chosen at a special election. 
Five of the majority, formerly Democrats, re- 
fused to support him, preferring Lyman Trum- 
bull, one of their kind. After many ballots, the 
choice of a pro-slavery senator being immi- 
nent, he persuaded his friends to vote with the 
stubborn few; a fortunate outcome as it 
proved, though for the moment sorely disap- 
pointing. 

The events of 1854-55 thus lightly sketched 
were accompanied and followed by a bitter 
struggle for the control of Kansas, first of 
the new States to seek admittance. Settlers 
from the North, some of them aided by anti- 
slavery societies, were met by “border-ruffians” 
so-called, entering from Missouri. Armed con- 
flicts ensued and “Bleeding Kansas” became an 
effective war-cry from the free State hustings. 
The Democratic National Convention (1856) 
again rejected Douglas, naming James Buch- 
anan, a Pennsylvanian, who was less prominent 
in the slavery party and therefore less ob- 
noxious to its enemies. The various opposing 
elements drawing together under the name of 
Republicans met in mass convention at Phila- 
delphia and selected John C. Frémont as their 
standard bearer. Lincoln, though not in at- 
tendance and not in the least advised of any 
such purpose, was accorded 110 votes for the 
Vice-Presidency, making him the second choice 
in a field of 13. A third ticket, styled “Amer- 
ican,”. was headed by Millard Fillmore, who 
had become President upon the death of Taylor 
(1850), and greatly desired re-election. Buch- 
anan was elected, carrying every slave State ex- 
cept Maryland. Pennsylvania supported him 
by a bare majority of the popular vote, and 


by the truth as he saw it. 


ay 


three other free States, including Illinois, went 
to him, but only because the majority was 
divided between Frémont and Fillmore. Slav- 
ery was continued in official power, but the 
triumph was big with disaster. 

The new administration was wholly sub- 
servient. Unscrupulous efforts to force slavery 
upon unwilling Kansas were favored and 
seemed likely to succeed. Douglas, whose 
senatorial term was drawing to a close, could 
not lose his hold upon Illinois without aban- 
doning all hopes of the Presidency. Making 
a virtue of necessity, therefore, he resisted 
the Kansas intrigues, and the State came in 
with a free constitution. This strategy worked 
marvelous improvement in his prospects at 
home. In 1854 when he returned red-handed 
from the slaughter of compromise he had 
encountered public obloquy and sullen resent- 
ment, resulting as already noted in the choice 
of a colleague inimical to his party. Now he 
came as the hero of a knightly rescue; the 
savior of free Kansas in some eyes, to others 
a stern defender of justice unshaken by per- 


‘sonal risk. Republicans in and out of the State 


began to advise that his re-election be not op- 
posed, deeming it “good politics” thus to pro- 
mote schism in the enemy’s household. Lincoln 
moved promptly to steady the Republican 
phalanx and the danger soon passed. Partly 
to head off the threatened defection, in part 
to bind the new legislature by a definite man- 
date from the people, a convention called for 
the nomination of State officers named Lincoln 
for the Senate. He responded (16 June 1858) 
in a speech which exhibited at their best both 
his intellectual power and his rare facility of 
terse and accurate expression. In this, the 
much-quoted “House-divided” speech, the truth 
was first made plain that choice must be made, 
soon or late, between a nation all slave and a 
nation all free. In declaring his fixed opinion 
that “either the opponents of slavery will. ar- 
rest the further spread of it, and place it 
where the public mind shall rest in the belief 
that it is in the course of. ultimate extinction; 
or its advocates will push it forward till it 
shall become alike lawful in all the States,” 
he was by no means unminded of the personal 
and party hazards immediately involved; but 
with habitual thoroughness his mind had gone 
deep. To his thinking the: rock upon which 
his party must build was the basic antagonism 
between freedom and bondage, between liberty 
and tyranny, between right and wrong. Re- 
jecting the warnings of timid advisers to whom 
the address was submitted in advance -he stood 
The ensuing cam- 
paign, outwardly ‘but a mere struggle for office, 
drew the lines and marshaled the forces of the 
impending Civil War. It took the form indeed 
of mimic battle. A series of joint debates, one 
in each of the seven Congressional districts, 
was arranged at Lincoln’s instance. Vast audi- 
ences came to hear and the sneeches: steno- 
graphically reported were carried far on the 
wings of the press. The two champions were 
not unequally matched for the contest. Doug- 
las, of course, had signal advantages in long 
parliamentary training and national fame. He 
was fluent, aggressive and courageous even to 
recklessness, with a quick eye to exposed points 
of attack, But as compared with Lincoln he 
was in truth the “little giant,” with emphasis on 


448 


the first branch of his familiar sobriquet. Lin- 
coln, the taller by eight inches or more, was 
of corresponding intellectual reach. Less volu- 
ble, less gifted in voice and exterior attractive- 
ness, he was more thoughtful, better tempered, 
surer in his knowledge of the history involved 
and far above Douglas in the saving quality of 
humor. His own estimate of the comparative 
merits of their speeches was expressed late in 
the following year when he caused both to 
be reprinted side by side, for campaign pur- 
poses, without change and “without any com- 
ment whatever.” 

The State was carried on the popular vote, 
but the existing apportionment gave the advan- 
tage to Douglas who was. returned to the 
Senate by a majority of five. Commenting 
upon the outcome Lincoln wrote 19 November, 
“Jam glad I made the late race. It gave me a 
hearing on the great and enduring question of 
the age, which I could have had in no other 
way; and though I now sink out of view, and 
shall be forgotten, I believe I have made some 
marks which will tell for the cause of liberty 
long after I am gone.» But he was not to be 
lost from sight or memory. The great debate 
continued on a wider field. He was called to 
speak in other States and finally (27 Feb. 1860) 
by a masterly address at Cooper Institute, in 
New York City, the growing impression of his 
leadership was greatly extended. But there 
were few to think of him then as a possible 
chief magistrate. The national convention was 
to meet within the next 80 days (16 May 1860) 
and it was the general belief that Senator 
William H. Seward of New York would be 
the Republican nominee. Fully two-thirds of 
the delegates expected to vote for him. There 
were, however, elements of weakness in his 
candidacy. He had: echoed the sentiment of 
Lincoln’s house-divided speech, terming the 
slavery dispute an “irrepressible conflict. be- 
tween opposing and enduring forces, one of 
which must eventually triumph, but he had 
previously declared in a Senate debate that 
there is a higher law than the Constitution 
governing the nation’s stewardship of the pub- 
lic domain. This had associated him in the 
public mind with the extreme abolitionists by 
whom the constitution was openly flouted. Some 
of the Northern States which Frémont had 
failed to carry were necessary to Republican 
success. Three of them, Pennsylvania, Indiana 
and Illinois, were to elect State officers in 
October. Republican leaders, in the last two 
especially, were convinced that Seward’s nomi- 
nation would alienate many voters otherwise 
friendly. Their firm opposition coupled with 
the purely personal hostility of Horace Greeley, 
whose newspaper, the New York Tribune, was 
widely read by Republicans, led to caution and 
delay. There was the usual array of “favorite 
sons” to receive perfunctory support on the 
opening ballot, but it was soon apparent that 
if Seward were set aside Lincoln would be 
the choice. The nomination was dictated by 
considerations: of availability, Lincoln could 
carry Illinois—had done so but two years 
before. Indiana probably would favor him 
also. Pennsylvania, pledged to Simon Cameron, 
was indifferent toward Seward. In the midst 
of excitement prudence worked powerfully. 
Seward received but 173% votes at first, 4014 
fewer than the required majoritv. Lincoln had 


LINCOLN 


102. The leader gained 11 votes on the second 
ballot. as against a gain of 79 for his rival. 
The third, resulted. in a majority for Lincoln, 
and after a painful delay the nomination on 
motion of New York was made unanimous. 

The Democratic. convention had met. at 
Charleston, S. C., in the preceding month (23 
April 1860) hopelessly divided. Douglas held 
a decided preponderance over all opponents 
but not a.two-thirds majority as required by 
the party usage. He had offended the South 
beyond forgiveness by his course in the debates 
with Lincoln hardly less than by his contumacy 
on the Kansas issue. The North refused to 
yield and the convention split into two angry 
factions without nomination by either. Eventu- 
ally two Democratic candidates were presented, 
Douglas being named by the Northern wing 
and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky by the 
Southern minority. A fourth ticket, headed 
by John Bell of Tennessee, appealed to the 
neutral element and, proved stronger than was 
expected; it prevailed in three of the slave- 
holding States whose electoral yotes aggre- 
gated 39. While division in the dominant party 
lent encouragement and vigor to the Republican 
campaign it can hardly be doubted that the 
pro-slavery element would have: failed in. any , 
event... Lincoln received 180 electoral votes, all 
from the North, and Breckenridge 72, all from 
the South. Douglas carried Missouri only, but 
through a fusion agreement obtained three elec- 
toral yotes from New. Jersey, a total of 15. 
The popular vote, however, varied remark- 
ably, that of Breckenridge being but a trifle 
more than that accorded to Bell. Douglas out- 
stripped the former by more than half a mil- 
lion and fell behind Lincoln by a slightly lower 
number, The combined opposition polled nearly 
a million more votes than were cast for the 
candidate whose majority in the electoral col- 
lege was 57 over all.. Lincoln never forgot 
that he was a minority President, nor that his 
nomination had come from a convention “which 
was two-thirds for the other fellow To his 
analytical mind these circumstances evinced a 
confused state of public feeling and opinion 
calling for caution no less than firmness in the 
execution of his official trust. 

The interval between the election and inau- 
guration day (4 March 1861) was utilized by 
the southernmost States in perfecting measures 
of secession. Though it was well known that 
the incoming administration intended no inter- 
ference with slavery. where it already existed, 
its protagonists were stung to the quick by 
the decision of the country to confine the sys- 
tem to a limited area, and that upon the avowed 
ground that it was both politically and morally 
a wrong. Such a decision they regarded as 
insulting, but. more than that, they perceived 
that it placed their cherished institution, as 
Lincoln had phrased it, “in the course of ulti- 
mate extinction” Their resentment and their 
fears led to speedy action. Pretexts for dis- 
solving the Union were not wanting; the 
thought was not new. Buchanan, confused and 
terrified by the situation, interposed no obstac- 
les. In his message to the new Congress (3 
Dec. 1860) he easily demonstrated the utter 
illegality of all attempts to secede, but with 
astonishing want of logic maintained that the 
Federal government possessed no lawful right 
to resist secession. In a word, that a nation 


LINCOLN 


; 

ordained to be perpetual could not defend its 
perpetuity without breaking the law: of its 
being. The result was that when the President- 
elect arose to repeat the inaugural oath, with 
its specific obligations to protect and defend 
the national Constitution and to take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, the forms of 
secession were already accomplished and a new 
nation, “all slave,» was asserting its separate 
existence. 

The inaugural address, as tactfully as the 
case would admit, but without the slightest hint 
of uncertainty, declared that in view of the 
Constitution and the laws the Union was un- 
broken; that all resolves and ordinances of 
attempted secession were legally void; and that 
so far as the means were provided the Presi- 
dent would execute the laws in all the States 
alike. The rest was a calm review of the 
grounds of dissension and a moving appeal to 
the minds and hearts of all lovers of the Union 
for a peaceable settlement and a resumption of 
healing friendships. The address made no im- 
pression in the South except as its moderation 
was construed as a sign of weakness. The 
North indeed failed to grasp its real signifi- 
cance. As a declaration of policy it never 
stood in need of revision or enlargement. Doc- 
trine, duty, purpose and method are all clearly 
defined; only the wisdom, perseverance, re- 
sourcefulness and will of the speaker were as 
yet unknown. With sagacity which seemed to 
border on rashness he summoned to his Cabinet 
the four principal leaders who had contested 
his nomination, Seward, Chase, Bates and 
Cameron. At least two of these deemed them- 
selves vastly superior to their chief in all the 
qualities of statesmanship. Their great abil- 
ities served the country well, but the President’s 
mastery was not long in doubt. Carefully 
avoiding acts of aggression, and with equal care 
declining to recognize by word or deed the 
claims of the so-called Confederate government, 
he waited for the crystallization of Union senti- 
ment. It came with the assault upon Fort 
Sumter and its enforced surrender, 14 April 
1861. The following day he proclaimed a state 
of insurrection, called forth the militia to the 
number of 75,000 and summoned Congress to 
assemble on the ensuing 4th of July. Four 
days later a blockade of some of the Southern 
ports was announced. Other measures of de- 
fense were taken, including calls for volunteers 
to re-enforce the regular army and navy, sus- 
pension of the writ of habeas corpus in dis- 
affected quarters, extension of the blockade, 
and the like, all in harmony with the declared 
aay ae to protect the Union and execute its 
aws. 

Pending the meeting of Congress loyal 
sentiment gradually strengthened. In a mes- 
sage of great power the case for the govern- 
ment was explained and enforced. All sug- 
gested legislation was promptly enacted. The 
South, more firmly united and not less deter- 
mined, plunged into a military struggle and 
four years of bloody warfare ensued. The 
story of battles and campaigns must here be 
omitted; neither can the civil history of that 
troubled period be narrated except in barest 
outline. There were many in the loyal States 
whose resentment of Southern domination led 
them to favor separation as a fortunate rid- 
dance. Others accepted the extreme view of 

VOL, 17 — 29 y 


449 


State rights, including the right of secession. 
Many shrank from civil war and would con- 
sent to disunion rather than fight. The aboli- 
tionists would make the wat ‘a means of de- 
stroying slavery forthwith, while the President 
and a vast majority of his party were com- 
mitted to the doctrine that abolition could not 
lawfully be enforced. These must unite, if at 
all, upon the single purpose of saving the 
Union. The avowal of any other aim within 
the first year inevitably would have wrecked 
the national cause. Lincoln almost alone per- 
ceived that the one unifying appeal must be 
kept in the foreground, and with undying 
patience, disregarding ridicule, distrust and ob- 
loquy, he restrained rashness, encouraged the 
timid, reassured the doubtful, persuaded the 
hostile. At bottom his title to enduring fame 
rests upon his unerring comprehension of the 
great task before him and his matchless skill 
in putting into timely and convincing words 
the fundamental truths to which the minds of 
honest men at last must yield. Slavery which 
had invoked the sword perished by the sword. 
Emancipation came (1 Jan. 1863) not of set 
purpose but as a by-product of national self- 
preservation. Neither side expected-it. “Each,” 
as stated in the second inaugural, “looked for 
. . . a result less) fundamental and as- 
tounding.» But Lincoln’s credit for the event 
is no less because he waited for an occasion 
to strike lawfully and with assured effect. It. 
must have given him intense satisfaction. “I 
am naturally anti-slavery,» he wrote to A. C. 
Hodges, 4 April 1864. “If slavery is not wrong 
nothing is wrong. I cannot remember when 
I did not so think and feel. Yet I have never 
understood that the presidency conferred upon 
me an unrestricted right to act officially upon 
this judgment and feeling.» Emancipation, 
when it came, was purely a military expedient, 
a blow at:'the economic resources of a public 
enemy. “I felt,» he stated in the same letter, 
“that measures otherwise unconstitutional might 
become lawful by becoming indispensable to 
the preservation of the Constitution through 
the preservation of the nation. Right or wrong 
I assumed that: ground and now avow it. I 
could not feel that, to the best of my ability, 
I had even tried to preserve the Constitution 
if, to save slavery or any minor matter, I should 
permit the wreck of the government, country 
and Constitution all together». He had. pre- 
pared well for the finishing stroke by proposing 
and urging a settlement on the basis of com- 
pensated emancipation. Logically, enemy prop- 
erty, especially that which the owner refused to 
sell, might be seized for military purposes. 
But only such as could be captured fell within 
that rule, hence a doubt as to the legal effect 
of a mere announcement of freedom to slaves 
not within military reach. This doubt was 
practically solved by the President’s emphatic 
declaration that he would never retract: or 
modify the edict of emancipation nor return 
to slavery any person freed by its terms. This 
was repeated in his last annual message (6 
Dec. 1864), this final assurance being added: 
“If the people should, by whatever mode or 
means, make it an executive duty to re-enslave 
such persons another and not I must be their 
instrument to perform it.” Negro regiments 
helped to extend the military lines which ulti- 
mately carried the reality no less than the 


450 


promise of freedom. to every slave. The 13th 
amendment to the ‘Constitution was but the for- 
mal recognition of a fact already accomplished. 

A marked example of both the sagacity and 
the magnanimity of the President is found in 
his selection of Edwin M. Stanton as Secretary 
of War upon the early retirement of Cameron. 
This imperious but intensely loyal. man. had 
treated Lincoln with: marked discourtesy both 
before and after the latter came to the Presi- 
dency: But Lincoln comprehended both the 
strength and the weakness. of his waspish 
critic. ‘Disregarding the personal affronts. he 
placed Stanton in a position of almost despotic 
power, and reaped: for himself and the country 
a harvest of incomparable service. In the same 
spirit he made Salmon P. Chase chief justice 
of the United States Supreme Court, after that 
great minister of finance had retired from his 
Cabinet a disappointed aspirant for the presi- 
dential succession. General McClellan, while 
in command of the Potomac army, displayed 
toward his great superior a very unfortunate 
attitude. Remonstrances against submission: to 
such treatment called forth no response. but 
this: “I would hold McClellan’s horse if that 
would bring us. victories.» Chief among his 
many disappointments was the failure, one after 
another, of his chief military appointees. The 
field of choice was limited, of course, to those 
educated for the army and not openly disloyal. 
Only experience could determine who of these 
were fit to command. He would not condemn 
any in haste. Some were retained perhaps too 
_ long because better were as yet unknown: Re- 
peated disasters at last sent incompetents to the 
rear and. possibilities of victory began to 
emerge. High hopes inspired by the. fall of 
Vicksburg (4 July 1863) and the concurrent 
defeat of Lee at Gettysburg suffered painful 
relapses. The following spring (9 March 1864) 
General Grant, whose successful career in the 
West had won the country’s confidence, was 
placed in supreme control. Thence onward 


unity of plan and movement took the place of 


divided efforts. Meanwhile, very largely under 
the President’s personal direction, the dangers 
of foreign intervention were met and averted. 
But as the season for nominations and elec- 
tions approached conditions were extremely de- 
pressing. Immense losses attended the grapple 
with Lee’s army in the Wilderness of Virginia. 
In Georgia the forces under Johnston were 
eluding the efforts of General Sherman to bring 
them to bay. Financial difficulties accumulated; 
discontent spread among powerful leaders in 
Congress and elsewhere. Lincoln naturally. de- 
sired re-election, both on his own account and 
for the national cause, but the clamor of the 
few and the slow progress of events in the 
field led him at times to forbode. defeat both 
in convention and at the polls: The convention 
met at Baltimore, 7 June 1864. His renomina- 
tion, never in doubt, was made unanimous upon 
the first ballot. For reasons of expediency, a 
Vice-President was named from the South, An- 
drew Johnson of Tennessee succeeding Hanni- 
bal Hamlin of Maine. Opposition on the part 
of radicals did not cease immediately. ‘They 
had previously (31 May 1864) held a mass 
convention which assumed to name Frémont 


as a Republican candidate, but no manifestation | 


ef popular support was evoked and_its ticket 
was later withdrawn. The Democratic conven- 


LINCOLN 


tion (29 Aug. 1864) nominated Gen. George ’ 
B. McClellan, who despite his repeated failures 
as a general had retained a singular hold upon 
popular favor. His failures indeed -had en- 
hanced his popularity, owing to strenuous 
claims. that the administration had thwarted his 
military plans in order to disgrace him. | No 
more dangerous candidate. could have’ been 
chosen .as matters then stood, but the conven- 
tion platform was a marvel of political unwis- 
dom. It recited as an historical fact that the 
war so long waged for the Union had been a 
“failure,” and demanded the immediate. cessa- 
tion of hostilities that peace’might be obtained 
through a convention of the States. Opportune 
victories, however, put an end to the charges 
of failure. The capture of Atlanta (2 Sept. 
1864) and Sheridan’s -whirlwind progress 
through the Shenandoah Valley were campaign 
arguments of compelling force. -McClellan car- 
ried but three States, New. Jersey, Delaware 
and Kentucky, casting 21-electoral votes. Lin- 
coln received all the rest, 212 in number, and 
a popular majority of nearly 500,000. | 
_ Opposition in the North practically ceased 
with this overwhelming vote of confidence. 
There were-murmurs of. discontent’ over. the 
President’s evident inclination to deal leniently 
with the misguided South, but these came from 
would-be leaders rather than the masses, The 
Confederacy speedily fell apart... By his 
patience and sagacity, by his steadfast. resolve 
and his faith in the integrity and capacity of 
the. people, by his ready sympathy with the 
common sufferings and his eagerness. to-receive 
and to grant petitions for help,and for mercy 
he had acquired and at last enjoyed an influence 
far greater than the mere authority of his 
office. Constantly assailed by, ignorance and 
malice he had so administered his great trust 
as to make reunion comparatively easy. Hardly 
a word of denunciation fell from his lips or pen 
throughout those trying years. “I shall. do 
nothing in malice,» he'.wrote. “What I deal 
with is. too vast for malicious dealing” His 
almost unbounded charity was based upon a 
profound study of the feelings and motives of 
men. He ruled by a right more Divine than 
any right of kings. Tete 
The principal army of the Confederacy. sur- 
rendered to General. Grant 9 April 1865. It 
was confidently expected’ that: further  resist- 
ance would shortly cease; In the ‘elation of. the 
moment it was resolved to celebrate the fourth 
anniversary of the fall of Fort. Sumter by a 
harmless bit of ceremony, signalizing upon, the 
same spot the restoration of the national au- 
thority throughout the land. Accordingly. at 
noon of that day the ‘identical flag which Major 
Anderson had been forced to haul down as the 
first definite ‘concession to armed. insurgency 
was by the same hand again unfurled above the 
crumbling fortress. That evening, the mission 
of the great President being in substance per- 
formed, his martyrdom was also accomplished. 
He had sought relaxation by witnessing a play 
at Ford’s Theatre in Washington. There he 
was shot by a crazed:secession zealot, J. Wilkes 
Booth by name, stealthily approaching from the 
rear. He fell unconscious in the’ arms of his 
wife and died at about seven of the! following 
morning. The tragedy proved but a part of an 
infamous plot to slay several leading officials 
of the government:: Secretary. Seward, \at about 


LINCOLN 


the same hour, was dangerously stabbed by one 
of the conspirators while lying sick. at his 
home. Other intended victims escaped through 
miscarriages in the. concerted scheme. Booth, 
leaping from the President's box to the stage 
below, sustained a fracture of the leg, but with 
the aid of ‘confederates escaped across the 
Potomac. He was soon discovered in hiding 
and: was fatally shot while resisting arrest. 
Four of the remaining conspirators, including 
a widow named Mary Surratt, were convicted 
by a military court and hanged (7 July 1865). 
Four others were sentenced to prison. Natu- 
rally the Confederate government was suspected 
of direct complicity in the crime. The suspicion 
was unfounded, but the mingled grief and rage 
of the people brought upon the South distress- 
ing consequences. Harsh measures of recon- 
struction were adopted, such as Lincoln surely 
would ‘have disapproved and by his great in- 
fluence might have averted. Friend and foe 
suffered in a common calamity. 
Bibliography.— ‘Writings and Speeches; 
Lincoln’s Complete Works,” edited by his secre- 
taries, J. G. Nicolay and John Hay (2 vols., 
New York 1894; same extended to 12 vols. 
id. 1905); ‘The Writings of Lincoln,» Federal 
Edition, ed. by A. B. Lapsley (8 vols., New 


York 1906) : Life and Works,» ed. by M. M. 
Mills. (8 vols, New York 1907; same in 4 
and 6 vols., respectively, ed. by Mills and J. H. 


Clifford, id. 1907-08) ; ‘Uncollected Letters, 
ed. by ri Ree Tracy (1 vol., Boston 1917): 
‘Political Debates? (Columbus, Ohio, 1860); 
same, Cleveland 1894; same, ed. by A. T. Jones, 
Battle Creek, Mich., 1895; reprinted, Chicago 
1900; same, ed. by, E.. E. Sparks, Springfield, 
Iil., 1908 ; same, with introduction by G. H. 
Putnam (New. York and London 1912). 

.. Biographies: , Scripps,. J. L. (New York and 
Chicago 1860; réprinted, Detroit 1900); How- 
ard, J. K., (Columbus 1860) ; Howells, W. D., 
(Life and. Speeches? (id. .1860) ; Barrett, |... 4. 
(Cincinnati 1860; enlarged,fid. 1864 and 1865) ; 
‘Lincoln .and. His Presidency. (2 vols., id. 
1904); Raymond, H. J., ‘Life’ (New York 
1864); ‘History. and Bisa YON (id. 
1864) ; oe and Services? (id. 186 Hol- 
land, J. G., ‘Life? (Springfield, ee! 1867): 
Lamon, W. H., ‘Life to Inauguration (Boston 
1872); Arnold, I. N., ‘Life? (Chicago 1885; 
Sth ed., 1891); Nicolay’ and Hay, ‘Abraham 
Lincoln, a History (10 vols., New York 1890) ; 
Nicolay, et OA Short ‘Life (id. 1902) ; 
Nicolay, Helen, ‘The Boy’s Life of Lincoln? 
(New “York 1906); ‘Personal Traits? (id. 
1906); Browne, F. F., ‘The Every-day Life? 
(New York and Saint Louis 1887; curtailed ed. 
in 2 vols., Chicago 1913); Stoddard, W. O., 
‘The True Story of a Great Life’ (New York 
1884; revised ed., id. 1896); Herndon, W. H., 
and Weik, J. W., “Herndon’s Lincoln» (3 vols., 
Chicago 11890; 2 vols.,, New-York 1892) ; Morse, 
J. T. (2 vols., Boston. 1893; revised ed., id. 1899 
and 1909); Hapgood, Norman, ‘Abraham Lin- 
coln the Man of the People? (New York 1899) ; 
Tarbell, Ida M:, ‘Life? . (2 \wols., 
-1900) + Curtis, W. E., “The Thue Abraham Lin- 
coln> (Philadelphia 1903); Binns, :H. B. (Lon- 
don. and New~ York .1907) ;s Morgan; James, 
‘The Boy and the Man?” (New York 1908) ; 
Lord “Charnwood, “Abraham Lincoln (New 
York 1916): More than 150 extended biogra- 


New York 


451 


phies exist, representing nearly every printed 
language. 

Personal Reminiscences: Carpenter, F. B., 
Six Months at the White House with Abraham 
Lincoln: The Story of a Picture? (Boston 1866 ; 


republished aS ‘The! Inner, Life, _ etc,,):3 
Oldroyd, O. H., ‘The Lincoln Memorial,” etc. 
(New York 1882) ; Rice) A. Ei, ‘Reminiscences 


of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of 
His Time? (New York 1886; rev. ed., id. 1909) ; 
Ward, W. H., ‘Abraham Lincoln, Tributes 
from His Associates,? etc. (New York 1895) ; 
Chittenden, L. E., ‘Recollections of President 
Lincoln and His Administration? (New York 
1891) ; Whitney, H. C., ‘Life on the Circuit 
with Lincoln? (Boston 1892); Dana, C. A,, 
‘Recollections of the Civil War with the Lead- 
ers at Washington and in the Field in the Six- 
ties» (New. York 1898); Gilmore, James A,, 
‘Personal Recollections: of Abraham Lincoln 


and the Civil War? (Boston 1898); Schurz, 
Carl, ‘The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz? 
(3 vols... New York 1908); Phillips, I. N., 


‘Abraham Lincoln. By some Men who Knew 
Him? (Bloomington, IIl.,; 1910) ; Welles, Gideon, 
‘Diary? (3 vols., Boston 1911); Thayer, W. R., 
‘The Life and Letters of John Hay? (2 vols., 
Boston 1911); Chapman, Ervin, ‘Latest Light 
on Abraham Lincoln and War-time Memories? 
(New York 1917). 

Sermons and Eulogies: Simpson, Matthew, 
“Funeral Address delivered at the Burial of 
President Lincoln at Springfield, 4 May 1865” 
(New. York 1865); Beecher, H. W., “Oration 
on Raising the Old Flag at Sumter and Ser- 
mon on the Death of Abraham Lincoln” (Man- 
chester, England, 1865); Brooks, Phillips, “The 
Life and Death of Abraham Lincoln. A ser- 
mon preached 26 April 1865» (Philadelphia 
1865); Dudley, John L., “Discourse preached 
16 April 1865 at Middletown, Conn.” (Middle- 
town 1865); “Sermons preached in Boston on 
the Death of Abraham Lincoln. Together with 
funeral services in the executive mansion at 
Washington” (Boston 1865); “Our Martyr 
President. Voices from the Pulpit of New 
York and Brooklyn” (New York 1865) ; Sum- 
ner, Charles, “The Promises of the Declaration. 
Eulogy on Abraham Lincoln delivered before 
the Municipal Authorities of Boston, 1 June 
1865 (Boston 1865) ; Bancroft, George, “Mem- 
orial Address... . delivered before the Con- 
gress, 12 Feb. 1866” (Washington 1866); Stod- 
dard, R. H., “Abraham Lincoln: An Horatian 
Ode” (New York 1865) ; Douglas, Fred, “Ora- 
tion on the Unveiling: of the Freedmen’s Monu- 
ment in’ Memory of Lincoln» (Washington 
(1876); Arnold, I. N., “Abraham Lincoln: A 
paper read before the Royal Historical So- 
ciety, London, 16 June 1881” (Chicago 1883) ; 
Watterson, Henry, “Abraham Lincoln. An Ora- 
tion, 12 Feb. 1895» (Chicago 1900); Choate, 
af H., “Abraham Lincoln. Address delivered 
before Edinburgh Philosophical Society, 13. Nov. 
1900” (London 1900; New York 1901); Inger- 
soll, Robert, “Abraham Lincoln. A Lecture” 
(New York 1895; 1907) ; Reid, Whitelaw, “Ad- 
dress. at University of Birmingham” (London 
1910); addresses before Republican Club, city 

of New York, “Abraham Lincoln, 1887-1909” 
(New York 1909) : “Abraham Lincoln. The 
Tribute of a Century; principal Addresses of 
the Centennial Year, ed. by W. McChesney 
(Chicago 1910). - 


452 


Topical Studies: Schurz, Carl, ‘An Essay? 
(Boston |1891; , republished 1909); Welles, 
Gideon, ‘Lineoin’ and Seward? (New York 
1874) ;, Kelly, W.\D., ‘Lincoln and Stantom 
(New York 1885) ;°Coggeshall, W. T., ‘The 
Journeys.of Abraham Lincoln: From Spring- 
field to Washington . . . and from Washing- 
ton to Springfield? (Columbus, Ohio, 1865) ; 
Collis, H. T., and Ingersoll, Robert, ‘The Re- 
ligion of Abraham Lincoln? (New York 1900) ; 
Maynard, Mrs. W. C., ‘Was Abraham Lincoln 
a Spiritualist?? (Philadelphia 1891); Rems- 
burg, J. E., ‘Abraham Lincoln; Was he a 
Christian?» (Philadelphia 1893) ; Jackson, S. T., 
‘Lincoln’s Use of the Bible? (Philadelphia 
1909) ; Johnson, W. J., ‘Abraham Lincoln the 
Christian? (Philadelphia 1913); Peters, M. C., 
‘Abraham’ Lincoln’s Religion» (New York 
1909) ; Wettstein, C. T., “Was Abraham Lin- 
coln an Infidel?? (New York 1910); Lowell, 
J. R., ‘The President’s Policy? (Boston 1864, 
1871° and 1888); Hart, A. B., ‘Slavery and 
Abolition? (New York 1906) ; Creelman, James, 
“Why We Love Lincoln» (New York 1903) ; 
Hill, F. T., ‘Lincoln the Lawyer? (New York 
1906); Richards, J. T., ‘Abraham Lincoln the 
Lawyer-Statesman? (Boston 1916) ; Rothschild, 
A., ‘Lincoln Master of Men? (Boston 1906) ; 
“Honest Abe? (id. 1917); Norton, E., ‘Abra- 
ham Lincoln, a Son of Mankind? (New York 
1911); Pillsbury, A. E., ‘Lincoln and Slavery? 
(Boston 1913); McCarthy, C. H., ‘Lincoln’s 
Plan of Reconstruction? (New York 1901); 
Learned, M. D., ‘Abraham Lincoln: an Ameri- 
can Migration» (Philadelphia 1909); Lincoln, 
S., “Notes on the Lincoln Families of Massa- 
chusetts, etc.2>. (Boston 1865); Lea and Hutch- 
inson, ‘The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln? 
(Boston 1900); Jenkins, H. M., ‘The Mother 
of Lincoln? (Philadelphia 1900); Hitchcock, 
Caroline H., ‘Nancy Hanks»? (New York 
1899); De Witt, D. M., ‘The Assassination of 
Abraham Lincoln and Its Expiation® (New 
York 1909); Oldroyd, O. H., ‘The Assassina- 
tion of Abraham Lincoln? (Washington 1906) ; 
Pitman, Benn, ‘The Assassination of President 
Lincoln and the Trial of the Conspirators? 
(Cincinnati 1865); Surratt, John H., ‘Trial of 
in the Criminal Court of the District of Colum- 
bia? (Washington 1867) ; Dodge, D. K., “Abra- 
ham Lincoln, the Evolution of His Literary 
Style» (Urbana, IIl., 1900) ; Gilder, R. W., ‘Lin- 
coln the Leader and Lincoln’s Genius for Ex- 
pression»? (Boston 1909); Garret and Hadley, 
‘The Civil War from a Southern Standpoint? 
(Philadelphia 1905) ; Hosmer, J. K., ‘The Ap- 
peal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil War? 
(New York 1907); Rhodes, James F., ‘History 
of the United States? (7 vols, New York 
1912). 

DANIEL FIsuH, 
Judge, District Court, Minneapolis; Author. of 
Lincoln Bibliography, etc. 


LINCOLN, Benjamin, American general: 
b. Hingham, Mass., 24 Jan. 1733; d. there, 9 
May 1840. Until the age of 40 he followed the 
calling of a farmer, holding also at different 
times the offices of magistrate, representative 
in the provincial legislature and colonel of 
militia. He was also an active member of the 
three provincial congresses of Massachusetts, 
and as militia officer displayed an efficiency 
which procured his promotion in 1776: to the 
rank of major-general. In-this capacity he be- 


LINCOLN 


came favorably known to Washington during 
the siege of Boston. In the beginning of 1777 
he joined Washington at Morristown with a 
new levy of militia, and soon after, at the sug- 
gestion of the commander-in-chief, was trans- 
ferred to the continental service with the rank 
of major-general. He was sent to join the 
forces assembled to oppose the progress of 
Burgoyne, and during the battle of Bemis’ 
Heights commanded inside the American 
works; and was severely wounded in the leg 
and compelled for nearly a year to retire from 
service. In September 1778 he was appointed 
to the command of the southern army, and 
upon the arrival of Count d’Estaing co-operated 
with the French troops and fleet in the unsuc- 
cessful assault on Savannah. From the unwill- 
ingness of his. allies to continue the siege he 
was obliged to return to Charleston, where in 
the spring of 1780 he was besieged by a supe- 
rior British force ‘under. Sir Henry Clinton. 
After an obstinate defense he was forced in 
May to capitulate, and retired to Massachusetts 
on parole. In the spring of the succeeding year. 
he was exchanged, and subsequently partici- 
pated with credit in the siege of Yorktown. In 
consideration of his merits and misfortunes 
Washington appointed him to receive the sword 
of Cornwallis upon the surrender of the British 
forces. He held the office of Secretary of War 
1781-83, and in 1787 commanded the forces 
which quelled the Shays’ Rebellion in western 
Massachusetts, and in the same year was elected 
lieutenant-governor of the State, which office 
he held one year. He was collector of Boston 
1789 till about two years before his death. He 
was a member of the commission which in 1789 
formed a treaty with the Creek Indians, and 
of that which in 1793 unsuccessfully attempted 
to enter into negotiations with the Indians 
north of the Ohio. In his later years he took 
great interest in science and wrote several 
papers many of which attracted attention at 
the time. Lincoln’s earnest character and his 
unselfish public spirit were greatly admired and 
he was deservedly popular toward the close of 
his life, Consult life by Bowen in Jared Sparks’ 
‘American Biography? (2d series, Vol. XIII, 
Boston 1847). (POS! 


LINCOLN, Charles Perez, American law- 
yer: b. Quincy, Mich. 7 Oct. 1843, He. was 
educated at. Hillsdale College; entered the 
Union army at the beginning of the Civil War 
and served until mustered out of the service in 
June 1864. He was admitted to the bar in 
1871; was consul at Canton, China, 1875-81, and 
then began to practise his profession in Wash- 
ington. He was elected: commander of the De- 
partment of the Potomac, G. A. R., in 1888, and 
was 2d deputy commissioner of pensions 1889- 
93. 


LINCOLN, David Francis, American hy- 
gienist: b. Boston, Mass.,.4 Jan. 1841; d. 15 
Oct. 1916. Graduated at Harvard University 
in 1864 and at its medical school in the same 
year, and served as acting assistant surgeon in 
the United States navy during part of the Civil 
War (1864-65). He practised as specialist in 
nervous diseases, lectured and did literary work 
in connection with Hobart. College, Geneva, N 
Y., for some years, beginning in 1881, having pre- 
viously relinquished medical practice. He pub- 
lished ‘Electro-Therapeutics?. (1874).;\ “School 


LINCOLN 453 
and Industrial | Hygiene? (1880): ‘Hygienic and there are important manufactures of ma- 
Physiology,” a'school textbook (1893); ‘Sanity chinery and agricultural implements. The 
of Mind? (1900), and a work on the education municipality possesses. valuable estates in 


of the’ feeble-minded. 


LINCOLN, Mary Johnson Bailey, Amer- 
ican household economist: b. South Attleboro, 
Mass., 8 July 1844. She was educated at Wheaton 
Seminary, Norton, Mass., in 1864, was married 
to the late David A. Lincoln in 1865, and after 
1879 was prominent as a lecturer and writer on 
household matters. She was the first principal 
of the Boston Cooking School, and edited the 
American Kitchen Magazine from 1893 to 1903. 
She lectured on cookery in seminaries and in 
most of the large cities of the country. She 
published ‘The Boston Cook Book? (1884); 
‘Peerless Cook Book? (1886); ‘Carving and 
Serving?’ (1886): ©The Boston School Kitchen 
Text Book? (1888): ‘What to Have for Lunch- 
eon? (1904); ‘School Kitchen Text Book? (1915). 
She died at Boston, Mass., 2 Dec. 1921. 


LINCOLN, Robert Todd, American law- 
yer: b. Springfield, Ill, 1 Aug. 1843. He is 
the eldest son of Abraham Lincoln, and was 
graduated at Harvard College in 1864. He en- 
tered the Harvard Law School, but left it for 
the army and served on. the staff of General 
Grant as captain. On the close of the war he 
resumed his legal studies and was admitted to 
the Chicago bar in 1867. He was Secretary of 
War, 1881-85, and although mentioned as a can- 
didate for the Presidency in the last-named 
year declined to allow his name to be placed 
in opposition to that of President Arthur. He 
was Minister to Great Britain in 1889-93, and 
became counsel of the Pullman Company in 
1893; in 1897 he became president and in 1911 
chairman of the board of directors of the Pull- 
man ‘Company. 


LINCOLN, England, an episcopal. city, 
civic. county and parliamentary and municipal 
borough,. the capital..of Lincolnshire, on the 
Witham, at the junction of several railroads, 
130: miles north of London. It dates from pre- 
Norman. times,,, was the Roman “Lindum 
Colona,» and at the time of the Norman Con- 
quest a fortified town of considerable import- 
ance. The principal edifice is the cathedral, 
chiefly. of early English but with interesting 
transitional phases, crowning a height, on the 
summit and slope of which the town is built, 
210 feet above the river.. Its conspicuous site 
makes it a familiar landmark for miles around. 
It is surmounted by three towers, two 180 feet 
high, and the central tower is 271 feet high. 
The latter is one of the glories of English 
ecclesiastical architecture and dates from 1235 
to 1317. The celebrated Angel Choir was com- 
pleted in 1280. The total interior length of the 
building is 482 feet, the nave is 252 feet long, 
and width, including the aisles, 82 feet. The 
bell. (Great Tom -of Lincoln) weighs five tons 
eight: hundredweight. Other prominent build- 
ings are the Saint Mary’s Guildhall. (12th cen- 
tury); the Jews’ House, one of the finest, speci- 
mens of Norman domestic architecture i in Eng- 
land; the remains of the castle begun in 1086 
by William the Conqueror; the ancient episco- 
pal palace, and the. fine old: Roman gateway, 
the. Newport Arch, of. date 104 ap. which 
spans Hermin. street...,.There is a theological 
college; and. a_ school, of art. An» extensive’ 
trade in corn, flour and wool is carried on, 


Buckinghamshire and Lincolnshire and much 
valuable property in the city. The-public utili- 
ties are municipally owned. A new water sup- 
ply was introduced from Elkesley, Nottingham- 
shire, in 1911. The city returns one member 
to the House of Commons. Pop. of county 
borough 57,285. Consult Allen, ‘History of 
Lincoln? (London 1833), and Kendrick, AQF:, 
‘The Cathedral Church of Lincoln (in Bell’s 
Cathedral Series, London 1898). 


LINCOLN, IIl., city, county-seat of Logan 
County, on the Illinois Central and the Chicago 
and Alton railroads, about 28 miles northeast 
of Springfield and 135 miles southwest of Chi- 
cago. The place was settled in 1835 and incor- 
porated in 1854. It is situated in an agricul- 
tural region and extensive deposits of coal are 
in the vicinity. The chief manufactures are 
cellulose, horse-collars, corn-cutting machinery, 
signal horns, flour, mattresses, caskets and 
coffins, excelsior. The farm and dairy products 
and the coal mines contribute to the wealth of 
the city. Lincoln is the seat of the State In- 
stitution for Feeble-Minded Children, and of 
the Lincoln University, opened in 1865 under 
the auspices of the Cumberland Presbyterians. 
It has a free public library, the building a gift 
from Andrew ‘Carnegie; a Deaconess Home and 
Hospital, Saint Clara’s Hospital and Odd Fel- 
lows’ Orphans’ Home. Abraham Lincoln prac- 
tised as a lawyer in the old courthouse here. 
The city. was named in his honor and he as- 
sisted in laying it out. Lincoln adopted the 
commission form of government in 1915. Pop. 
(1920) 11,882. 


LINCOLN, Kan., city and county-seat of 
Lincoln County, on the Saline River, and on 
the Union Pacific Railroad, about 155 miles 
west of Topeka and 105 miles west of Wichita. 
It is in an agricultural region in which are 
raised large quantities of wheat and corn and 
a number of cattle. Limestone quarries in the 
vicinity contribute to the industrial wealth of 
the city. The industries and trade are con- 
nected chiefly with farm and dairy products 
and with live stock. The waterworks and light- 
ing plant are municipally owned. Pop. 1,613. 


LINCOLN, Neb., city, capital of the State 
and county-seat of Lancaster County, on the 
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Chicago, 
Rock Island and Pacific, the Union Pacific, the 
Missouri Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern 
and other railroads, about 55 miles west of the 
Missouri River, and about the same distance 
north of the Kansas State line. The city, lo- 
cated in the midst of a fertile agricultural dis- 
trict, in the Salt Creek basin, at an elevation of 
1,045 feet, rises gradually to the south and east, 
leaving the creek to the west and north. The 
location of the capital at this point was due in 
part to the. numerous radiating branches of 
Salt. Creek, but more especially to the saline 
springs which in early days furnished salt to 
the Indians and the buffalo, and later to the 
overland emigrants and the early settlers of 
Nebraska. The site selected by a commission, 
14 Aug. 1867, was surveyed the same fall, and 
from the proceeds of lots sold at auction the 
first capitol, the insane asylum and the original 


454 


university building wera erected and completed 
by 1871. Ny 

Lincoln hids\ fair to fulfil the prediction of 
its founders by becoming a great railroad: cen- 
tre,.as it already has 12 radiating lines, owned 
by five of the great corporations that now 
dominate in the West as already mentioned. 
With: one exception each railroad has its own 
station and yard. The Chicago, Burlington 
and Quincy repair and construction shops, 
employing 500 skilled mechanics, are located at 
Havelock, a suburb of Lincoln. About 50 
passenger trains enter, and the same number 
leave, Lincoln every 24 hours.  Lincoln’s rail- 
road connections make it the great convention 
centre’ of the State. ‘The. names of ‘Lincoln 
and Douglas are strangely associated in Ne- 
braska history. The site selected for the capi- 
tal in 1867 and named Lincoln is practically 
identical with the one proposed 10 years earlier 
to have been called Douglas. Thus the author 
of the law organizing the Territory of Nebraska 
failed to have his name perpetuated in its 
capital, but yielded that honor to his great rival. 
Lincoln is-laid out, like most Western cities, on 
the checker-board plan, with streets 100 or 120 
feet in width. These broad streets are in gen- 
eral lined with trees and flanked with large 
lawns. The city contains an unusually large 
number of comfortable homes, excelling in this 
respect its development in business blocks. Over 
20 miles of the streets are paved with brick, 
asphalt or cedar blocks. The waterworks are 
owned by the city; 50 miles of mains distribute 
the water from two deep wells, from which 
about 1,500,000 gallons of the very purest water 
are pumped per day. There are over 40 miles 
of sanitary and 6 miles of storm-water sewers 
in the city. 

Manufacturing is of course yet‘in its infancy, 
but the total output per year approximates 
$5,000,000. A few industries are, however, well 
established. The making of leather goods, such 
as horse-collars, harness, etc., is not equaled 
west of the Missouri River. The production of 
oils and paints, mattresses and_ bed-springs, 
overalls and shirts is large and developing 
rapidly. A large butter and creamery station 
is located at Lincoln. It receives cream from 
some 200 substations. The jobbing and whole- 
saling industry is well under way, and in a few 
lines has reached creditable proportions. Lin- 
coln, with 22 branch houses, is the largest: dis- 
tributing centre for farm machinery in the 
West. The jobbers in butter and eggs, fruits 
and groceries are doing a good business. There 
is also a fair beginning in hats, hardware, drugs, 
furniture, coffins, paper, sash and doors, iron 
for plumbing, jewelry, crockery and queens- 
ware, lumber and coal. Two fair-sized grain 
elevators have recently been constructed. Total 
estimated business of jobbers and wholesalers 
annually about $18,000,000. Lincoln is also be- 
coming quite a centre for insurance: business. 
Two strong life insurance companies, two fire 
insurance, three fraternal companies, including 
the Modern Woodmen with headquarters here, 
and several mutual companies indicate the scope 
of development. The banking capital is small 
for a city of its size: five commercial banks, 
capital $500,000, surplus $180,000, and deposits 
$5,115,000, and one savings bank, deposits $140,- 
000, supply the business community. ‘The State 
fair grounds, the penitentiary, one of the insane 


LINCOLN 


asylums and the Home of the Friendless are 1o- 
cated in or near the city.. The other public build- 
ings are the new capitol, costing $5,000,000; the 


- county courthouse, $200,000; city hall, $150,000; 


Federal building, $350,000; Carnegie library, 
$75,000 and the grounds; 19 ‘public school 
houses that cost from $15,000 to $50,000 each; 
Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital, $150,000; the Cath- 
olic Orphans’ Home and the Tabitha Home — 
private institutions — aid in caring for the sicl 
and unfortunate. The mineral waters are used 
in several private sanitariums. 

For outdoor amusement there are one small] 
public park; the university athletic field, the Ep- 
worth Assembly park and the “Country Club» 
grounds afford meagre facilities. The city sup- 
ports one theatre and an auditorium. ~~ 

The commission form of. government. was 
adopted in 1913, and provides for a mayor and 
council of five members, elected for 'two)years. 

Lincoln is at present’ rather an educational 
than a business centre. Its population is largely 
American, representative of the North and Mid- 
dle West. Neither great wealth nor extreme 
poverty is found. The public schools are effi- 
cient and enroll 6,210 students. The high school 
employs 36 teachers and registers 1,090 pupils, 
a number claimed to be unsurpassed by any city 
of its size. There are three musical conserva- 
tories, three universities, three colleges, one 
preparatory school and two parochial high 
schools, which tend to give a distinct educa- 
tional tone to the public as well as private life 
of the city. The largest and most important 
educational institution is that of the State Uni- 
versity and Agricultural. College (q.v.). . The 
Wesleyan University (q.v.), situated in Univer- 
sity Place, a suburb of Lincoln, ranks next in 
importance. Union College (q.v.), a Seventh 
Day Adventist school, with three buildings and 
over 400 students, and Cotner University (q.v.), 
controlled by the Christian’ Church, with one 
good building and 200 students, are prospering. 
The conservatories and other schools add sey- 
eral hundred more students to this list. “The 
public libraries are the University, 60,000 vol- 
umes; the State, 40,000; the City, 15,000, and 
the High School, 2,500. Lincoln’s educational 
output is indicated in the second-class mail 
matter sent through its post office. One per 
cent of all the second-class mail matter of the 
United \States originates in Lincoln. In all 66 
publications are entered, one’ with- 750,000 cir- 
culation, two others with about 150,000 each, 
and a fourth with over 100,000. There are 30 
church buildings in Lincoln. The following 
organizations are represented: Methodists, 
Congregational, Presbyterian, Christian, Bap- 
tists, Lutheran, Episcopal, Catholic, United 
Presbyterian, Jews, Christian Science, Uni- 
tarian, Reformed,’ Swedish, Free-will Baptists 
and several minor denominations. There are 
three colored churches. The leading’ denom- 
inations all have exceptionally fine buildings. 
Lincoln’s growth has beén somewhat irregular, 
yet counting decades gradual, Lincoln in 1867 — 
then called Lancaster —ccontained only one 
store and some half-dozen dwellings. By 1870 
it contained 2,441 people. In 1880, 13,004. The 
padded census of 1890 gave the city 55,154 
population—a number too large by at’ least 
20,000. Pop. 54,934. Consult Cox and Hayes, 
1) of the City of Lincoln? (Lincoln 


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LINCOLN COLLEGE — LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY 


LINCOLN COLLEGE, established at 
Lincoln, Ill., in 1866,'under the auspices of the 
Cumberland Presbyterians, since 1906 is ‘affili- 
ated to the Presbyterian Church U. S. A., when 
the chief section of the Cumberland Presby- 
terians united with the parent body. It has a 
preparatory department, and the college courses 
lead to the degrees of A.B., B.S. and B.L. In 
1917 there were connected ‘with the college 20 
professors and instructors and. 254 students, 
The library had about, 7,000 volumes;. the 
grounds, buildings and apparatus were valued 
at nearly $80,000; the productive funds were 
$120,000, and the, income from productive funds, 
tuition and other fees amounted .to about 
$20,000 


LINCOLN COLLEGE, Oxford, England, 
a foundation of Oxford University (q.v.) dat- 
ing from 1427. ‘It consists of a rector, 12 Fel- 
lows and 14 scholars. The founder was Rich- 
ard Flemyng, bishop of Lincoln, at first a sup- 
porter but later a strong opponent of Wyclif’s 
doctrines. The foundation was strengthened 
and firmly established in 1478 by Thomas Roth- 
erham, a subsequent bishop of Lincoln. John 
Wesley, Fellow from 1726-57, was one of the 
distinguished associates of this college. A 
modern. library building of Jacobean architec- 
ture, opened in 1906, has been added to the 
buildings, the earliest of which,-the hall, dates 
from 1436. 


LINCOLN HIGHWAY, a continuous 
connecting improved road, the backbone of a 
national highway system, crossing the conti- 
nent through the heart of the most: densely 
populated regions between New York and San 
Francisco.’ The: highway was laid out by the 
Lincoln Highway Association, a Michigan cor- 
poration with headquarters at Detroit, in 1913, 
as the first inter-State highway connecting the 
two coasts and as:a memorial to Abraham Lin- 
coln. The route was determined upon entirely 
from the national standpoint and with no local 
interests in view. It'is the shortest and most 
direct road consistent with the topography of 
the country between the two coasts; due to the 
efforts of the Lincoln Highway Association and 
the co-operation of the various States and coun- 
ties traversed, the original distance’ of 3,389 
miles having been ‘cut to 3,324 miles, by the 
elimination of unnecessary detours and by nu- 
merous instances of shortening and straighten- 
ing. A total of over $15,000,000 was expended 
upon Lincoln Highway improvement and main- 
tenance from the laying out and dedication of 
the road until 1 Jan. 1919. Plans for 1919 con- 
struction indicated the expenditure of about 
$10,000,000 on the highway. With the co-opera- 
tion of the State Highway department of Utah, 
the Great American Desert between Salt Lake 
City and Ely; Nev., was bridged and 50 miles 
cut from the transcontinental route. This im- 
portant keystone section of the highway was 
completed in July 1919, 

The Lincoln Highway starts at Times 
Square, 42d’ street and Broadway, New. York 
city and passes through the following principal 
cities in Il States: Jersey City, Newark. and 
Trenton, N. J.; Philadelphia, Lancaster, York, 
Gettysburg, Chambersburg, Bedford, Ligonier, 
Pittsburgh and Beaver, Pa.: | East Liverpool, 
Canton, Ashland, Mansfield, Bucyrus and Lima, 


455 


Ohio; Fort Wayne, Ligonier, Goshen, Elkhart, 
South Bend and Valparaiso, Ind.; Chicago 
Heights, Aurora, Geneva, Rochelle, Dixon and 
Fulton, Ill.; Clinton, Cedar Rapids, Marshall- 
town, Jefferson and Council Bluffs, Iowa; 
Omaha, Columbus, Grand Island, .Kearney, 
North Platte and Big Springs, Neb.; Cheyenne, 
Laramie, Medicine Bow, Rawlins, Rock Springs 
and Evanston, Wyo.; Salt Lake City, Garfield, 
Tooele, Clover and Ibapah, Utah; Ely, Eureka, 
Austin, Fallon, Reno and Carson City, Nev.; 
Truckee, Placerville, Sacramento, Stockton, 
Oakland and’San Francisco, Cal. The terminus 
is at Lincoln Park overlooking the Golden 
Gate.’ The Lincoln highway is free to traffic of 
all descriptions between the two coasts. The 
route is marked with a distinctive red, white 
and blue marker, bearing a blue “L” on the 
central white field. The Lincoln Highway As- 
sociation has been largely financed through 
yearly contributions made by “Founders” of 
the organization, men’and companies interested 
in highway improvement. For every mile of 
improvement secured on the Lincoln highway, 
10 miles have followed as a direct result upon 
other routes connecting important centres north 
and south with the main line. Along its entire 
length the highest type of highway construc- 
tion is represented in this modern American 
Appian Way. 


LINCOLN, MEMORIAL, Washington, 
D. C., erected in Potomac Park on the axis of 
the United States capitol and the Washington 
monument, was commenced on Lincoln’s. Birth- 
day 12 Feb. 1914. The foundation was com- 
pleted and the cornerstone laid 12. Feb. 1915. 
This beautiful memorial was erected in accord- 
ance with an act of Congress approved 9 Feb. 
1911, a subsequent act of Congress 28 Feb. 1916, 
limiting the cost to $2,594,000 to include the ap- 
proaches. The building is constructed of Colo- 
rado Yule marble, Indiana limestone and Massa- 
chusetts pink granite, and is. 201 feet 10 inches 
long by 132 feet wide at the bottom step of the 
stylobate course, 79 feet 10 inches high from 
the top of the foundations to the top of the 
attic. The building is in the general form of the 
classic Greek temple, consisting of one large 
enclosed hall, oblong in shape and surrounded 
by a colonnade of doric columns, representing 
the States of the American Union. The longer 
axis of the building extends north and south: 
The entrance is a wide doorway on the eastern 
side, facing the Washington monument and) the 
capitol building, which are in direct line. with 
this memorial. On the inside of the. building 
opposite the entrance is a seated statue of Lin- 
coln, cut in heroic proportions from white Geor- 
gia marble by Daniel Chester French. To the 
right and left of the statue are four large col- 
umns on each side, forming two, rows which 
partly cut off the ends of. the hall. On the 
north wall of the interior is a tablet containing 
Lincoln’s second .inaugural. address, while a 
similar tablet on.the south walls bears the Get- 
tysburg.speech. Over each of these memorials 
is a large allegorical. painting by Jules Guerin, 
portraying the principles. which it. embodies. 
The memorial was constructed from plans by 
Mr. Henry Bacon, architect, under the direction 
of the Lincoln Memorial Commission, which 
was created by the act above referred to and 
under the supervision of the Secretary of War. 


456 


LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVER- 
SITY, a coeducational institution, at Cumber- 
land Gap, in Claiborne County, Tenn., char- 
tered in 1897, largely through the efforts of 
Gen. O. O. Howard, of ‘Burlington, Vt.,. who 
desired to see a school established in some 
place. easy of access for the mountaineers 
of this locality, because of the great interest 
which Abraham Lincoln had in the people of 
this section. The institution comprises: De- 
partment of. letters, department of science, 
school of music, school of nursing, school 
of agriculture, school of industrial arts, school 
of domestic science, school of business. Much 
emphasis is laid on agricultural and industrial 
work. The agricultural department conducts 
a large .and thoroughly modern creamery 
which has a capacity of some 400. gallons 
of milk per day and.can ‘produce 1,200. to 
1,400. pounds of butter per week. In» the 
industrial department, carpentry, typesetting 
and other trades are taught to the boys and 
young men and domestic science is taught to 
the young women. ‘By working for the school 
in the agricultural and industrial departments 
the students can earn at least a part of the cost 
of their education. The university owns 675 
acres of land, besides controlling 3,000 acres 
of forest land. The endowment fund, in addi- 
tion to the productive property, is a little in 
excess of $100,000. It has a number of build- 
ings, including a library building, recitation 
halls, dormitories, creamery, barns, shop, etc. 
Exclusive of the summer school, it has an or- 
- ganization of about 20 teachers and 15 other 
workers. School is carried on for 48 weeks per 
year. About 700 students in the year enter the 
various departments of the institution. 


LINCRUSTA-WALTON. See LinoLeum. 


LIND, Jenny (MApAME. GOLDSCHMIDT), 
Swedish singer: b. Stockholm, 6 Oct. 1820; d. 
Malvern, England, 2 Nov. 1887. In very early 
childhood she displayed the faculty for tune 
and of musical memory in such degree as to 
attract observation and at nine her voice was 
considered so remarkable that she was admitted 
to the Stockholm Conservatory of Music.as a 
pupil of Crceelius and Berg. After years of 
thorough study and voice-building, in 1838 
she made her début, with great success, as 
Agathe in ‘Der Freischtitz.? As operatic star 
in Stockholm and other cities in Sweden and 
Norway, she extended her fame, and in 1841 
studied for the greater part of the year in Paris 
under Manual Garcia. She went to Berlin in 
1844, studied German, and in Meyerbeer’s 
‘Feldlager in Schlesien? appeared as _ Vielka. 
During the next year she made a Continental 
tour which established her in a position of su- 
premacy, her great successes being won in 
Dresden, Leipzig, etc., and finally in Vienna. In 
1847 she made her first appearance in Eng- 
land, which was followed by a succession of 
unprecedented triumphs. Her tour of the Uni- 
ted States (1850-52) brought her not only fresh 
honors, but also large financial returns, and 
was long remembered by many who shared in 
the material and spiritual benefits which her 
noble womanhood and artistic genius conferred. 
In 1852 she was married in Boston to Otto 
Goldschmidt (q.v.), then conducting the Bach 
choir, and virtually retired from her profession, 
though subsequently reappearing on special oc- 


LINCRUSTA-WALTON — LINDEN 


casions: She returned to Europe; at’ length 
settled in London; and made her last. public 
appearance at Dusseldorf in 1870. In 1894.a 
bust of her was unveiled in Westminster Ab- 
bey. . Consult. Rockstro and Holland, ‘Jenny 
Lind the Artist? (1891); Rockstro and Gold- 
schmidt,, ‘Jenny Lind, Her Vocal Art and 
Culture? (1894). 


LINDEN, or BASSWOOD, a genus of 
trees (Tilia) of the family Tiliacee, ordinarily 
known as basswoods in the United States. The 
species, of which there are about a dozen, are 
natives of the northern temperate zone and 
more or less resemble each other in general 
appearance. They are characterized by alter- 
nate, usually heart-shaped, leaves with toothed 
edges; small yellowish, often fragrant, flowers 
in cymes, the peduncles of which are attached 
to membranous bracts; and globular nut-like 
fruits about the size of peas.. The trees, in 
marly horticultural varieties, are widely planted 
in Europe, where they are known to the, Eng- 
lish as limes, and in America, for their pleas- 
ing form and dense shade, and to some extent 
also because of their abundant yield of nectar, 
from which bees make one of the finest quali- 
ties of honey. They are also planted for their 
timber, usually called “whitewood,” which is 
highly valued on account of its whiteness, 
lightness, toughness and durability, and is used 
for turned and carved ornaments and for mak- 
ing honey-boxes and other light articles, the 
whiteness of which is desired to enhance the 
appearance of the goods they contain; also 
extensively used for. carriage bodies, cabinet- 
work and interior parts of furniture. The 
wood»makes a high grade of charcoal; used by 
druggists, gunpowder-makers and artists. The 
fibrous inner bark is made into mats and cord- 
age and strips of it are widely used for tying 
plants, etc. When stock-food 1s scarce in early. 
spring the twigs and budding shoots are often 
fed to farm animals, being very mucilaginous 
and) nutritive, though liable, it is said, to in- 
jure the quality of butter made from the milk 
of cows fed upon them. . The best-known spe- 
cies are the American basswood (T. ameri- 
cana), a stately tree often exceeding 75. feet in 
height and 10 feet ‘in girth. Its range extends 
from New Brunswick to. Minnesota and south- 
ward to the elevated lands of Georgia and 
Texas. In the more thickly settled parts of 
this region it is becoming scarce as a timber 
tree because of the great demand for its wood. 
In America it is the most frequently planted 
species. Owing to confusion in nomenclature, 
the name “European linden” is applied to at 
least three species, T. platyphylla, T. vulgaris 
and 7. ulmifoha. The first. is most: widely 
planted in America. The last is very late in 
blossoming and should be more extensively cul- 
tivated in order to extend the season of. honey 
production. _Lindens all thrive best upon good 
land. They are easily propagated from seeds, 
layers and grafts and by “stooling,»» the small 
trees being cut down close to the ground, the 
sprouts covered with soil and when rooted re- 
moved to nursery rows. ; 

In some countries the fibrous inner bark, of 
the linden is separated by soaking in water 
and manufactured into fishing-nets, mats, shoes 
and clothing; and the cordage made from it is 
said to be remarkably strong and elastic. (See 
Bast). The wood is sometimes cut into thin 


LINDLEY — LINDSBORG 


strips and used in the manufacture of chip hats, 
which resemble those made of straw. 


LINDLEY, lind’li, John, English botan- 
ist and horticulturist: b. Catton, near Norwich 
(Norfolk), 5 Feb. 1799; d. Acton, 1 Nov. 1865. 
He became Belgian agent for a London seed 
merchant in 1815, later took up botanical stud- 
ies, published in 1819 a translation of Richard’s 
‘Analyse du Fruit? and was appointed assist- 
ant librarian to Sir Joseph Banks at London. 
Later, he was successively made assistant sec- 
retary to the Horticultural Society (1822-41), 
professor of botany in the University of Lon- 
don (1829-60) and lecturer in botany to the 
Apothecaries’ Company (1836-53). . In 1828 he 
was elected to the Royal Society, whose royal 
medal he received in 1857, and in 1853 became 
a corresponding member of the Institut de 
France. He was appointed editor of the Bo- 
tanical Register in 1826, of the Journal of the 
Horticultural Society in 1846; and in 1841 was 
a founder of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, whose 
chief editor he was until his death. He was an 
able lecturer, a constant opponent of the Lin- 
nzan as contrasted with the natural system of 
classification and the author of several valuable 
works such as ‘The Theory and Practice of 
Horticulture? (1842) and ‘The. Vegetable 
Kingdom? (1846). He also wrote almost the 
entire descriptive portion of London’s ‘Ency- 
clopedia of Plants? (1822-29). His lectures 
attracted large audiences and excited great 
popular interest in England in the cultivation 
of plants. He encouraged public’ exhibitions 
of fruits and flowers. His influence as an edi- 
tor was also very great and his textbooks were 
long standard in his native country. 


LINDSAY, or LYNDSAY, lind’za, Sir 
David, Scottish poet, usually described as “of 
the Mount” (an estate near Cupar in Fife): b. 
about 1490; d. 1555. He studied in the Univer- 
sity of Saint Andrews and in 1509 became 
page of honor to James V, then an infant. In 
1528 he produced his ‘Dreme? and in the fol- 
lowing year presented his ‘Complaynt? to the 
king. In 1530 he was inaugurated Lyon king- 
at-arms and knighted, and in 1531 sent on a 
mission to Charles V. He published a drama 
entitled ‘A Satyre of the Three Estaitis, played 
at court in 1539. In. 1536 appeared. his 
‘Answer. to the King’s. Flyting?; and the 
‘History and Testament of Squire Meldrum’ 
(1538). His last work, ‘The Monarchie,’ was 
finished in 1553. For more than two centuries 
Lindsay was the most popular poet in Scotland. 
His satirical attacks on the clergy in some de- 
gree paved the way for the Reformation. 


LINDSAY, Harry. See Hupson, H. L. 


LINDSAY, Samuel McCune, American 
political economist and educator: b. Pittsburgh, 
Pa., 10 May 1869. He was graduated from the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1889 and took 
post-graduate courses there and in Berlin, Vi- 
enna, Paris and Rome. After his return to the 
United States he was appointed assistant pro- 
fessor of sociology at the University of Penn- 
sylvania and was professor from 1904 to 1907, 
when he was appointed professor of social leg- 
islation at Columbia University; he has also 
been editor of the department of sociological 
notes in the ‘Annals of the American Acad- 
emy of Political and Social Science? (1895- 
1901) and associate editor of the ‘Annals and 


v 


457 


was president of the academy in 1901. In 1892 
he was special agent of the United States Sen- 
ate Finance Committee to report on wholesale 
prices in- Europe; in 1899-1900 was expert of 
the Industrial Commission to report on rail- 
road labor; and from 1902 to 1904 was commis- 
sioner of education to Porto Rico, being 
granted leave of absence from the University 
of Pennsylvania. He has written ‘Railway 
Labor in the United States? (1902); ‘Social 
Work at the Krupp Foundries?; ‘The Study 
and Teaching of Sociology”; ‘The Unit of In- 
vestigation in Sociology? ; and other articles in 
the ‘Annals of the Academy of Political and 
Social Science?; Report on Education in 
Porto. Rico»; ‘History of Establishment of 
Public School System in Porto Rico? (1905) 
and edited three annual reports on Child Labor, 
National Child Labor Committee,, New York 
(1904-07) : edited the ‘American Social Prog- 
ress Series? and contributed to various re- 
views. and magazines. 


LINDSAY, William, American lawyer: 
b. Rockbridge County, Va., 4 Sept. 1835; d. 15 
Oct. 1909. He-was educated in his native State; 
removed in 1854 to Clinton, Ky., where after 
teaching school and studying law, he was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1858. Throughout the Civil 
War he served in: the Confederate army, ‘rising 
to the rank of captain and acting as a staff 
officer and after the war returned to Clinton 
and resumed the practice of law. In 1867 he 
was. elected State senator as a Democrat; in 
1870 took his seat on the bench of the Supreme 
Court of Kentucky; and was chief justice of the 
State, 1876-78, declining a renomination and re- 
turning to the practice of law at Frankfort. In 
1889 he again entered the State senate; in 1893 
served as commissioner of the World’s Colum- 
bian Exposition; in the same year was elected 
to the United States Senate for the unexpired 
term of John G. Carlisle, who had resigned toa 
become Secretary of the Treasury; and in 1894 
he was re-elected, but differed from his party 
on the money question, and toward the end of 
his term usually voted with the Republicans. 
After leaving the Senate he went to New York 
City and once more resumed the practice of law. 
In 1901 he was appointed by President McKin- 
ley a. commissioner for the Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition at Saint Louis in 1904. 


LINDSAY, Canada, the capital of Vic- 


. toria County, Ontario, a town and port of en- 


try on the navigable Scugog River, and on the 
Grand Trunk and Canadian. Pacific railways, 
69 miles northeast of Toronto. The town is 
well built, chiefly of. brick, has a large trade 
in lumber and grain and is the seat of a-United 
States consular agent. It has lumber and flour 
mills, foundries, tanneries, breweries and manu- 
factories of carriages, agricultural implements, 
sash, doors and. blinds, woolens, boots and 
shoes, woodenware, etc. Pop, (1921) 7,542. 


LINDSBORG, linz’borg, Kan., city in Mc- 
Pherson County, on the Smoky Hill River and 
on the Missouri Pacific and the Union Pacific 
railroads, about 115 miles southwest of To- 
peka and 64 miles north by west of Wichita. It 
is in’ an agricultural region’ and its trade is 
chiefly in livestock, grain, broom-corn, flour and 
dairy products and manufactures brooms, brick, 
flour and spark plugs. It has large brick and 
lumber yards and grain elevators. An import- 


458 


ant industrial. establishment is the Bethany 
Book. Concern, the Western Publishing insti- 
tution. for. Lutheran literature. There are a 
number. of Swedish Lutherans in Lindsborg. 
It is the seat. of Bethany College, opened in 
1881..under. the auspices. of ‘the Lutherans. 
Among its departments, that of music-is. well 
known for its annual concerts, when the. stu- 
dents, ender the jMlessinh. abe water he 
electric plants are the property of the cit fe) 

(1920) i807. a ease if 7 


LINDSLEY, linz’li, John Berrien, Amer- 
ican educator: b. Princeton’ N. J., 24 Oct: 1822; 
d. 7° Dec. 1897; He was graduated from the 
University of Nashville in 1839 and received 
his degree in medicine at the University of 
Pennsylvania in 1843. Studying theology, he 
was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 
1846 and preached for several years. He be- 
came professor of chemistry in the University 
of Nashville in 1850 and was chancellor of the 
institution 1853-73. He was likewise professor 
of chemistry in the University of Tennessee, 
1880-97, and of materia medica in the Tennes- 
see College of Pharmacy, 1876-97. He pub- 
lished ‘Our Ruin: its Causes and Cure? (1868) ; 
‘The Military Annals of Tennessee? (1886). 
He also edited for many years the Nashville 
Journal of Medicine and Surgery and-was a 
frequent contributor to. periodicals. 


LINE, Mathematical. Jn geometry, a line 
may be defined (1) as the locus, described by 
a moving point; (2) as a magnitude which, at 
- each of its points, has extension in one direction 
only; (3) as the boundary which separates two 
contiguous parts of a surface; or (4) as the 
intersection of two surfaces, or of a surface 
with itself, Each of these definitions has its 
own merits, and geometers use one or another 
of them, according to convenience. 

In physics, “lines” of various kinds are con- 
stantly referred to, the context usually indicat- 
ing the sense in which the word is used. A 
“line of force,” in a field of electric or magnetic 
force, for example, is a line whose direction, at 
every point, coincides with the direction of the 
force at that point. In the mechanical theory 
of heat (see THERMODYNAMICS) the state of 
a homogeneous body, with respect to.its tem- 
perature, to the pressure exerted upon it and 
to the volume occupied by a unit of its mass, 
is often represented by means of a diagram 
in which two of these qualities are taken as 
abscissa and ordinate, respectively. In such a 
diagram an “isothermal” line is a line along 
which the temperature of the body remains 'con- 
stant; an “adiabatic? (or “isentropic”) line is 
one which is so drawn that if the body should 
pass through the succession of states that the 
line represents it ‘would not at any moment 
either absorb or emit heat. An “isopiestic” 
(or “isobaric”) line is a line along which the 
pressure to which the body is exposed remains 
constant. An “isometric” line: is’ one ‘along 
which the volume of.the body remains constant. 

In steam engineering the various parts of 
the diagram that is drawn by an indicator are 
designated as “lines,” although they are but 
the several parts of a single line. Thus the 
“admission line” is that part of the. diagram 
which the indicator draws while steam is being 
admitted to the cylinder; the “expansion line” 
is that part drawn while the steam in the cylin- 


LINDSLEY — LINEN 


der is expanding; the “exhaust line” is that 
part drawn while the cylinder is in free com- 
munication with the, atmosphere. (or ,with the 
condenser) ; and the “compression line” is that 
part which, the indicator draws after the ex- 
haust valve has closed, and before the admis- 
sion valve from the boiler opens again. The 
“atmospheric line” upon such a diagram is the 
line that the indicator draws when disconnected 
from the engine, and in free communication 
with the atmosphere., See also Cotor;. Draw- 
ING; PERSPECTIVE. 


LINE ENGRAVING. 


See ENGRAVING 
and PHOTO-ENGRAVING. ) . 


LINEN, a cloth of very extensive use, 


made of flax, and differing from cloths. made 


of hemp only in fineness. Hemp is in part now 
used in manufacturing cloths which are called 
linen. The flax from which linen is.made is 
put through a number of processes previous to 
manufacture; rippling, the separation of the 
seed from the plant by. means. of beaters ; 
retting, the elimination of resinous matter in 
the plant by steeping the stems in water and 
allowing fermentation to take place; grassing, 
in order to dry the flax stems; scutching, the 
removal of the woody portions of the stem 
from the fibrous; and heckling, the separation 
of the best of the flax. In common linen the 
warp and woof cross each other at right angles ; 
if figures are woven in it is called damask 
(q.v.). The species of goods which come 
under. the. denomination of linen are table- 
cloths, plain and damasked, cambric, lawn, 
shirting, sheeting, towels, etc. Linen cloth, or 
cloth woven of combinations of cotton or other 
textile fabrics. with linen, is printed in the 
same manner as calico: ‘Fancy cloths are also 
made by weaving with yarns dyed of various 
colors, and sometimes with printed yarns. 
Linen is extensively manufactured in England, 
Scotland and Ireland. It is also a staple in 
various parts of Europe. 

The beauty of linen consists in the evenness 
of the thread, its fineness and density. ‘The 
last of- these qualities i is sometimes produced by 
subjecting it to rolling; hence linen with a'‘round 
thread is preferred to that with a flat thread. 
The warp or woof: is not unfrequently made 
of cotton yarn, which renders such stuff, called 
union cloth, less durable; and this is sold in 
many shops as linen, 

Cotton is the chief adulterant, and it is 
somewhat difficult to distinguish. Wetting with 
the finger and moistening the material is a 
popular method tried to detect adulteration : if 
the moisture absorbs quickly it is linen; but 
owing to the various weights of linen, it is not 
an infallible, test., An infallible way is ;to; boil 
a sample to wash out all the dressing and then 
put it.in a 50 per cent solution of caustic 
soda.’ The cotton will take on a light yellow 
color and the linen becomes,.almost . brown. 
Irish linen is whiter and generally wears best; 
but the Scottish product for a_medium- priced 
article is greatly in demand. The fragility of 


French linen confines this beautiful fabric 
to the wealthier classes. The best Irish 
and Scottish are sun- and_ grass-bleached. 


Sun-bleached) linens are, the best; artificial 
bleaching oxidizes and destroys the natural 
gum which binds the fibres together. The 
moist and mild climate of, Ireland is admirably 


e 


LINES — LINGARD 


adapted’ for eevdrewing of flax and for its 
manufacture up to bleaching. With .a view to 
protecting the handloom weaver, the British 
Parliament. passed in 1910 the Handloom 
Weavers Protection Act, under which the words 
“hand woven” are worked into the selvage of 
the hand product., From a historical view linen 
is interesting from its use by several nations in 
their religious ceremonies. Linen is mentioned 
in Genesis as in use for robing the royal 
princes of Egypt; and throughout the Bible it 
is a symbol of purity and excellence. Linen 
of 5,000 years ago has been found in Egyptian 
tombs. The Egyptian’ and Jewish priests wore 
it at all their religious ceremonies, hence the 
former are styled ‘by Ovid and Juvenal, “inen- 
wearing.” Linen was an article of export from 
Egypt in the time of Herodotus. From Egypt 
the use and manufacture of linen. probably 
passed to the Greeks and Romans, but the use 
of linen did not become common at Rome till 
late in the history of the republic. ‘The Roman 
priests wore linen garments at that time. 
Among the Greeks a linen tunic was a regular 
part of the male costume as early as the Homer 
period. Linen was also used as a material for 
writing, as shown by the Roman Iiibri lintet, 
“inen books.». The mummy bandages, covered 
with hieroglyphics, are also proofs of this use 
of linen. ‘In the Middle Ages linen and woolen 
cloth formed the chief materials for dress, and 
fine linen was held in ‘very high estimation. 
Germany and Brabant then carried linen manu- 
factures to the greatest perfection. 

The weaving ‘of linen has ‘been practised in 
Great Britain for a very long period, beginning 
with the Anglo-Saxon times, but though’ the 
manufacture has been much extended since the 
introduction of machinery, its expansion is lim- 
ited’ by the greater cheapness and convenience 
in’ many respects of cotton. The English linen 
industry owed much to Flemish weavers, who 
settled in England at various times from the 
dith, or 12th century onward, Flax-spinning 
machinery was introduced by John Kendrew 
and Thomas Porthouse, at Darlington, in 1787, 
anda mill was opened at Glamis in Forfarshire 
in 1790. The chief seat of the English linen 
manufacture is, Leeds and. its neighborhood, 
where spinning is done on avery exten- 
sive,scale.. A single room*in one of the facto- 
ries at Leeds is said tocover twoacres., Ireland 
and Scotland, however, are much larger manu- 
facturers of linen than England. Of the $40,- 
000,000. worth of. linens exported from the 
United Kingdom. in Aas four-fifths were from 
Ireland. 

Linen. was woven in Ireland as early as the 
llth century. The manufacture was improved 
by the refugees who left France on the revoca- 
tion of the Edict of Nantes and settled at Lis- 
burn and Lurgan on the invitation of William 
iI. The manufacture neyer really flourished till 
it was carried on in mills, and by the aid of 
machinery. ‘The value of linen goods now ex- 
ported from Ireland to Great Britain is esti- 
mated ‘at $40,000,000. 

Dundee, Dunfermline and Perth are the 
seats of the Scotch linen manufacture. 

The introduction of machinery in the linen 
manufacture is’ of recent origin. It followed 
the adaptation of machinery to the manufacture 
of cotton, but as there were some special diffi- 

culties to be overcome — such as the want of 


6 


459 


elasticity on flax yarn— an interval took place 
between the invention of the various cotton 
machines and their adaptation to the linen 
manufacture. The machinery used both in 
spinning and weaving linen is in general, how- 
ever, the same as that used for cotton. See 
TEXTILE INDUSTRY, AMERICAN; TEXTILES or 
TEXTILE FABRICS. 

Bibliography.— Consult asitley ‘Flax and 
its Products? (Belfast 1862); Gibbs, G. M., 
‘Household Textiles» (Boston 1912); Leggatt, 
‘The Origin and Practice of the Art of Weav- 
ing? (London 1893); Moore, A. S., ‘Linen? 
(ib. 1914) ; Warden, ‘The Linen Trade, Ancient 
and Modern? (ib. 1867); Woodhouse. and 
Milne, ‘Jute and Linen. Weaving? (2d ed. 
London 1914). 


LINES, Edwin Stevens, American Epis- 
copal Church bishop: b. Naugatuck, Conn., 23 
Nov. 1845. He was graduated from Yale in 
1872 and two years later at the Berkeley Di- 
vinity School, at. Middletown, Conn. He was 
ordained in 1874. He was rector of Christ 
Church, West. Haven, Conn., 1874-79 and of 
Saint Paul’s Church, New Haven, 1879-1903. 
In November 1903. he was consecrated bishop 
of the diocese of Newark, which comprises the 
northern third of New Jersey. 


LINES OF FORCE. See Force. 


LING, a sea-fish (Lota molva), resembling 
a pike in shape and three to four feet long, but 
a member of the cod family (Gadide). It 
abounds around the British coasts; its fishery 
approaches in importance and resembles in 
methods that for cod. Great quantities are 
preserved by drying, salting, etc.; and an ex- 
cellent oil is extracted from the liver. 

The name is also given to the eel-pout or 
burbot, another species (L. vulgaris) so-called 
not only i in Europe but in northern New York, 
the Great Lakes and Canada. See Bursor. 


LINGA, ling’ga, an emblem commonly 
used in the sectarian worship of the Hindus. 
It represents the male or generative power of 
nature. Originally of an ideal and mythical 
nature, it has degenerated into practices of the 
grossest description; thus taking the same 
course as the similar worship of the Chaldzans, 
Greeks. and other nations. The manner. in 
which the linga is represented is generally in- 
offensive —a pillar of stone or other cylindrical 
objects being held as appropriate symbols of 
the generative power of Siva, the third of the 
Hindu triad of deities. Its counterpart is 
“Yoni,” or the symbol of prpductive female 
nature. See also SIVA. 


LINGARD, ling’gard, John, English his- 
torian: b. Winchester, 5 Feb. 1771; d. Hornby, 
Lancashire, 17 July 1851. Born of poor parents, 
he was educated for the Roman Catholic priest- 
hood at Douay. On the passing of the Catholic 
Relief Act the English Catholic students re- 
moved to Crook Hall, where a theological col- 
lege was erected. Lingard was ordained to the 
priesthood in 1795, and was vice-president 
of the Crook Hall seminary near Dur- 
ham, removing. with it to the new college 
of Saint Cuthbert, Ushaw. In 1811 he declined 
a professorship at Maynooth, and accepted the 
charge of the rural mission at Hornby. He 
published in 1805 ‘Catholic Loyalty Vindicated.? 
His next work of importance was ‘Antiquities 


460 


of the Anglo-Saxon -Church® (1806). His 
greatest work, the ‘History of: England from 
the Invasion of the Romans to the Year’ 1688,’ 
printed in eight volumes (1819-30), reached a 
fifth edition in 1850, when it appeared in 10 
volumes. It has. since been regarded as a 
valuable work of reference by historians of 
all parties. It possesses for~ Protestant his- 
torians the valuable quality of giving the views 
on controverted points of an able, well-in- 
formed and judicially-minded Catholic writer. 
The 1850 edition of the history was elaborately 
revised by the author. Apart from _ the 
sympathies of the writer, the work is uni- 
versally regarded as one of high authority. He 
refused a cardinal’s hat offered him by the Pope, 
but accepted a pension of £300 a year from the 
queen. Consult Haile and Bonney, ‘Life and 
Letters of John Lingard? (London 1911). 


LINGAYEN, lin-ga-yan’, Philippines, a 
pueblo and the capital of the province of Pan- 
gasinan, Luzon, situated on a low and fertile 
island of the delta of the Agno River, formed 
by one of the outlets of the river and the Gulf 
of Lingayén. The climate is cool and healthy. 
It has a fine parish church and the buildings 
generally are well constructed, many being of 
stone. The Manila and Dagupan Railroad has 
a station within eight miles at Dagupan, and 
Lingayén is the converging point of several im- 
portant highways and has frequent communica- 
tion by water with Manila. It has, therefore, 
an important trade. Pop. 21,529. The city was 
_ founded in the 16th century by the Augustine 
fathers, who handed over the work to. the 
Dominicans in 1611. 


LINGAYEN, Gulf of, an arm of the China 
Sea indenting the western coast of the island of 
Luzon, Philippines, north of Manila: Bay. The 
width of the entrance from San Fernando Point 
to Santiago Island is 20 miles. The east shore 
is mountainous; the west shore is generally 
level and less elevated and is fringed by low 
wooded islands, the channels between which are 
navigable for native coasters. Typhoons are 
prevalent in September and October. 


LINGG, Hermann von, German epic and 
lyric poet: b. Lindau, Bavaria, 22 Jan. 1820; d. 
Munich, 18 June 1905. He attended the gym- 
nasium at Kempten, Bavaria, and (1837-43) the 
universities of Munich, Berlin; Prague and 
Freiburg, where he pursued the study of medi- 
cine. After obtaining his degree he became a 
physician in the Bavarian army and served at 
Augsburg, Straubing and Passau, but fell sick 
in 1851 and was granted a pension. He retired 
to Munich, where Geibel introduced him to the 
poets of the so-called Munich Circle, and ob- 
tained an annual stipend from King Maximilian 
II. Of all the lyric poets of the Munich 
School, he is one of the most gifted and tal- 
ented as shown by such poems as ‘Immer leiser 
wird mein Schlummer.? As an epic poet, he is 
unquestionably their leader, as is shown by his 
long historical epic, ‘Die Volkerwanderung? 
(‘The Migration of Nations,? 1866-68), in 
stanzas, divided into 25 cantos. Particularly 
famous is his ballad, ‘Der schwarze Tod. His 
few attempts as a short-story writer produced 
perfect results, particularly his ‘Byzantinische 
Novellen? (1881), while his dramatic works 
(collected edition, Stuttgart 1897) are poor. 


LINGAYEN — LINLITHGOW 


LINGUATULA, or TONGUE-WORMS, 
a highly aberrant parasitic form often classed 
as an Arachnid. The external appearance of a 
linguatulid simulates that of a tapeworm, but 
the structure approximates that of the mites. 
The adult parasite is found in the nasal cavities 
or respiratory organs of air breathing verte- 
brates, chiefly reptiles and mammals; the larva 
in its first stage a four-legged form of simple 
structure looking like some mites (Demodex) 
encysts in the connective tissue of various ver- 
tebrates and reaches a condition ready for 
transfer by a period of growth involving sev- 
eral stages. The final: host°is\ reached when 
He encysted larva is eaten with the flesh of its 

ost. ss uy 


LINGUISTICS. See Laneuace, ScIENCE 
Cree x 


LINGULA. See Bracuiopons. 


LINIERS Y BREMONT, Santiago An- 
tonio Maria de, san-té-a’g6 an-t6-né-6 ma-ré’a 
da’lén-é-ars’ € bra-mont, Spanish naval officer: 
b. Niort (Deux-Sévres), France, 6 Feb.. 1756; 
d. near Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic, 26 
Aug. 1810.. After the. French Revolution he 
entered the Spanish naval service, in which he 
attained captain’s rank. He defended Monte- . 
video against the: British in 1806, and. in 1807 ~ 
forced them to relinquish Buenos Aires, which 
they had occupied. The ruling viceroy was 
then deposed by popular demand, and, Liniers 
selected for the post (16 May 1808). .The 
British soon attacked Buenos: Aires, and 1 July 
gained a battle under its: defenses; but Liniers 
successfully managed the resistance and. the 
enemy, after rétreating with large losses, with- 
drew from the country. ‘He was succeeded in 
1809 by Cisneros, whose rule was followed by 
the revolution of 10 May 1810. Liniers there- 
upon marched from Cordoba to Buenos Aires 
for the purpose of quelling the revolt; but was 
captured and shot. Bo] 

LINLEY, lin’'li, Thomas, English com- 
poser: b. Wells, 1732; d. London, 19 Nov. 1795. 
He was a pupil of, Chilcot at Bath and of Para- 
dies at Naples, became one of the best English 
vocal instructors, and for several years directed 
the concerts at the Bath assembly-rooms. ‘In 
1774 he became joint,director of the Drury Lane 
oratorios, in 1776 purchased Garrick’s share in 
Drury Lane and in 1776-91 directed the music 
there. His music contributed greatly to the 
success of Sheridan’s “Duenna,” which was 
performed 75 times during the season. He 
also composed the much admired accompani- 
ments to the “Beggar’s Opera,” various’ other 
music for dramatic works, and glees, canzonets 
and songs. He obtained high place’ among 
English composers through his simplicity and 
excellent. taste. . . 


LINLITHGOW, lin-lith’g6, Scotland, the 
county town of, Linlithgowshire,' 16 miles. west 
of Edinburgh. It is an ancient royal burgh, 
dating from the reign of David I, with a, fine 
12th century Gothic church, now restored, and | 
other historical edifices, chief of which is Lin- 
lithgow Palace (mostly. rebuilt between 1425 
and 1628), the birthplace of James V and Mary 
Stuart, burnt down by the carelessness of the 
Duke of Cumberland’s soldiers in 1746, and now 
an interesting ruin. In 1570 the Regent Moray 
was assassinated by Hamilton of: Bothwell- 


- 


LINN — LINNET 


haugh. Tanning, shoemaking and distilling are 
among its industries. Pop. 4,002. Consult 
Waldie, ‘History of Linlithgow? (1879). 


LINN, William Alexander, American jour- 
nalist: ‘b. Sussex, N. J., 4 Sept. 1843. He was 
graduated at Phillips Academy, Andover, 
Mass., in 1864, at Yale in 1868, and in 1883 was 
admitted to the New York bar. From 1868 to 
1891 he was engaged in newspaper work, dur- 
ing part of that time being on the staff of the 
‘New York Tribune, and was managing editor 
of the Evening Post, 1891-1900, resigning to 
devote himself ‘to literary work. He has been 
president of the Hackensack Mutual Building 
and Loan Association from its organization in 
1887 and was president of the People’s National 
Bank of Hackensack, N. J., from its organiza- 
tion in 1903 to 1916; was president of the First 
National Bank of Ridgefield Park, N. J., from 
its organization in 1910 to 1913; elected county 
collector of Bergen County, N. J., 3 Jan. 1916. 
Was a member of the New Jersey Commission 
of 1899 which secured the legislation under 
which the Palisades Interstate Park Commis- 
sion, which has saved the Palisades front from 
destruction, was appointed, and was a member 
of the latter commission from its organization 
to 1913. He has published ‘The Story of the 
Mormons? (1902); ‘Horace Greeley? (1903); 
and ‘Rob and His Gun? (1902). He is a mem- 
ber of the National Geographic Society, the 
New Jersey Historical Society, Bergen County 
Historical Society, and trustee of the Johnson 
Public Library of Hackensack. 


LINNZLUS, li-né’tis, Carolus, the Latinized 
form of the name of Carl von Linne, Swedish 
botanist: b. Rashult, Smaland, 23 May 1707; d. 
Upsala, 10 Jan. 1778. He showed afi early in- 
terest in botany; entered the University of 
Lund, where his botanical tastes were encour- 
aged by Kilian Stobzeus, physician to the king, 
from whose library he was supplied with neces- 
sary books. In 1728 he went to-Upsala, where 
he undertook the supervision of the botanic gar- 
den. Here he made the acquaintance of the 
botanist, Rudbeck, whose assistant he became, 
and assisted Olof Celsius in the preparation of 
the latter’s. “Hierobotanicon.» Aided by the 
Academy of Sciences at Upsala, Linne made a 
‘journey about 4,600 miles through Lapland, the 
result of. which was shown in his ‘Flora Lap- 
ponica,? published 1737. In this year he went 
to the University of Harderwyk in Holland and 
took an M.D. degree, and later visited Leyden, 
where he published his first sketch of his ‘Sys- 
tema Nature? and “Fundamenta Botanica. . In 
1736 he visited England, and in September 1738 
settled in Stockholm as a physician. He slowly 
acquired a practice, was made naval physician 
of Stockholm and obtained some minor ap- 
pointments. He became professor of medicine 
at Upsala in 1741, exchanging for that of botany 
in 1742. He was ennobled in 1761... During his 
professorship of botany he drew students from 
all over the civilized world, increasing the num- 
ber attendant on the university from 500 to 
1,500. The importance of Linnzus’ work can 


scarcely be overrated. It has been said that “he 


found biology a chaos; he left ita cosmos.» He 
it was who established the systematic botany 
and zoology of modern times. He first an- 
nounced the principles for the definition of 
genera and species, and established the binomi- 


4.2 
461 


nal nomenclature of both. He was a careful 
observer, a methodical worker and a clear and 
succinct writer. As a teacher he was of great 
influence in revolutionizing the methods of 
botanical study. He published more than 180 
works, among which the most important are 
‘Systema Nature? (1735); ‘Fundamenta Bo- 
tanica? (1736); ‘Genera Plantarum? (1737); 
‘Flora Lapponica? (1737) ; “Classes Plantarum” 
(1738) ; ‘Fauna Suecica? (1745); ‘Flora Sue- 
cica? (1746); ‘Hortus Upsaliensis’ (1748) ; 
‘Philosophia Botanica? (1751); and, chief of 
all, “Species Plantarum? (1753). The Linnzan 
Society of London was founded in his honor 
in 1788. Consult ‘Life’ by Stoever (Eng. 
trans, 1794) ; Caddy, ‘Through the Fields with 
Linneus? (1877); Fries, “Linné, Lefnadsteek- 
ning? (2 vols., Stockholm 1903); Levertin, 
Carl von Linne? (ib. 1906). 


_LINNALITE, a cobalt mineral, CosS. con- 
taining some nickel and copper. Mined for- 
merly in Maryland and Missouri. 

LINNELL, lin’él, John, English painter: 
b. London, 16 June 1792; d. Redhill, Surrey, 20 
Jan. 1882. He began his artistic career as a 
pupil of West and Varley and was for some 
time a successful teacher of drawing, number- 
ing among his pupils Mary Wollstonecraft 
Shelley. He had painted from his 15th year, 
confining himself exclusively to landscape. Be- 
tween 1824 and 1838 he produced a number of 
excellent pictures of this class. Originally an 
imitator of Gainsborough, he soon developed a 
brilliant and original style. He was particularly 
successful in portraying the insular sky scenery 
of England with its varied cloud forms, and 
play of sunlight, and his works combine de- 
lightful freshness with supreme skill in hand- 
ling. In the South Kensington Museum is one 
of his pictures “Girls Gathering Flowers,” and 
in the National Gallery are his “Wood Cutter,” 
and “Windmill” Consult Story, ‘Life of John 
Linnell? (1892). 


LINNET, a very common and attractive 
song-bird, one of the smaller migratory finches, 
of southern Europe and adjacent countries of 
Africa and Asia. In autumn and winter the 
plumage is brown-streaked and dull, but in 
the spring molt; on the approach of the breed- 
ing season, the breast and head of the mature 
male become’bright crimson. This gay dress is 
assumed and put off gradually, and bird-catch- 
ers speak of brown, gray, red or rose linnets as 
if they: were separate species, but there is only 
one— Linota cannabina. The name refers to 
the fondness of the bird for hemp, :flax-seed 
and the like, formerly called the “lint” crops, 
whence come the Scotch names “lintie,» “lint- 
white,” etc., and the English “linnet.»”. The hab- 
its of these birds in the fields are much the 
same as those of their relatives the American 
goldfinches, or of the redpolls, called “innets” 
in Canada. These are among the most prized 
of cage-birds for the sake of their song, and 
are taken in great numbers in traps as well as 
extensively bred. They will interbreed with the 
canary and an interesting and valuable hybrid 
has thus been produced. The song is -loud, 
flute-like and exceedingly agreeable; it consists 
of several connected strains, and is esteemed by 
connoisseurs in proportion to the frequency 
with which certain clear sonorous notes, or 
“crows,” recur. It sings throughout the year, 
except when molting, and may be taught various 


462 


airs and melodies not its own -— even to imitate 
well the complicated song of the nightingale. 
Such education is rarely given it, however, ex- 
cept in Germany. The care and feeding of a 
linnet should be the same as those given a 
canary. See CANARY; CAGE-Birps. 


LINNET-HOLE, in glass-making, a table 
ess the glass-melting furnace with the 
arch. 


LINOLEIC ACID, one of the constituents 
of linseed oil, obtained by saponifying the oil 
with soda, separating the soap, and decompos- 
ing it with chloride of calcium. After washing, 
the soap is treated with ether, which dissolves 
the linoleate of calcium. This salt is next de- 
composed with hydrochloric acid, 
linoleic acid taken up by ether. After distilling 
off the ether the oily acid remains, which is 
converted into a barium compound which is 
purified ‘by crystallization, and from this the 
acid is finally obtained by addition of sulphuric 
acid. It is a pale-yellow oil, insoluble in water, 
but readily soluble in ether. It is lighter than 
water, has a slight acid reaction and harsh 
taste. 


LINOLEUM, a kind of floor-cloth, intro- 
duced in England in 1860. It consists of a 
mixture of oxidized linseed oil and ground cork 
spread in a uniform layer upon canvas, the sur- 
face of which may be printed in patterns of dif- 
ferent colors as in ordinary floor-cloth. The 
oxidizing of the linseed oil, by which process 
- it becomes a caoutchouc-like substance possess- 
ing a certain amount of elasticity, is effected by 
exposing it in thin films to the influence of air. 
Certain proportions of kaurigum, resin and pig- 
ments, according to the ground color desired, 
are added to the oxidized oil, which is then inti- 
mately mixed with the ground cork, and firmly 
squeezed on and rendered adherent to the sur- 
face of a rough canvas backing, which is after- 
ward coated or waterproofed with oil: paint. 
In inlaid linoleum the pattern goes right through 
the fabric, the different patterns being pieced 
together and then rolled over with heated rolls. 
An embossed linoleum, washable, waterproof 
and warm, invented by Frederick Walton as a 
substitute for wall paper, is named after him 
“Lincrusta Walton.” 


LINOTYPE, The. 
CHINES. 


LINSANG, one of the beautiful spotted 
civets of the Oriental genus Prionodon, of 
which various species are to be found from 
northern India to Borneo. The West African 
linsang (Potana poénsis) is a rare species from 
the Fernando Po district, closely allied to the 
Malayan ones. They have the general char- 
acteristics and habits of the civets (q.v.) but 
are especially expert in tree-climbing and feed 
mainly upon birds. 


LINSEED, or LINSEED MEAL. See 
FLAXSEED. 


LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY, The. In 
the commercial world there are known at the 
present time a number of vegetable oils, which 
in the raw state and without the aid of chemi- 
cals are capable of absorbing the oxygen of 
the air to a greater or less degree and becom- 
me solid. These are commonly called “drying 
oils” By far the most valuable to commerce, 
both as to usage and results obtained, is linseed 


See Composinc Ma- 


and the 


LINNET-HOLE— LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY 


oil, expressed from the seed of the plant Linum 
usitatissimum, the common flax. In early 
times the object of its cultivation was 
principally for the flax, fibre... Although, the 
great economic importance of linseed oil, due 
to the large increase of manufactured products 
in which it is used, has been of but compara- 
tively recent years in this country, the seed or 
plant bears the hall mark of great antiquity. 
It is positively known that drying oils had been 
discovered prior to the Christian era, and, 
though uncertain, it would seem reasonable to 
assume that linseed oil was among them. For 
centuries it appears that. the oil’s greatest 
characteristic, its wonderful drying properties, 
was given little attention. It was not until 
the 12th century, when oil painting was discoy- 
ered, that we may say a true appreciation of the 
essentially exclusive properties of linseed: was 
felt, and from that day to this it is the only oil 
that has successfully satisfied all the require- 
ments of oil painting. 

Manufacturing.— In earlier years the small 
amount required, principally by the artists, was 
produced by little, if any, apparatus, and often 
in the studio. Later, the oil began to find en- 
larged fields of usefulness, and the crudest of 
mechanical apparatus was devised for its manu- 
facture. With such appliances, however, oil 
could be produced only at an excessive. cost, 
and its use on a broad commercial basis was not 
feasible. Indeed, up to within comparatively 
recent years the invention and improvement of 
linseed oil machinery has been slow, and in 
fact to the United States may be attributed the 
greater part of the advance made in this’ indus- 
try in the past 100 years. The earliest method 
recorded for the production of linseed oil is a 
receipt by Theophilus, a monk writing in the 
12th century, and which becomes particularly 
interesting when we find that the treatment of 
the seed or method was almost identically the 
same as it is to-day. “Take linseed and dry it 
in a pan without water, on the fire; put it ina 
mortar and pound to a fine powder; then re- 
place it in the pan, and pouring a little water on 
it, make it quite hot. Afterward, wrap it in a 
piece of new linen, place it in a press used for 
extracting the oil ‘of olives, of walnuts, or of 
the poppy, and express it in the same manner.” 
It will be seen from the above that the seed 
was treated separately four times, as. follows: 
Dried, crushed, cooked and pressed. With the 
exception of the drying, which is not necessary, 
the plan of procedure to-day is the same. © Dur- 
ing the intervening years, however, many dif- 
ferent methods have been used as well as. dif- 
ferent kinds of machinery. 

In the making of linseed oil there are two 
very essential steps which must be carefully 
watched; the first is the crushing or grinding of 
the seed; the second is the cooking or “temper- 
ing” of the ground seed. Inthe proper manipu- 
lation of these two processes rests a crusher’s 
ability to make a good yield of oil. Heat and 
moisture are of the greatest importance in pro- 
ducing the best yields; we find, in- fact, that 
many times the ground seed: or meal was 
pressed entirely without cooking. Oil made in 
this manner was called “cold pressed” oil. In 
the cold process the oil expressed is beautifully 
light in color and heavy in body; furthermore, 
upon boiling to a high temperature the oil does 
not darken but becomes lighter, and after mix-. 


LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY 


ing with the varnishes is perfectly clear and 
without sediment. On the contrary, oil made 
from the tempered meal is thinner and darker 
in color; on boiling at high temperatures it 
darkens still more, and throws down a quantity 
of white and greasy precipitate. Owing to the 
light yield’ of oil in the cold process, however, 
the cost’ is excessive and little is now made. 

The first attempt to manufacture linseed oil 
in quantities was by the ancient screw’ and 
lever press, a modification of the old cider 
press. It consisted of a barrel, sometimes of 
cast iron, perforated to give a free outlet to the 
oil, and fitted with a plunger which; when 
actuated by the serew, descended into the open 
barrel upon the mass of meal contained therein, 
and by means of slow pressure expressed: a 
reasonable amount of oil. This press was 
worked by a hand lever placed through an eye 
at the head of the screw, like a bar in a capstan. 
Little oil was secured, however, in comparison 
with presses actuated by machinery. On this 
account considerable oil remained in the dry 
residue known as. oil «cake; these “cakes” 
weighed about 25 pounds each and were about 
18 inches in diameter by 8 inches thick, resem- 
bling a cheese in shape and thus giving to it 
the name of “Cheese, Box” press. The capacity 
of this press was less than one barrel of oil a 
day. The screw and lever préss was retained 
in use as late as 1848. Some years prior to 
that date, however, the improved Dutch mill or 
wedge press had come into vogue. These mills 
were imported from Holland, and were con- 
sidered a great improvement over the old screw 
and lever presses. The wedge press consisted 
of a very heavy rectangular frame work of 
oak. or iron, placed horizontally on its base. 
The ground seed was shoveled by hand into 
woolen bags and these were hung. vertically 
between hinged partitions, consisting of 
wooden plates. The capacity of the press was 
about 9 or 10 of these bags, giving a daily 
pressing of not over 15 to 20 bushels. The 
cakes left in this press weighed from 8 to 10 
pounds each, after the raw edges had been 
trimmed. The pressure requisite for the ex- 
pression of the oil was obtained by driving 
wooden. wedges between the plates by means 
of sledges driven by wind or water power. 
This press was still in use in 1853. 

The wedge press was discarded for the 
horizontal hydraulic press, the next step in the 
advancement of the industry and undoubtedly 
the most important. Probablv the first hydrau- 


lic presses used in the United States: for linseed:, 


oil were those installed in a New York mill 
shortly after the War of 1812. In these the 
plates were of iron instead of wood, and movy- 
able; the ground seed. was shoveled into the 
woolen bags-as before, flattened by the hand of 
the workman, and placed in mats of horsehair, 
which, were folded in book form. After plac- 
ing in. the press vertically, one at a time, the 
iron plates were moved up against each bag, 
when the ram of the hydraulic cylinder moving 
horizontally compressed the eight or nine cakes 
contained in the press, the oil running into a 
trough or pan beneath. The yield of oil was 
very much increased by this method. The 
horizontal press; however, had its disadvan- 
tages, and'in 1851 the first patents for vertical 
hydraulic: presses for linseed oil were granted. 


The capacity was not increased over the hori- 


463 


zontal type at first, the press holding only 6 to 
10 cakes. The clumsy’ and unwieldy manner 
of packing the meal in the bags and filling the 
presses, however, was done away with. What 
is known as “boxes” were used, the ground seed 
being molded into soft cakes, packed in wrap- 
pers and placed in the press, one ‘above the 
other, the boxes acting as shelves. A large 
saving was made here in labor and time, neces- 
sarily resulting in considerable increase of 
daily capacity and consequent reduction in the 
cost. With the improvements in the manner of 
pressing the seed came improvements in grind- 
ing or crushing. Linseed was crushed first in 
this country by rolling through a mill worked 
by hand; the rollers in this mill consisted of 
one large and one small, the seed being passed 
through once or twice, according to the views 
of the crusher. The earliest method for reduc- 
ing the linseed to meal by machinery was that 
used in connection with the Dutch mill or wedge 
press, and was called the “Tamper” mill. This 
was a mortar and pestle on a large scale. The 
mortars were of heavy cast ‘iron; the bottom 
flat on the inside and holding’ a small amount 
of flax seed; the pestle was an iron-shod log, 
standing vertically in a frame, the foot resting 
on the bottom of the mortar; these logs, weigh- 
ing from 150 to 200 pounds each, were raised, 
by means of cams on a horizontal shaft, by 
water or wind power, and falling of their own 
weight exerted a crushing or grinding force 
upon the seed. The tampers, as they were 
called, numbered one or more in the set. The 
capacity of a mill was necessarily cut down 
very’ much by such a slow process, and rolls 
run by machinery were resorted to; these were 
of different design from the:old hand rolls, and 
were designated in the.trade-as “cracker” rolls, 
for the reason that they cracked or opened 
the seeds. These: rolls were arranged in pairs 
only and varied in size from 12 to 18 inches in 
diameter and 7 to 18 long, according to the 
views of the manufacturer. After being 
bruised in these rolls,;the seed was placed in 
an edge-runner or.:chaser, also known as a 
muller. This consisted of a-circular trench of 
iron, several feet. in- diameter, placed horizon- 
tally on a firm foundation. Running around 
this, like. wagon wheels in a rut, were two 
ponderous iron-shod wheels, 5 to 6 feet in 
diameter with steel tires 10 to 16 inches wide. 
These were sometimes’ made of Stone and: set 
opposite one another on a shaft and weighed 
about 7,000 pounds each. Around and around 
these wheels revolved, chasing one another 
until the meal was finely crushed and rolled, 
when water was added until the meal acquired 
the consistency of putty, or what was termed 
“dobby.” It was then mixed or “mulled” for some 
10 or 15 minutes and then tempered with heat. 
These muller stones proved very satisfactory 
as to results, but were clumsy and took a great 
deal of power; furthermore, the expense of 
two grindings was unnecessary. Nevertheless, 
no change was made for many years. 

The tempering or cooking of the crushed 
seed having such an important bearing on the 
vield of oil has also’ suffered many changes. 
There: was considerable variation in the tem- 
perature used, from cold to hot, according to 
the manufacturer. Often the spontaneous heat 
of the crushing was considered sufficient. In 
the tamper of the Dutch mill. water was: played: 


164 


on the meal in the mortar, when vapors began 
to arise, in order to keep it from getting too 
hot and thus spoiling the oil. No further tem- 
pering was considered necessary. Later, how- 
ever, and notably in connection with the muller 
stones regular cookers began to be used; these 
were heavy sheet iron drums or tanks, slowly 
revolving over a charcoal fire until the proper 
temperature was attained. With the advent of 
the hydraulic press, improvements were made 
in cooking devices and stationary heaters be- 
gan to be used in which the meal was cooked 
by steam. Up to the year 1856, and as related, 
the cooked meal was placed in the bags by 
hand; at this date, however, a device was 
patented to form the cooked meal into’ soft 
cakes or molds preparatory to placing them 
into the cloth or wrapper which was to take 
the place of the bags originally used. This 
was considered a great boon, saving as it did 
the laborious process of handling and molding 
the meal by hand to fit the press; though some- 
what clumsy at that-time, the “molder” or 
“former” has been much improved. Where in 
former years the molder was run by power 
from the shaft, now hydraulic pressure is 
utilized, and the “former” is in reality a minia- 
ture press, consisting of a square mold or box 
into which a plunger presses the required 
amount of meal. Very light pressure is suffh- 
cient, and it is so arranged that the cooked 
meal will not be compressed to the point where 
the oil is separated. 

The tempering, crushing and pressing of 
linseed was carried on, with a few exceptions, 
substantially as related up to the year 1878, 
when the most lasting improvement to oil 
machinery was made, and which introduced 
practically the system in use at the present 
time; namely, the automatic “Lawther” process. 
Greater economy was immediately secured and 
larger yields of oil. The old muller stones 
and cracker rolls gave way to the stack of “four 
or five high” chilled iron rolls, by means of 
which the seed was bruised three or four times 
in passing through. Apparatus for controlling 
and regulating the high pressure was intro- 
duced; kettles or cookers were steam jacketed 
and had larger heating area, and steam was 
fed into the meal to moisten as well as heat it. 
The plate press had also been given the pref- 
erence over the box press, which was clumsy. 
Although the very best mills to-day have some 
improvements over the original Lawther 
process, they make rather toward greater 
economy than increase of yield. The modus 
operandi in the largest and most complete mill 
to-day is as follows: The flax seed is first thor- 
oughly cleaned by separators and dust collectors 
until the original dirt, amounting to 10 or 20 
per cent, has been reduced to less than 1 per 
cent. This seed is now passed through the 
rolls, there being about one set of five rolls 
high to every three presses. The crushed seed 
falling from these rolls is led by screw con- 
veyors into the steam jacketed cookers of large 
capacity and holding a considerable quantity, 
where it is tempered. This consists of heating 
the ground seed to a temperature of from 120° 
to 180° F., according to the quality of the seed 
used, and moistened with live steam, all the 
time being kept in constant motion to prevent 
burning. When the temper is considered per- 
fect a batch is made. This consists of draw- 


—e 


LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY Me, 


= 


ing off the cooked meal on to the formers and 
molding the cake. A piece of cloth somewhat 
wider than the molded cake is placed so that 
the tempered meal may be drawn out onto it. 
This cloth or wrapper, as it is called, is a sub- 
stitute, for the horse hair cloth and woolen bags 
of.former days, but now made of pure camel’s 
hair to stand the high heat and enormous pres- 
sure. By a single motion the former is now 
closed and immediately reopened, when the 
ends of the cloth protruding are automatically 
wrapped around the soft cake and it is placed 
in the press (by automatic nippers, in the 
Lawther press). The batch makes 20 of these 
cakes, which fills one press.: The pressure is 
now turned on by an automatic valve or change 
cock which slowly increases the pressure up to 
about 4,000 pounds to the square inch. This 
enormous pressure is generated by very power- 
ful hydraulic pumps, connected to what is 
known as the accumulator system, the first pres- 
sure being up to 800 pounds per square inch and 
the second from 2,600 to 4,000 pounds. The 
accumulators are for two purposes; first, to act 
similar to a safety valve on a boiler, preventing 
the pressure from exceeding the limit; secondly, 
keeping the pressure at a steady level through- 
out the time the seed is in the press. Before 
the adaptation of the accumulator and change 
cock, the oil was pumped directly into the press, 
causing an unequal flow and consequent re- 
duction in the yield of oil. Six presses are 
generally grouped, one being emptied and re- 
filled every 10 minutes, the six thus completing 
one hour in time and allowing each press in the 
group to drain every 50 minutes. In some 
mills seven batches are made instead of six, 
and the weight of the cake is also increased 
from 11 and 12 to 14 pounds. This is done 
in order to increase the capacity of the mill, but 
generally at a sacrifice in the percentage of oil. 
As each batch is removed from the press, the 
camel’s hair cloth wrapper is stripped off, the 
rough edges of the cake trimmed automatically, 
and the cake piled up in the cake house, where 
it is allowed to dry for at least 48 hours. The 
raw oil, after having been run from the settling 
troughs at the back of the presses, is carefully 
filtered and placed in tanks ready for barreling. 
An improvement over the intermittent action 
of the simple hydraulic press was the Anderson 
continuous action press, appearing in 1905. In 
this machine the seed, ground or unground, is 
pressed in a perforated cylinder of hardened 
steel by a series of revolving screws, the oil 
dripping from the perforations, and the residue 
being expelled as dry meal at the farther end 
of the machine. The seed may be heated to 
not more than 140°, or pressed cold. The 
product is of the finest quality, suitable for the 
best varnishes. The Anderson mach‘ne has a 
capacity of about eight bushels per hour. 
While probably four-fifths of the total lin- 
seed oil output of the United States is manu- 
factured in some kind of a press, by what is 
termed the “old process» (as above described), 
the remaining fifth is made by the “new proc- 
ess,» in which naphtha is used as a solvent of 
the oil. The seed is first thoroughly crushed 
as in the old process and is heated, but without 
any added moisture. In fact the heater is so 
arranged as to drive off the natural moisture 
of the seed: The crushed seed is placed in a 
jacketed cylinder called a percolator, 1,000 


LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY 


bushels at a time. Naphtha, heated by passing 
through a coil feed water heater, is run in on 
top of the linseed, and steam is let into the 
percolator jacket to keep up the heat. The 
naphtha with its content of dissolved oil is 
drained off from time to time into a con- 
densing tank, where the naphtha is boiled off, 
the vapor passing. to a cold condenser, and 
thence back to the naphtha» reservoir. The 
separated oil is carried to an open tank where 
it is heated and subjected to a vigorous air 
blast. to remove any lingering odor of the 
naphtha. The operation is continued with each 
charge of seed for three days. The residue in 
the percolator is then treated with live steam, 
and again leached with hot naphtha. This 
treatment reduces the oil left in the meal to 
about 1% per cent. The product ranks with 
the best on the market.. The plant for this 
process costs about 25 per cent less than for 
the old process, and the profits are more than 
60 per cent greater, 

The Oil and Its Uses.— Linseed oil as 
manufactured may be classified under three 
headings: raw, boiled and refined. Raw linseed 
oil is the term applied to oil as it comes from 
the press in its original state. The principal 
consumer of raw linseed oil is the paint grinder; 
as it was used as a vehicle for paint hundreds 
of years ago, so it is used now. Every year 
millions of gallons are spread on buildings in 
the form of mixed paints, one concern alone 
using over 1,500,000 gallons yearly. Every 100 
pounds of white lead requires at least 7% 
gallons. Boiled linseed oil is, as the name 
denotes, raw oil boiled over a fire, chemicals 
being added, the object being to increase its 
drying properties. Many formulas are used by 
the different crushers for making boiled oil, the 
oldest and most reliable, however, containing 
principally red lead and black oxide of man- 
ganese, the addition of these substances to the 
heated oil stimulating the linolein and increasing 
its affinity for oxygen. The uses for boiled oil 
are many and varied, but it is principally used 
as the quick drying oil in paints. The refined 
or varnish oils are many, and there is the great- 
est rivalry to-day among oil manufacturers as 
to the qualities of their respective varnish oils. 
Hundreds. of thousands of gallons of these oils 
are used every year. While the different gums 
used in the manufacture of varnishes are ti-e 
basis or foundation, some variety of refined oil 
is the most important component of the varnish. 
As stated before, raw linseed oil has certain 
component parts. which must be removed and 
all tendency to “break” must be eliminated. 
Descriptions, however, of these methods will 
not be attempted, as they pertain more partic- 
ularly to the chemistry of linseed oil and not 
to its manufacture. The reliable varnish oils 
are few and are furnished only by the largest 
manufacturers, Linseed oil in some form plays 
a very prominent part in the manufacture of 
linoleum and oil cloths also. Varnish oils are 
used in the manufacture of patent leather, for 
shoes and other purposes, carriage tops, and all 
kinds of dressed leathers are finished with lin- 
seed oil. The oil clothing worn by sailors and 
fishermen is soaked with it. It appears by the 
thousands of gallons before our eyes in the 
printers’ ink on newspapers, and smaller quan- 
tities are used in the manufacture of. oil silks. 
_ Linseed oil has no value as an edible oil, or as 
VOL. 17 — 30 


_ during the year. 


_Although used extensively abroad, it 


465 


an illuminant or lubricant. While not very 
large in comparison with other industries, the 
consumption of linseed oil in the last few years 
as compared to former years has increased very 
rapidly, and at the present time the above in- 
dustries consume annually an amount computed 
at nearly 62,000,000 gallons. The price of lin- 
seed oil is of course governed by the cost of 
manufacture and principally by the price of seed 
and, cake. The greatest fluctuation experienced 
in earlier years was in 1867, when oil went from 
$1 per gallon to $2.03, and in later years, in 
1901, when it went from 50 to 82 cents per gal- 
lon. Linseed: oil has always been subject to 
great fluctuations, and it will be seen by aver- - 
aging that from: 1876 the annual fluctuation has 
been about 14% cents per gallon, the smallest 
fluctuation known being in 1883, when there was 
only three cents difference in price at any time 
On 15 June 1917 the prices in 
the New York market for five-barrel lots were 
raw oil, $1.21 per gallon; boiled oil, $1.22 per 
ir ‘refined oil, $1.23 per gallon. 

he Cake and Its Uses.— While really a 
teetiebdd oth the manufacture and sale of the 
cake is equal in importance to the sale of the 
oil, and although netting a smaller price per 
pound, the value has a very great influence on 
the course of oil prices and the policy of the 
business as a unit. Practically the only use for 
cake is as a food for livestock, principally 
cattle, for fattening and for results in the dairy. 
The actual protein in cake is about 36 per cent, 
of which about 85 per cent is digestible, and the 
nutritive value is consequently about four times 
that of hay, while the fat varies from 4 per 
cent to 8 per cent, according to the crusher. 
1S 
singular fact that our farmers in the United 
States have little, if any, appreciation of its 
value. Our own country should be the largest 
consumer of this most valuable by-product; 
actual figures; however, show that only about 
20 per cent is retained for home consuniption. 
The first cost is somewhat greater than for 
other food stuffs, and our farmers as a general 
rule lack the knowledge of its value, which 
comes only by experiment and valuable experi- 
ence. The manurial value alone of linseed oil 
cake has been estimated at over $16 per ton, 
whereas the first cost is only from $18 to 
$25 per ton. Our farmers, it is true, are 
waking up to its value and more is being used 
in this country every year, but the bulk of our 
output is taken by Holland and Belgium with 
France third. The exportation of. cake has 
grown with the industry and the proportion of 
export remains practically the same, with the 
exception that each year a little larger part 
is retained for home consumption. The total 
exports in 1895 were about 120,000 tons, and in 
1913 about 290,000 tons. A glance at the figures 
will show that of the total 290,000 tons the three 
countries above mentioned consumed 242,000 
tons, the balance being divided largely between 
France and Germany with 18,000 tons each, 
Canada and West Indies 5,000 each, and Nor- 
way, Sweden and Denmark insignificant 
amounts. 

Growth of the Industry.— To the early 
settlers the flax plant was of value for the flax 
and not for the seed and oil. In 1719 the spin-- 
ning wheel was first introduced in New Hamp- 
shire by the Protestant Irish who settled there, 


466 


and flax was grown more abundantly. The 
seed was for the most part exported, a few 
thousand bushels being’ sufficient to supply the 
domestic demand. The first impetus ‘to the 
growth of flax for linen fabrics and consequent 
increase in seed and oil was given in 1722, when 
bounties for its growth were granted. The in- 
crease was immediate, and the plan worked so 
well that the bounties were continued, and in 
fact increased, until in 1751 we find it reported 
that 60 wagon loads of seed were exported 
at Baltimore. In 1752 a further increase’ was 
noted, 10,000 hogsheads or 70,000 bushels of 
seed being exported from Philadelphia. Twenty 
‘years later, 110,000. bushels were sold abroad, 
and in 1791 292,000 bushels, or upwards of one- 
half of the total crop of the United States in 
1860, which was 567,000 bushels. Some idea of 
the rapid growth of the oil industry after the 


Revolution will’ be gained from the fact that in | 


1791 only 450 gallons were exported, while in 
1795 nearly 50,000 gallons were sent abroad, 
an amount which was not again equaled until 60 
years later. In 1792 the invention of the cotton 
gin placed a severe check on the growth of flax 
for the fibre, cheapening as it did cotton and 
cotton fabric. Undoubtedly at this time closer 
attention was paid to the flax seed for its oil- 
bearing seed; the business was a profitable one, 
as had been shown by the small export business 
done. -From 1795 the export steadily decreased, 
showing. ever-increasing home consumption, and 
in fact considerable quantities were now being 
imported. From about 80,000 gallons in 1825, 
the imports increased to. 3,200,000 gallons in 
1867. Immediately after this, however, the im- 
ports dropped to an insignificant quantity, and 
have continued so to this day, a certain quantity 
of Calcutta oil only being imported each year 
at high prices, for special uses, it being a well- 
known fact that the finest oil in the world is 
made from East Indian seed. In 1839 the first 
cargo of flax seed was imported,-and importa- 
tions have increased to the figure of 25,005,936 
bushels for 1922-23— most of which came from 
Argentina. From 1880, when the crop grown 
in this country aggregated some 7,000,000 bushels, 
the crop increased to at least 30,000,000 bushels 
in 1903... The average for recent years has re~ 
ceded greatly from the 19,512,765 bushels of 
1909. The production of flax seed in the United 
States in 1919 amounted to 6,653,200 bushels. 
Of this total North Dakota produced 2,972,082 
bushels; Minnesota, 2,019,464 bushels, and South 
Dakota, 1,109,303. bushels. Montana produced 
325,838 bushels. and Wisconsin 62;579 bushels. 
The total value of the crop, as estimated at the 
price ruling on 1 Dec. 1919, was $29,360,998; The 
average consumption amounted to 8,000,000 to 
10,000,000. bushels of seed up to about year 1892. 
From that time the statistics show a steady in- 
crease in the consumption. The 1922 crop of 
flaxseed aggregated 12,238,000 bushels from 
1,308,000 acres and’ having a total value of 
$25,869,000. 

_ Price of Seed.— While at times the fluctua- 
tion of seed prices has been caused by specula- 
tion and manipulation, the law of supply and 
demand has generally fixed the value. In 1885 
Cincinnati was the principal centre for the sale 
of the seed. From about 1870 Chicago became 
the great market, its location being more cen- 
tral. Ten years later, however, Chicago lost its 
prestige, and Duluth became practically the only 


LINSEY — 


LINSLEY 


market. Since then Minneapolis has divided 
the honor with Duluth, The highest price ob- 
tained for flaxseed in modern times was in 
1862, when sales were made on a basis of $3.25 
per bushel. From 1862 to 1874 seed never sold 
under $2 per bushel but averaged about $2.50; 
after 1874, however, prices steadily declined 
until. 1886, when $1.03 ‘was reached. The low- 
est price ever obtained was in 1897, when seed 
went to about 63 cents. The greatest fluctu- 
ation was in 1862, seed going from $1.25 to 
$3.25. The avernge farm value of flaxseed for 
1916 was $1.99 er bushel, and on 1 Dec. 1922 
the price reached $2.11 per bushel. In earlier 
times, almost all the seed was grown iff the 
Eastern States: large amounts were grown in 
New York, whereas now scarcely any is grown 
there. Ohio long held a good share of the 
crop; from Ohio it traveled to Indiana and IIli- 
nois: then to Kansas and Iowa: and from there 
to’ Minnesota and Dakota, and finally, in the last 
few years, almost the entire crop has been 
grown in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minne- 
sota and Montana. The historical records fur- 
nish us with very meagre data as regards the 
number of mills in operation at different periods. 
In 1810, the census tells us there were 383 mills 
in 14 States, 171 in Pennsylvania alone. ‘These 
mills were small affairs, but the number is con- 
clusive of the large interest taken in this indus- 
try. These mills made 770,000 gallons of oil, 
valued at about $900,000. In 1860 there were 
94 mills, turning out nearly $6,000,000 worth of 
oil and cake: in 1870 the number of mills was 
reduced to 85, but the value of the products 
had increased to $9,000,000 worth of oil and 
cake, and in 1880, 81 mills produced $15,400,000 
worth of products. The number of mills was 
still further reduced in 1890 to 62, making 
$23,500,000 worth of oil and cake, and in 1900 

mills were producing a value of nearly 
$30,000,000. The steady decrease in the number 
of plants in operation is due to the inability of 
plants with old-fashioned machinery to work 
on the lowest basis of cost manufacture. 

According to the 1919 census of manufac- 
tures there were in that year in the United 
States 26 linseed oil mills of factory grade, em- 
ploying 2,173 wage earners receiving annually 
a total of $3,052,269 in wages. ‘The capital in- 
vested amounted to $73,956,065, and the value 
of the year’s output was $120,638,100: of this, 
$20,060,562 was the value added by manufacture. 
The yield of linseed oil was 55,121,234 gallons. 
More of the crushing is done at Minneapolis: 
and Saint Paul than at any other locality in 
the United States, though there are important 
mills also at Chicago, Cleveland, Toledo, Buf- 
falo, New York and Philadelphia. In 1921, 28 
establishments reported a production of linseed 
oil valued at $71,032,000. Exports for the cal- 
endar year 1923 amounted to 3,105,089 pounds of 
oil and 536,555,238 pounds of oi! cake. Consult 
Ennis, W. D., ‘Linseed Oil and Other Oils? 
(New York 1909), 


LINSEY, the name of an English country- 
made fabric of linen warp and worsted filling. 


LINSEY-WOOLSEY, 
made of linen and wool. 

LINSLEY, James Harvey, American 
naturalist: b. Northford, Conn., 5 May 1787; d. 
Stratford, Conn., 26 Dec. 1843. He was gradu | 


a mixed fabric 


LINSLEY — LION 


ated from Yale College in 1817, and became a 
Baptist clergyman, but on account of ill-health 
resigned from the pulpit and devoted himself 
to the study of natural history. Many cata- 
logues ‘of mammalia and birds from his pen 
may be found in the American Journal of 
Sctence. 


LINSLEY, Joel Harvey, American clergy- 
man: b. Cornwall, Vt., 15 July 1790; d. Green- 
wich, Conn., 22 March 1868. He was graduated 
from Middlebury College in 1811, and was tutor 
there for three years; afterward studied law, 
but in 1822 was licensed as a Congregational 
clergyman and went to South Carolina as a 
missionary. During the years 1824-32 he was 
pastor of a church in Hartford, Conn., and was 
at Park Street Church, Boston, 1832-35. In 
the latter year he was elected president of 
Marietta College, Ohio, which post he held 10 
years, raising a considerable fund for the in- 
stitution. 

LINSTOCK, a gunner’s forked staff. to 
hold a match of lint dipped in saltpeter. 


LINT, in surgery, the scrapings or ravel- 
ings of: fine linen, made into a sort of cloth 
and used by surgeons in dressing wounds. It 
is prepared in various forms, which have dif- 
ferent names, according to the difference of the 
figures. Lint made up in an oval or obicular 
form is called a pledget; if in a cylindrical 
form or in- shape of a date or olive-stone, a 
dossil. The advantages of this material for the 
purposes for which it is used are very great 
owing to its softness of texture, the ease with 
which it may be-folded or rolled into any shape 
required, its capacity to absorb discharges, and 
its cheapness, on account of which it may be 
thrown away when once used. For modern 
surgery it is rendered antiseptic by steeping in 
carbolic acid, perchloride of mercury solution, 
etc., and subsequent drying. 


LINT-DOCTOR, a sharp-edged ruler on 
the delivery side of the calico-printing cylinder, 
to detain any lint or fibres which may come off 
the cotton cloth. 


LINTEL, in architecture, a horizontal tim- 
ber or stone over a door, window or other 
opening, to support the superincumbent weight. 


LINTON, Eliza Lynn, English novelist: b. 
Keswick, Cumberland, 10 Feb. 1822; d. Lon- 
don, 14 July 1898. In 1858 she married William 
James Linton (q.v.), but they separated in 
1867, though continuing to maintain friendly re- 
lations until his death. She was connected with 
the press for nearly all her literary career, 
writing for the Saturday Review, the cele- 
brated ‘Girl of the Period? papers. She some- 
times dipped her pen in acid, but in private she 
was warm-hearted and self-sacrificing. Among 
her numerous works are “The World Well 
Lost®; “The One Too’ Many’; ‘In Haste and 
at. Leisure’; ‘The Girl of the Period, etc. 
Her best novels are ‘The True History of 
Joshua Davidson: Christian and Communist» 
(1872), and ‘Autobiography of Sab gest 
Kirkland. « 


‘LINTON; ‘Sir James Dromgole, English 
painter: b. Wondon; -26 Dec. 1840. He was edu- 
cated at Cleveland House, Barnes. He after- 
ward studied art and has done much to pro- 
mote ‘the interests of the English school of 
water-color painting. - He was elected a member 


467 


of Institute of Water-Color Painters (1867). 
When it was reorganized its title being hence- 
forth the Royal Institute of Painters in Water- 
Colors, he was chosen president (1884). In the 
following year he was knighted: His pictures 
in oil include the ‘Marriage of the Duke of 
Albany, painted in 1885, and aseries of panels 
illustrating 16th century history for a private 
mansion at Nottingham. 


LINTON, William James, Anglo-Amer- 
ican wood engraver and author: b. London, 
1812; d. near New Haven, Conn., 29 Dec. 1897. 
As a wood engraver he took very high rank, and 
some of his finest work may be found in the 
pages of the Illustrated London News, to 
which he frequently contributed from its com- 
mencement till he came to the United States in 
1867. As an author, in which capacity he was 
more widely known than as an engraver, the 
zealous Chartism of his youth tinged much of 
his earlier production. Among his works may 
be mentioned ‘The Plain of Freedom?’ (1852) ; 
‘Claribel and other Poems? (1865); ‘The Eng- 
lish Republic? ; ‘Some Practical Hints on Wood 
Engraving? (1879) : ‘Life of Thomas Paine? 
(1879); ‘A Manual of Wood Engraving? 
(1884) ; “Poems and Translations»? (1889), and 
“The Masters of Wood Engraving? (1890). 


LINZ, lints, Austria, the capital of the 
Crownland of Upper Austria, on the Danube, 98 
miles west of Vienna (117 by rail). It is de- 
fended by detached forts extending-over a cir- 
cuit of nine miles, and has an old cathedral, a 
new cathedral, provincial parliamentary house, 
castle, town-house, bishop’s palace, etc. ' The 
manufactures include woolen, linen, silk and 
cotton goods, locomotive machinery, lamps and 
hardware, tobacco factory and shipbuilding, and 
there is an extensive trade on the Danube, 
on which steamers ply upstream to Ratisbon 
and down to Vienna. Pop. 67,817, the majority 
German Catholics. 


LION, the largest and most celebrated of 
the cat tribe, forming the widespread species 
Felis leo. The outward form and appearance 
of the lion are familiar. The apparently ex- 
cessive size of the head, due chiefly to the 
great mane which covers the head, neck and 
shoulders of the males; the uniform, unmarked, 
tawny color of the skin; the great development 
of horny papillze upon the rasp-like tongue; the 
growth of long hair on the elbows and along 
the middle line of the bélly, and the tuft at the 
extremity of the tail (hiding a horny spine) 
are distinctive external characters: The length 
of the lion from nose to tip of tail, rarely, if 
ever, exceeds 10 feet, and that of the lioness 
nine feet, of which the tail forms a third. The 
older books separated a supposed species of 
maneless lion, especially one in India desig- 
nated the maneless lion of Gujerat; but the 
development of the mane varies greatly, some 
lions in all regions ‘having this feature much 
more abundant than others, and in all cases 
it is a product of age, appearing fully only 
when the animal has reached full mattirity at 
the age of five to seven years, so that no“dis- 
tinction of this kind is valid; nor can’ any be 
made upon color, the mane in certain specimens 
being very much darker than in others without 
regard to locality, dark and amply maned and 
scantily +maned individuals’ belonging some- 
times to the same litter. The period of gesta- 


468 


tion in the lions is five months. Only one 
brood is produced annually, and from two to 
four young are produced at a birth. They re- 
main where born for a few weeks; the mother 
may leave them for 48 hours to go hunting: The 
mother nourishes the whelps for about a year; 
their size at birth being about that of a pug- 
dog. In their young state the whelps may be 
marked with various markings; brown bands 
upon a tawny body color and a stripe along the 
spine being most frequently observed. As they 
grow older, however, the markings disappear, 
and the uniform tawny hue of the adult is 
reached. The probable limit of age of the 
lion has been differently stated by different 
writers. Buffon fixed it at 22 years... But a 
lion which died in the Tower of London in 
1760 had lived in: captivity above 70 years. 
The habits of lions have been observed and 
described by more writers than in the case, 
perhaps, of any other animal, and they are 
known to vary constantly with circumstances, 
locality and the kind of prey available. In 
general this heavy animal, which is entirely un- 
able to climb into trees, and frequents open 
rather than forested regions, gains its food by 
stealth and power rather than by agility and 
speed, and kills his quarry most frequently by 
stalking rather than by waiting at watering 
places. Lions often go abroad by day, wander- 
ing and hunting widely, but are chiefly active 
at night. Then this great cat goes to some 
accustomed lurking place near a spring or by 
the side of a river, where, concealed among the 
brushwood, he lies in wait for the animals 
coming to drink. A single powerful leap gen- 
erally lands him upon his prey which is crushed 
down by the weight of the attack and mauled 
and bitten about the head until the neck is 
broken by a wrench or the veins and arteries 
are torn open. If no rivals are near and the 
animal is very hungry, the prey may be de- 
voured on the spot to the extent required to 
satisfy appetite; and then, after drinking 
copiously, the beast will usually go away to 
his lair, leaving the remains for his family, if 
they have come near (as often happens), or to 
hyenas and jackals. In most cases, however, 
the lion, like other great cats, chooses. to take 
his quarry to some retired spot where he may 
feed upon it unobserved; and amazing stories 
are told, with apparent truth, of the strength 
displayed in carrying or dragging the carcasses 
of large antelopes, cattle and horses; it is not 
to be believed, however, as sometimes has been 
asserted, that a lion is able to “fling a bullock 
over its shoulder” and run away with it. Such 
a feat is limited to goats and small animals, if, 
indeed, it ever occurs. Lions sometimes hunt 
together for mutual support. The lioness hunts 
by. herself, especially when her kittens are 
young, at which time the father of the family 
is wandering alone, or with other males, and 
would be resisted if he attempted to join his 
spouse. The young remain with the mother 
until they are full-grown. The lion alone 
among cats is regularly polygamous, each male 
having three or four lionesses whose allegiance 
he gains by prowess in battle over rivals, and 
keeps by killing or driving off all newcomers. 
The result of these constant encounters in the 
arena of the desert is not only a scarcity of 
males but the continuous selection of the best 


LION 


to become progenitors of the race. One pecu- 
liarity of the lion developed by this incessant 
warfare among the males is the development 
of the defiant and terrifying voice -which 
elevates the growl, and enlarges the scream, of 
other cats, into a tremendous roar—a volume 
of noise beyond that made by any other animal. 
The statement that,.the lion» roars -at. stated 
periods appears to be almost wholly without 
foundation; in summer alone, and especially be- 
fore storms, the lion roars before dawn. In 
rage the lion beats his sides with his tail, agi- 
tates his mane and facial. muscles, protrudes 
the tongue and claws, utters the peculiar sharp, 
frequent growl and altogether presents. a very 
terrific appearance, all of which, primarily, has 
reference to the savage rivalry of males above 
described. . . 
The natural disposition of all animals to get 
their food as easily as possible has led lions 
everywhere to prey upon domestic cattle which, 
in a region where they are numerous, . suffer 
nightly despoliation. Lions that have discov- 
ered this comparatively easy method of supply- 
ing their wants soon learn that mankind is 
equally, or even more, readily obtainable, and 
become “man-eaters.» Beasts so sophisticated 
must be put out of the way; and barbarians 
organize great bands of men who learn the lair 
of the animal, surround it and effect the ani- 
mal’s death by any rude means possible. “Man- 
eaters” are generally old, but occasionally they 
are in the prime of life and vigor. During the 
building of the Uganda Railway two lions thus 
attained celebrity through their depredations 
among the construction gangs, until shot by 
the engineer in charge, and were known as the 
“man-eaters” of Tsavo. Some savage hunters 
boldly and skilfully overcome the lion almost 
in single combat, with rude weapons; but, with 
perhaps the exception of the tiger, he is the 
most dangerous of quarries. A charging lion 
will take half a dozen shots froma heavy gun, 
each of which ultimately prove fatal, and yet 
have strength left to maul an assailant. There 
are four methods of stalking: tracking on foot; 
hunting on horseback and dismounting to shoot; 
hunting with dogs, and shooting from shelters 
by water holes or over hills. The incessant 
persecution to which the lion is subjected when- 
ever a region begins to become civilized has 
exterminated it over a large part of the former 
domain of the species. When men began to 
hunt in Europe in the Stone Age they found 
there lions whose remains, entombed in the 
floors of caves, are called those of “cave lions” 
(F. speleus), but which present no important 
differences from the modern species, Within 
the time of written history lions dwelt in the 
mountains of southwestern Europe; and many 
of those seen in Rome in the time of the earlier 
Cezsars were obtained from the Danube Valley 
and Asia Minor. The supply was soon ex- 
hausted, however, and the later demand was 
met by importations from the Caucasus and 
southward, but mainly from northern Africa. 
In the arenas of ancient Rome large numbers 
of lions were. frequently exhibited.. Sulla, the 
dictator, once exhibited 100 of these animals, 
and Pompey presented 600 in the circus; Ha- 
drian caused 100 to be destroyed at one exhibi- 
tion, and others of the emperors and consuls 
were equally prodigal. In order to provide 


LION IN ART—LION OF FLANDERS 


these great quantities laws were promulgated 
protecting the beasts in the Carthaginian prov- 
inces, to the great detriment of agriculture 
there and risk of the peasantry, and breeding 
establishments were created to produce enough 
lions to meet the imperial demand. The taming 
and training of lions have continued ever since, 
and to-day this great shaggy cat is the most 
impressive, if not the most intelligent, of the 
troupe which the menagerie showman gathers 
about him. For a long period almost all the 
lions exhibited in zoological gardens and shows 
have been those born in captivity, where the 
species breeds freely. 

At the present day few lions exist north of 
the Soudan and Abyssinia; a few are left in 
the recesses of the Atlas Mountains; British 
and Portuguese East Africa and Rhodesia are 
the chief: hunting grounds left; and they have 
become extinct or scarce in the civilized regions 
of South Africa. In 1850 the last lion in the 
vicinity of Cape Town was shot. They no 
longer exist in Asia Minor, but are numerous 
in | the extensive marshes: along the lower 
Euphrates and Tigris, and thence occur at in- 
tervals to the valleys of the Indus, where a 
few still remain in the wilder deserts of Cutch 
and Gujerat. Formerly they were known, over 
all-northern and western India. 

Books of special value relating to lions and 
lion hunting are Flower and Lydekker’s ‘Mam- 
mals, Living and Extinct? ; Blanford’s ‘Zoolo- 
gies? (of India, Persia and Abyssinia) ; Ander- 
son’s ‘The Lion and the Elephant’; Porter’s 
(Wild Beasts? ; the hunting narratives of Gor- 
don Cumming, Gerard, Harris, Holub, Baker 
and Selous; Lyddeker, “Game. Animals. of 
Africa? (London 1908); Patterson, ‘The Man- 
Eaters of Tsavo? (ib. 1908); Pease, Sir A., 
“Book of the Lion? (ib. 1914) ; Roosevelt. and 
Heller, ‘Life History of African Game Ani- 
mals? (New York 1914). 


LION IN ART. With the ancient Egyp- 
tians the lion was dedicated to the god Shu 
and the goddess Sechmet, both of which were, 
therefore, represented with the heads of lions. 
Again, the kingly dignity was represented by a 
lion’s body, its head being. given .the features of 
the ruler. As the Nile inundations occurred 
when the sun was in the zodiacal constellation 
Leo, the lion was symbol of water; hence that 
animal is found in the decorations of pitchers, 
pails and other. water. containers. Cybele 
(Rhea) with the Assyrians and Greeks was 
depicted riding on or standing by a lion because 
that animal was dedicated to her. The lion was 
also symbol. of the all-penetrating, vitalizing 
and. mastering power of fire. .The Assyrians 
and Greeks, in their architecture, made the lion 
guardian over the palace. To the Greeks and 
Romans this animal became guardian over 
springs, doorways, stairways, etc. Dedicated to 
springs (as Krenophylaxr) the flowing’ water 
gushed out of a lion’s mouth; again, in Doric 
architecture we find an open-mouthed lion’s 
head decorating the outlets that released the 
rainwater’ from the roof. The lion was the 
Mithraic symbol of the sun. In Christian art 
the lion is symbol of ‘Christ as the “Lion of 
Judah,» and’ sometimes bears the cruciform 
nimbus. This animal is the attribute of Saint 
Jerome and of Saint Mark the Evangelist as 
well as of the Prophet Daniel. The lion’ and 


469 


serpents are ecclesiastical. symbols of “the 
World and the Devil” (seeking whom he may 
devour). In the decorative arts the lion, typical 
of strength, was used by the ancient Greeks 
and Romans as a form for supports (legs, etc.), 
for chairs, benches and tables. The lion’s head, 
with a ring in its mouth, was a favored motif 
of the Middle Ages and Rénaissance as a 
hitching grip and as doorknocker, and the head 
alone was used as a knob or rosette decoration. 
The lion’s claw as a motif for the feet of fur- 
niture also comes down to us from ancient 
times. The lion, being considered as the “king 
of beasts,” has been made symbol of heroism, 
hence the title of England’s King Richard I as 
Ceur de Lion (“lion hearted), etc. In. this 
human significance the artist gives the lion an 
oval eye instead of the naturalistic round cat’s 
eye. The heraldic lion couchant represents sov- 
ereignty; rampant, magnanimity; passant, reso- 
lution; guardant, prudence; salient, counsel, and 
reguardant, circumspection. The sleeping lion 
has long been the artist’s symbol of the fallen 
hero. The lion statue of Venice, world: re- 
nowned, in the Piazza San Marco, refers, of 
course, to that saint. Florence has its heraldic 
representation in a lion, generally called Mar- 
ZOCCO, CLEMENT W. CouMBE. 


LION OF FLANDERS, The. ‘The Lion 
of Flanders» by Henri Conscience (1812-83), 
written in the early years of his career (1838), 
represents on the artistic side the maximum of 
his achievement. His father was one of that 
amazing train of French adventurers who seem 
to have been called forth to follow the fortunes 
of Napoleon. The sympathy between the dis- 
appointed and erratic father, a foiled, soured 
and misanthropical man of action, and the 
patient, earnest and artistically endowed son 
could never have been close. The future author 
had been born at Antwerp in the years that 
marked the decline of Napoleon’s power, and 
his mother was Flemish. His: temperament 
bound him much more to her and to his native 
land of Flanders which in spite of a glorious 
past had no status as a nation. The speech of 
the Flemings was looked upon, even by the 
Flemings themselves, not as a language, but as 
a dialect, unsuited to any serious literary effort. 
With this’ estimate, Conscience, fond of his 
mother tongue, could not agree, and he de- 
cided to work toward the recognition of Flem- 
ish as a language and toward the creation of a 
Flemish literature. In a long life of patient, 
conscientious effort, he fully achieved his pur- 
pose and is properly regarded as the founder 
of the Flemish literary movement. ~ 

It was natural that with this aim he should 
have turned for some of ‘his material to the 
earlier history of his country, the days of the 
glory of Bruges and Ghent, of the struggles of 
the guilds and of the old Flemish knights. 
This provides the background for the 
moving story of the Lion of Flanders 
(Robert of Bethune), who made common cause 
with the Flemish burghers against the French 
tyranny of Phillip the Fair. It is full of the 
pageantry of a rich epoch, and moves. rapidly 
with a large, full sweep and swing. The more 
important male characters are powerfully 
drawn, though the heroine is weak and uncon- 


vincing. ‘Though the ‘Lion of Flanders? is 


substantially accurate, as a picture of the time, 


470 


it should nevertheless be remembered that the 
events’ are marshaled and colored by the au- 
thor’s patriotic fervor and not drawn with the 
dispassionate analysis of the modern historian. 
.As an historical novel, however, it stands with 
“the best of its class and deserves the celebrity 
which has brought about its translation. into 
nearly all. European languages. 
CHRISTIAN GAUSS. 


LIPARI, 1é’pa-ré, or ZOLIAN IS- 
LANDS, a group of volcanic islands in the 
Mediterranean, about 24 miles from the north 
coast of Sicily, situated between lat. 38° ms 
and 38° 55’ N.; long. 14° 15’ and 152415" EB 
and cortnticed| in the province of Messina. 
Total area, about 45 square miles. Pop. about 
20,000. These islands called by the ancients 
FEoliz, Vulcaniz and Insule Lipareorum, were 
supposed to be the residence of olus and 
Vulcan. Lipari, the largest, is populous and 
well cultivated, producing great quantities of 
corn and fruit, especially figs, grapes and 
raisins; it likewise produces alum, sulphur, 
nitre and cinnabar. It is about 15 miles in 
circumference; the air is healthful, the inhabit- 
ants industrious and the males good sailors. 
On the eastern coast is situated a town of 
the same name (pop. of commune 15,616), con- 
taining a castle built by Charles V,.a cathedral, 
a college, several convents and a hospital. A 
considerable trade is carried on in the. prin- 
cipal produce of the island. The other islands 
are Stromboli, the scene of volcanic eruptions 
in 1902 and 1907: Panaria, Vulcano, Salina, 
Alicuri and Filicuri, with a number of smaller 
ones. The peaks in ‘the islands range from 
1,000 to 3,140 feet, the highest, in Salina. Lipari 
is composed of pumice-stone, lava, volcanic 
glass and black sand; and the warm ‘baths and 
heated vapors of. the ‘stoves (excavations which 
emit hot sulphurous exhalations) prove the 
activity of the subterranean fires. 


LIPPI, Filippino, f£é-lé-pé’n6, Italian painter, 
son. of the preceding by. Lucrezia Buti: b. 
Prato, 1459; d. Florence, 5 April 1504. He was 
a pupil of. Fra Diamante, but seems to have 
closely followed. the artistic example of his 
father and Sandro Botticelli... He gained con- 
siderable reputation before he was out of his 
teens. Among his wall paintings, which show 
a wonderful advance beyond his predecessors, 
are those in the chapel of the Brancacci family 
at Florence, in which is portrayed the. history 
of Saints Peter and Paul, and the decoration 
of the walls of the church of Santa Maria 
Sopra Minerva, at Rome (1488-93) illustrating 
the life of Saint Thomas Aquinas.. His mas- 
terpieces, however, are to be found at Florence 
— in the Strozzi chapel of Santa Maria Novella, 
where his frescoes. portray the legendary life 
of the Apostles Philip and John (1502); and 
in the Badia, which has his ‘Vision of Saint 
Bernard,” regarded as the most perfect ex- 
pression of his genius. Some of his canvases 
are in the galleries of Florence, Bologna, Ber- 
lin, Munich, Copenhagen; and the National 
Gallery, London, which has. the “Virgin and 
Child, with Saint Jerome and Saint Dominic. 
Mrs. P. Warren, Boston, Mass., has a repre- 
sentation of the ‘Holy Family with Saint Mar- 
garet.> 


LIPPI, Fra. Filippo del Carmine, fra 
fé-lép’p6 dél kar-mé'na lép’pé, Italian painter: 


LIPARI — LIPPINCOTT 


b. Florence, 1406; d. Spoleto, 9 Oct... 1469... In 
his 15th year he entered the Carmelite monas- 
tery at Florence and became a professed monk 
in 1421, to which calling he had. no. vocation. 
Early formed his style on the example. of 
Masaccio, but was later influenced ‘by ieregste os 
and Angelico of Fiesole (Fra Giovanni). 
1431 he left his convent, but without Dae 
from his vows. In 1434 he was commissioned 
to paint the ‘Coronation of Out Lady? for the 
high altar of Saint Ambrogio. In 1442 he was 
Spence by the Pope, rector of the parish of 
San Quirico, at Legnaia, near Florence, In 
1452 he began his work at Prato, and three 
years after, being convicted of fraud, was de- 
prived of his benefice. He was appointed in 
1456 chaplain to the nuns of Santa Margherita 
at Prato; was commissioned by them to paint a 
panel for the high altar of their: church, and 
falling in love with Lucrezia Buti, who served 
as model for his Madonna, he abdticted her 
(1 May) and carried her off to his: house. 
She bore him two children, Filippino» Lippi 
(q.v.) and a daughter, Alessandro. In 1461 
he was released from:his yows. and granted a 
dispensation to marry her, but the marriage 
did not take place. 

In his best work he united with the: spiritaal 
feeling of Fra Angelico of Fiesole the strong. 
historic imagination, energetic modeling and ~ 
unconventional loveliness of form and face, 
characteristic of Masaccio. His greatest. mas- 
terpiece is in the parish church at Prato, and 
consists of a series of frescoes illustrating ‘the 
life of Saint Stephen, John the Baptist, etc. 
Many of his altar-pieces are now in the Floren- 
tine Academy. His last frescoes in the cathe- 
dral at Spoleto were executed with the collab- 
oration of Fra Diamante. Examples of’ this 
painter are also to be found in ‘the galleries 
of Berlin, Munich, Rome and the National 
Gallery, London. His ‘Saint Lawrence, with 
Saint Cosmas and Damian and: Two Donors? 
are in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. 
Consult Strutt, Edward C., ‘Fra Filippo Lippi? 
(London 1901) ; and Vasari’s ‘Lives. of the 
Painters. 


LIPPI, Lorenzo, toch dite ZO, ‘Tedffeln pout 
and painter : b. Florence, 1606; d. there, 1664. He 
wrote a comic epic poem in 12 cantos, “Tl Mal- 
mantile vacquisdato? under the anagrammatic 
pseudonym, “Perloni Zipol (publ. 1676). 
The poem abounds in rare humor and is writ- 
ten in light, swift verse. The language, how- 
ever, abounds in Florentine provincialities, and 
is unintelligible without such a commentary as 
is furnished to the edition of 1688 by P. Mu- 
nucci. As a painter he was an imitator’ of 
Santi di Tito’s manner and was reputed | the 
best draftsman of his time. There is a ‘Cruci- 
fixion? of his in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence; 
and ‘The Triumph of David®; and ‘Christ and 
the Woman of Samaria? are in the _Imperial 
Gallerv at Vienna. 


LIPPINCOTT, Havin! Horace Mather, 
American. author on. historical subjects: | 
Philadelphia, 20 April 1877. He was educated 


at. Germantown Academy and, the University 


of Pennsylvania. He is;a member of the. So- 
ciety of Friends, a Quaker organization, and 
is the author of) ‘The’ Mather Family- of,.Chel- 
tenham, Pennsylvania? (1910); ‘The, Colonial 


LIPPINCOTT, — LIQUEFIED AND GOMPRESSED GASES 


Homes of Philadelphia and Its Neighborhood? 
(1912); ‘A Portraiture of the People called 
Quakers? (1915); ‘Early Philadelphia? , (1917). 
He is also editor of The Alumm Register, the 
graduate monthly magazine of the University 
of Pennsylvania. 


LIPPINCOTT, Joshua Ballinger, Amer- 
ican publisher: b. Juliustown, N. J., 1816; d. 
Philadelphia, 5 Jan. 1886. He was a_ book- 
seller in Philadelphia 1831-36 and in the last 
named year founded the house of J. B. Lippin- 
cott: and Company. In 1850 he bought the 
business of Grigg and Elliott, and his firm then 
assumed the leading position*in the publishing 
business in Philadelphia. After) his death, in 
1886, the firm was converted into the J. B. 
Lippincott’ Company... Lippincott’s:: Magazine 
was established in 1868. Upon the death of 
J. B. Lippincott, his son CrarcE (1846-1911) 
became head of the firm, The latter was born 
in Philadelphia, educated at) the University of 
Pennsylvania and in Europe, and entered the 
publishing business in 1866. On his death in 
1911 he was succeeded by his brother, JosHua 
BERTRAM, b. Huntington Valley, Pa., 1857. 


LIPPINCOTT, William Henry, Amer- 
ican artist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 6 Dec. 1849. 
He began his art studies in the Pennsylvania 
Academy of Fine Arts, and ‘his first profes- 
sional appearance was as a book illustrator 
and later as a scene painter: In 1874 he became 
the pupil of Bonnat and for the eight years 
he remained at Paris exhibited annually in the 
Salon. The wide range of the work which 
he has done since he took up his residence in 
New York includes portrait, genre, landscape 
and scene painting, and he appears regularly 
as an exhibitor in the annual American art 
exhibitions. His most important pictures in- 
clude ‘The Duck’s Breakfast?; ‘Un Jour de 
Congé?; ‘Pink of Old Fashion; ‘Helena? ; 
“Infantry in Arms?; ‘Love’s Ambush’; and 
‘Pleasant Reflections? ; “The Crucial Moment? ; 
‘Dail UHH SS “Shore Duty); ‘Love Finds 
the Noe ‘Rock Bound Maine Coast, etc. 


LIPTON, Sir. Thomas Johnstone, Irish 
merchant. and yachtsman: b. Glasgow, Scotland, 
1850. He came, to America as a, steerage pas- 
senger in 1865, for two years worked inthe 
South Carolina rice fields, later, in various 
Northern towns, opened.a provision shop in 
Glasgow, attained great. business. success and 
finally organized. “Lipton, Limited,” the largest 
commercial establishment in the United. King- 
dom, where it controls 420 shops. ', This busi- 
ness is capitalized. at $200,000,000, with. tea, 
coffee and cocoa estates in India and Ceylon, 
fruit-orchards. in Kent and. elsewhere, and-a 
packing-house and refrigerator-car line, in. Chi- 
cago. Lipton has given largely for charitable 
purposes. He is. best known, however, for. his 
attempts as a representative of the Royal. UI- 
ster Yacht Club to’ win the America Cup-in 
the international yacht-races. of 1899, 1901, 1903 
and 1920. His British-built’: yachts were de- 
feated in three straight races. In the fourth his 
yacht won two out of five races. He .,was 
knighted in 1898 and made a baronet in 1902. 
During the European War he used his steam 
yacht to carry relief to the stricken inhabitants 
of Serbia. 


LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. 
LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES. 


See 


lighting purposes. 
_gas which. was known to exist in the sun. but 


471 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED 
GASES. Introductory Statement.— Matter, 
that,is.all physical substance, commonly, jis 
understood to exist in three forms, solid, liquid 
and gaseous. Under ordinary conditions this is 
a true concept but it is not generally appreciated 


_that in reality: matter may be changed from one 


form to another, that a solid under one, con- 
dition of temperature and pressure. becomes a 
liquid at another, and a gas at a third: _Con- 
versely a gas by similar changes in temperature 
and pressure may be converted into. a liquid 
or.a solid. .The earth typifies all matter, its 
crust being, composed of solids, its, oceans, 
lakes, rivers and, in part its. molten interior 
liquids, and its atmosphere and the vapors pent 
up within its interior, gases. _The genius. of 
mankind. in the Past has been, directed to 
utilizing for man’s, comfort and convenience 
mainly solids and. liquids: Only in compara- 
tively recent times, however, has attention, been 
seriously directed to the utilization of. gases 
and to applying commercially, the principle that 
solids. and liquids may be reduced,.to gaseous 
forms, and so reduced find many fields of .em- 
ployment in the. arts and sciences.,, It was.as 
late as 1827 that the. first commercial employ- 
ment of gas was made in this country. in which 
year illuminating gas was introduced in New 
York City... The next commercial: use ~was..in 
1870 when carbonic acid gas was developed: i in- 
dustrially... It is employed largely in carbonated 
beverages, fire extinguishers. insecticides .and 
many other products. 

In 1863 nitrous oxide was applied in dental 
operations for the. purpose of permitting work 


without pain. 


In 1875 oxygen was developed for. medical 
purposes in diseases of the lungs. About; the 
same time oxygen was employed in connection 
with calcium light for spotlights and .scenic 
effects. 

In 1895 acetylene was introduced commer- 
cially to illuminate country homes and in: bicycle 
headlights.. About..the same time, anhydrous 
ammonia began. to be, used. for. refrigerating 
purposes. 

In 1907, the manuracture of: oxygen on a 
commercial, scale for industrial purposes was 
commenced in this country. by the liquid air 
process; and.in connection with the industrial 
application. of this gas, acetylene ‘was used in 
welding and cutting steel with the exynacetylene 
blowpipe or torch. 

Since 1907 many new gases, the existence of 
which in quantities. in the’ earth or in sub- 
stances. known on the earth was. unsuspected, 
have been discovered and put to. commercial 
use. For 'example, it was supposed until recent 
years, that the air which, we breath was com- 
posed of four parts of nitrogen and one part 
of oxygen. .It is now known that in addition 
to. these. two’ gases which make. up the major 


portion of our atmosphere, there are eight other 
gases contained in minute quantities.in it, among 


them, argon,,neon and. krypton. Of. these 
gases, argon and neon have been, found to have 
a commercial value, the former in the manu- 
facture of incandescent lamps and the latter ‘for 
In. like ‘manner, helium, .a 


which was supposed to be a rare element on 
the earth, is now known to exist in. many sub- 
stances and since the declaration by the United 


472 


. States of a state of war with Germany, methods 
have been found for extracting this gas in 
large quantities from various substances at com- 
paratively small cost. This gas is now being 
employed ‘extensively for military ballooning, 
because it is not inflammable. 

Within the last decade the discovery of new 
gases and the development of new uses for the 
known gases has brought into being a new 
industry which in the same period has grown 
with rapid strides until it has become an in- 
dustry vital to the commercial life of the coun- 
try and one which played an important part in 
the World War. As an example of this un- 
precedented development, a single branch of 
that industry, namely, the oxygen business, may 
be taken. In 1907 there existed in this country 
a single plant which had been built in that year 
and which produced annually 24,000,000 cubic 
feet of oxygen. At the date of this article, 
some 12 years later, the yearly production of 
oxygen is estimated at over a billion cubic feet 
and the oxygen plants scattered throughout the 
entire expanse of the United States number 
over 200. The commercial utilization of the 
other liquefied or compressed gases has’ par- 
alleled that of oxygen and to-day the United 
States is dotted with plants manufacturing com- 
mercial gases representing an investment of 
well over $100,000,000 and an annual production 
of billions of cubic feet of gas. Despite all 
this the present stage of development represents 
the merest scratch of the surface of an immense 
field yet untouched which lies beneath for 
exploitation. 

As the industry has grown and the use of 
various gases has developed, the transportation 
of these gases has become an important factor. 
When gases first were employed commercially 
they were transported in large metal containers 
under relatively small pressure. As the demand 
for gas increased, however, it was found that 
the old type of container did not permit of 
transportation tn sufficient quantities because of 
the limitations placed upon the size of con- 
tainers by the necessity of convenient handling. 
To overcome these difficulties the containers 
were made stronger and smaller and the quan- 
tity of gas in an individual container, or cylinder 
as it is termed in trade circles, was increased 
by subjecting the gas to a great increase of 
pressure. In this connection one must under- 
stand that as the pressure on the gas increases 
its volume decreases in certain proportions 
which vary with different gases. By increasing 
the pressure on the gas to.a certain point and 
at the same time reducing the temperature the 
gas may be changed to liquid form and many 
gases are shipped in the form of liquids but 
on being released from the presure in the con- 
tainer they again assume the gaseous form 
desirable for utilization. It is because of this 
fact that these gases are termed commercially 
liquefied or compressed gases as distinguished 
from other gases like illuminating gas which 
are employed generally at approximately at- 
mospheric pressure. 

With the change in the character of con- 
tainers there grew up the hazard from breakage 
‘ofa container and the sudden expansion of the 
compressed gas by its release from pressure. 
In consequence the Federal and State authori- 
ties found it necessary for the safety of the 
public to devise rules and regulations governing 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


the character of containers which would be 
permitted for certain gases and rules for their 

handling while in transit. This necessity has 
resulted in legislation governing the transporta- 
tion, storage and employment of gases under 
pressure. The chief agency having charge of 
these matters and the one which has shaped in 
large measure the legislation in this field is the 
Bureau of Explosives. 

With the development of the industry there 
came also the need for co-ordination between 
manufacturers of compressed and liquefied 
gases and of equipment used in connection there- 
with. In consequence there have been organized 
several trade organizations having for their 
object the promotion of uniform and proper 
legislation governing compressed and liquefied 
gases, as well-as the commercial application 
of the gases generally. In most: works of 
reference the treatises on gases have «been 
separate, arranged alphabetically in  differ- 
ent parts of the work. However, it has been 
deemed advisable in this article to deal under 
one title with all gases which in a compressed 
or liquefied state have a commercial use ‘be- 
cause this industry represents to-day a: separate 
and distinct field, and because there is much 
about the employment, transportation and use of 
every compressed gas which is common to all. 
The foregoing short history of the commercial 
use of gases is followed immediately by separate 
treatises, alphabetically arranged, which deal at 
length with all the more important liquefied or 
compressed gases. 


ACETYLENE.* Chemical Properties. 
C:H.— carbon 92.25 per cent, hydrogen 7.75 by 
weight. At atmospheric pressure and 60° F., 
the volume of one pound of acetylene is 14. 53 
cubic feet. Acetylene requires 11.92 volumes 
of air or 2.5 volumes of oxygen for its com- 
plete combustion. Acetylene is a_ colorless, 
tasteless gas; when chemically pure it has a 
sweet ethereal odor; when in commercial form 
traces of impurities impart to it a pungent odor 
suggesting garlic. Acetylene is an unsaturated 
hydro-carbon. It exists in a state of unstable 
chemical equilibrium and owing to this fact it 
combines very energetically, having low igni- 
tion temperatures, namely, 804° F. in air and 
782° F. in oxygen, compared: with about 1200° 
for other gases under similar conditions. 

When mixed with the proper proportions 
of air and ignited, acetylene will give rise to 
a so-called. gas explosion, as will any other 
combustible gas or combustible solid if in a 
state of sufficiently minute subdivision. The 
explosive range for acetylene under ordinary 
conditions is from 3 per cent of acetylene and 
97 per cent of air to 24 per cent of acetylene 
and 76 per cent of air, the point of maximum 
explosibility being 12 per cent of acetylene and 
88 per cent of air. Unlike other gases, how- 
ever, acetylene possesses high endothermic 
energy, greater than that of any other ordinary 
substance. By this it is meant that the ele- 
ments forming actylene may be considered as 
being 1 in a state of chemical stress and capable 
of giving rise to a very considerable amount 
of heat by the mere act of their separation. In 
other words, an endothermic substance will give 


* All temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit; all pressures 
in pounds avoirdupois. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


more heat when burned as a compound than 
can be obtained from burning its separate ele- 
ments in the uncombined state. The carbon 
and hydrogen forming one cubic foot of acety- 
lene would produce 1,248 heat units if they 
were burned separately. One cubic foot of 
acetylene, however, formed from the same car- 
bon and hydrogen. will produce 227 heat units 
more than this amount, making a total of 1,475 
per cubic foot. The 227 heat. units represent 
endothermic energy. Owing to this endother- 
mic energy, acetylene acquires true explosible 
properties and will dissociate with explosive 
violence without admixture of air or oxygen if 
it is compressed slightly in excess of 20 pounds 
per square inch and ignited. Owing to this 
property, insurance, police, transportation and 
fire authorities prohibit the manufacture, stor- 
age and transportation of acetylene at a pres- 
sure exceeding 15 pounds per square inch, ex- 
cept when the acetylene is compressed into 
cylinders containing a porous substance having 
a degree of porosity which will prevent the 
propagation of an explosion, 

Acetylene, at atmospheric pressure, is solu- 
ble to the extent of about volume for vol- 


ume in water. It is also soluble in vary- 
ing proportions in alcohol, chloroform, 
benzene, paraffin, olive oil, ether, carbon- 


bisulphide, etc. It is soluble to a remarkable 
extent in acetone, which liquid will dissolve 25 
times its own volume of acetylene at atmos- 
pheric pressure and an additional 25 volumes 
for each atmosphere of pressure to which the 
acetylene may be subjected. Commercial ad- 
vantage is taken of this property and acetylene 
under pressure is now stored and transported 
in cylinders which are packed with a porous 
substance. soaked with acetone. The porous 
mass employed in such cylinders generally con- 
sists of asbestos in the form of blocks built up 
and reinforced with silicate of soda, or of a 
mixture of, charcoal, kieselguhr and cement, 
molded into the cylinders. Cylinders contain- 
ing acetylene compressed into a porous sub- 
stance: of a proper degree of porosity, or com- 
pressed into a porous substance soaked with 
acetone, or other suitable solvent, are safe and 
their use is permitted. Acetylene stored in this 
way is commonly known as. dissolved acety- 
lene. The use of acetylene dissolved in ace- 
tone. gives to this gas a portability and a uni- 
versality not: possessed by any other lighting 
or heating. agent. Cylinders of acetylene are 
now carried on motor cycles, trucks and small 
boats, and they are obtainable at country stores 
as well as in the cities. This has resulted in 
the education of thousands of people in the 
use of gas who used to depend upon the liquid 
fuels for their light and heat. 

Acetylene has no toxic properties and may 
be taken into either the lungs or stomach with 
impunity, even when mixed in air in consider- 
able proportions. Acetylene is a true gas, that 
iS, it consists of only one chemical compound 
and is not a mixture of a-number of gases each 
with. its own peculiar characteristics, as is the 
case with most other illuminating and _ fuel 
gases. Under pressure, acetylene obeys Boyle’s 
Law for the compression of gases and its Pres- 
sure-Volume Curve. is practically straight up 
to the liquefaction point, which at ordinary 
temperatures is 700 pounds per square inch. 
Owing, however, to the dangers in unabsorbed 


473 


compressed acetylene this gas is never sub- 
jected to pressures anywhere approaching. its 
liquefaction point. Acetylene may be mixed 
with most ordinary gases with impunity, but if 
mixed with chlorine and subjected to sunlight, 
it will combine with considerable violence. 
Acetylene may be used as an enricher of other 
gases to increase their candle powers and calo- 
rific values. It is employed for this purpose in 
European countries in the Pintsch gas used for 
train lighting. When added to an illuminat- 
ing gas, acetylene will tmcrease the heating 
value in direct proportion to its presence in the 
mixture and the illuminating value by about 
two candle power for each per cent of acetylene 
added. It cannot compete however in point of 
price with oil and other enrichers and for this 
reason is not ordinarily used for this purpose. 

As stated above, acetylene obeys Boyle’s 
Law for the behavior of true gases under vari- 
ations of volume and pressure. It also obeys 
Charles’ Law, governing the relation of tem- 
perature to velume. However, if acetylene is 
subjected to a temperature in excess of 538° 
F., changes of great chemical complexity take 
place in its structure. For this reason, care 
must be taken not to overheat this gas in its 
generation or in the appliances in which it is 
used. Under the influence of heat acetylene 
will break up or rather double up — polymerize 
— into a vast number of hydro-carbons, rang- 
ing from benzene (CcHe) to heavy black tars 
according to the degree of temperature. If 
once heated to the point where polymerization 
occurs, no amount of subsequent cooling or 
purification will restore the acetylene. 

Acetylene has a density of 0.92, air being 
1. Its atomic weight is 26. Its critical tem- 
perature is 99° F., which means that the curve 
of power for compression reaches a straight 
line at this temperature and hence no amount 
of pressure will serve to liquefy, if in excess of 
this temperature. The critical pressure of acet- 
ylene is 995 pounds per square inch. 

Domestic and Commercial Uses.— Acety- 
lene is used for isolated lighting plants 
throughout the country; homesteads, farms, 
churches, lodges and similar. institutions are 
illuminated with acetylene from generators de- 
vised for the purpose. Owing to its relatively 
higher cost, acetylene does not compete in its 
present stage of development with electric or 
illuminating gas for city lighting. It 1s used 
quite extensively for cooking: purposes in con- 
nection with isolated lighting plants. Dissolved 
acetylene is used for buoy lighting and for 
other aids to navigation. Buoys carrying suf- 
ficient. gas to supply their lights continuously 
for 15 months are in use practically all over 
the world. These are veritable self-attending 
light ships. .A large number of them are pro- 
vided with “sun valves” which are actuated by 
the direct heat of sunlight, turning off the 
acetylene when the sun shines and turning it on 
again when darkness, fog or clouds intervene. 
There are some 360 acetylene buoys marking 
the channel of the Panama Canal. Owing to 
its low ignition temperature, acetylene cannot 
be compressed in an engine cylinder to a suffi- 
ciently high point to render the engine. effi- 
cient; hence acetylene has never developed. into 
a power proposition. 

Acetylene is used in small portable lamps 
for mining purposes, the present acetylene min- 


474 


er’s lamp being practically the first improve- 
ment in mine illumination for 200 years. Prac- 
tically all the metal mines in the United States 
and its dependencies, as well as the coal mines 
which are not gaseous, are now lighted with 
acetylene. The acetylene cap lamp has about 
18 candle power, head on, as compared with 
three-fourths candle power given by the old 
form of oil lamp, and its light can be’ directed 
to any spot desired by means of the ‘reflector 
which is an integral part of the lamp. Acety- 
lene is used to a very large and increasing ex+ 
tent for welding and cutting purposes, because 
of certain physical peculiarities now to be dis- 
cussed. The ‘theoretical temperature of» any 
flame may be ‘calculated from the amount of 
heat generated by the combustion of the fuel 
and the’ amount of heat’ absorbed by the prod- 
ucts of the combination. Water vapor ‘will 
absorb four times more heat for a given in- 
crease in temperature than carbon dioxide and 
those fuels which burn to carbon. dioxide have 
a higher flame temperature than those which 
burn to water vapor. The flame temperature 
of any hydro-carbon varies in proportion to the 
relative amounts of carbon and hydrogen. of 
which it is composed. Acetylene has:more car- 
tbon‘and less hydrogen than any other known 
substance, with the exception of the solid naph- 
thalene’ which is devoid of the endothermic 
energy. mentioned. This being the case, its 
products of combustion have a maximum of 
carbon dioxide and a minimum of water vapor. 
Added to this is the fact that acetylene pos- 
sesses a very high endothermic heat content 
which gives off heat without producing any 
additional products of combustion. \ When the 
volume of the combustion products is: reduced 
by the removal of the nitrogen from the air and 


when pure oxygen is used, the combustion of: 


acetylene results in a higher flame temperature 
than that of any other substance known or rec- 
ognized as possible in chemistry. ‘The combus- 
tion of acetylene with oxygen produces the 
acme of. flame ‘temperature —7878°  F. being 
the theoretical maximum. Owing to radiation 
and convection losses, the actual available Ao 
temperature is in the neighborhood of 6300° F 

This gives to a blow pipe consuming acetylene 
and ‘oxygen the power to produce, in portable 
form and small compass, a temperature ap- 
proaching nearly that of the electric arc. This 
has resulted in the wide employment of acety- 
lene’ in conjunction with oxygen for the weld- 
ing and cutting of metals. The oxygen cutting 
blow ‘pipe, in which acetylene is commonly em- 
ployed as the fuel gas, is used extensively for 
cutting steel bars, plates and ingots to shapes 
and lengths, and in wrecking work. The oxy- 
acetylene cutting torch was employed in cutting 
up the Maine in Havana’ Harbor, and for cut- 
ting out the Quebec Bridge. The cutting 
process has proven invaluable in fire fighting 
and in marine, mine and railroad rescue work, 
notable examples being the Equitable Building 
fire’ in’ New York and the Eastland disaster 
in Chicago. The process is’ used extensively 
in scrap yards and for all classes of demolition 
work. «= It! is successfully employed for cutting 
steamships into sections wheré nécessarfy, ‘as’ in 
the case where a ship has to be transported 
through a lock which is too small to handle it. 
The oxygen-acetylene cutter has revolutionized 
wrecking and’ scrap yard practicé’ in’ the past 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


few years and the acetylene welding torch has 
produced great changes in the methods of metal 
construction during the same time. If a cut- 
ting blow pipe is provided with a sheath of 
compressed air to force water away from its 
nozzle, cutting can'be performed under water. 
It is said that the Germans used the process of 
cutting under water for freeing their subma- 
rines from submarine nets. The under-water 
cutting blow pipe’ is commonly employed for 
cutting metal sheet piling under water. Acet- 
ylene is used to a limited extent as a basis in 
the formation of chemical substances. This 
use, although it possesses considerable promise, 
is in the laboratory rather than in the commer- 
cial stage at this writing. 

History.—As a theoretical possibility and 
laboratory curiosity acetylene has been known 
for many years. It exists’in illuminating gas 
in fractional percentage and was produced as 
eatly as 1876 by scrubbing coal gas with a 
copper solution. It was prepared on a labora- 
tory scale by Berthelot and Wohler many years 
ago. Its birth, however, as a commercial pos- 
sibilty occurred 4 May 1802, when calcium car- 
bide was produced in an electric furnace located 
at Spray, N.C, by the Willson Alum- 
inum Company. This company’ was experi- 
menting with a view to improving its process 
for the production of aluminum and was en- 
deavoring to produce metallic calcium to be 
used as a reducing agent for aluminum oxide. 
To this end a mixture of calcium oxide (quick 
lime) and coal tar ‘was fused in an electric 
furnace in ‘the hope that the carbon: would act 
as a reducting agent, removing the oxygen from 
the lime, and leaving the calcium free, the 
metallic calcium to be used in a subsequent step 
in the process of producing metallic aluminum. 
The reaction removed the oxygen, from the 
lime, as was expected, but left the calcium in 
combination with a portion of the carbon in- 
stead of in a free state, and this combination 
was found to be calcium carbide. The devel- 
opment of the production of calcium carbide 
has progressed steadily from that date until the 
present time, most of the development being 
under the supervision of two of the men who 
were operating the original furnace and who 
are still prominently identified with the indus- 
try. There have been revolutionary changes 
in the process of manufacturing carbide, espe- 
cially in the size and extent of the operation. 
The main underlying process, however, of sub- 
jecting lime and carbon to the intense heat, ob- 
tainable only in the crater ofan electric arc, 
has not changed from 1892 to date. Carbide 
was introduced into Europe shortly after its 
discovery. European production has developed 
to a very large extent. The present advance- 
ment in the process is, however, practically all 
due to American efforts; the foreign manufac- 
turers have followed American practice with- 
out substantial contribution to its progress. 
The. temperature necessary to form calcium 
carbide is so intense that the process does not 
lend itself to laboratory methods’ and as far as 
is known it has never been produced ' on a 
small scale. 

Bibliography.— Bowles, Fie, 
for Lighting Country Homes,’ 
University of Missouri, 1910); Claude, G., 
‘Liquid Air, Oxygen; Nitrogen? (trans. by 
Cottrell, H. 'E, P., Philadelphia 1913); Leeds, 


‘Acetylene 
(Bul. of the 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


F.'H. and Butterfield, W. A., “Acetylene, Its 
Generation and Use (Philadelphia 1915) ; 
Lewes, V. B., ‘Acetylene, a Handbook for the 
Student and Manufacturer? (London 1900) ; 
Pond, G. G., ‘Calcium Carbide and Acetylene 
(Bul. of the Pennsylvania State College, 1917). 


AMMONIA, Anhydrous (NH:).— Priest- 
ley, in 1774, was. the first to isolate ammonia, 
having collected it over mercury. Scheele, in 
the same year, discovered that it contained ni- 
trogen. Its,true composition was determined by 
Berthollet in 1785. Liquid ammonia, however, 
was first. obtained by Faraday, in 1823, by 
wane the compound 2AgC13N Ha in a sealed 
tube 

Physical Properties.— 

Colorless, . with . pungent. .odor, 
alkaline taste, and has. alkali reactions. 

Molecular weight, 17.03. 

Specific, gravity, calculated, 0.5883; spe- 
cific gravity, observed, 0.5962; ‘specific gravity 
of liquid, 0.6234. 

elting point, —77.34° C. 

Boiling point, —38,5°. C. 

_» Critical..temperature, —130° C.. (Dewar) ; 
critical pressure, 115 atmospheres (Dewar). 

. Coefficient of expansion at constant pres- 
sure, 0—100° C.; 760 mm., .003800; at 0° C.,,760 
mm., .003860; coefficient of pressure at constant 
volume, 0° G, 760 mm., .003800; at 0—100° C., 
760 mm., 003770. 

Specific heat, 0.5009 at O° C.; 0.5317 at 
100° C.; 0.5629 at 200° C.; 0.5202 between 23- 
] °o 

Hest of formation of gas, 11,887 calories; 
in solution, 20,322 calories. 

Heat of formation of gas, at 15° C., 12,200, 
and of liquid 16,600 (Chem. Kalendar). 

Heat of absorption in water, 8,435 calories. 

Weight of ‘one liter, balenlated, 0.7606 
grams; observed, 0.7708 grams; weight of one 
cubic foot at 32°"F., 29. 92” pressure, .04812 Ibs. 

Solubility in water (Roscoe and Ditt- 
mar). Grams of ammonia in one gram of 
Waera ALD 45, 08/5 106 .G,. 0.0/9; 20", C., 
0.526; 30° C., 0.403 ; 40° Cy 0,307 ; 50° Cy 0.229. 

Latent. heat of evaporation, being ‘higher 
than. that of any other known liquid except 
water, is 5,000 cal. at 15° C. and 5,600 cal. at 
boiling point. Hence the use of ammonia for 
refrigeration. 

Chemical Properties.— Ammonia is poison- 
ous and attacks the mucous membrane. Seri- 
ous effects on human beings are experienced 
when the atmosphere in which they are has a 
greater ay of ammonia than five one- 
hundredths of 1 per cent. Ammonia will not 
burn in air. at. ordinary temperature, but will 
do so when heated, and burns still more readily 
when ‘mixed with oxygen. With the aid of 
catalysts. (copper, iron, nickel,’ and especially 
platinum), ammonia is oxidized by oxygen or 
air at low temperatures. At atmospheric pres- 
sure ammonia begins to decompose below 500° 
C., the rapidity of decomposition varying with 
the nature of the surfaces with which it is in 
contact, glass being inactive but porcelain and 
many metals and oxides accelerating, decompo- 
sition being nearly complete when the latter are 
present. Ammonia is very soluble in water, 


strongly 


475 


alcohol, ether and many saline solutions. The 
aqueous solution of ammonia is strongly alka- 
line and unites with acids to form salts. 

How Obtained. Ammonia occurs mostly 
in combination with acids, but is found in a 
free state in fumaroles of Monti Carboli in 
Tuscany, which also contain ammonium. sul- 
phate and borate. It is present in the air to 
the extent of one hundred parts of ammonia to 
one million parts of air. For laboratory pur- 
poses it can be obtained by the action of cal- 
cium oxide on ammonium chloride. A mixture 
of hydrogen and any oxide of nitrogen, passed 
over a heated porous body, such as spongy 
platinum, pumice, or ferric, oxide, produces 
ammonia. It may also be produced by passing 
moist nitric oxide over hot iron. filings; and 
also by heating. solutions of. nitrates or, ni- 
trites with caustic alkali and zinc. 

Laboratory Methods of Preparation.—(1) 
By gently warming the aqueous. solution of 
ammonia and passing the gas over quicklime. 
(2) From lime and an ammonia, salt (eg., 
chloride or sulphate) by heating together in a 
retort. 

Ammonia is a decomposition product of the 
decay or destructive distillation of nitrogenous 
organic matter. 

Commercial Methods of Preparation.— 
I. Destructive, DISTILLATION, Processes... 1. 
By-product. in Manufacture. of Illuminating 
Gas.— When coal is destructively distilled as in 
the production of coal gas for illuminating pur- 
poses, a number of extremely valuable by-prod- 
ucts are obtained such as benzol, toluol, am- 
monia, phenol, tar, coke, etc. Until some years 
ago the greatest part of the ammonia produ tion 
ot the world was obtained from the ammo- 
niacal liquors of. gas works. These liquors are 
distilled with excess of slaked lime with the 
aid of steam (in. coils) in stills provided with 
rectifying columns for concentrating the am- 
monia gas. The latter is scrubbed by passing 
successively through towers containing caustic 
scda solution and paraffin oil, and is thus freed 
from impurities, such as HS, CO:z and pyri- 
dine basis. The purified ammonia gas is then 
converted to ammonium sulphate, or to aqua 
ammonia by absorption in distilled water. A 
small amount of ammonia is made from the 
materials used in purifying illuminating gas 
(freeing the latter from H:2S and cyanogen 
compounds). The purifying material, “spent 
oxide” or “sludge” (Bueb or Feldmann process) 
contains rh large percentage of combined am- 
monia which is recovered by gas works or 
manufacturers who purchase this material from 
gas plants. 

2. By-product in Manufacture of Coke for 
Metallurgical Use.— Until recently, most of the 
coke required for metallurgical purposes (espe- 
cially in the manufacture of iron and steel) 
was made by the distillation of coal in bee-hive 
ovens in which all’ the valuable volatile in- 
gredients of the coal were lost. Now, how- 
ever, particularly since the great demand for 
coal tar products of all kinds‘ ‘caused by the 
World War, an increasingly large percentage 
of coke is being made in by-product coke ovens 
in which the gaseous and liquid distillates from 
the coal are recovered and used or sold. 

Similarly in some countries (e.g., Scotland) 
in which blast furnaces have been operated 


478 


with coal instead of coke the recovery of the 
volatile ingredients of the coal has met with 
commercial success. 

3. By-product in. the Distillation: of the’ Bi- 
tuminous Shale-—In Scotland where this. in- 
dustry has had a large development, and to 
some extent in this country, the recovery of 
ammonia has been successfully carried out. 
About 42 pounds of ammonium sulphate. are 
recovered from one ton of Scotch shale. 

4. By-product in the Manufacture of Glue. 
— After glue has been’ extracted from animal 
substances, like bones, cartilages, hoofs and 
horns the residue is destructivcly distilled, 
yielding among other products ammonia as a 
valuable by-product. 

IJ. SyNTHETIC PRocEsses.— The world’s re- 
quirements for nitrogen compounds in the last 
few years, 1914 to 1918, were so great that the 
destructive distillation processes were insuff- 
cient to meet the demand. As a result, several 
processes for the fixation of atmospheric nitro- 
gen developed in the last two decades have been 
successfully applied’ on a commercial scale. 
This has been particularly the case in Germany 
which could not have lasted for more than a 
year at war without the cyanamid and Haber 
processes. 

1. The Haber Process—tIn this process, 
nitrogen and hydrogen are directly combined to 
form ammonia. The mixed gases are passed at 
high pressures, 200 atmospheres or more, and 
at temperatures of 500 to 700 degrees C over a 
‘catalyst, such as osmium, uranium or palladium, 
when combination occurs resulting in the forma- 
tion of ammonia to the extent of 3 to 12 per 
cent of the mixed gases. The ammonia formed 
is then separated by cooling and the remaining 
gases, together with fresh nitrogen and hydro- 
gen, pumped over the catalizer again. Heating 
of the gases is effected electrically, the power 
consumption for the whole process being one- 
fourth to one-sixth of that required by the 
cyanamid process. Since the power consump- 
tion is so low the production of synthetic am- 
monia by the Haber process need not be con- 
fined to districts having large amounts of cheap 
power. It is particularly important in a process 
depending upon the action of catalysts (which 
are very sensitive to impurities), that gases of 
the highest degree of purity be used. Nitrogen 
of satisfactory quality is obtained by the frac- 
tional distillation of liquid air. For the manufac- 
ture of hydrogen the electrolytic process pro- 
duces a gas of higher purity than that obtained 
by any other commercial process, and is there- 
fore, of great value in this connection (see sec- 
tion on hydrogen. and oxygen). In the United 
States the Haber process has not been a com- 
mercial success owing to failure to overcome the 
engineering difficulties of working with gases 
of high pressures. In Germany the Haber 
process, as already mentioned, has been de- 
veloped much further than in the United States. 
Consult Haber and Le Rossignol, ‘Zeitschrift 
fiir Elektrochemie? (1913, 19, 53, 72, abstracted 
in Journal, Society of Chemical Industry, 1913); 
“Bericht? (1907, 40; 2144) ; ‘Zeitschrift fiir Elek- 
trochemie? (1908, 14, 181, 513); Bernthsen, 
Fighth International Congress Applied Chemis- 
try 1912 (abstract Journal of the Society of 
Chemical Industry 1912, 31, 982). 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


2. Cyanamid Process —Ammonia -pro- 
duced indirectly in this process by the following 
reactions : 


(a) CaO + 3C=CaC. + CO. 
(b) CaCa-+ N2='CaCN.+ C. 
(c) CaCN: + 3H20 = CaCO; + 2NHs. 


(a) Quicklime is mixed with coke and 
allowed to react at the highest temperature of 
the electric furnace. The molten calcium car- 
bide thus formed is run off, cooled and ground 
in ball mills filled with nitrogen gas. 

‘(b) The powdered calcium carbide is next 
charged into small electric resistance furnaces 
and a current of pure nitrogen’ gas passed 
through. The start of the reaction requires 
some electrical energy, after which the tempera- 
ture is maintained by the heat of reaction. Cal- 
cium cyanamid is formed. 

(c) The calcium cyanamid or “ime nitro- 
gen” is finely powdered and treated in stirred 
autoclaves with high pressure steam and a 
dilute solution of caustic soda. The ammonia 
begins to evolve in large quantities at four to 
five atmospheres. This process requires a large 
amount of cheap electrical energy and high 
initial outlay of capital for equipment. 

3. Serpek Process— When bauxite (the 
mineral hydrated alumina) is heated with coal 
in an atmosphere of nitrogen at 1,700° to 1,800° 
C. in an electric furnace, the following reaction 
takes place: 


A.20, + 3C + Na=2A.N +3CO.. 


Absorption of nitrogen begins at 1,100° C,, is 
rapid at 1,500° C. and extremely rapid at 
1,800° C. The reaction is endothermic (213,220 
calories being absorbed, according to Richards). 
The aluminum nitride. formed is treated with 
caustic soda, forming ammonia and_ sodium 
aluminate: 


AN + 3NaOH = NH: + NasA:Os: 


According to German Patent 243,839 (Badische 
Company), the formation of nitride from 
alumina and coal is facilitated by the addition 
of certain, catalysts, 5 to 10 per cent of the 
oxides of Si, Ti, Zr, V, Be, Mo, Ur, Ce, Cr, 
which are capable of forming stable nitrides. 
Consult Serpek, British Patent 13,086 (1910) ; 
Richards, J. W., Transactions American Elec- 
tro Chemical Society (1913, 23, 35); Tucker, 
S. A., Journal Society Chemical Industry (1913, 
Sie 1143): Fraenkel, ‘Zeitschrift, fir Elektro- 
chemie? (1913, 19, 362). 

Preparation of Anhydrous Ammonia.— 
Aqua ammonia obained by either a destructive 
distillation or synthetic process is distilled and 
the ammonia vapors dried by passing over 
quicklime. The dry gas is then generally com- 
pressed and liquefied in steel cylinders, a pres- 
sure of 6.5 atmospheres being required at plus 
10° C.. The purified ammonia formed in the 
process may also be dried and liquefied directly. 

Uses.— The. principal. use of anhydrous 
ammonia is for, refrigeration, as in the manu- 
facture of artificial ice... When liquefied: am- 
monia is allowed to expand in a_ suitable 
machine the fall in temperature is sufficient to 
freeze water. Consult Lunge, ‘Coal Tar and 
Ammonia’; Vincent, C.,..‘Ammonia,.:and Its 
Compounds; Marten, G. and Barbour, William, 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


“Industrial Nitrogen Compounds’; ‘Synthesis 
of Ammonia and Oxidation to Nitric Acid? (in 
Metallurgy and Chemistry, 17, 345); Boyce, J. 
C., ‘Bibliography of Production of Synthetic 
Nitric Acid and Synthetic Ammonia? (in Metal- 
lurgy and Chemistry, 17, 328); “Nitrogen Fixa- 
tion Patents? (in Metallurgy and Chemistry, 17 
606) ; Hosmer, ‘Literature of the Nitrogén In- 
dustry, 1912-1916? (in Journal Industrial Engi- 
neering and Chemistry, 9, 424). 


ARGON, symbol A (or Ar), a gaseous 
element, was first actually obtained in 1785 by 
Cavendish who observed that “not more than 
1/120th part” of the atmosphere remains after 
treating the air for removal of oxygen and 
nitrogen. Attention was not called’ to this 
statement by Cavendish until 1894 when Lord 
Rayleigh found “atmospheric nitrogen” to be 
1% per cent heavier than “chemical nitrogen.” 

For some years previous to this discovery 
Lord Rayleigh had been engaged in a careful 
determination of the densities of certain gases 
and consistent results had been obtained for 
all of them save nitrogen, which, when prepared 
from air by the abstraction of all other known 
components, was found to be heavier by about 
one part in 200 than the nitrogen prepared from 
nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, ammo- 
nium nitrite, urea, nitric or nitrous oxides. 
There could. be no doubt about the reality of 
the difference, because the same experimental 
methods, when applied to other gases, gave re- 
sults that were consistent with one another to 
about one part in 10,000... Lord Rayleigh pub- 
lished a letter in Nature narrating these facts 
and calling for suggestions’ from chemists as 
to the cause of the consistent difference in den- 
sity. No ideas of value were elicited. The 
possibility that the “chemical nitrogen» was 
contaminated with hydrogen or that the “at- 
mospheric nitrogen” had polymerized into a 
state analogous to “ozone” was then disproved 
- by the most careful experiments. At this stage 
in the investigation Professor Ramsay asked 
permission to co-operate in the work and his 
services were gladly accepted. 

The hypothesis was. made that “chemical 
nitrogen” contains an unknown gas, lighter 
than true nitrogen; or, that “atmospheric. ni- 
trogen” contains some similar gas that is heavier 
than true nitrogen. In spite of the many anal- 
yses that had been made of the air, it. was 
thought more probable that the unknown gas 
would be found in “atmospheric” rather than 
in “chemical”. nitrogen. 

It was. known that at.a red. heat. nitrogen 
will combine with metallic magnesium, with the 
formation of magnesium nitride. “Atmos- 
pheric” nitrogen, carefully. freed from all 
known impurities, was therefore passed through 
a long tube of hard glass filled with magnesium 
shavings and heated in a furnace. The first 
experiment of this sort was made in May 1894, 
and gave encouraging results, the “atmos- 
-pheric” nitrogen showing a slight but unmis- 
takable increase in density. A more elaborate 
experiment of the same sort followed in which 
“atmospheric” nitrogen was caused to pass 
over hot magnesium for more than two weeks. 
By this means, its density, originally about 14 
(that of hydrogen being 1), was increased to 
19.09, and the bulk of the gas under examina- 


477 


tion was diminished until not much more than 1 
per cent of it remained. Plainly a great concen- 
tration of the unknown gas had been effected. 
To remove the last traces ‘of true nitrogen) 
pure oxygen was next added, and the’ mixture 
exposed to a rain of electric sparks in the pres- 
ence of caustic soda. When so treated, the ex- 
perimental gas contracted, indicating that the 
nitrogen was being withdrawn in the form of 
nitrate of sodium. When contraction was no 
longer noted, the nitrate of sodium and the 
excess of oxygen were removed and it was 
found that the remaining gas was about 20 
times as heavy as hydrogen. 

When subjected to the electric spark and 
examined ‘by the spectroscope, this residual gas 
was found to. exhibit certain characteristic 
groups of red and green lines that did not cor- 
respond to any element previously known: The 
experimenters therefore felt reasonably sure 
that a new element had been discovered’ and 
this conclusion has. been borne out by all sub- 
sequent investigations. 

The discovery of this element (to which the 
name “argon,” meaning “inactive,” was given) 
was formally announced to the public in August 
1895, and for it Lord Rayleigh and Professor 
Ramsay were awarded the Hodgkins prize and 
also the grand prize of the Smithsonian 
Institution. 

Occurrence.— Argon makes up 1.3 per cent 
by weight of the atmosphere or 0.933 per cent 
by volume. It has been found in mineral 
waters, in the volcanic gases of Mount Pelée 
and also in fire damp and in coal as well as in 
gases given out on heating numerous minerals. 

Preparation.— The various methods for the 
preparation of argon use air.as the raw ma- 
terial: 

(1) Sparking air with oxygen, the method 
originally used by Cavendish in 1785. Know- 
ing that air contained a considerable quantity 
of nitrogen, Cavendish raised the question 
whether all of the apparently nitrogenous part 
of the air “could be reduced to nitrous acid, or 
whether there was not a part of a different 
nature from the rest which would refuse to 
undergo that change» To decide this point 
he added an excess of oxygen to air and passed 
electric sparks through the mixture (precisely 
as Rayleigh and Ramsay did) until no further 
diminution of volume occurred. He then re- 
moved the excess of oxygen, together with the 
oxide of nitrogen that had been formed, and 
found that only a small bubble remained un- 
absorbed, which, he says, was not more than 
one-120th part of the bulk of the original nitro- 
gen. The bubble that he thus obtained and the 
nature of which he did not further question 
must have been nearly pure argon. 

(2) Separation from “atmospheric nitro- 
gen, the nitrogen being absorbed ‘by a metal. 
Red-hot magnesium shavings were used by 
Rayleigh and Ramsay, but this material is no 
longer used, as a mixture of five parts pure 
lime and three parts of magnesium dust has 
been found preferable... By passine “atmos- 
pheric” nitrogen over this red-hot mixture and 
the residual gas over metallic calcium at a dull 
red heat, Maquenne readily effected complete 
absorption of the nitrogen; metallic lithium has 
also been utilized for this secondary absorption. 

(3) The most convenient laboratory method 
for preparing argon is to absorb oxygen and 


478 


nitrogen from the air by passing it slowly 
over a mixture of nine parts.calcium carbide 
and one part calcium chloride, heated to 800° 
C.,. the .remaining gases being led over hot 
copper.oxide to remove the hydrogen, hydro- 
carbons and carbon monoxide. present and 
finally removing the water vapor and carbon 
dioxide. It is stated that by using seven kilo- 
grams of carbide, 11 litres of argon may be ob- 
tained from air in two days. 

(4) Argon is more soluble in water than 
nitrogen; this property is the basis of some re- 
cent patents for the separation o: argon and 
nitrogen, but there has been no production. by 
this method to date. 

As. obtained from the atmosphere argon 
always contains traces of neon, krypton, xenon 
and helium. The total quantity of these gases 
present amounts to only about 0.25 per cent of 
the argon, 85 per cent of this impurity being 
neon. 

Properties.— Argon is 1,379 times as heavy 
as air. The critical temperature of argon is 
—117.4° C. and the critical pressure 52.9 at- 
mospheres. At atmospheric pressure the boil- 
ing point of liquid argon. is —186.1° C., the 
freezing point —187.9° C. and the melting point 
of solid argon —188° C.. The density of liquid 
argon at —186.1° C. is 1.4046 

Since its discovery argon has been treated 
with the most violent reagents known,to chem- 
ists, but it refuses to react with any of them. 
Rayleigh and Ramsay stated that “argon does 
not combine with oxygen in the presence of 
alkali under the influence of the electric dis- 
charge, nor with hydrogen in the presence of 
acid. or alkali, nor. when» sparked,. nor..-with 
phosphorus at a bright red heat. nor with 
sulphur. Tellurium may tbe distilled in it and 
also sodium and potassium.  Red-hot sodium 
peroxide has no effect. Persulphides of sodium 
and. calcium have no effect at a red_ heat. 
Platinum sponge does not. absorb it. Aqua 
regia, bromine water, bromine and alkali and 
potassium permanganate are all without. in- 
fluence. Mixtures. of metallic sodium, and 
silica or of sodium and boric acid are likewise 
without influence and hence also nascent silicon 
and boron.» Moissan found that even fluorine 
does. not. act upon argon at. any ;temperature. 
Villard claims to have formed. a crystalline 
hydrate with water, but this result requires 
confirmation. 

The chemical inertness: of argon has made 
it. impossible to study its atomic, weight and 
molecular. weight by methods other than 
the determination of its density. which. is 
19.14 + (OF 16). On this basis the molecular 
weight. is. 39.88, .The atomic weight is. the 
same, as has been deduced from a comparison 
of. the specific heats»of the gas under constant 
pressure. and ‘at constant. volume. 

The spectrum of argon .is very characteris- 
tic. _The-most permanent, lines. are two in the 
red,.a yellow line, two green lines and a violet 
line. It varies slightly depending on the method 
of preparation, but.this is: doubtless due to the 
presence of traces of impurities introduced by. 
the reagents used in removing the large quan- 
tities of. nitrogen, etc., from the argon. 

Manufacture and. Uses.— Commercial pro- 
duction of argon in the United States began in 
the latter.part of the year 1914, when it was 
being manufactured for use as an inert gas in 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


incandescent electric light bulbs. The fact was 
soon developed that it possessed. distinct .advan- 
tages in connection with. incandescent electric 
lighting, and the demand for this purpose grew 
rapidly. At the present time commercial: pro- 
duction in the United States amounts to thou- 
sands of cubic feet of pure argon per month, 

The commercial product sold as argon. con- 
tains 25 to 30 per cent pure argon. This is 
purified by the consumers to.a product contain- 
ing approximately 80 per cent argon and 20 
per cent nitrogen, in which form it is intro- 
duced into lamps. 

All of the argon used en ocean at. the 
present time is made by air liquefaction proc- 
esses. Both of the commercial air liquefaction 
processes in -use to-day, the .Linde and the 
Claude, are readily adaptable, to the pradustian 
of argon on a commercial scale. ; 


CARBON DIOXIDE. The pe belief 
that poisoning from carbon dioxide occurs in 
unventilated and overcrowded rooms is a mis- 
taken one. Results observed on such occasions 
are due in large part to the reduction in the 
amount of oxygen present and not to the in- 
crease of carbon dioxide, which in. no sense -is 
a poison, but which is frequently confounded 
with carbon monoxide, one of the deadliest ‘of 
poisons. 

Commercial Methods of Manufacture— 
Carbon: dioxide’ is’ extracted from'® natural 
sources at many places in Europe and at Sara- 
toga Springs, N. Y.' Its origin is debatable’ but 
is generally considered to be volcanic and it 
is obtained by sinking wells from*:which® the 
gas issues as such, or combined with: saline 
water. A purity of less than 98 per cent is not 
commercially satisfactory and if a “dry gas” 
well does not come up to this the desired ‘purity 
is generally obtained by sinking 1o greater 
depths. Failing this the impure gas must be 
treated by absorption as described under” the 
coke process. 

Where the ‘gas occurs, as at’ Satdtogd 
Springs, saturating the escaping spring water 
in proportions as high as five volumes: of gas 
to one of water, iis recovery is a ‘simple matter. 
The pipe carrying the saturated spring water 
delivers its burden to a separator whose trapped 
water outlet offers greater resistance than the 
water seal of the storage gasometer, with the 
result that the water flows away, holding only 
that amount of gas due to atmospheric pressure 
and temperature of emergence — about equal 
volumes of gas and water —and the ‘surplus 
gas is piped from the top of the separator to 
the gasometer. 

If, as sometimes occurs, hydrogen sulphide is 
present, its remoyal is effected before storage of 
the gas by passing it through trays filled with 
iron oxide mixed with wood shavings. After 
saturation the oxide is revivified by exposure to 
air. 

The natural carbon dioxide at Saratoga 


Springs has a purity of about 98.5 per cent and 


in common with gas of like origin from several 
other sources has been found to be radio-active. 

A process for manufacture of carbon dioxide 
which has. been largely displaced depends .upon 
the calcination. of, magnesite (carbonate of 
magnesia)... The rock, crushed. to suitable fine~ 


e 


from the engine and compressor, 
case the coke is burned under the steam boiler. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


ness, is fed to oil-fired retorts, and carefully 
held at the proper temperature. The escaping 
gas, passed if necessary through purifiers for 
removal of traces of sulphur compounds, and 
then through coolers, is conveyed to the gas- 
ometer while the calcined magnesia, containing 
always more or less unburnt: magnesite, is. al- 
lowed to cool, ground and sold as a by-product. 
Its value is largely affected by the care with 
which the calcination is conducted and by the 
presence of calcium salts which are highly de- 
leterious for certain uses. Until the develop- 
ment of the California deposits, the chief source 
of supply was Grecian. Importations from that 
source were suspended early in the war. 

A small amount of carbon dioxide is pro- 
duced by plants engaged in the manufacture of 
epsom salts. The process is purely the labora- 
tory one ona large scale, of adding an acid, 
sulphuric, to a carbonate, magnesite. There is, 
however, a variation, wherein dolomite, a 
mixed carbonate of magnesia and lime, is 


treated with sulphuric acid and the resulting 


mixed sulphates separated. In both cases the 
carbon dioxide obtained is of high purity and 
passes to the. gasometer without further. treat- 
ment. The normal demand for epsom salts is 
not such as to stimulate production along these 
lines. 

A small amount of carbon dioxide has been 
produced in the manufacture of beer, but. the 
advent of prohibition has closed this avenue. 
Such great difficulties were found in remoyal of 
odorous products of fermentation that gas from 
this source never became a product of import- 
ance. 

The coke process is the one most generally 
used in the commercial production of carbon 
dioxide. Substantially it involves the. com- 
bustion of coke with effort to secure as high a 
percentage of carbon dioxide as possible in the 
resulting gaseous products. These are passed 
through scrubbers and thoroughly washed: to 


_ensure removal of any sulphur compounds, and 


then enter the absorbing towers. These are 


generally of steel, about eight feet in diameter 


and 50. feet high and .of any desired number, 
depending on the capacity of the plant. In 
general about 10 cubic feet tower capacity per 


pound earbon dioxide per hour is accepted as a 


suitable distributing proportion. The gases are 
there brought in contact; with a solution of car- 
bonate of soda or potash which is pumped to the 
top and flows counter-current against the gases. 

The carbon dioxide of the mixed. gases of 
combustion unites with the carbonate and forms 
bicarbonate, though the interchange is far from 
complete. Some of the carbon dioxide escapes 
unabsorbed and some of the carbonate is un- 
converted to bicarbonate. 

The solution issuing from the towers, con- 
taining bicarbonate, is now. pumped t hrough 
suitable heat exchangers to the lye boiler. This 
may either be heated by the coke fire which 
served to produce the gases or by exhaust steam 
In the latter 


By boiling. the bicarbonate. solution, it. is 
reconverted to carbonate and the released car- 
bon dioxide is piped through heat. exchangers 
and coolers to the gasometer. 

Final preparation for the market consists in 
liquefying the gas in compressors operating in 


‘ 


-sure.on an.overloaded. heart. 


tion of, oxygen. 


probably an element. 
‘by, Davy, who confirmed Gay-Lussac’s opinion 


470 


either three or four stages at about 900. pounds 
per square inch and storing it in steel cylinders 
holding either 20 or 50 pounds. of! the gas. 
Commercial. Uses of. Carbon Dioxide.— 
The.larger, portion of commercial ; carbon 


dioxide is. used in: the manufacture of. car- 


bonated beverages. It is also_used in refriger- 
ating machines, especially in connection with 
marine work. It 1s used for spraying paint 


and insecticides. and is the active reagent in 


many fire extinguishers. 

Medicinal Uses.— When liquefied carbon 
dioxide is allowed to expand rapidly a very 
low temperature is produced with. the resultant 
formation of solid carbon. dioxide,, This may 
be collected in snow-like form and has been 
found efficacious as, a local: application where 
the removal of warts or wens is desired. 

The gas as such or dissolved in saline.water 
has marked therapeutic effects. The carbonated 
baths of Bad-Nauheim have a world-wide 
reputation and numerous other resorts are now 
equipped to give the Nauheim bath treatment. | 


~The effect of immersion in such baths is to 


stimulate the circulation and to reduce the pres- 
The action of 
the gas is undoubtedly reflex. Remarkable re- 
sults are obtained as well with rheumatic and 
neurasthenic cases as with cardiac ones: 


CHLORINE. Chlorine, Cl, atomic: weight 
35.4, at ordinary temperature and pressure is ‘a 
gas of greenish yellow color and has an jirritat- 
ing and pungent odor. >The specific gravity of 
the gas issabout 2:48. Under pressure chlorine 
is easily liquefied. The specific gravity of. the 
liquid at 15°C. is 1425 (Lange), and. the 
vapor tension at this. temperature is 5.75 
atmospheres. The boiling point of the liquid is 
— 33.6° C. (Regnault), and its freezing point 
is—102° C. The critical temperature of chlorine 
is 146° C. and. the «critical: pressure is 93.5 
atmospheres. The coefficient of expansion of 
liquid chlorine grows with increasing tempera- 
ture and at.90°.-C, is. about equal.to. that of 
gases. | 
Chlorine is. easily. soluble in water. The 
solution, especially under.the influence of, sun- 
light, will form: hydrochloric, acid under. libera- 
Chlorine |forms ..compounds 
with practically. all elements’; in many. respects 
its resembles oxygen. ' It shows great affinity 
for hydrogen; equal. volumes of chlorine and 
hydrogen mixed and. exposed to the direct sun- 
light will, combine under explosion, , producing 
hydrochloric acid. . If. hydrocarbons are mixed 
with chlorine, and. aflame is applied, .to, the 


mixture, it will catch, fire and the chlorine will 
‘combine with the hydrogen whereas the carbon 


will, be. deposited on the walls of. the vessel. 
Chlorine attacks, organic matters and. destroys 
the lower animal and vegetable, life, .., For 
human. beings it is. not poisonous but. very 
obnoxious as,it.attacks the mucous, membranes. 

istory.— Chlorine was discovered.in 1774 
by Scheele. while he was. treating. manganese 
dioxide with hydrochloric acid, ; but upto 1809 
it was considered a compound substance, .., At 
that time Gay-Lussac pointed, out that it was 
Investigations were made 


and gave the gas its present name. As-early as 


480 


1805 chlorine was liquefied by Northmore and 
later on in 1823 by Faraday. Faraday heated 


chlorine hydrate crystals (Cle + 10H2O) in one | 


branch of a sealed and bent glass tube, while 
the other branch was exposed to a freezing 
mixture. The chlorine hydrate was decom- 
posed and liquid chlorine was obtained at the 
other end of the glass tube. In the laboratory 
chlorine is generally made by treatment of 
hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. 
Sometimes it is made by decomposition of 
hydrochloric acid by nitric acid. Commercially 
the “Weldon” process was formerly used to a 
very large-extent. Weldon decomposed hydro- 
chloric acid with manganese dioxide but added 
lime to the waste liquor and blew air through 
the mixture which enabled him to recover the 
manganese dioxide and use it over and over 
again. Later on, the “Deacon” process was 
largely used in which process the hydrochloric 
acid is decomposed by air in the presence of 
catalysers at a temperature of about 450° C. 
The disadvantage of this process is the great 
dilution of the produced gas so that it cannot 
be used when the chlorine is to be liquefied. 

Commercial Method of Manufacture.— 
To-day by far the largest quantity of chlorine 
is produced electrolytically. This process fre- 
quently is called “Chlorine Alkali Process” in 
order to indicate the simultaneous production 
of chlorine and alkali. It consists of decompos- 
ing a solution of sodium chloride or potassium 
chloride by passing an electric current of high 
amperage through the electrolytic cell. The 
anode is generally of carbon or iron oxide and 
the cathode of iron. Sometimes mercury is 
used for the cathode. Chlorine forms at the 
anode and caustic soda or caustic potash at 
the cathode. The products of the electrolysis 
caustic soda and chlorine or caustic potash and 
chlorine must be kept strictly apart in order 
not to combine again. The chlorine produced 
by the electrolytic method has generally over 
96 per cent purity, the balance being mainly car- 
bon dioxide and air. 

Commercial Uses of Gases.— By far the 
largest quantity of chlorine is used in the 
manufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching 
powder, which is: formed when slacked lime is 
exposed to the action of chlorine gas. Up to 
the time that liquid chlorine was produced com- 
mercially nearly all shipments of chlorine were 
made in the form of chloride of lime and even 
to-day the bulk of the chlorine which is used 
for bleaching of textiles, etc., is shipped in this 
form. Prior to the commercial production of 
liquid chlorine most chemical works, etc., using 
chlorine in the manufacture of their products 
produced it on their premises, but since that 
time many users of the gas purchase the liquid 
which is easily transported. The first com- 
mercial plant to liquify chlorine was built in 
Germany in 1888 by Knietsch of the Badische 
Company. Knietsch used a compressor in 
which a body of sulphuric acid was placed 
between the piston and the chlorine so that 
the chlorine was compressed without getting 
in touch with the piston or the stuffing box. The 
compressed gas coming from the compressor 
entered the condenser where it was cooled and 
thus liquefied. In order tobe suitable for ship- 
ment in steel containers the liquid chlorine had 
to be absolutely free from water so that it 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


would not attack the steel. The liquid is filled 
into steel cylinders or tank cars. Knietsch 
heated the sulphuric acid in order to reduce 
the absorption of chlorine by the acid. This 


system is still used by most manufacturers, al- 


though sometimes it is used in modified form. 
The Linde Ice Machine Company, Germany, did 
not use any compressor to liquify the chlorine, 
but simply exposed the gas to a temperature 
of —45° to —50° C. at atmospheric pressure. 
This system is also in use commercially but not 
to a large extent. A third system was de- 
veloped in the United States of America. In 
this system sulphuric acid is pumped to a high 
tower from where it is allowed to drop down 
in vertical tubes entraining the chlorine ac- 
cording to the injector principle. The chlorine 
is then again carried into a condenser where it 
is cooled and liquefied. This system was in- 
stalled at the large government plant at Edge- 
water Arsenal, during the World War of 
1914--18. 

Not until about 1909 was any liquid chlorine 
made commercially in the United States, but 
since that time the production of liquid chlorine 
has grown very rapidly. It is estimated that 
during the year 1918, over 15,000 tons of liquid 
chlorine were manufactured in the United 
States. 

Medicinal Uses. During the war the 
manufacture of chlorine and of liquid chlorine 
grew rapidly because chlorine was used to’ make 
picric acid and very large quantities of the 
various poison-gases, most of’ which were 
chlorine compounds. 

However, chlorine during the war was not 
only used to destroy human beings but also 
to protect them from typhoid fever and other 
diseases. The drinking water in the various 
war zones was sterilized nearly always by the 
use of liquid chlorine which no doubt has 
helped to reduce mortality from epidemics far 
below the figures prevailing in former wars. 
Nearly all large cities in the United States to- 
day are sterilizing their drinking water by use 
of liquid chlorine, which is introduced into the 
water main either directly as a gas or mixed 
with water and then introduced into the main. 
This application of liquid chlorine is constantly 
growing and a number of cities have already 
started to use liquid chlorine for sterilization 
of sewage. During the last few years liquid 
chlorine has started to replace chlorine of ‘ime 
for bleaching purposes to a considerable ex- 
tent. The detinning industry uses large quan- 
tities of chlorine to recover the tin and the 
steel of tin scrap according to the Goldschmidt 
patents. The product, tetrachloride of tin, is 
used in the silk industry. Zinc chloride is used 
to impregnate telegraph poles, railroad ties, 
etc., and is also used for vulcanizing fibres. 

Cuban tetrachloride is used to a large ex- 
tent for the extraction of fats and in the rubber 
industry. It is also used in dry cleaning estab- 
lishments and in fire extinguishers. In the 
medical field chlorine is used to make chloro- 
form, aspirin and a great many other pharma- 
ceutical products. In the organic chemistry 
chlorine is used in the manufacture of synthetic 
indigo, sulphur colors, benzoic. acids, ete. The 
chlorination of ores in future will probablv -con- 
sume very large quantities of chlorine. Consult 
Lunge, Dr. G.,'“Hand-Buch der Soda Industrie? 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


(Eng. trans. as ‘Manufacture of Sulphuric 
Acid and Alkali?), and  Geoffrey-Martin, 
‘Chlorine and Chlorine Products. 


HELIUM, the lightest of the group of so- 
called “inert gases” discovered in the air by 
Rayleigh and Ramsay, was first observed by 
Janssen in 1868, when, in studying the spectrum 
of the solar chromosphere, he found a line in 
the yellow (i.e. coincident with two of the 
sodium lines) which was not attributable to 
any terrestrial substance then known. Lockyer 
and Frankland decided it was due to the 
presence in the sun of a new element which 
they named “helium” (Greek, helios, “the sun”). 

The first terrestrial discovery of helium was 
made by Hillebrand (1889, United States Geo- 
logical Survey Bulletin), who, when working 
with the mineral uraninite, observed the evolu- 
tion of a gas which gave a fluted spectrum and 
was attributed by him to nitrogen. When 
searching for argon Ramsay found helium in 
the gases evolved from cleveive. Its presence 
in the atmosphere was first observed by Kayser 
(1895), who detected the helium line in the air- 
spectrum. 

_ It has since been shown that helium occurs 
in the air in the proportion of 0.000056 per cent 
by weight, or about one volume of helium in 
250,000 volumes of air. It also occurs in many 
minerals, including monazite sands, in the gases 
of many mineral springs and is present in com- 
paratively large amounts in several of the nat- 
ural gases of Canada and the United States, 
particularly those of Kansas and Texas. In 
1907 Cady reported 1.84 per cent of helium in 
the natural gas at Dexter, Kan. Helium has 
also been found occluded in meteoric iron. 

Helium is one of the products of the dis- 


integration of radium. The rate of produc- 


tion of helium is 0.37 cubic millimeter per day 
from 70 milligrams of radium chloride. Helium 
is also a product of the disintegration of 
actinium and of thorium radioactivity, which 
accounts for its presence in the gases given off 
by monazite sands. 

Preparation.— Helium is prepared by isola- 
tion from a mixture of other gases: (1) Nitro- 
gen, argon, krypton, neon, xenon and helium, 
as obtained by removal of the oxygen from 
air (see ARGON in this section) or as separated 
by fractional distillation of liquid air; (2) 
oxygen, nitrogen and helium as obtained from 
certain mineral springs. The gases from 
King’s Well at Bath, England, contain 0.12 per 
cent of helium by volume and were used as a 
source of the gas by Rayleigh. This well is 
said to produce 1,000 litres (about 36 cubic 
feet) of helium per year. 

Helium may be obtained in small quantities 
by heating certain minerals (such as cleveite, 
uraninite or monazite sand) either alone or 
with dilute sulphuric acid or an acid sulphate. 
One gram of cleveite is said to yield 3.2 cubic 
feet of helium, and 1,000 grams of the mineral 
costs about $5. 

Isolation.— The French workers Jacquerod 
and Perrot found that quartz is permeable to 
helium at 1,000° to 1,200° C. so that by sur- 
rounding a quartz tube with impure helium at 
that temperature and pumping away the gas 
from the interior helium could be obtained 
free from nitrogen and other inert gases, but 

VOL. 17 — 31 


pany, Inc., 


481 


it has been shown that this process is not prac- 
ticable with some kinds of quartz, Ramsay 
found that at the temperature of liquid air cer- 
tain kinds of charcoal would absorb all gases 
except helium and neon. The vapor pressure 
of neon is so different from that of helium 
that a systematic repetition of the process yields 
a pure product. 

Properties.—The density of helium has been 
determined as from 1.98 to 2.02. Its atomic 
weight is taken as 3.99. It is 0.1368 times as 
heavy as air. 

When working with the rare gases, Olszew- 
ski obtained a sample of about 140 cubic centi- 
meters from Lord Ramsay and tried to deter- 
mine its critical constants, but found it im- 
possible with the refrigeration means then at 
hand to reach the liquefaction point. ° 

Dewar, in 1898, after obtaining liquid hydro- 
gen, placed a sealed glass tube containing helium 
in the liquid hydrogen. A colorless liquid imme- 
diately condensed on the sides of the tube, but 


_ the same tube in liquid air boiling under re- 


duced pressure gave no condensation; thus the 
conclusion was drawn that the boiling point of 
helium is very close to that of hydrogen. In 
1909 Onnes first liquefied helium by cooling it 
in solid hydrogen and then allowing it to ex- 
pand; thus showing that the ordinary lique- 
faction process can be applied to helium as well 
as to the other so-called inert gases. From 
200 litres of helium gas Onnes obtained over 60 
cubic centimeters of liquid helium in three hours. 
This liquid is colorless and its density is 0.122, 
which means it is the lightest liquid known. 
Its critical temperature is about — 268° C. (5° 
above absolute zero). It boils at 4.5° above ab- 
solute zero and has a critical pressure of 2.26 
atmospheres. Rapid evaporation of the liquid 
causes a temperature below 2.5° absolute or 
— 270° C. but there is no indication of the 
formation of a solid. 

Up to the present time helium has resisted 
all efforts to combine it with other elements. 

The spectrum of helium is characterized by 
a strong line in the yellow (which has been 
shown to be double) and a dark green line. 

Manufacture and Uses.— Helium is next to 
hydrogen in lightness among the elements, and 
this fact, together with its chemical inactivity 
and the fact that it is non-combustible, was the 
reason for its recent and much discussed ap- 
plication for use in balloons. 

Helium has about 92 per cent of the lifting 
power of hydrogen. It was Sir William Ram- 
say who first suggested, in 1915, to Dr. Moore 
of the United States Bureau of Mines, .the use 
of helium for balloons. Its buoyancy, the fact 
that its rate of diffusion and consequent wast- 
age through the balloon fabric is only about 
one-half that of hydrogen and the freedom 
from fire hazard attained by its use make it an 
ideal balloon gas. 

Certain Canadian gas wells carry approxi- 
mately 0.3 per cent helium. Attempts to obtain 
helium commercially from this source were not 
successful, as the amount of helium present was 
comparatively small. 

In 1917 interest in the use of helium for 
balloons was revived by Dr. Moore, on learning 
of its presence in the natural gases of Kansas. 
Late in the same year the Air Reduction Com- 
and the Linde Air Products Com- 
pany each erected, for the United States gov- 


482 


ernment, a plant for the production of helium 
from the natural gas wells of Texas. These 
plants started operations early in 1918 and after 
some experimental work produced helium.on a 
commercial scale. Up to the time of the sign- 
ing of the armistice, November 1918, 147,000 
cubic feet of 93 per cent helium had been pre- 
pared and was on the dock about to be loaded 
aboard ship for Europe. It was stated that at 
pre-war prices this quantity would represent a 
value of about $250,000,000. Needless to say 
such quantities could never have been obtained 
by the laboratory methods used in working 
with the small quantities of helium obtainable 
from various sources by the early methods de- 
scribed in the literature. 

The two above-mentioned plants in Texas 
are now temporarily closed, but owing to the 
great possibilities of the use of helium in bal- 
loons, both for war and peace purposes, the 
United States government is planning to con- 
tinue the production of helium. In addition to 
the two plants already built the United States 
government is erecting an experimental plant 
at... Petrolia, il ex.,:. but. at..this ) writing, this 
installation has not produced any helium. 

The three plants referred to above are all 
making use of gas liquefaction processes based 
on the removal by liquefaction of all the gases 
occurring in the natural product except the 
helium, which passes out of the-system in the 
gaseous State. 


HYDROGEN (Gr.,. “producing water,” in 
reference to’ the fact that in burning in air or 
oxygen hydrogen forms water-vapor ), a gaseous 
element, discovered by Paracelsus in the 16th 
century. In the year 1766, Cavendish, an Eng- 
lish chemist, investigated this gas more thor- 
oughly, and gave it the name of inflammable 
air, and, by continued investigations, in 1781 
proved its elementary character. Lavoisier, 
finally, gave it the name of hydrogen. Hydro- 
gen is the lightest known substance, and it also 
has the smallest known atomic weight. Its 
chemical symbol is H, its molecular formula Ha, 
and its atomic weight 1.008. 

Physical Properties.— 
Colorless, tasteless, odorless. 
Specific gravity, 0.06949 (air=1). 
1 liter at 0° C., 760 mm., 0.089873 g. 
1 cubic foot at 32° F., 29.92-inch pres- 
sure, .00561 pounds. 

Atomic volume of liquid, 1.4. 

Specific heat at 0° C. (gas), 3.410. 

Specific heat of liquid, 6.00. 

Atomic heat, 3.44 (gas); 6.05 (liquid). 

Valence, I. 

Thermal conductivity at 0° C. (Ag=1), 

000327. , 

Freezing (and melting) point, — 259° C. 

Boiling point, — 252.5° C. 

Density of liquid hydrogen, 0.070 (lightest 
liquid known). 

Solubility in water, 2.1 volumes of hydro- 
gen to 100 volumes of water. 

Obeys. Boyle’s Law under pressure, with 
variations according to Van der Wall’s 
equation. 

(a = 0.00042) (b= 0.00088). 

Coefficient of expansion at constant pres- 
sure (760 mm., 0— 100° C.), 0.003661. 

Coefficient of pressure, at constant volume 


(520-694 mm., 0—100° C.), 0.0036626. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


Chemical Properties.— 

_l. Hydrogen is inflammable. In admixture 
with oxygen in the presence of moisture and 
dust and under the influence of sunlight com- 
bustion takes place slowly. With the aid of 
catalysts, however, e.g., finely divided Pt, Pd, 
Ir, Os or Au, the reaction between hydrogen 
and oxygen is rapid. The ignition tempera- 
tures of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen vary 
between 507° and 540° C. (electrolytic hydrogen 
536° C.) Hydrogen is not poisonous nor toxic. 
_ 2. Hydrogen combines directly with fluor- 
ine, even in the dark at room temperature, with 
explosive violence. With chlorine, it does not 
combine in dark at room temperature, but does 
when heated above 400°C. In diffused light 
combination is slow at room temperature. 
Under influence of direct sunlight (or other 
active rays) combination is violent. Combines 
directly with bromine in dark at temperatures 
above 400° C. and slowly even at 100° in the 
presence of light. 

3. Hydrogen is very active chemically when 
occluded in certain finely divided metals, such 
as Pd or Pt or Os; and also when in contact 
with finely divided Ni, Co, Fe and Cu. In the 
presence of nickel many organic compounds can 
be reduced or saturated by hydrogen (hydro- 
genation of oils. . 

How Obtained.— Hydrogen may be ob- 
tained by: 

(1) Decomposition of Water by Metals.— 
The alkali and alkaline earth metals react with 
water and liberate hydtogen; e.g., sodium, 
potassium or calcium. 


Naz plus 2H:zO—2NaOH plus Haz. 


Fine aluminum turnings (containing 1—2 
per cent bichloride of mercury and 0.5 per cent 
potassium cyanide) will decompose water at 
70°; 1 kg. yielding 1,300 liters of hydrogen. 
ins P. 392,725, 1908. Compt. rend. 1908, 147,-. 

By Metallic Hydrides—“Hydrolith» is 
calcium hydride. This reacts very rapidly with 
water, evolving hydrogen. 


CaHz plus 2HzO=Ca(OH)a, plus 2H». 


Consult French patent 327,878, 1902. 1 kg. yields 
over 1 cu. m. of hydrogen.- 

(2) Decomposition of Acids by Metals.— 
When dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid is 
treated with an acid-soluble metal like Zn or Fe, 
hydrogen is formed, 


H2SO, plus Fe = FeSO; plus Hz. 


This is the usual laboratory method for gen- 
erating hydrogen gas. 

(3) Decomposition of Alkali Solutions by 
Metals —Aluminum and zinc react with aqueous 
solutions of the alkalis, liberating hydrogen. 

Zn plus 2NaOH = Na2ZnO: plus Ho. 
Very pure hydrogen is obtained in this way. 
Consult British patent 11,838, 1912. 

(4) Electrolysis .of Water— This method 
which is of great commercial importance will be 
dealt with later. 

Commercial Methods of Manufacture.— 
(1) Electrolysis -of Aqueous.. Solution.— 
When an electric current is passed through 
water containing an acid or alkali in solution, 
the water is decomposed, hydrogen gas being 
liberated at the cathode and oxygen at the 
anode, 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


Full description of methods, apparatus and 
production is given under the heading of 
OxycEN. By this method hydrogen is obtained 
in the largest volume, purest state and at the 
lowest cost. This method was originally in- 
troduced into this country by a firm of French 
jewelers, and the manufacture of apparatus for 
this purpose was initiated and perfected by the 
International Oxygen Company. The industry 
has, however, grown so rapidly that there are 
at the present time several firms manufacturing 
apparatus of this kind. Consult ‘Oxygen — By 
Electrolysis of Water. 

(2) Decomposition of Water by Means of 
Iron.— When steam is passed over iron heated 
to redness, the steam is decomposed, 


3Fe plus 4H20 = Fe,O.: plus 4H2. 


The iron oxide can be reduced by means of 
water gas, yielding metallic iron and more 
hydrogen. The production of hydrogen may 
be made continuous by alternately passing steam 
and water gas through the furnaces containing 
the iron. Consult British patents 10,356, 1903; 
17,591, 1909; 11,878, 1910. 

For data regarding the physical condition of 
iron most desirable for this process, consult 


British patent, 27,735, 1912 | Badische Co. 


French “ ~~ 453,077, 1913 j 
=S) “ 971,206, 1908, A. Messerschmidt. 

German “ 280,964, 1913. H. Dicka. 

French ia 461,480, 1913 

British s 18,028, 1913 +} A. Messerschmidt. 

WS! “ 1,109,448, 1914 

German “ 279,726, 1913, Naher and Noding. 


For further data on this method of produc- 
ing hydrogen, consult: 


German patent, 263,391, 1912, Messerschmidt. 


268,062, 
“ “ 268,339, “ 
French ¥ 444,105, 1912, 
“ “ 444,106, “ 
r : 461,623, 1913. 
7 . 461,624, “ 
“ “ 461,625, “ 
“ “ 462,379, “ 
British ‘. 12,117, 1912. 
== 1274788 
“ “ 12,243, 6 
‘ ‘ 17,690, 1913.’ 
“ “ 17,691, “ 
“ “ 17,692, “ 
“ “ 18, 942, “ 
U.eS. “1,109,447, 1914. 
British ‘ 2,096, 1913, Badische Co. 
4 = 28,390, 
z e' 6,155, 1914. 
French 2 465,474, 1913. | Berlin Anhaltische 
UES: “ 1,118,595, 1914. Machinenbau A. G. 


“ “ 


1,129,559, 1915. | 


_ Regarding the reaction of steam on iron at 
high pressures, consult: 


Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. 32 (1913), p. 462, Bergius. 
German patent, 254,593, 1911. 


French y 447,080, 1912. 
British 19,002, 1912. 

e ii 19,003, 1912. 
U.S. “1,059,817, 1913. 


“ “ 


1,059,818, 1913. 
Steam acts upon heated coke in the following 


way: 
C plus Hz1O=CO plus H2. 

The gas produced according to this reaction 
is called water gas. 

Owing to the great difference between the 
boiling points of hydrogen (—252.5° C.) and 
carbon monoxide (—190° C.) and _ nitrogen 
(— 195.5° C.) the hydrogen is best separated 
by liquefaction. In the Linde-Frank-Caro proc- 
ess water gas having the approximate compo- 


483 


sition H2—48 per cent, CO—42 per cent, 
CO.—2.5 per cent, N—3.5 per cent (with 
other impurities) is freed from CO, by water 
under pressure followed by scrubbing in alka- 
lis. It is then dried and cooled. The carbon 
monoxide and nitrogen are liquefied, the hydro- 
gen passing on in gaseous state. Consult ‘In- 
dustrial Gases? by Martin and others, p. 21 and 
p. 39. Consult also French patents 329, 839, 1903 ; 
469, 854, 1913; and British patent 13, 160, 1914. 
‘According to several methods, the carbon 
monoxide is taken up by suitable absorbents. 
For example, water gas and steam are passed 
over lime heated to about 500° C. (and mixed 
with about 5 per cent of powdered iron as 
catalyst). The following reaction takes place: 


Ca( HO): plus COCaCOs plus Hz. 
For further details, consult: 


British patent, 2,523, 1909. 

: f 13,049, 1912. 
French 453,187, 1912. 
British iy 7,147, 1913. 
ers: Cie Se RSGe Sen IY. 
German “ 253,705, 1910. 


Hydrogenite contains 5 parts ferrosilicon 
(containing 90-95 per cent silicon), 12 parts 
caustic soda and 4 parts slaked lime. When 
Genited» by a hot iron ball in a suitable ap- 
paratus hydrogen is evolved (1 kg. yielding 320 
infers of hydrogen). Consult British natent 153, 
1911. 

Hydrogen by Decomposition of Hydrocar- 
bons.— Hydrocarbons, such as petroleum, ben- 
zine, etc., can be decomposed by the action of 
steam at high temperature, yielding hydrogen 
and carbon monoxide. (British patent 14,703, 
1911; Pictet. U. S. patent 1,134,416, 1913.) 

Hydrogen is also produced by passing a 
mixture of hydrocarbons and steam over an 
inactive refractory oxide such as magnesia 
covered with nickel oxide (as catalyst) at a 
temperature of 800-1000° C. Consult 
463,114, 1913 Badische Co. 


12,978,1913 
“f 1 128, 804, 1915 e 


French patent, 
British 
US: 


Natural gas, vaporized oil or casing-head 
gasoline, when passed through red-hot pipes, 
are decomposed and deposit lampblack and form 
an impure hydrogen (impurities are methane, 
carbon monoxide and traces of oil vapor). 

Very pure hydrogen, according to Bergius, 
may be produced by the reaction between water 


_and iron at sufficiently high pressure to prevent 


vaporization of the water. 

The following table gives the experimental 
data on the liberation of hydrogen by this 
method: 


Charge Volume 


——___  -—-——-—-——-——. of gas Volume 
Fe Cu H2O FeCls Temp. Time gener- of gas 

g g g g °C: Hrs. ated per hr. 

Cc G.¢ 
50 se 4.100 ey 300 3:30 800 230 
50 eee LOO 3 300 3:30 4,650 1,330 
50 25 100 3 300 3:00 5,800 1,930 


The electrolyte, ferric chloride and the copper 
(electropositive to iron) increase the reaction 
velocities enormously. For fuller details consult 


Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. 32 (1913), p. 462. 
German patent, 254,593, 1911. 


French 447,080, 1912. 
British y! 19/002, 1912. 

§ & 19,003, 1912. 
OS. “ 1,059,817, 1913. 


“ “ 


1,059,818, 1913, 


484 


Commercial Uses.—When hydrogen is 
burnt in oxygen temperatures up to 2,800° C. 
may be obtained.. This property renders hydro- 
gen invaluable for fusing and welding platinum, 
iron, lead, copper, etc.. Hydrogen and oxygen 
obtained from cylinders of the compressed 
gases are brought together in a suitable burner 
and ignited. 

It is well known that rapid cooling of hot 
metals hardens them. That the opposite is true 
has recently been demonstrated in striking 
fashion by the General Electric Company. One 
of its scientists annealed American ingot iron 
surrounded by hydrogen gas for. three hours 
at a temperature above 1,600° F: The product 
was very little harder than the softest copper, 
and could be whittled with a knife. (Taken 
from American Machinist.) 

Below are given some of the present prin- 
cipal commercial uses of hydrogen: 

1. Hydrogenation of  Ouls.— Solidifying 
liquid oils for edible products; preparing fats 
for manufacture of soap; renovating and de- 
odorizing certain oils. 

2. Metallurgical— Reduction of copper 
oxide; reduction of tungsten; reduction of 
molybdenum; lamp work; jewelry work. 


3. Aeronautical— Balloons, dirigibles; por- 
table wireless stations. 
4. Cutting — Oxy-hydrogen cutting. (The 


oxy-hydrogen flame is far superior to any 
other method for cutting metals and will cut 
metals of such thicknesses as to be beyond the 
penetration of the oxy-acetylene flame). 

5. Platinum and Lead Melting— Lead cham- 
bers for sulphuric acid. 

6. Chemical.— Reducing agent; 
agent. 

7. Fuel.— Heating. 

8. Annealing. 

Hydrogen has been used with some degree 
of success in the manufacture of ammonia 
synthetically by the Haber process. .Hyd.ogen 
and nitrogen are combined at high pressures, 
and temperatures around 500—600° C., with the 
aid of catalysts. The process has been de- 
veloped to a much greater extent in Germany 
than in the United States. During the recent 
World War a plant was erected by the United 
States government at Sheffield, Ala., for the 
manufacture of ammonia and thence ammonium 
nitrate by a modified Haber process. Although 


combining 


some ammonia was produced, continuous pro- - 


duction was not achieved owing to the mechan- 
ical difficulties involved in working with gases 
at high pressures. 

Hydrogen is used in steel works for autoge- 
nous welding and for filling up the blow-holes 
frequently found in steel -castings. 

Limelight is produced by impinging an oxy- 
hydrogen flame on a block of quicklime, yield- 
ing a very brilliant light (Drummond light). 

In glass works, the heating of furnaccs and 
crucibles is greatly accelerated by the oxy- 
hydrogen flame. In the preparation of fused 
silica ware the oxy-hydrogen flame is extremely 
valuable. 

Hydrogen finds extensive use for filling bal- 
loons. Theoretically, the ascensional force of 
hydrogen is the difference in weight of a cubic 
metre of air and a cubic metre of hydrogen 
(1.293—0.090 kg.) and is thus 1.203 kg., except 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


at higher altitudes, Practically 1 kg. is taken 
as the lifting force of 1 cubic metre of hydro- 
gen. 

Synthetic sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, 
rubies, etc., are made by the deposition of 
alumina and fusion in the oxy-hydrogen flame. 

Recently hydrogen has found a very valuable 
application in the hydrogenation of oils. 

he saturated glycerides and fatty acids 
have higher melting points than the unsaturated 
compounds: 


Cis Has O: plus H2=—Cis Has Ox. 
(Oleic Acid) _ (Stearic Acid) 


In this way various soft oils and fats, such 
as fish oil, linseed oil and cottonseed oil, are 
hardened and their commercial value increased. 
The higher melting point fats are advan- 
tageously used in soap making, candle making 
and edible fats (such as butter and lard sub- 
stitutes). Consult Martin’s ‘Industrial Chemis- 

ry’; Ellis, C., ‘Hydrogenation of Oils — Cata- 
lysis — Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen ; 
Thorpe, ‘Dictionary of Applied Chemistry? ; 
Martin, G. F., ‘Industrial Gases.? 


LIQUID AIR. Liquid air varies in compo- 
sition. It boils at about —190° C. and con- 
tains by weight 54 per cent of oxygen (air, 
23.2 per cent oxygen). Many interesting ex- 
periments can be performed with liquid air 
aside from its use by scientific investigators. 
The properties of familiar substances are 
greatly changed by the low temperatures attain- 
able by its use: eg., rubber becomes brittle, 
milk becomes highly phosphorescent, an egg is 
a shining blue globe, photographic films lose 
most of their sensitiveness; sodium, potassium 
and even phosphorus are unaffected by liquid 
air; metals lose their electric resistance to a 
remarkable degree; the magnetic moment of 
magnets is greatly increased; curiously, the 
various bacteria and low forms of life, while 
rendered inactive by the intense cold, recover 
their activity on being brought back to normal 
temperatures and the germinating power of 
seeds is unimpaired. 

Experimental work with liquid air or gases 
naturally calls for a container. Liquid air is 
preserved in an open container of a design 
called a “Dewar bulb»—a double-walled glass 
bulb, the space between the walls being com- 
pletely exhausted of air and the glass being 
silvered like a mirror to reflect radiation. This 
is, of course, the principle of the ordinary 
thermos bottle. 


NEON. In 1898, Sir William Ramsey dis- 
covered this gas in the atmosphere. He secured 
it by means of the distillation of liquefied air. 
Claude has since developed the process of sep- 
aration of the elements of the air by liquefac- 
tion to a point which allows the production of 
Neon as an industrial product suitable for use 
for commercial purposes. Neon is found in the 
atmosphere in the very small proportion of one 
part of Neon to 66,000 parts of air. It belongs 
to the group of inert gases, i.e., those which do 
not combine chemically with ’ other elements, 
and, like the other inert gases, is monatomic. 
Its valence is 0. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


Physical Properties.— 
Chemical symbol, Ne. 
Colorless, odorless, tasteless. 
Atomic weight, 20.2. 
Specific gravity, 0.695 (Air=1). 
Boiling point, —243° C. 
Melting point, —253° C. 
Critical temperature, <——205° C. 
Critical pressure, 29 atmospheres. 
Spectrum consists of green lines and 

several orange lines. 

Neon has been proved to be monatomic by 
determining the ratio of its specific heat at con- 
stant pressure to its specific heat at constant 
volume. 

Commercial Uses.— When a tube contain- 
ing Neon is rarefied it is readily permeated by 
an electric discharge. Neon has found a limited 
use commercially as a gas for filling tubes for 
the production of light by the passage of an 
electric current through the tube. Difficulties 
have been met in employing it in this way be- 
cause it is sensitive to the presence of the 
smallest quantities of other gases, and its lumin- 
ous properties are entirely overcome by them. 
Claude has devised a process of removing this 
difficulty by utilizing the absorbent properties 
of charcoal when cooled, which were discovered 
by Dewar. This is done by purifying the Neon 
in the tube during the passage of the electric 
current, by means of charcoal, the temperature 
of which has been lowered by liquid air. When 
the impurities have been removed in this man- 
ner and the Neon left, the tube is separated 
from the charcoal receptacle. ; 

Neon tubes used in lighting have an advan- 
tage over nitrogen tubes in that the candle- 
power is much greater and the efficiency better. 
A disadvantage is that the light produced is too 
red. because there is an absence of blue rays. 
This quality is desirable, however, in display 
illumination where the dazzling light produces a 
beautiful effect. Neon tubes were used in 1910 
in Paris for lighting the Grand Palace on the 
Champs Elysées. Their use, however, has not 
been developed commercially to any extent. 


NITROGEN, a colorless, odorless gas, non- 
inflammable “under ordinary conditions and 
non-explosive. The density of pure nitrogen 
under normal temperature and pressure condi- 
tions is 0.96737. The density of atmospheric 
nitrogen (containing the inert gases) is 
0.97209. The atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.01. 
The critical pressure is 35 atmospheres, and the 
critical temperature —146.25° C. The melting 
point of solid nitrogen is —210.5° C., and the 
boiling point of liquid nitrogen —195.5° C. The 
nitrogen thermometer is used in modern precise 
thermometry, and the following constant was 
determined with the greatest possible care: -If 
a given mass of nitrogen at initial temperature 
of 0° C. and pressure of one meter of mercury 
be heated at constant volume to 100° C., its 
pressure becomes equal to that due to 1.36745 
meters of mercury. 

Historical.— Nitrogen was first recognized 
as a distinct substance by Rutherford of the 
University of Edinburgh in 1772. His demon- 
stration consisted in showing that when a small 
animal breathes the air in an enclosed space for 


485 


a while, and the carbon dioxide produced: is 
removed by absorption, there still remains a 


_ gas that is incapable of supporting respiration. 


The individuality of nitrogen and its existence 
in the atmosphere was first demonstrated by 
Lavoisier, who named it “azote,” signifying 
“without life.” The French: still call nitrogen 
by this name, the English name being derived 
from the Latin “nitrum,» meaning saltpetre. 

Occurrence.— Nitrogen is one of the most 
widely distributed elements. In the free form 
it makes up 79 per cent by volume of the atmos-7 
phere, or 77 per cent by weight. It also occurs 
in the air in chemical combination as nitric and 
nitrous acids as well as ammonia, but in only 
small quantities, it being estimated that the 
nitrous gases are present to the extent of about 
one part in 3,000,000. Nitrogen is found in 
volcanic gases, in the air-bladders of certain 
fish, the bone cavities of birds, the cavities of 
plants, in meteorites, in the nebule and in the 
atmosphere of the sun. Nitrogen is found in 
many forms in combination with other elements. 
It occurs as an essential constituent in vegetable 
and animal matter in the form of proteins 
which average about 16 per cent nitrogen. It 
is found in Bengal in the form of potassium 
nitrate (saltpetre) and in Chile and Peru in 
the form of sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre). 
Quantities of combined nitrogen are obtained in 
the form of ammonia by destructive distilla- 
tion of coal. The natural manures, such as the 
guanos, also contain considerable combined 
nitrogen. 

Preparation.— There are various ways of 
obtaining nitrogen from the air by use of 
chemicals to absorb the accompanying oxygen. 
Such nitrogen is never more than 99 per cent 
pure, as the inert gases (see ARGON) are still 
present. Nitrogen is also obtained from com- 
bustion gases, for example, from gas producers, 
and it can, of course, be obtained by factional 
distillation of liquid air, the average purity by 
this method being about 99.9 per cent nitrogen. 

In order to obtain pure nitrogen the earliest 
experimentalists resorted to chemicals. The 
simplest method is to heat ammonium nitrite, 
but as this compound is somewhat unstable and 
inclined to decompose, the same result is ob- 
tained by using the more stable form — sodium 
nitrite; this is mixed with ammonium chloride, 
and when heat is applied to the mixture, 
ammonium nitrite is formed and immediately 
decomposes into water and pure nitrogen. It 
is also epossible to obtain pure nitrogen from 
air by means of metallic nitrides. ,Nitrogen 
combines directly with lithium, calcium and 
magnesium when heated. These nitrides, on 
further heating, again give up their nitrogen. 
Comparatively pure nitrogen is obtained in 
large quantities as a residue from.the carbonat- 
ing towers in the Solvay plants for making soda 
by the “ammonia-soda” process. 

Compounds of Nitrogen.— Although there 
are so many chemical compounds of nitrogen, 
it is a very indifferent or inert element as com- 
pared with the activity of oxygen. One of the 
great problems of science has been the so-called 
“fixation” of nitrogen and it cannot be said: that 
the problem is at the present time by any means 
satisfactorily solved. Granting, however, that 
the nitrogen has been fixed, whether naturally 
or synthetically, in the form of nitric acid or 


486 


ammonia or their salts, the compounds are many 
of them intensely active; e.g., nitric acid, and 
the well-known explosive, nitroglycerine, T.N.T. 
and picric acid. The literature of the nitro- 
gen compounds is very extensive and new work 
is constantly being reported on the thousands 
of derivatives of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not 
combine with oxygen under ordinary conditions. 
The combination takes place under the in- 
fluence of an electric spark, and such a combina- 
tion always accompanies lightning. For this rea- 
son, some oxides of nitrogen are always present 
in rain water but the small amounts thus formed 
could scarcely have supplied vegetation through- 
out the ages. Certain classes of plants, notably 
legumes (alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, etc.), 
are provided with means of taking up the free 
nitrogen from the atmosphere by the assistance 
of bacteria which flourish on the nodules of 
the roots of the plants. These bacteria have 
the power of converting the free nitrogen of 
the air into compounds which in turn are taken 
up by the nodules and assimilated by the plants, 


sometimes to the extent of over 5 per cent of 


combined nitrogen, in the form of proteins. A 
great deal of work has been done on design- 
ing suitable apparatus for the combination of 
nitrogen and oxygen by electric means, but the 
process is still only commercially possible 
where water power is very cheap, as in the 
plants in Norway. 

The combination of nitrogen with oxygen 
was first brought about by Cavendish in 1785. 
The use of the electric arc was introduced by 
Sir William Crookes in 1892. The commerical 
manufacture of nitric acid was at empted at 
Niagara Falls in 1902 by Bradley and Lovejoy, 
who subjected a mixture of oxygen and nitro- 
gen or air enriched with oxygen to a high ten- 
sion arc drawn out as long as_ possible. 
Mechanically and. chemically the operation was 
a success, as the efficiency of the process was 
greater than that obtained by Birkeland and 
Eyde in Norway in 1903. Nevertheless, the 
cost of power is high at Niagara Falls, and 
financial backing for the development was lack- 
ing, so that the work was discontinued. In 
Norway, where power is much cheaper, arc 
processes are now being operated on a large 
scale. With oxygen, nitrogen forms five 
oxides as follows: (1) Nitrous oxide (N.O) 
is prepared by cautiously heating ammonium 
nitrate. Some of its properties are similar to 
those of oxygen, in that it supports the combus- 
tion of certain materials, such as phosphorus, 
which also burn easily in oxygen. ©On the 
other hand, metals do not rust in it, and the 
hemoglobin of the blood cannot use it as a 
source of oxygen. Davy noticed that when 
taken into the lungs, it produced a mild form of 
intoxication or hysterical condition, which gave 
rise to the name of “laughing gas” by which it 
is commonly known. Prolonged use of the gas 
produced insensibility. Asa result of these ob- 
servations, a method of using it as an anes- 
thetic has been worked out, the method consist- 
ing of the admixture of a sufficient amount of 
oxygen or air to sustain life. It is thus employed 
for minor operations, such as dental work, or 
preceding the use of ether, and when properly 
used has practically no after effects; (2) 
Nitrogen dioxide (N.O:) or nitric oxide 
(NO) was discovered by Priestley, who called 
it “saltpetre-gas.» This is a colorless gas com- 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


monly prepared by acting upon metallic copper 
with cold dilute nitric acid. Nitric oxide com- 
bines directly and readily with oxygen, the 
combination taking place promptly upon con- 
tact with air, the brown colored higher oxides 
of nitrogen being formed. The dioxide may 
be liquefied ‘by the application of cold and pres- 
sure; the critical temperature is 93.5°C. and 
the critical pressure 71.2 atmospheres. The 
solidified gas melts as abotit 167° C.; (3) Nitro- 
gen trioxide or nitrogen sesquioxide, N2Os, may 
be prepared (though in rather an impure 
state) by the action of nitric acid upon starch, 
or upon arsenic trioxide. It is a reddish gas, 
which condenses to a volatile blue liquid upon 
being cooled by a freezing mixture. Nitro- 
gen trioxide also dissolves in ice-cold water 
with the formation of a blue liquid containing 
nitrous acid, HNO: (See Nurrous Acip). 
On account of the difficulty of preparing this 
gas in even a moderate degree of purity, its 
chemical and physical properties have not been 
determined with any degree of exactness; (4) 
Nitrogen peroxide, N2O., formerly known as the 
“dioxide” (NO:) may be prepared by heating 
dry nitrate of lead, which breaks up into lead 
oxide, oxygen and nitrogen peroxide. It is a 
dark orange-colored gas, which has the molec- 
ular formula N.O.: at low temperatures, for 
which reason it is also called the “tetroxide” 
At 150° C. the gas has the molecular formula 
NO,, as is proved by its density; and at 
ordinary temperatures it consists of a mixture 
of NO. and NO. At about 188° C. a further 
dissociation into nitric oxide and oxygen be- 
gins, this increasing as the temperature rises, 
until, at about 565° C., the dissociation into 
nitric oxide and oxygen is complete. Nitrogen 
peroxide is easily liquefied and solidified. At 
temperatures lower than —8° C., it is a white, 
deliquescent, crystalline solid, which on heat- 
ing slowly melts to a colorless liquid, becomes 
yellow when warmed to 0° C., and orange at 
20° C. Under ordinary atmospheric pressure 
it boils at about 22° C., with the evolution of 
the gaseous peroxide; (5) Nitrogen pentoxide 
or nitric anhydride, N2Os, may be prepared by 
dehydrating concentrated nitric acid by the 
cautious addition of phosphorous pentoxide, or 
by passing chlorine gas over dry silver nitrate. 
The pentoxide is solid at ordinary temperatures, 
and: may be obtained in the form of white, 
lustrous, translucent prisms, which have a 
specific gravity of about 1.64, and melt at 3° C. 
with partial decomposition into the peroxide 
and free oxygen. At about 46°C. the liquid 
boils. The pentoxide combines with water to 
form nitric acid (q.v.). 

Ammonia.— Under very high pressures (175 
to 200 atmospheres) and at high temperatures, 
(approx. 600°C.) with the assistance of a 
catalyst, nitrogen and hydrogen can be com- 
bined directly, forming ammonia (NHs). The 
first commercial development of this process 
was accomplished by Haber and his associates 
in Germany in 1910. The apparatus used is 
difficult to construct, and the catalyst is easily 
rendered inactive, yet Germany made consider- 
able quantities of ammonia by this method dur- 
ing the war; the costs of production by this 
process, however, have not been disclosed. 

Large quantities of ammonia have been 
manufactured during the last few years by the 
so-called Cyanamid process, in which calcium 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


Single Unit Generator 


Sectional View Generator 

SECTIONAL VIEW 

GENERATOR 

Oxygen offtake 
Hydrogen offtake 
Indicator and Pressure Equalizer 
Positive electrode Terminals 
Negative “ % 
Filling cup 
Hydraulic Jornt 
Diaphragm 
Insulating supports 


A—OUTER ELECTRODE 


B—COVER 


cOe> 


C—HYDRAULIC JOINT 


sy 


D—INNER ELECTRODE 


mo 


E—ASBESTOS SACK 


_ 


F—FILLING HOLE IN COVER 


G—LANTERN DIMENSION OF GENERATORS 


Height of cell 2’ 10” 

_ ‘over all 5’ 6” 

Length over all 3’ 9” 

Width “ “ 19” 

Weight empty 1000 Ibs, 
3 full 1500 Ibs, 


H—PORCELAIN SUPPORTS 


Fig. 1.— First electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen generator Fig. 2.— First development of Fig. 1 with a view toward 
manufactured in United States (French Patents) economy of floor space 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


View 


from the rear of a 15-cell battery of generators, with a rated capacity at normal current of 600 amperes of 1728 


Fig. 4.— The third stage of development, representing higher efficiency, compactness, and durability. 
cubic feet of oxygen and 3456 cubic feet of hydrogen per 24 hours 


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LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


carbide is first manufactured in an electric fur- 
nace; this carbide is ground fine and subjected 
to the action of nitrogen in suitable ovens. 
The resulting product is called Cyanamid and 
contains 20 to 23 per cent nitrogen. By sub- 
jecting this Cyanamid to steam, under pressure, 
almost the theoretical yield of ammonia is ob- 
tained. The method has been in operation in 
Europe for some time as well as at Niagara 
Falls, Ontario. (See CyANamip). Several 
processes for the production of NHs through 
the intermediate formation of cyanides are in 
process of development and show promise of 
successful operation. In these processes a mix- 
ture of alkali metal compound and carbon, with 
or without a catalyst, is subjected to the action 
of nitrogen at a temperature of approximately 
1000° ‘C. Cyanides are produced which, by the 
action of steam, are converted into ammonia 
and a residue which can be returned to the 
cycle of operations. (See CyANIDES). Am- 
monia can also be obtained by the hydrolysis 
of suitable nitrides. This process was first in- 
troduced by Serpek in Italy. Interest in this 
process has recently been revived and one or 
more plants are in prospect. The process de- 
pends upon the reduction of alumina in one 
form or another by means of carbon at a very 
high temperature in the presence of nitrogen, 
The aluminum nitride thus formed is after- 
ward subjected to the action of steam, pro- 
ducing ammonia and alumina. Notwithstand- 
ing the methods described above, the fact re- 
mains that the world still depends upon nature 
to supply the bulk of the ammonia required and 
until comparatively recently nearly all of our 
ammonia came from the destructive distillation 
of coal. An oily liquid known as chloride of 
nitrogen (NCl;) is formed by passing chlorine 
through a solution of ammonium chloride or, 
more conveniently, electrolyzing a solution of 
ammonium chloride. This compound is one of 
the most dangerous explosives known. A num- 
ber of synthetic nitrogen compounds, not found 
in nature but now widely used, are of great im- 
portance, In addition to the oxides and ammo- 
nia mentioned above, there are such derivatives 
of nitric acid as nitroglycerine, gun cotton and 
a series of so-called “azo-compounds,” which 
are either dyes or intermediates in the manu- 
facture of dyes. A number of alkaloids that 
contain nitrogen show considerable physiolog- 
ical activity and are of importance as medi- 
cines. 

Uses.— Free nitrogen gas is used in very 
large quantities in the manufacture of cyana- 
mide, cyanides and synthetic ammonia. Itis also 
used in the incandescent lamp industry as the 
filaments last much longer and give greater 
efficiency 1 in an atmosphere of nitrogen than in 
one of air. Nitrogen is likewise finding an in- 
creasing number of applications as an inert gas 
in various manufacturing operations, for in- 
stance where oxidation is to be avoided. Cer- 
tain compounds of nitrogen, e.g., nitrates, am- 
monium salts and cyanamid (nitrolim), are used 
in enormous quantities as fertilizers. Nitric 
acid and an almost endless list of nitro com- 
pounds obtained by treatment of various or- 
ganic materials with nitric acid are used in 
very large quantities in the manufacture of 
dyes and explosives, drugs, celluloid and simi- 
lar products. Ammonia is used in large quan- 


487 


tities in ice machines and in the manufacture of 
soda by the Solvay process. Cyanides are used 
for the extraction of the precious metals from 
their ores and also in considerable quantities in 
the electroplating industries, as well as in the 
manufacture of numerous small amounts of 
chemicals useful in the practical arts. 
Bibliography.— Boyce, John C., ‘Bibliog- 
raphy of the Production of Synthetic Nitric 
Acid and Synthetic Ammonia? (in Metallurgi- 
cal and Chemical Engineering, Vol. XVII, p. 
328, 1917) ; ‘Reference List Electrical Fixation 
of Atmospheric Nitrogen, etc.,> Bulletin No. 
63, United States Bureau of Soils; Literature 
of the Nitrogen Industries, 1912-16, originally 
published serially in the General Electric Re- 
view and later assembled in the Journal of In- 
dustrial and Engineering Chemistry, pp. 424- 
438 (1917); Thorpe, ‘Dictionary of Applied 


Chemistry? (Vol. Ill, pp. 676-712, 1916). 


NITROUS OXIDE. Nitrogen monoxide— 
nitrous oxide —laughing gas — N2O — specific 
gravity 1.52— atomic weight 43.76, A colorous 
gas possessing a pleasant, slightly sweet smell 
and taste. Used largely by surgeons and den- 
tists — preferably with a small admixture of 
oxygen as a general anesthetic. Itt is not in- 
flammable and not explosive except in the pres- | 
ence of some easily oxidizable material when 
it acts in manner similar to oxygen under same 
conditions. Soluble in water to the extent of 
approximately one volume at ordinary temper- 
atures and atmospheric pressure. Much more 
soluble in alcohol and many of the volatile oils. 
At temperatures below its critical point (30° C. 
— 86° F.) it is readily liquefied by pressure. Its 
critical pressure (tension of the gas at its criti- 
cal temperature) is 75 atmospheres. At tem- 
peratures below the critical the tension of the 
saturated vapor is approximately as below: 


—100° C.— Freezes. 

— 88° C—15 Ibs. (Atmospheric pressure). 
0° C— 30 Atmospheres. 

+ 7° C—50 Atmospheres. 

+ 20 —60 Atmospheres. 

+ 55 —116 Atmospheres. 


The liquefied gas is a colorless and very 
mobile liquid having a specific gravity of 0.9369, 
freezes at — 100° C. and expands rapidly when 
heated — ‘is not miscible with water but dis- 
solves or mixes readily with alcohol — chloro- 
form — ether and the volatile oils generally. It 
is also a ready solvent of many gums and hy- 
drocarbons, 

If a cylinder containing the liquefied gas be 
immersed, valve up, in a freezing mixture of 
ice and salt, in order to condense and freeze 
any moisture present, and then after attaching 
a short bent delivery tube to the valve, be in- 
verted with the tube extending into a glass flask 
and the valve cautiously opened, the first liquid 
flowing will evaporate with great rapidity and 
some spluttering until the temperature of the 
tube and flask are sufficiently reduced, when the 
liquid will collect in the flask and may be re- 
tained for a considerable period. If the liquid 
be agitated or the gaseous atmosphere over the 
liquid be removed by blowing with the mouth 
or otherwise, the surface will be immediately 
covered by a thin film of the frozen gas. In 


458 


this or similar experiments great care is neces- 
sary to prevent the liquid or frozen gas from 
striking the unprotected skin, as it will quickly 
freeze the surface and produce an ugly sore 
similar to that produced by contact with molten 
lead or other metal. 

History.— Nitrous oxide was first prepared 
by Priestley in 1772 by deoxidizing nitric oxide 
—NO. In 1823 the gas was liquefied by Far- 
aday by heating anhydrous nitrate of ammonia 
contained in one limb of a_ hermetically 
sealed glass tube bent in the middle at an 
obtuse angle. The gas together with the water 
vapor formed by the decomposition of the salt 
distilled over into the cooled end of the tube 
and both being condensed by the pressure and 
cold to liquids — the gas collected on top of the 
water. 

Through the experiments of Natterer of 
Vienna and Bianchi of Paris (1845) carbonic 
acid — nitrous oxide and some other gases were 
liquefied on a semi-commercial scale by the use 
of a small but powerful pump specially con- 
structed for the purpose. The pump cylinder 
of small diameter and long (not unlike a gun 
barrel) was cooled by a water jacket and deliv- 
ered the gas in successive charges through an 
automatically operated valve into a strong iron 
reservoir which was surrounded by ice or a 
freezing mixture. 

Many early observers called attention to the 
peculiar physiological effects of the gas when 
breathed: in some instances it would seem prob- 
able that they must have made use of an impure 
gas in their experiments. In 1809 Sir Hum- 
phrey Davy mentions among these effects in- 
toxication and ultimate loss of consciousness 
and even suggests its use as an anesthetic. This 
suggestion bore no fruit until 1844 when Mr. 
G. O. Colton in the course of a lecture or 
entertainment given at Hartford, Conn. ad- 
ministered the gas to a number of individuals 
from his audience and among others to. Mr. 
Samuel A. Cooley, who in the course of the 
antics induced by breathing the gas injured his 
leg quite severely. Upon coming out from un- 
der the influence of the gas Mr. C. stated 
that he had no recollection of the injury nor did 
it give him any pain. Dr. Horace Wells, a 
dentist of Hartford who was present, imme- 
diately suggested the use of the gas as an 
anesthetic an the extraction of teeth. 

Within a few days Dr. Wells arranged to 
put his idea to a test. Mr. Colton adminis- 
tered the gas to Dr. Wells, and Dr. J. M. 
Riggs, also a Hartford dentist, extracted a 
tooth from Dr. Wells’ mouth. This experiment 
was a complete success, and monumental, be- 
ing the first recorded instance of a painless 
surgical operation under the influence of a gen- 
eral anesthetic. Dr. Wells made use of. the 
gas in a number of minor surgical operations, 
but, owing to crude methods and imperfect ap- 
paratus, with varying success. Dr. Wells died a 
little later, and the anesthetic properties of sul- 
phuric either and chloroform being discovered, 
the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide were 
apparently forgotten until the year 1862, when 
its use was revived, this time in New Haven, 
Conn. 

In July 1863 Mr. Colton, in conjunction with 
a number of influential dentists, organized the 
Colton Dental Association and opened an office 
in New York City for the painless extraction 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


of teeth, nitrous oxide being the anesthetic em- 
ployed. This’ venture proved a great success, 
and in 1881 Dr. Colton reported 121,709 admin- 
istrations of the gas at the office of his asso- 
ciation and with no accidents. In a catalogue 
of. surgical instruments and apparatus issued 
by James Coxeter & Son of London, England, 
in 1870 we find cuts and price lists of iron 
cylinders containing the liquefied gas together 
with inhalers and other apparatus. This is 
without doubt the first instance of the com- 
meroial development of the liquefied gas in- 
dustry. 

Coxeter apparatus was brought to American 
immediately upon its introduction to the den- 
tal profession in England, and various sizes of 
iron cylinders, containing from 100 to 1,000 
gallons of the gas, soon became common in 
the American dental trade. The liquefied gas 
was first produced commercially in this coun- 
try by Johnston Brothers of New York City, 
who developed and patented improved com- 
pressing methods and machinery, and who later 
united with S. S. White of Philadelphia, con- 
tinuing the manufacture under the name of 
The S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Com- 


pany. 


Commercial Method of Manufacture, Etc. 
— Nitrous oxide may be made by a number of 
methods depending upon the deoxidation of the 
higher oxides of nitrogen, as, for instance, by 
the action of dilute nitric acid upon zinc or 
iron. An impure gas may be made also by 
heating a mixture of ammonium sulphate and 
nitrate of soda or potash in a closed retort. 
The general commercial method for its manu- 
facture, however, is by heating in a closed glass 
or. metal retort having a proper protective 
lining a pure fused nitrate of ammonia. Ata 
temperature of about 170° C. the salt fuses 
completely and at temperatures between 240° 
and 260° C. gives off gas freely—the latter 
temperature should not be exceeded, 

The formula of the reaction is: 


NH.N O;+H eat=N20 +2H.0. 


It thus appears that the nitrate of ammonia 
is completely decomposed, each molecule break- 
ing up and forming one molecule of nitrous 
oxide gas and two molecules of the vapor of 
water or steam. The products of the distilla- 
tion are cooled, the steam being of course con- 
densed to water, and then having passed through 
proper washing apparatus the gas is collected in 
a holder from which it is taken by pumps and 
compressed into steel cylinders. Among the 
concerns now engaged in the manufacture of 
nitrous oxide are the Lennox Chemical Com- 
pany and the Ohio Chemical. Company, both 
of Cleveland, Ohio, The S. S. White Dental 
Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia, Pa., 
and the Standard Oxygen Company of New 
York. City. 

The American Red Cross has, it is. said, 
constructed in France at Montreux a large 
plant capable of producing and liquefying 100,- 
000 gallons of N:O_ per. day, and for a, few 
months previous to the signing of the armistice 
N:O was very largely used in the army and navy 
hospitals with great success. The annual pro- 
duction of N.2O in America is variously esti- 
mated at from 10,000,000 gallons (133,333 cubic 
feet) to three times this figure. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


OXYGEN. Historical.— Oxygen was rec- 
ognized by its properties as far back as the 
8th century among the Chinese who knew that 
the “active” component of the air combines 
with some metals, with sulphur and with char- 
coal and that this active component could be 
obtained pure from saltpetre and certain other 
minerals. Leonardo da Vinci (1451-1519) was 
the first European to state that the air contains 
two gases, but it was not until 1774 that Joseph 
Priestley made the first pure sample of oxygen. 
It is true that Scheele, a Swedish apothecary, 
had made oxygen in 1771-72 from at least seven 
different substances, and that he had made 
quite an extensive study of its combination with 
various materials, but as his results were not 
printed until 1777, Priestley is generally con- 
sidered the discoverer of oxygen. Many other 
chemists worked on air and the commonly 
known gases at that time, and these studies 
furnished the material on which Lavoisier, the 
great French philosopher and scientist, based 
his conclusions which may be said to form the 
foundation of modern chemistry. The name 
oxygen (meaning acid-torming) was given to 
the gas by Lavoisier who at that time thought 
it was an essential constituent of all acids. 

Occurrence.— Oxygen is the most widely 
distributed element in nature and it has been 
estimated that it makes up nearly half of ter- 
restrial matter. It forms approximately 21 per 
cent by volume of the atmosphere; it makes up 
eight-ninths: by weight of all the water on the 
globe; more than three-fifths of the human 
body; nearly half of three of the chief con- 
stituents of the earth’s crust, namely, silicious 
rock, chalk and alumina. Many other minerals 
contain oxygen in considerable proportions. It 
is an essential constituent of all living organ- 
isms, aside from its existence in the water of 
the tissues. It is absorbed by all animals dur- 
ing respiration and is given off in the free state 
by growing vegetable organisms when exposed 
to sunlight. 

Preparation.— Pure oxygen is best pre- 
pared in small quantities from one of the many 
substances in which it occurs in chemical com- 
bination. 

I. Heat applied under the proper conditions 
causes oxygen to be liberated from the follow- 
ing compounds: oxides of mercury, silver, gold 
and platinum; peroxides of hydrogen, barium, 
lead and manganese; chlorates, nitrates, bi- 
chromates, etc.. of potassium and other metals. 
Of chief interest are the following: 

1. Ignition of nitre, which gives up only 
one-third of its oxygen. Priestley first ob- 
tained impure oxygen in this manner in 1771. 

2. Ignition of mercuric oxide, the method 
used by Priestley on 1 Aug. 1774, when he made 
the first pure oxygen. 

3. Heating manganese dioxide, formerly one 
of the cheapest methods. of commercial prep- 
aration of oxygen, and the one used by Scheele. 

4. Heating potassium chlorate alone or 
preferably with about one-eighth of its weight 
of manganese dioxide, or a little spongy plati- 
num. Oxygen prepared in this way usually con- 
tains chlorine which can be removed by caus- 
tic soda solution. The manganese dioxide 
(pyrolusite) should be tested as the occasional 
adulteration of it with coal dust has been the 
cause of fatal accidents. 


489 


II. A convenient laboratory method for the 
preparation of pure oxygen is to treat “oxone” 
(a convenient form of sodium peroxide) with 
water. This material is prepared in a handy 
form ‘especially for this purpose. 

III. The electrolysis of water made slightly 
acid with sulphuric acid furnishes pure oxygen, 
which is liberated at the positive pole, and at 
the same time twice the volume of hydrogen i is 
liberated at the negative pole. 

Properties.— Oxygen is a colorless, taste- 
less and odorless gas. It is 1.1056 times as 
heavy as air. Owing to the large number of 
elements that combine with oxygen, it has been 
selected by the International Committee on 
Atomic Weights as the standard of comparison 
for all atomic weights, that of oxygen being 16 
(according to this scale the atomic weight of 
hydrogen is 1.008). 

Oxygen was first liquefied in 1877 but was 
not obtained in the liquid form in considerable 
quantities until 1883. (See Liquefaction of 
Gases, p. 495).. Liquid oxygen is a pale, steel 
blue, transparent liquid when in considerable 
masses. The density of liquid oxygen at —182.5° 
C. is 1.1181; the density of solid oxygen is 
1.4256 at —252.5° C. The critical temperature 
of oxygen is — 118° C., and the critical pressure 
50 atmospheres. At atmospheric pressure, the 
Doce set is —182.5° C.; the melting point is 
—218° C. 

One volume of liquid oxygen at —182.5° C., 
if allowed to evaporate, furnishes an amount 
of gas which, at 0° C. and atmospheric pres- 
sure, occupies a volume 782 times that of the 
original liquid taken. 

In a Geissler tube, oxygen shows a luminous 
spectrum containing a bright band in the red, 
two in the green and one in the blue, but the 
spectrum is said to vary under varying condi- 
tions. 

Oxygen is slightly soluble in water. Its 
introduction into all animal life is by this 
means. Fish get the oxygen for their blood 
directly from the water in which it is dissolved. 
Among the air-breathing animals, including 
mankind, the process is not so obvious; the 
air is breathed into the lungs, oxygen is ab- 
sorbed by the moisture in the walls of the air 
sacs of the lungs and thus passes into the blood 
in the dissolved state. 

While the oxygen of the air supports respira- 
tion, and oxygen is the only gas suitable for 
this need of animal life, the proportion found 
in air is the one to which all life has become 
adjusted. Pure oxygen can be inhaled for a 
while with safety, but only relatively small 
amounts are required to produce a sense of 
narcotism in a normal, healthy person. <A con- 
tinued supply of pure oxygen furnished to a 
small rabbit caused it to eat voraciously but 
nevertheless it became very much emaciated 
from lack of ability to assimilate the food so 
rapidly. Under certain conditions, the animal 
became speedily narcotized, and the supply of 
pure oxygen had to be discontinued to prevent 
its death. The cold-blooded animals were 
found to be very little affected, but most of the 
warm-blooded animals experimented upon 
speedily showed symptoms of great weakening. 
Oxygen, however, has been found very efficient 
in’ restoring persons overcome by noxious 


490 


gases, and also, judiciously used, in the treat- 
ment of certain affections of the lungs. 

Oxygen forms oxides by direct combustion 
with nearly all other elements, the only excep- 
tions being argon, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, 
gold, helium, iodine, neon, platinum and silver. 
Most of the non-metallic elements combined 
with oxygen form acid anhydrides; hydrogen 
forms. a neutral oxide, water. A few of the 
metals.in the molten state absorb oxygen which 
is given off again when the metal solidifies. 
Heated sat 450° C., silver takes up about five 
times its volume of oxygen, gold 35 to 40, 
platinum 65 to 75 and palladium about 500 
times its volume. Finely divided platinum ab- 
sorbs about 100 times its volume of oxygen 
and palladium sponge about 1,000 times. Cer- 
tain substances absorb increasing amounts of 
oxygen as the temperature is lowered, and give 
it. off again as the temperature is increased; 
on the contrary, wood charcoal absorbs about 
18 times its volume of oxygen at ordinary tem- 
peratures, but as the temperature is lowered, 
it takes up increasing quantities of oxygen, so 
that at —185° C. one volume of charcoal ab- 
sorbs 230 volumes of oxygen. 

Liquid oxygen is a very perfect insulator 
and is a comparatively inert substance; phos- 
phorus, sodium, potassium, etc., may be im- 
mersed in it without any reaction taking place. 

Oxygen is non-inflammable per se but its 
combination with other elements or materials 
with evolution of heat and light is commonly 
known as “combustion,” and the material com- 
‘ bining thus with oxygen is said to be “in- 
flammable”; examples are, burning of wood, 
coal, gas, etc. 

Many combinations with oxygen, however, 
are not accompanied by light or extreme genera- 
tion of heat, and these are classed, along with 
the combustion described above, under the 
term “oxidation,” a familiar example being the 
rusting of iron. 

All substances which burn in air burn with 
very much. greater brilliancy in pure oxygen, 
and many which refuse to burn in air can be 
burned quite easily in oxygen. Thus, an iron 
wire, if previously heated to the ignition tem- 
perature, burns with dazzling brilliancy in 
oxygen; even the diamond (dense form of car- 
bon) if heated to redness and then plunged into 
oxygen burns readily without further appli- 
cation of heat. Further, the temperature of a 
hydrogen or coal gas flame burning in oxygen 
is very much higher than that of the same gas 
burning in air. Some of the less obvious cases 
of slow oxidation are of particular interest. 
The bodily heat of all animals is furnished by 
the oxidation of certain constituents of the 
blood as it passes through the lungs, the oxy- 
gen being furnished by the air. Slow oxidation 
of organic materials, which otherwise would 
cause discomfort or disease, takes place uni- 
versally in nature so that the waters of streams 
automatically purify themselves by absorbing 
oxygen from the air; this process is imitated 
when large volumes of pure water are mixed 
with sewage, thus introducing dissolved oxygen 
which, aided by bacteria, rapidly renders the 
organic matter harmless. Not all slow oxida- 
tions are beneficial, however. In cases where 
circulation of air through large masses of 
material is sufficient for slow oxidation but not 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


for carrying off the heat generated, there may 
be sufficient accumulation of heat to bring 
about actual combustion; the result of such so- 
called “spontaneous combustion” may be a 
burning hay-stack, a fire in the coal bunkers of 
a ship or a burning building set fire by a col- 
lection of greasy waste rags or tow that has 
slowly heated itself up to the burning tempera- 
ture. Insurance companies have very — strict 
rules concerning the disposal of such waste as 
many serious conflagrations have resulted from 
such causes. 

Somewhat similar and exceedingly danger- 
ous are the explosions of finely divided ma- 
terials which in their ordinary form are con- 
sidered anything but explosive. Finely divided 
coal dust mixed with air has been the cause of 
many disastrous mine explosions and fires. In 
1878 a tremendous explosion in the Washburn 
Flour Mills in Minneapolis, Minn., demon- 
strated the fact that any finely divided car- 
bonaceous material constitutes an explosive 
substance when mixed with certain proportions 
of air. Indeed, many finely divided _metals 
which ordinarily do not burn in air or oxygen 
will burn readily in an ordinary gas flame if 
the material is in the form of a fine powder. 
All of these are instances of a combination of 
oxygen with other materials. 

It is not generally appreciated that in our 
various forms of explosives we have combus- 
tion or recombustion of oxygen with other 
constituents and that in such materials we com- 
monly distinguish between rapid combustion, 
explosion and detonation, all being different de- 
grees of speed of oxidation. Explosive pow- 
ders, for example, are so regulated as to 
give any desired rate of combustion to meet 
the projectile or gun requirements. 

It has been shown that even at high tempera- 
tures the presence of a trace of moisture is 
necessary for free oxidation, and in absolutely 
dry oxygen even sulphur and phosphorus can 
be distilled and carbon made red hot without 
any combustion taking place. A jet of burn- 
ing carbon monoxide is entirely extinguished 
when introduced into pure and absolutely dry 
oxygen, but the presence of the minutest trace 
of moisture is sufficient to restore the oxygen 
to its activity. 

Manufacture.— The following methods have 
at various times been tried out commercially for 
the production of oxygen in quantity: 

1. The ignition of nitre. The oxygen from 
this source was contaminated with oxides of 


nitrogen. ey 
2. Heating manganese dioxide. (See p. 
489). This was one of the cheapest of the 


early methods. 

3. Heating a potassium chlorate-manganese 
dioxide mixture as described (p. 489). Until 
about 1885 this was the almost exclusive source 
of the considerable quantities of oxygen used 
for lime-light purposes. 

A number of processes such as the follow- 
ing are now obsolete: extraction from air by 
utilizing solubility of oxygen in water; the 
alternate -oxidation of cuprous chloride by air, 
the absorbed oxygen being recovered at dull red — 
heat; alternate formation and decomposition 
(with ltberation of oxygen) of alkaline 
manganates; heating a concentrated solution of 
bleaching powder at 70 to 80° C. with a cobalt 
catalyst, etc. 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


4. The alternate formation and decomposi- 
tion of barium peroxide. Thorpe’s ‘Diction- 
ary of Applied Chemistry? (1916) gives the 
following account of this process: 

“In 1851 Boussingault found that when 
barium oxide (baryta) is heated to a dull- red 
heat in a current of air it is converted into 
barium peroxide, and that at a higher tempera- 
ture this peroxide is again resolved into barium 
oxide and oxygen. But his attempts to utilize 
this reaction as a practical and economical 
source of oxygen failed owing to the fact that 
after a few oxidations and deoxidations the 
baryta lost its power of reabsorbing oxygen. 
Many other attempts were made to overcome 


this difficulty, but for long without success. In 
1879, however, the MM. Brin frérés were more 
successful, and took out a patent for the process 
(Eng. Pat. 1416 of 1880). Further improve- 
ments were made under the auspices of the 
company formed to develop and work the 
patents, and the process was made practical and 
economical and was worked on a large scale at 
various places. 

“The permanence of the baryta is mainly 
dependent on its physical condition, the use of 
reduced pressure during deoxidation, and con- 
sequent avoidance of excessively hich tempera- 
tures, and the careful purification of the air 
used. It was found possible to dispense with 
change of temperature in the reaction, change 
of pressure being alone trusted to for deter- 


491 


mining the respective phases of oxidation and 
deoxidation. Neither the oxidation nor the 
deoxidation is as complete as when two tem- 
peratures are used, and the yield per opera- 
tion is much less. But the duration of the 
operation was reduced from about 4 hours to 
8-15 minutes, and the total daily yield therefore 
largely increased. At the same time the opera- 
tion was much simplified, the wear and tear of 
furnace, retorts, etc., very greatly reduced, and 
the fuel required lessened. Labor was also 
economized, the multiplied reversals of cocks; 
etc., necessitated iby the single-temperature 
method of working being effected automatically 
by reversing gear designed by K. S. Murray. 
The labor required was therefore little more 
than that needed for stoking the furnace, and 
oiling and supervising the pumps, etc. The 
oxygen obtained had a purity of about 93-96 
per cent. 

“For a producer capable of delivering 10,000 
cubic feet of oxygen per 24 hours the con- 
sumption of coke in the furnace is about 12-15 
hundredweight per day, and for plant of that 
or smaller size the pump power required is 


Fic. 3.— The second stage of economy in floor space — 
the filter press type. Capacity, 3600 cu. ft. oxygen and 7200 
cu. ft. hydrogen per 24 hours. Length, 15 ft.; width 5 ft.; 
height 8 ft.; plates 36-in. square. Current required — 320 
amperes by 120 volts D.C. Purity of the oxygen direct 
from generator, 99.6 per cent, and of the hydrogen 99. 8 
cent or better. 


about 1 I. H. P. per 1,000 feet of oxygen pro- 
duced per day, the ratio decreasing for larger 
plants. 

“Tt is necessary that the barium oxide should 
be as hard and as porous as possible, and this 
is ‘best obtained by preparing it by igniting 
the nitrate. The nitrate fuses and decomposi- 
tion soon commences with evolution of a mix- 
ture of oxygen and oxides of nitrogen. This 
action continues for about two to three hours, 
during which time the contents of the crucible 
remain in ebullition. A porous mass is then 
left, which is heated for another hour to com- 
plete, as far as possible, the decomposition. 
In this way a very hard but also very porous 
baryta is obtained. 

“This process was thoroughly practical and 
economical, and large numbers of plants were 
erected all over the world and worked success- 
fully for many years. Some plants are still 
working, but in the last few years the process 


492 


has been largely superseded by the still cheaper 
liquid air process, which also produces oxygen 
of greater purity.” 

Commercial Manufacture.—The commercial 
manufacture of oxygen has thus reached the 
stage where oxygen in any appreciable amount 
is made either by the electrolytic method or one 
air liquefaction. 


WATER FEED 


Be Gn 


OXYGEN 


pave A: 
GAS [a 


TRAPS 


OVERFLOW TRAP 
EYE BOLT 


INSPECTION DOORS 


i : ea tli 


cnc = al i 
a 
vil 


4 


Tt ‘ Bese soir 
CAs ey un ~ Eieehoute 


—a= 
bay ae 


ANODE 


Aa 


\ Seer 


ELECTRICAL 


CONNECTIONS 
DIAPHRAGM 


CATHODE + il 


DIAPHRAGM 


PETTICOAT— 
INSULATO ee ee 


LOE 


nee 5.— A section of one cell shown in bank of fifteen in 
ig. 4. 

By Electrolysis— When an electric current 
is passed through water containing sulphuric 
acid or an alkali (to facilitate the passage of 
the current) hydrogen is formed at the cathode 
and oxygen at the anode. By providing suit- 
able means for collecting the gases, they are 
obtained in a very pure condition. 

This method lends itself readily to the prep- 
aration of hydrogen and oxygen for the 
laboratory or for larger industrial uses. 

With each volume of oxygen two volumes 
of hydrogen are evolved. 

For laboratory purposes the electrolyte may 
he dilute sulphuric acid and the electrodes of 
platinum. 

For the commercial production of these 
gases the electrolytic cell is made as compact 
as possible ; the electrolyte is a solution of 
caustic potash or caustic soda,eand the elec- 
trodes are of cast iron (the anode being 
nickelplated to increase efficiency and to pre- 
vent rusting). A very efficient type of cell 
now on the market is shown in the accompany- 
ing cuts. 

~ Essentially this consists of a thin rectangu- 
lar box to which are bolted two cast-iron 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


plates or electrodes. The cavity thus formed 
between the electrodes is divided by a dia- 
phragm of asbestos fabric. In the upper part 
of the cast-iron frame are reservoirs for the 
electrolyte from which it is fed to the two 
sides of the diaphragm. The two gas cham- 
bers which permit the separation of the gas 
from moisture and electrolyte are also located 
in the upper part of the frame of the cell, and 
serve as gas traps and gas offtakes, as well 
as automatic pressure controlling devices. At 
the bottom of the frame are the communicating 
passageways which permit equalization of 
densities in the electrolyte. The inside of the 
electrodes carry a great number of pyramid- 
shaped projections which greatly increase the 
area in contact with the electrolyte and which 
facilitate the release of the gases at the gen- 
erating surface. 

The interior of the cell, both sides of the 
asbestos diaphragm, is filled with a solution 
of caustic potash or caustic soda in. distilled 
water. When the electric current is passed 
through, the gases form and rise upward along 
the surfaces of the electrodes to the collecting 
chambers above. Any tendency for them to 
flow from one electrode to the other is pre- 
vented by the intervening diaphragm of asbestos. 

In the special type of cell here described, . 
with a normal current of 600 amperes at 2.2 
volts and an electrolyte of caustic soda solu- 
tion, a kilowatt-hour efficiency of 3.65 cubic 
feet of oxygen and 7.3 cubic feet of hydrogen 
is obtained. It has a normal rated capacity of 
4.8 cubic feet of oxygen and 9.6 cubic feet of 
hydrogen per clock hour. This cell can be 
operated at current strengths up to 1,000 am- 
peres, at which point the capacity is greatly 
increased though the efficiency is somewhat 
lower. The gases are extremely pure, the 
oxygen analyzing as high as 99.7 per cent and 
the hydrogen as high as 99.9 per cent. 

The three prototypes of this cell, the first of 
which was introduced into the United States 
in 1910, are shown in the accompanying cuts. 
The improvements have been along the lines 
of compactness, higher electrical efficiency and 
simplicity of construction. 

From Liquid Air— By fractional distilla- 
tion. Since the boiling point of oxygen at 
atmospheric pressure is — 182.7° C., while that 
of nitrogen is —195.5° C., by a proper frac- 
tionating apparatus the nitrogen in liquid air 
can be allowed to boil off first, leaving pure 
one behind. See Liquefaction of Gases, p. 
49 

Commercial Uses. Because it costs noth- 
ing, the oxygen which plays so large a part in 
the burning of fuel for the production of light, 
heat and power, or wherever fuel of any kind is 
burned, is generally overlooked in listing the uses 
of oxygen. However, each ton of coal burned 
consumes about three tons (about 70,000 cubic 
feet) of oxygen. The amounts of oxygen con- 
sumed in this way are scarcely comprehensible. 
One moderate sized blast furnace uses 40,000 
cubic feet of air per minute and since it is becom- 
ing possible to make oxygen cheaply the use of 
super-oxygenized air for blast furnaces is being. 
seriously considered. Experiments made on a 
100-ton furnace in Belgium before the World 
War showed that by increasing the percentage 
of oxygen in the air only from 21 to 23 per 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


cent, a saving of over 100 pounds of coke is 
effected in smelting 1 ton of iron, and at the 
same time the output of the furnace is in- 
creased by from 10 to 15 per cent. 

1. For Welding and Cutting of Metals.— 
Oxygen in conjunction with hydrogen or acety- 
lene in the oxy-hydrogen or oxy-acetylene flame 
finds very extensive use for cutting all kinds 
of iron and steel even up to massive struc- 
tures. The accompanying’ cut shows an 
oxy-hydrogen torch fed by oxygen and hydro- 
gen from two steel cylinders containing the 
compressed gases. The oxygen is supplied to 
the inner and the hydrogen to the outer tube. 
The quantity of the two may be regulated at 
will so that an oxidizing or reducing flame is 
obtained. For cutting an oxidizing flame is em- 
ployed. When the metal upon which the flame 
is directed has attained the desired temperature 
the hydrogen gas is shut off. The stream 
of oxygen plays upon the hot metal and 
combines with it to form Fes;Os which is then 
blown away in the gas current. For autoge- 
nous welding a reducing flame must be em- 
ployed. The cutting out of a manhole in a 
boiler of average size by mechanical means will 
employ two workmen seven to eight hours; by 
means of oxygen this can be done in about eight 
minutes. Similarly large steel boiler plates, 
rails, girders (e.g., in demolishing buildings), 
etc., may be cut away with extreme ease and 
nicety. Metals autogenously welded are fre- 
quently stronger at the welded portion than 
elsewhere. The above properties of the oxy- 
hydrogen and oxy-acetylene flame have found 
extensive application in the motor car industry, 
in railroad and boiler and machine shops, in 
mining and tunneling, also in the tinning and 
enameling industries. 

2. For Combustion— Air enriched with 
oxygen allows the smokeless combustion of 
certain fuels in furnaces; also for the produc- 
tion of producer and water gas. It is finding 
application as well for obtaining high furnace 
temperatures; e.g., in the glass industry, sav- 
ing fuel and time. 

3. In Varnish Manufacture Animal and 
vegetable oils, such as fish oil, linseed oil, soya 
bean oil, etc., may be oxidized by blowing with 
oxygen gas to form oils of much higher vis- 
cosity and specific gravity. 

4. Medicine— Oxygen is advantageously 
used in cases of asphyxia, asthma, autointoxi- 
cation, pulmonary diseases, heart diseases, 
anemia and diabetes. It has a cicatrising ac- 
tion in the cure of wounds and prurulent in- 
fections. : 

Oxygen in cylinders is used for freshening 
the air in submarines; for high altitude work 
in aeroplanes; for experimental and analytical 
work in laboratories; for medical purposes as 
noted above, for melting silicon and in the blow- 
pipes used in the manufacture of synthetic 
gems. 

The most important industrial use is for 
oxy-acetylene or oxy-hydrogen welding and 
cutting. Though a very recent development in 
the engineering and construction field, the 
amount of oxygen consumed in this way is 
enormous. 

According to the Engineering (London) 
No. 98 for the year 1915, in 1911 Germany used 
150,000,000 cubic feet of oxygen, France 100,- 


493 


000,000 cubic feet and England about 70,000,000 
cubic feet. Of these amounts at least 90 per 
cent was used for welding and cutting metals. 
The same authority states that in 1915 there 
were some 50 liquid-air oxygen plants operating 
in Europe and that the British Oxygen Com- 
pany had eight factories equipped in this way; 
at the same time there were only five such 
plants in the United States. The growth of 
the industry abroad is indicated by the figures 
given in an address delivered before the Royal 
Institution in London, on 17 Jan. 1919, by Sir 
James Dewar. It was stated that in Great 
Britain the total output of the 12 factories 
then manufacturing liquid oxygen was 118 
tons per day, 85 per cent of which was used 
for cutting and welding purposes and 15. per 
cent for medical purposes; and that in Germany 
one plant alone was turning out 100 tons 
per day. 

At the present writing there are oxygen 
plants in every industrial region in the United 
States. Each of the two large companies oper- 
ating liquefaction processes now produces more 
pure oxygen than was produced in the entire 
world prior to a few years ago. 


Fic. 6.— An oxygen-hydrogen cutting torch in operation. 


The oxy-acetylene and oxy-hydrogen weld- 
ing and cutting process have revolutionized the 
steel and construction industries. Hundreds of 
thousands of tons of steel scrap, formerly too 
heavy for handling, now are cut easily into 
convenient sizes for remelting. Many machines 
formerly rendered useless by breakage now can 
be repaired quickly, and many high-grade cast- 
ings now can be reclaimed, instead of being 
remelted. Cutting and welding torches, in con- 
sequence, are to-day an indispensible part of the 
equipment of factories, scrap yards and machine 
shops. : 

Bibliography.— Thorpe, ‘Dictionary of Ap- 
plied Chemistry; Martin, G. F., ‘Industrial 
Gases? ; Claude, C., “Liquid Air? ; Miller, S. W., 
“Oxy-Acetylene Welding; Ellis, _ Carleton, 
“Hydrogenation of Oils — Catalysis — Gener- 
ation of Hydrogen and Oxygen.’ 


OZONE, a colorless gas, an allotropic form 
of oxygen, having a peculiar odor like that of 
chlorine and extreme chemical activity. Its 
density is one and one-half times that of oxygen 
and it is changed into oxygen only at a high 
temperature. Ozone is found in country atmos- 
phere to a much greater extent than in cities and 
towns, and on mountain tops to a greater extent 


494 


than in deep valleys. Its molecular formula is 
O, and its molecular weight, 48.00. 

The peculiar odor around an electrostatic 
machine in operation was noticed long before 
its cause was discovered. In 1840 Schonbein 
explained the cause of this phenomenon and 
succeeded in preparing ozone by the electrolysis 
of water and by the slow combustion of 
phosphorus. 

Physical Properties.— 1. Ozonized air is 
colorless and has an odor somewhat similar to 
that of chlorine. It exerts a stimulating action 
on the salivary glands. Pure ozone (obtained 


by liquefaction) is bluish in color and danger- . 


ous to handle on account of its tendency to ex- 
plosive decomposition. Like oxygen, ozone is 
a supporter of combustion. 

2. Specific gravity, 1.658 (air==1). Boiling 
point, — 119° Decomposing temperature, 
270° C. Solubility in water per 100 volumes, 
0.88 volume. Ozone dissolves in and combines 
with the etheral oils, especially turpentine, cin- 
namon. oil and with aqueous quinine solutions. 

Chemical Properties,— 1. The formation of 
ozone is an endothermic reaction, the heat of 
formation being 36,208 calories. 

2. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent. It 
bleaches solutions of litmus and of indigo. It 
oxidizes phosphorus, sulphur and arsenic. to 
the corresponding acid anhydrides. Sulphides 
are converted to sulphates; and nitrogen into 
N:O3, ammonium nitrate, and nitrite, in the 
presence of water. Manganese in solution is 
quantitatively precipitated as MnO: It attacks 
almost all organic compounds and rapidly cor- 
rodes rubber tubing, and cork or rubber 
stoppers. The albuminoids and saturated hydro- 
carbons are practically unaffected. 

3. Unsaturated organic compounds with a 
double bond between carbon and carbon absorb 
ozone quantitatively forming characteristic 
ozonides. 

4. Ozone is a strong bactericidal agent. 

Laboratory Methods of Preparation,— 
1. Electrolysis— Fisher and Massanez (1907) 
obtained oxygen containing 23 to 28 per cent of 
ozone by electrolyzing between cooled platinum 
electrodes dilute sulphuric acid (specific gravity 
1.223 to 1.07) by a current of 80 amperes per 
square centimeter at 7.8 volts. They obtained 
a yield of 7.2 grams ozone per kilowatt hour. 

2. Thermal Method.— As stated above, the 
formation of ozone is an endothermic reaction. 
Nernst has shown that free atoms of oxygen 
form ozone only when their concentration is 
10 to 20 times greater than.in ordinary oxygen. 
Therefore ordinary oxygen should be. readily 
transformed into ozone when exposed to high 
temperatures and pressure. To minimize the 
decomposing effect of the high temperature on 
the ozone the air must be rapidly cooled after 
exposure to heat. 

A current of dry air is brought in contact 
with an electrically heated Nernst filament. 
Better results, however, are obtained by im- 
mersing the incandescent filament in liquid 
oxygen. (German patent 195, 985; 1906). 

3. By Ultra-Violet Rays— A current of air 
is subjected to the influence of the rays from 
a mercury vapor lamp. The lamp has a bulb of 
quartz (transparent to ultraviolet rays) and 
the air is passed spirally between the bulb and 
an outer wall of glass (fairly impervious to the 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


ultraviolet 
845,965). 

Commercial Methods of Manufacturing 
Ozone.— Of the methods which have been 
tried for making ozone, the only practical ones 
have been those involving the passage of air 
or oxygen through an apparatus and subjecting 
it to the influence of the silent electrical dis- 
charge. A very good ozonizer is the Siemens 
and Halske machine. Each ozone tube (of 
which theré are six or eight set in a Suitable 
metal tank through which water flows for cool- 
ing purposes) consists of a cylinder of glass 
around one of aluminum. The aluminum 
cylinders are connected to the alternating cur- 
rent, the glass being grounded by contact with 
the cooling water in the tank. Air- enters a 
lower ‘chamber. beneath the cooling tank, passes 
through the ozone tubes, where it is subjected 
to the influence of a silent electrical discharge, 
and passes off as ozonized air from an upper 
chamber., The tension of the current will vary 
between 10,000 and 90,000 volts at, at least, 100 
alternations per second: A higher tension yields 
a greater output of ozone. The Siemens- 
Halske ozonizers yield about 60 grams of 
ozone per horse-power hour. For further de- 
tails regarding this machine and several other 
modifications, consult Martin, ‘Industrial 
Gases.” 

Uses of Ozone.—(1) Ozone finds some 
application in the bleaching of sponges and 
straw. (2) The principal use of ozone depends 
upon its bactericidal property. It is used for 
sterilizing water, as well as air. The advan- 
tage in the use of ozone for purifying water lies 
in the fact that it is non-toxic and leaves no 
objectionable residue. Furthermore it does 
not attack the salts usually found in water 
which give it its characteristic taste. (3) The 
disagreeable effects of air in crowded rooms 
are not entirely produced by the excess of 
carbon dioxide present. They are partly due 
to organic substances given off from, the skin 
and lungs of the people present. The intro- 
duction of a slight amount of ozone into such 
rooms is found to offset the bad effects by 
oxidizing these impurities. However, the bac- 
teria present tn such crowded rooms cannot 
be destroyed by the amount of ozone permis- 
sible, for the concentration required to kill 
bacteria would be such as to make the air 
intolerable to those present. (4) Ozone has 
recently found application in the commercial 
manufacture of vanallin from iso-eugenol and 
in the production of artificial camphor. Consult 
Martin, ‘Industrial Gases? ; Thorpe, ‘Dictionary 
of Applied Chemistry? ; Vosmaer, Alexander, 
“Ozone, Its Manufacture, Properties and Uses? 
(New York 1916). 


rays). (United States patent 


SULPHUR DIOXIDE. Sulphur dioxide 
(SO2) is found free in considerable quantities 
in Nature, in certain volcanic emanations, and 
being an exothermic compound it is readily 
formed together with a trace of SO: by burn- 
ing sulphur in the air: S + O2—SO.+ 71.6 
cals, and 1 kilo of sulphur develops 2,165 
cals. on burning. The formation of SQ: by 
burning solid sulphur occurs without change 
of volume, that is, from one volume of O, 
one volume of SO. is. obtained, and from this 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


its composition may also be deduced, because 
if SOs were to be formed then from three 
volumes of O2 one would obtain two volumes 
of SOs. Sulphur dioxide is manufactured in- 
dustrially by roasting certain metallic sulphides, 
especially pyrites (sulphides of iron, copper, 
etc.), in special furnaces: CuS + 110=Cu0 + 
SO: and also: 


2FeS, + 110= Fe:O3 + 4SO2 + 419.8 cals., 


that is, 105 cals. for each molecule of SO:. 

The SO: from large copper smelting plants 
is sometimes utilized for the manufacture of 
sulphuric acid in lead chambers, but cannot 
be used for the manufacture of catalytic sul- 
phuric acid, because the catalyst soon becomes 
covered by powdered zinc oxide and the ex- 
cessive amount of moisture renders the acid 
very dilute. Liquefied sulphur dioxide is now a 
regular article of commerce and it is generally 
transported in steel cylinders or flasks, holding 
approximately 100 kilos. It is also shipped in 
small cylinders holding about 10 pounds for 
use in laboratories and medical institutions. 
Within late years sulphur dioxide has been 
used quite extensively in the manufacture of 
ice, particularly in small ice machines manu- 
factured for domestic purposes. This substance 
is also used extensively as a reducing agent, 
a bleaching agent, a disinfectant and as a fire 
extinguisher. Sulphur dioxide is a dry, color- 
less gas of suffocating, disagreeable and pene- 
trating smell; it gives white fumes in moist air; 
it is harmful to respiration and to vegetation. 
It is readily liquefied when cooled with ice 
and salt at a pressure of three atmospheres. 
In the liquid state it has a specific gravity of 
bes a 0° F,, boils at —8°, and solidifies at 

History.— Sulphur dioxide was first lique- 
fied by Monge in Clouet about the beginning of 
the 19th century. In 1878 R. Pictet prepared 
liquid sulphur dioxide for his ice machines by 
allowing a continuous stream of strong sul- 
phuric acid to pass on to molten sulphur, which 
was placed in a cast-iron retort heated to 400°. 
2H2SO., + S=3S0:+ 2H.0. Regular develop- 
ment of SO2 may be obtained in the laboratory 
by heating one part of mercury or of copper 
turnings with three parts of strong sulphuric 
acid in a flask. 


Cu + 2SO.H2= CuSO, + 2H:20 + SO. 


- Commercial Methods of Manufacture.— 
The general method of commercial manufacture 
of sulphur dioxide is in accordance with the 
Hanisch and Schroeder patent, dated 1883 and 
perfected later (German Patent 52,025 of 
1889). Briefly this method consists of the burn- 
ing of pure brimstone in a suitable furnace, 
the very hot gases from the burner passing 
through a suitable cooling apparatus and thence 
to an absorption tower where the SO: gases 
only are absorbed by cold water which flows 
to a digester where the solution is heated 
sufficiently to drive off the SOQ: gases, which 
after passing through drying chambers is com- 
pressed into a liquid. One of the functions of 
the absorption tower just mentioned is to 
release from the SO. gases any nitrogen or 
oxygen which escapes from the top of the tower. 

Commercial Uses of Gases.— Formallv 
most of the sulphur dioxide produced was used 
directly on the spot for the manufacture of 


-disinfectant and fire extinguisher. 


495 


sulphuric acid. However, its uses are now 
varied and greatly extended, and a considerable 
market is found for it for use in wood pulp 
factories, paper mills, sugar refineries, bleaching 
and dye works, i ice manufacturing plants, chem- 
ical and metallurgical processes, as well as a 
New fields 
are constantly appearing where it is found that 
sulphur dioxide can be used to great advantage. 
A unique use to which it is occasionally put 
is to freeze and solidify moist soil around 
coffer-dams where it is impossible to keep out 
the water by ordinary piling or sheathing 
methods. 

Medicinal Uses.— Very recently it has been 
shown by medicinal men that sulphur dioxide 
when properly handled is of great value in stay- 
ing the action of tubercular affection. This 
opens a very interesting field for the use of 
this substance, and without doubt other uses, 
in a medicinal way, will be found for it. As 
a powerful disinfectant the effects of sulphur 
dioxide gas are well known. 

The manufacture and use of Sulphur Diox- 
ide is described at length in Molinari’s ‘In- 
dustrial Chemistry” as well as in various books 
By Lunge, which treat on sulphuric A and 
alkali. 


LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. It has 
been long known that miost solids can be trans- 
formed into liquids by the application of heat, 
and that many liquids can also be transformed 
into vapor by a further addition of heat. Con- 
versely, it was known that certain aeriform 
substances, such as steam, can be converted 
into liquids by the mere abstraction of heat. 
It was believed, however, that an_ essential 
difference existed between gases and vapors, 
vapors being condensible to the liquid form, 
while gases were believed to be permanently 
aeriform, and not condensible. 

In the early part of the 19th century the 
validity of this distinction came to be doubted, 
and Faraday, at the gets Mi of Davy, un- 
dertook the systematic study of the question. 
He succeeded in reducing to the liquid form 
quite a number of gases that had’ previously 
resisted liquefaction. His general method con- 
sisted in generating the gas in large quantities 
in a limited space, so as to produce a very high 
pressure, under the influence of which (when 
the experiment was successful) the gas passed 
into the liquid state. -The most convenient 
way of carrying out this experiment is to make 
use of an inverted V-shaped glass tube, one of 
whose legs contains a chemical preparation suit- 
able for the generation of the gas in question, 
while the other end dips into a freezing mix- 
ture, the tube being hermetically sealed. If 
cyanide of mercury be heated in one of the 
legs of a tube of this kind, for example, cy- 
anogen gas is generated in such quantities that 
the pressure causes a large part of it to con+ 
dense in the chilled end of the tube. 

Chlorine was liquefied by Faraday in this 
manner in 1823. Shortly afterward Thilorier 
succeeded in liquefying and solidifying carbon 
dioxide by the combined application of intense 
cold and great pressure; Cagniard de la Tour, 
Regnault, Natterer and many other experi- 
menters improved the methods in use, with the 
result that many of the gases that ‘had been 


496 


previously regarded as non-condensible were 
reduced to the liquid form. Oxygen, hydrogen, 
nitrogen and some few other gases still re- 
sisted all attempts at liquefaction, however, 
and these were still called “permanent gases,” 
although the conviction had forced itself upon 


physicists that all gases could be conquered. 


if the necessary conditions could be discovered. 
The subject was in this state when Andrews 
undertook his classical study of the phenomena 
of liquefaction of carbon dioxide. In 1863 he 
made the following announcement: On par- 
tially liquefying carbonic acid by pressure alone, 
and at the same time gradually raising the 
temperature to 31° C. the surface of demar- 
cation between the liquid and gas became 
fainter, lost its curvature, and at last disap- 
peared. The space was ‘then occupied by a 
homogeneous fluid which exhibited, when the 
pressure was suddenly diminished or the tem- 
perature slightly lowered, a peculiar appearance 
of moving or flickering striae throughout its 
entire mass. At temperatures above 31° C. 
no apparent liquefaction of carbonic acid, or 
separation into two distinct forms of matter, 
could be effected, even when a pressure of 300 
or 400 atmospheres was applied” It appeared, 
therefore, that a certain temperature exists 
above which carbon dioxide cannot be lique- 
fied by any pressure whatever and this. dis- 
covery was soon verified in the cases of other 
gases. It was apparent, therefore, that for 
each gas there is a temperature above which it 
- cannot be liquefied by any pressure. This tem- 
perature is known as the “critical temperature,” 
and the pressure necessary to bring about lique- 
faction at the critical temperature is called the 
“critical pressure.» The reason that oxygen, 
nitrogen and hydrogen had resisted previous 
attempts at liquefaction, even when the pressure 
was increased to 3,000 atmospheres, was that 
the critical temperatures of these gases are 
very low indeed — far below any temperature 
at. which attempts at liquefaction had been 
made. The problem of liquefying the so-called 
“permanent. gases” was then resolved into the 
production of exceedingly low temperatures. 

Methods of Production.— The methods in 
use for the production of low temperatures are 
as follows: 

1. Freezing Mixtures— The most common 
freezing mixture, ice and salt, produces when 
mixed in suitable proportions (1 part salt to 
3 parts ice) a temperature of —23° C.. In 1834 
Thilorier found. that by mixing solid carbon 
dioxide with ordinary ether he could obtain a 
temperature. as low as'—110° CC. This. “Thi- 
lorier’s Mixture” was for a long time the only 
means available for securing very low tem- 
peratures, 

2. Evaporation— The first use of. this 
method of cooling was in 1824 by Bussy, who 
found that he could get a temperature as low 
as —05° C. by rapidly evaporating liquid sul- 
phur dioxide. By this means he liquefied chlo- 
rine, ammonia and even solidified. cyanogen. 
This method of refrigeration is’ still in use. 
Subsequent to Bussy’s experiments it was soon 
learned that both carbon dioxide (CO:) and 
ammonia (NH:) are well adapted: to liquefac- 
tion with subsequent evaporation to produce 
low temperatures. These two gases are in com- 
mon use in our present-day refrigerating sys- 


LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 


tems, carbon dioxide being preferred where 
leaks due to accident would make the ammonia 
system undesirable or even hazardous, as, for 
instance, on board ship. 

3. Expansion (without external iain: 
The first. practical use of the fact that a gas 
undergoes a drop in temperature when allowed 
to expand through a small orifice, without do- 
ing external work, was made by Thilorier in 
1834, when he liquefied and solidified carbon 
dioxide by this method. 

In 1799 Van Marum observed that at high 
pressures ammonia gas does not obey Boyle’s 
Law (ie., that the product of the pressure and 
volume of a gas is a constant quantity). An 
extended series of tests by Amagat, extending 
up until 1888, has shown that the same is true 
of practically» all gases, i.e, under high pres- 
sures, the volumes of all gases (except hydro- 
gen, ‘helium and neon at comparatively high 
temperatures) are less than those calculated by 
the gas laws, due to the tendency ‘of the gas 
molecules to cohere as the approach is made to 
the liquid state. A “perfect” gas expanding 
into a vacuum should undergo no fall in tem- 
perature, since it would do no work, but ordi- 
nary gases do become cooled. 

The work they do in expanding thus com 
sists in overcoming the cohesion between their 
molecules, so that a tearing apart of the sub- 
stance occurs and this consumes heat; this 
action takes place so quickly that there is no 
time to absorb heat from surrounding ma- 
terials, and as a result the gas itself is cooled. 
Since the cohesion of the molecules becomes 
more marked as the temperature approaches the 
liquefaction point of the gas, the cooling effect 
of expansion becomes also greater as the tem- 
perature falls. 

The heat’ lost by the expansion of non-ideal 
gases was investigated in 1854 by Joule and 
Thomson. The cooling of gases in this way is 
known:as the Joule-Thomson effect, and it 
holds good for all gases except hydrogen 
(helium and neon) which above —80° C. is 
warmed by expansion. 

The Linde apparatus (1898) for the lique- 
faction of air depends on the Joule-Thomson 
effect. In this apparatus the gas under 200 
atmospheres pressure is precooled by an ordi- 
nary refrigeration machine and introduced into 
the actual liquefying column, where it is 
allowed to expand through an orifice without 
performing external work; the gas, cooled thus, 
is used to cool more incoming gas which in 
turn expands through the orifice and becomes 
further cooled; thus the temperature. falls 
lower and lower until the liquefaction point of 
the gas in question is reached. Suitable ar- 
rangements are made for withdrawing the 
liquid as desired, or,.in the case of air lique- 
faction, for submitting the liquid. mixture to 
fractional distillation, by which method oxygen, 
nitrogen, argon, etc., may be obtained. Obvi- 
ously, hydrogen cannot be liquefied in such an 
apparatus unless previously cooled lower than 
—80° CC, as was shown by Dewar, Ramsay, 
Olszewski. and others. 

4. Heat Exchanger.— The so-called “Regen- 
erative Method” of cooling refers merely to the 
use of a gas cooled by expansion to further 
cool more incoming gas, thus obtaining further 
decreases in temperature, This method. was 


LIQUEUR — LIQUOR LEGISLATION 


first used in 1857 by Siemons and was applied 
to liquefaction of gases at the suggestion of 
Houston in 1874, This principle is embodied 
in all the liquefaction processes, the arrange- 
ment being known as a “heat-exchanger,” a 
series of concentric tubes in which the less cool 
gas passes along the inner tube counter cur- 
rent to the cooler gas as it flows in the sur- 
rounding outer tube. So efficient are well- 
constructed heat exchangers that in manufac- 
turing liquid air there is a difference of only 
3 or 4° C. between the temperatures of the 
entering air and the escaping gases; ie., dur- 
ing the passage of a few seconds through the 
exchanger, the escaping air is heated from 
—190° C. to nearly room temperature. Obvi- 
ously the manufacture of liquid air owes much 
of its success to the “heat-exchanger.” 

5. Expansion (with external work).— In 
this case an expansion engine is inserted in the 
circuit of a liquefaction system so that the 
gas expanding through the small valve (ori- 
fice) may do external work and thereby lower 
the temperature more than can be accomplished 
by mere expansion without external work. 
This principle was applied commercially by 
Claude and his work has made possible an 
industry that has expanded until at the present 
time liquefaction machines based on the Claude 
system are located in all parts of the world for 
the production of oxygen and nitrogen from 
atmospheric air. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


The compiler of this series of articles on 
liquefied and compressed gases wishes to 
acknowledge with grateful appreciation the 
assistance of the authors of individual articles, 
as follows: 

J. M. Moreweap: Acetylene. 

LeotA FE. Marrs: Argon; Helium, Liquefac- 
tion of Gases; Nitrogen; Oxygen (Liquid Air). 

J. C. Minor, Jr.: Carbon Dioxide. 

Eucen BecHer: Chlorine. 

Epwarp O. BenyAMIN: Anhydrous Am- 
monia; Hydrogen; Oxygen (Electrolytic) ; 
Ozone. 

W. A. Jounston: Nitrous Oxide. 

Warren C. Kine: Sulphur Dioxide. 

He also wishes to acknowledge the kind help 
of the Compressed Gas Manufacturers Associa- 
tion and its special committee composed of 
Messrs. Arthur S. Beves, Lee W. Greiner and 
O. S. King. 

Rosert N. KINc, 
New York City. 


LIQUEUR, li-kér’ (the French name), a 
palatable spirituous drink composed of water, 
alcohol, sugar and some aromatic infusion ex- 
tracted from fruits, seeds, etc. The great dif- 
ferences in the qualities of the different liqueurs 
are due principally to a variation in the pro- 
portions of the sugar and alcohol. - The French 
distinguish three qualities: the ratafias, or simple 
liqueurs, the oils, or the fine liqueurs, and the 


cream or superfine liqueurs. Consult Mew and 
Ashton, ‘Drinks of the World? (1892). 

LIQUID. AIR. See Arr; LIQUEFIED AND 
COMPRESSED GASES. 

LIQUID-AMBAR, | lik’wid-am”bar, 
SWEET, RED, or STAR-LEAVED GUM, 
a tree (Liquidambar styraciflua), also called 

voL 17— 32 


497 


bilsted and alligator-tree, of the witch hazel 
family, widely diffused through North America, 
from lat. 43° to Florida, and along the shores 
of the Gulf into the provinces of Mexico. 
The leaves are five-lobed, and the lobes are 
pointed, and serrated on the margin, giving 
them a very distinct and elegant form, and in 
autumn they turn rich purplish red. The flow- 
ers are inconspicuous. The fruit consists of 
a hanging ball of woody pointed pods which 
open and release the seeds,—a most singular 
fruit, suggesting the globular spiked head of 
the medieval war-club called “morning star.” 


LIQUID FIRE. The “flammenwerfer” 
or “flame thrower” was first employed by the 
Germans in the European War, 1914-18. it ré- 
sembles a fire extinguisher and is hung on the 
back of the soldier while an extension that is 
held in. the hands throws the flames. The 
cylinder contains oil and compressed gas. As 
the oil is forced out of the cylinder by the 
compressed gas. it catches fire and spreads out 
in a sheet of flame and smoke. <A single 
“flammenwerfer” can cover a frontage of about 
six yards when stationary arid the flame burns 
for about one minute. The extreme range is 
about 300 yards and the kind of oil used 
depends upon the atmosphere. The discharge 
is accompanied by a loud roar, yellowish-red 
flames and a dense black smoke, making - it 
very difficult for green troops to realize. that 
it is effective for such a short distance. While 
the heat of the flames is intense the burning 
takes place entirely in the air and the stream 
cannot be turned downward as the heat causes 
an upward current. Protection is easily ob- 
tained by any non-inflammable cover above and 
a soldier is safe if kneeling on a fire step 
or just within the entrance of a dug-out... There 
are two principal kinds or sizes of “flammen- 
werfer» —the smaller size being carried by 
one man. The iron container is usually three 
feet long by one and a half. feet wide; with 
two hooks for the body and the mixture is 
of heavy and light oil plus gasoline.. The com- 
bustible used in the flame throwers has varied 
in source and composition from time to time, 
but it has one characteristic which is essential 
for good results —it must have light or easily 
volatile and heavy and. less volatile fractions 
mixed in carefully graded proportions.. The 
heavy oil is usually a petroleum product or a 
tarry residual oil from the distillation of wood. 
The light portion, which ensures the jet’s keep- 
ing alight, was originally a light gasoline. The 
lighting device, fixed at the end of the flexible 
hose, is the most ingenious part of the contriv- 
ance and is so made that the oil ignites spon- 
taneously the minute the jet is turned on, and 
is kept alight by a fiercely burning mixture 
which lasts throughout the discharge. The noz- 
zle is about nine inches long and detachable so 
that replacement is easy. 


LIQUOR LEGISLATION. The exces- 
sive use of intoxicating liquors has been, in all 
ages of human history down to our own times, 
a serious problem for those charged with the 
government of tribes or nations. For thou- 
sands of years legislators ‘have endeavored 
with more or less success to control the use 
of and traffic in drink. The early Mosaic law- 
givers attempted to repress drunkenness, and 
over 2,000 years B.c, King Hammurabi of Baby- 


498 


lon ordained that a wine-seller who permitted 
riotous persons to assemble on his premises 
should be put to death. There seems to be no 
example of a people, however primitive or civ- 
ilized, without drink or drugs of some kind, 
whether. wine, beer, spirits, opium, hashish, 
hemp, betel nut, tobacco, coffee, kava, etc. With 
the growth of population and expansion of 
communities into great states during the last 
two centuries there has arisen an elaborate 
code of laws in most countries to restrict and 
control the liquor traffic. Despite the ever- 
increasing burden of taxation laid upon intoxi- 
cating drinks, their sale and consumption rose 
steadily. In the United States, the first laws 
aiming at prohibition of the manufacture and 
sale of liquors date back to 1838 (Tennessee) 
and 1846 (Maine). For many years a strenu- 
ous campaign raged between the “wet” and 
“dry” partisans, the one side claiming an in- 
alienable right of the people to decide for 
themselves what they shall drink and the other 
pointing? to the social and economic evils pro- 
duced through drink. 

The entry of the United States into the Eu- 
ropean War was destined to produce the most 
revolutionary changes in liquor legislation re- 
corded in American history. Up to that time 
the liquor laws differed considerably in the 48 
States of the Union, each of which exercised 
its own police laws within its borders. In some 
States “ocal option” prevailed, by which popu- 
lar vote decided whether liquor should be sold 
in prescribed districts; other States were “dry,” 
~“bone-dry” or “wet” Persons desiring to deal 
in liquors required a license from the State 
authorities, for which an annual fee (in some 
cases as high as $1,500) was charged. Pros- 
pective dealers were generally required to pro- 
duce credentials of good character; in some 
cases written consent of the neighboring resi- 
dents was necessary, while in others certain re- 
strictions were imposed as to distances from 
churches, schools and similar institutions, Sun- 
day and Election Day closing, etc. 

On 1 Jan. 1917 prohibition was in force in 
19 States; on 1 July, when the Reed Amend- 
ment came into effect, there were 23 “bone- 
dry” States. That Amendment, introduced by 
Senator Reed of Missouri, imposed a fine of 
$1,000 or imprisonment for six months or both 
on “who shall order, purchase, or cause intoxi- 
cating liquors to be transported in interstate 
commerce except for scientific, sacramental, 
medicinal, or mechanical purposes into any 
» State or Territory the laws of which ; 
prohibit the manufacture or sale therein of in- 
toxicating liquors for beverage purposes.” The 
same penalties were prescribed for violators of 
the anti-advertising section. This measure was 
followed by the Food Control Act, under 
which the distillation of alcoholic beverages 
was prohibited for the duration of the war. 
War-time prohibition went into effect 30 June 
1919.. The Eighteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution, in effect from 16 Jan. 1920, prohibits 
the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors 
for beverage purposes within the United States 
and its dependencies. See PROHIBITION. 

In Great Britain the liquor laws are strict 
and complicated. For nearly 400 years suc- 
cessive Parliaments have struggled with the 
drink problem, though prohibition has never 
been seriously contemplated. Beer is the prin- 


LIQUOR LEGISLATION 


cipal beverage; the per capita consumption in 
1913 was 26.2 gallons, as against 20.62 for the 
United States and 22.0 for Germany. The per 
capita consumption of spirits was about half that 
of the United States. Licenses are distin- 
guished as “full” or “on” license, “off” license 
(not to be consumed on the premises of sale) 
and “ale and beer license.” In pre-war times 
the closing hours for public-houses (strictly 
enforced) were 12.30 A.M. and midnight on 
Saturday in London; 11 P.M. in the provinces. 
On Sundays (in England and Wales) opening 
hours were from 1 to 3 p.m. and 6 to 11 P.M, 
In Scotland all public-houses are closed Sun- 
days. Since 1905 there has been in operation a 
government. scheme of reducing licensed prem- 
ises, the owners being compensated from a 
fund created out of the revenue. During the 
11 years 1905-15 a total of £9,326,589 ($46,632,- 
945) was paid in compensation for 10,146 ex- 
tinguished licenses, an average of roughly 
$4,596 each. For nearly 20 years attempts have 
been made in Great Britain to bring public- 
houses under public management by means of 
Public-House Trust Companies, with the ob- 
ject of eliminating as far as possible the ele- 
ment of private profit from the retail sale of 
drink. The manager who is put into the house 
receives a fixed salary and is allowed no profit 
whatever on the sale of alcoholic drinks... This 
movement, originated by the bishop of Chester 
and the late Earl Grey, now operates over 300 
houses on this plan. During the war a number 
of restrictions were laid upon the drink trade; 
hours were curtailed, “treating” prohibited and 
numerous licensed places were closed by naval 
and military authority. Advisory committees 
were appointed by government to consider the 
question of the State purchase of the licensed 
liquor trade. The proposal was not consid- 
ered practicable. In January 1919 some of the 
regulations were relaxed and government sanc- 
tioned the brewing of 25 per cent more beer 
and of a better quality than the standard to 
which it had deteriorated owing to war condi- 
tions. 

On the European continent, liquor legisla- 
tion was not of a drastic nature before the war. 
In France, licenses were cheap and easily ob- 
tainable. There was estimated to be a wine- 
shop for every 40 of the population. As in 
Germany, saloons were open at all hours of the 
night. In’ Russia, the government took over 
the vodka traffic in 1894 and made it a complete 
government monopoly. During the next 20 
years the consumption of liquors rose over 500 
per cent. In September 1914 the sale of all 
spirits was prohibited. by imperial ukase. 
Shortly afterward the sale of vodka was pro- 
hibited “for ever” in Russia, yet that industry 
is to-day as flourishing as ever. Boys and girls 
began to drink spirits while yet at school, be- 
tween the ages of 8 and 13. Under the old 
régime several legislative experiments were 
made to lessen the drink evil, though with small 
result. In Belgium and Holland, mild legisla- 
tion and cheapness of alcohol were responsible 
for enormous annual drink bills. In Italy and 
the Balkans, as in France, the profusion of 
vineyards makes wine the principal beverage. 
The cheaper kinds are but lightly taxed and re- 
strictions were practically non-existent. Local 
option obtains in Sweden and Norway. Early 
in the 19th century every farmer and peasant 


LIQUOR AND THE 


in Sweden was permitted to manufacture 
brandy for a small license fee. Brandy be- 
came so cheap, abundant and readily procur- 
able that an epidemic of intoxication swept 
over the country. Vain attempts were made 
to check that by penalties on drunkenness and 
limitation of production. What came to be 
known as the Gothenburg system (q.v.) origi- 
nated in Sweden and is to-day largely practised 
in Scandinavia. In the self-governing British 
dominions local option generally prevails. Ac- 
cording to the China Medical Journal of July 
1918, “there is a general impression that the 
suppression of the opium traffic is leading to 
an increased consumption of alcohol.” Liquor 
legislation has existed in China for thousands 
of. years, one ancient ordinance forbidding more 
than three persons drinking together without 
special cause and license. In 1918 distilleries 
and breweries were spread all over China, in 
addition to which the farmers manufactured 
large quantities of alcoholic liquors for home 
consumption. 

Bibliography.— Black, H. C., ‘A Treatise 
on the Laws regulating the manufacture and 
sale of intoxicating liquors? (Saint Paul, Minn., 
1892) ; Carter, H., ‘The Control of the Drink 
Trade: a contribution to national efficiency 
1915-17? (New York and London 1918) ; 
Eaton, E. L., ‘Winning the Fight against 
Drink? (New. York 1912); Fanshawe, E. L., 
‘Liquor Legislation in the United States and 


Canada? (London 1893); Joyce, H. C., ‘The 
Law Relating to Intoxicating Liquors? (AI- 
bany, N. Y., 1910); Kelynack, Dr. T. N., ‘The 


Drink Problem in its Medico-Sociological As- 
pects? (New York 1909) ; McKenzie, F., ‘Sober 
by Act of Parliament? (London 1896); Mida’s 
‘Epitome of all Liquor Laws of every State 
in the Union? (Chicago 1913); Shadwell, A., 
‘Drink, Temperance and Legislation» (New 
York 1915); Tompson, F. W., ‘High License, 
a critical examination of the license duties pre- 
vailing in the United Kingdom and in the Unit- 
ed States? (London 1909); Walker, J., ‘The 
Commonwealth as Publican: an examination of 
the Gothenburg System? (ib. 1902); Webb, S. 
and B., ‘The History of. Liquor Licensing in 
England 1700-1830? (London. 1903); Wines, 
F. H., ‘The Liquor Problem in its Legislative 
Aspects? (New York 1897); Woollen, W. W., 
“Intoxicating Liquors: The Law relating to the 
Traffic in Intoxicating Liquors and Drunken- 
ness”? (2 vols., Cincinnati 1910). 


LIQUOR AND THE LIQUOR TRAF- 
FIC. The term liquor is applied to alcoholic 
or spirituous fluids whether distilled or fer- 
mented. The first of these include wine and 
liquor made from the juice of fruits and in 
which the natural sugar is converted into alco- 
hol by exposure to the open air. The second 
class includes heer, ale and porter, in which 
the starchy ingredients are by certain processes 
changed into sugar before fermentation can 
take place. The third division includes brandy, 
whisky, rum and gin, and whether these be de- 
rived from fruits or grain, the distillation 
process is carried on further by condensation 
and vaporization. 

Wines.— France and Italy are the two great- 
est wine-producing countries in the world. The 
former is noted for the two distinct varieties 
of red wine, claret and Burgundy, and two 


LIQUOR TRAFFIC 499 


varieties of white wines, Chablis and Sauternes, 
all healthful and innocuous beverages. The 
finest sparkling wine, champagne, also comes 
from France, and is not permitted (since 1910) 
to be shipped abroad under the name of “cham- 
pagne” unless it was produced within the two 
topographical districts delimitated by the gov- 
ernment— those of the Riviére, facing the 
river Marne, and those of the Montagne de 
Reims, which include a number of famous vine- 
yards. The Italian soil and climate are ad- 
mirably suited to viticulture; prodigious quan- 
tities of grapes are produced with but little 
care or attention. Sparkling wines are made 
on the low hills of the Azti and Montferrat 
region, while dry red wines are largely pro- 
duced in Tuscany. The island of Capri yields 
some excellent white wines; the white Muscat 
wines of Vesuvius and the red Lacrima Christi 
are grown in the Neapolitan district. Algeria 
produces some fine natural and wholesome 
wine, which is shipped principally to France. 
Hungary is famous for the celebrated Tokay 
wine, while Austria, Switzerland, the Balkan 
states, Greece, Turkey and many of the Mediter- 
ranean islands boast extensive vineyards. Spain 
is noted for its sherry and Tarragona. The 
three principal classes of sherry are the Fino, 
a pale, delicate wine, the Amontillado and the 
Oloroso, a full dark wine. In Germany the 
vine can only flourish within a restricted area 
of the south and west. The “hocks” and 
“moselles” of Germany were used in England 
under the Saxon kings —a trade that existed 
till 1914. The famous port of Portugal enjoys 
a large export trade. Vermouth, of which there 
are two types, Italian and French, is a beverage 
with a basis of aromatized white wine. That 
of the Italians was written about by Cicero; 
it is made from a matured muscatel wine, 
sweetened with sugar and tinctured with a 
variety of herbs. The French variety differs 
on account of its basis being very “dry” white 
wine. Algeria has become a valuable vineyard 
within. the last 40 years, and produces a whole-* 
some, natural wine which is largely sent to 
France for local consumption. Wine has been 
made in South Africa since the introduction of 
the vine into the Cape in 1653. The best Cape 
wine is Constantia, made at the government 
wine farms near Cape Town. Other brands are 
produced and exported. The famous Malmsey 
wine of old came from Crete between 1204 and 
1645 while the Venetians held the island. After 
its conquest by the Turks in 1669 the export 
ceased, and the somewhat ‘similar wines of 
Greece, Cyprus and other -eastern:.Mediter- 
ranean islands were sold in England as Malm- 
sey. During the 18th and 19th centuries, how- 
ever, the wine that bore the closest resemblance 
to the original was raised in Madeira, whither 
the true Malmsey grape of Candia had been 
introduced by the Infante Dom Henrique some 
three centuries before. Sicily is famous for 
the generous wines of Marsala, a fortified white 
wine, vatted and blended in much the same 
way as sherry. The two firms which control 
that industry were founded by two Englishmen. 
Despite handicaps of soil and climate, Australia 
has grown into a considerable wine-producing 
territory. 

On the American continents vineyards flour- 
ish and vines are grown in the United States, 


500 LIQUOR AND THE 


both east and west of the Rockies, in Canada, 
Chile, Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Uru- 
guay and Bolivia. The early Spanish mission- 
aries who settled in California found the wild 
vine growing in profusion, and devoted much 
time and labor to the cultivation both of the 
native species and the cuttings which they 
from time to time imported from European 
stocks. Owing to the attraction of the gold 
mines viticulture received but scant attention 
until 1875, when a viticultural commission was 
appointed for the purpose of encouraging the 
wine-making industry of that country. A State 
board of viticulture was created in 1880. to 
carry on the development. In 1887° the out- 
put of Californian wine was 4,000,000 gallons ; 
16 years from the creation of the board it had 
risen to 18,000,000 gallons, while the average 
for the five years 1908-12 was 43,500,000 gal- 
Ions of wine and 2,200,000 gallons of brandy. 
Before the war nearly 800,000 acres of vine- 
yards existed in the Crimea, the Caucasus and 
Bessarabia, which produced an average of over 
77,000,000 gallons of wine per year. The statis- 
tics for the production of wines in 1914 were 
thus stated by the French trade journal, Moni- 
teur Vinicole (gallons) : 


France........ 1,584,532,000 


Brazil 11,887,000 
Italy eo. ee Pore oOL00 | werbiaces men net 9,246,000 
Spam are leet he 427,108,500 | Australia...... 7,925,100 
Algeria 292 563. 200 slay UnIS ges pe ee 7,925,000 
Argentine..... 145,293,500 | Uruguay...... 5,283,400 
WRissics sce 126,801,600 | Cape of Good 
Austria- oper% 8c. 4,623,000 
Hungary 118,876,500 | Peru.......... 4,226,700 
Portugal 32. 105,668,000 | Bolivia ae 1,226,700 
Chitepar ce aa 105,668,000 | Bulgaria. ..... 1,056,700 
Greece and Madeira, Azores ; 
islands: -leue: 72,646,750 and Canaries 792,500 
United States.. 45,965,600 | Canada....... 449,100 
Germany i, ot 26,417,000 | Mexico 224,500 
tirkey :@ie: 24133, 0005) Persiaesziin Bh - 66,400 
Rusmaniax }iy4). 17,461,000 | Egypt.:...... 39,600 
Switzerland... . 13,393,400 | Luxemburg.... 26,500 


In the third year of the European War 
the French government requisitioned for mili- 
tary consumption 200,000,000 gallons of wine 
of the 1917 vintage, representing one-fifth of 
the total production, and also 40,000,000 gal- 
lons from her Algerian colony. Storage 
arrangements were made to receive this enor- 
mous quantity of wine, which represented a 
value of $100,000,000. So essential was the 
regular supply of pure wine considered for the 
well-being of the troops that similar excep- 
tional precautions were taken to safeguard 
the wine crop in Italy, not only for soldiers 
serving at the front, but also for the: sick and 
wounded in hospitals. 

In the United States, the annual product of 
wine was valued at $13,120,846, but deducting 
the cost of the grapes and materials used in 
the process of manufacture, the value was only 
$6,495,313. . 

Brandy is the spirit obtained by the distilla- 
tion of wine. It was known in Europe in the 
llth century, though its use did not become 
general till the 16th century.» All brandies 
should be grape spirits; there are many differ- 
ent types and qualities, though none of greater 
excellence than those of Cognac, the name of 
a small town on the river Charente in France. 


LIQUOR TRAFFIC 


a limited district known as the Région Délim- 
itée. A good type of brandy, known as Armag- 
nac, is made in the départmeni of Gers;-and 
large quantities are distilled in the south of 
France, in Spain and every part where the 
wine industry flourishes. 

Rum, in the olden days, used to be distilled 
from the juice of the sugar-cane, and “tafia” 
was the name given in the sugar-cane growing 
districts to the spirit distilled from molasses. 
The quantity of real rum which is now dis- 
tilled as of old is almost negligible, and the 
spirit sold as rum is in practically all cases 
what is known in the West Indies as tafia. 

Gin is a spirit distilled from grain and recti- 
fied or redistilled with juniper berries, and is 
one of the purest spirits made. Holland pro- 
duces and consumes more gin than any other 
country; England ranks second. 

Absinthe, or wormwood, has long been 
known as a medicinal plant of value in cases 
of fever, but it was only at the end of the 18th 
century that it was first used at Couvet, in 
Switzerland, for the preparation of a spirituous 
liqueur. As usually sold it is a spirit contain- 
ing as much as 72 per cent of alcohol, though 
some varieties contain only 57 per cent. On 
account of the deadly ravages it caused among 
those addicted to it, absinthe is prohibited in 
Switzerland and France. 

Medicated wines are mixtures, consisting 
usually of port or Tarragona, to which various 
extracts of meat or malt and many other sub- 
stances, such as iron, pepsin, cocaine, etc., have 
been added. Their indiscriminate use is to be 
deprecated, as they correspond to no formula, 
and the patient who takes them may be ex- 
posed to the peril of becoming the unconscious 
victim of alcoholism, and, in the case of coca 
wines, of the cocaine habit as well. 

Whisky, variously described as a “universal 
beverage” and a “universal curse,” was prac- 
tically unknown outside the Celtic races until 
quite recent times. How and by whom it was 
invented or discovered is unknown, though it is 
more than probable that the art of distillation 
was discovered and rediscovered again and 
again in different parts of the world. <A de- 
scription of its manufacturing process is given 
under WHISKY (q.v.’; see also ALE AND BEER. 

Distilled and Malt Liquors.— The dis- 
tilled liquor industry of the United States was 
larger than that of any other country when it 
was cut off through the enactment of Prohibition 
(wartime 1918; Constitutional 1920). The malt 
liquor industry of the United States was greater 
than that of either Germany or the United King- 
dom. Taking both liquors together as one in: 
dustry in the United States it ranked as the 
eighth in value of manufactured products. This 
method of measuring the liquor industry is mis- 
leading, however, owing to high taxes paid on 
liquor, which swelled the apparent volume of 
business, when counted in dollars. Measured 
by the number of employees and of wages paid, 
the combined liquor industries of the country 
would rank below the 13th industry. The malt 
liquor or brewing industry, which was capitalized 
at over $671,000,000, and had annual expenses 
of $300,000,000 a year (of which $62,000,000 was 
taxes), only paid wages of $41,000,000 a year; 
while the distilled liquor branch of the industry, 
with over’ $72,000,000 capital and annual ex- 


LIQUOR AND THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC 


penses of $200,000,000, paid over $150,000,000 
tax, and only $3,000,000 in wages. The manu- 
facture of beer became an active industry in 
the Uniied States about 1840, being largely due 


to the energy of the German population. 


CAPITAL INVESTED IN Liquor MANUFACTURE. 


Distilled 


Malt 


- 
YEAR fakes liquors Wines Total 

1850 | $5,409,000} $4,072,000)........... $9,481,000 
1860 12,445 ,000} 15,782,000 $306,000} 28,534,000 
1870 15,545,000) 48,774,000) 2,334,000} 66,638,000 
1880 | 24,247,000} 91,208,000} 2,582,000} 118,037,000 
1890 ; 31,006,000} 232,471,000} 5,792,000} 269,270,C00 
1900 | 32,551,000} 415,284,000} 9,838,000} 457,674,000 
1910 72,450,000} 671,158,000} 27,908,000} 771;516,000 


Nearly all the liquor consumed in the United 
States was made in the country. For several 
years prior to the European War the United 
States did import about $10,000,000 a year 
worth of foreign wines, $7,000,000 worth of dis- 
tilled liquors and $3,000,000 worth of malt 
liquors, but this trade was reduced to a minimum 
by Prohibition. In 1914 the American manufac- 


Distilled spirits consumed 


Wines consumed 


501 


ture was 88,698,797 gallons of whisky, 3,526,085 
rum, 4,012,542 gin, 31,715,199 alcohol for bever- 
age, besides 47,132,535 of commercial or denatured 
alcohol. Besides this there was made nearly 
2,000,000,000 gallons of fermented liquor, 
mostly beer. 

Consumption of Liquor.— Both the produc- 
tion and use of alcoholic liquors continued to 
increase in the United States faster than the 
growth of population. The per capita con- 
sumption, which in 1902 was 19.48 gallons, rose 
to 22.52 gallons in 1914. The total consumption- 
in 1914 was 2,252,272,765 gallons, of which 
2,053,457,000 was malt liquor or beer, 58,381,000 
wines and 143,397,000 distilled spirits. The fig- 
ures for distilled spirits are based on the stand- 
ard 50 per cent United States proof gallons. 
This was considerably in excess of any other 
country, except that France and Italy drink 
more wine and Germany and Great Britain more 
beer per capita than the United States. Esti- 
mating that one in three of the population use 
alcoholic beverages, the average consumption of 
liquor per individual using it is about 68 gal- 
lons a year, of which 62 gallons is beer or other 
malt liquor. The following table shows the, 
consumption of liquors in the United States for 
11 years. 


Malt liquors consumed 


Helin Domestic spirits ‘ Total | 
Imported Dibrinitic Imported Domestic Imported consumption 
: spirits wines wines —— — 
From fruit All other P liquors liquors 
1905 | 1,595,021 | 116,544;802 | 2,729,826 | 29,369,408 | 5,690,309 | 1,533,325,442 | 5,201,168 | 1,694,455,976 
1906 | 1,781,643 | 122,961,612 | 3,108,328 | 39,847,044 | 6,638,179 | 1,694,458,014 | 5,963,207 | 1,874,758,027 
1907 | 1,993,688 | 134,308,693 | 3,782,055 | 50,079,283 | 7,659,565 | 1,815,141,683 | 7,171,842 | 2,020,136,809 
1908 | 1,670,031 119,951,185 | 3,758,098 | 44,421,269 | 7,700,377 | 1,821,418,322 | 7,314,126 | 2,006,233,408 
1909 | 1,850,700 | 114,913,702 | 4,365,634 | 53,609,995 | 8,169,554 | 1,745,523,769 | 7,110,657 | 1,935,544,011 
1910 | 2,204,184 | 126,593,951 4,340,549 | 50,684,343 | 9,863,735 | 1,844,065,029 | 7,301,629 | 2,045,353,420 
1911 | 2,434,045 132 315 ,423 3,836,821 | 56,655,006 | 7,204,226 | 1,959,671,296 | 7,240,458 | 2,169,356,975 
1912 | 2,449,331 133,502,079 3,544,921 | 50,619,880 | 5,804,831 | 1,925,361,507 | 7,169,677 | 2,128,452 ,226 
1913 | 2,861,767 140,521,880 4,121,981 | 48,683,849 | 6,643,612 | 2,022,678,149 | 7,669,223 | 2,233,420, 461 
1914 |} 2,704,752 136,521,805 4,220,670 | 44,973,643 | 7,444,787 | 2,049,236,412 | 7,170,696 | 2,252,272,765 
1915 | 2,516,054 | 121,690,596 | 2,952,448 | 27,255,690 | 5,656,219 | 1,852,136,960 | 3,387,324 | 2,015,595 ,291 
CONSUMPTION OF LiQUORS IN. PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, IN GALLONS. 
COUNTRIES Year Malt liquors Wine Alcohol 

IUPUI Oh ROMS re oe ol kl. eta ty th sams 1914 2,053,457 ,000 52,418,000 *146 , 397 ,000 
Pir tiGd WEDD UOMIn em nee ieee RS ea pi dL oe 1913 1,508, 358,000 13,705 ,000 43,538,000 
RCUSHIG 0s SRE i eer, Ce EE Be 1910 269-5535, 000 AU. Ae ce POSTS. 229,722,000 
GermanyitG) Se: eo aeale. si. betel. as: 1913 1,817 , 968,000 55,467 , 000 98 , 863 ,000 
i ge aero SE ae oto as) PACSUN Al abe fee IY TS ta ane 1912 418,500,000 1,758,900, 000 80 ,096 , 000 
PUnisiton se. Fes tis SAS eee eT ee aoe. ee. 1912". ora ee, ASE CB $50:,1343) 0004)... . 7252 kaah Lab 
merous PLO, MEN SSG PRT, Od ee 2S. 1912 446 , 422,000 8,453,000 12,812,000 
Eig soeciid oot oT. Lee Se PRs tty d. ae 1912 19,126,000 1,125,366, 000 12,046 ,000 
OS eee 2008 et SESS eS 1912 563,978,000 7129 , 126,000 $54,657 ,000 
UMMM occ sane + ons 01a 1 hoaee Sees ter ea 1912 70,216,000 819 ,000 10,065 , 000 
Worwayere ye Ss, SS Nef Poe 1913 13,500,000 1,030,000 2,338,000 
Deraea Tees Shrrtit 32. stir. exfigaadeos.. 3 Wes 1912 61 , 499 , 000 1,004,000 6, 842 ,000 
OES AMR Taras, Lav arlene, « ccmrebbedentookths t OOO Rs 1 tree Neer Ree, 14652 71 OUOT ee, oo fee 
Netherlands MMM PGCal dtc: ss & «7.che eatae: OReaaT eee 1913 46 , 893,000 2,052 ,000 8,483 ,000 
DWILLeriande me ole, VIO CIES. WOR eRe 1912 782,051,000 62,344,000 3,857 ,000 
Pugnre aise Bas. oa riitcath os ces siete Teas 1912 88, 365 ,000 53,838 , 000 §43 , 667 ,000 
Rumania FE A i a ey ene ee nts 1909 4,914,000 33 ,682 ,000 6,657 ,009 
Lei ull R gre ae albgitae 3. op lt ena aati ems SbF 1 1909 3,196,000 34,870,000 581 ,000 
Note.— Alcohol in United States proof gallons (at 50 per cent). * Distilled spirits. + Year 1911. t Year 


1910. § Year 1909. 


- 


q Later data of some foreign countries not available because of war. 


502 


During the fiscal year ending 30 June 1916 
the consumption of spirits in the United States 
rose to 139,973,684 proof gallons; of wine, 4/,- 


587,145 gallons; beer, 1,818,275,042 gallons; total | 


consumption, 2,005,835,871 gallons. For 1917 
the figures were 167,740,325 gallons spirits; 
42,723,376 gallons wine; 1,884,265,377. gallons 
fermented liquors. During the fiscal year 1917- 
18 a total of 173,476,473 gallons of spirits was 
produced; 87,787,823 gallons were withdrawn 
tax-paid, while 158,959,264 gallons remained in 
warehouses. In June 1918 there were engaged 
in the production of distilled spirits 72 grain 
distilleries, 27 molasses distilleries and 137 fruit 
distilleries, a total of 236 compared with 507 in 
1917, 605 in 1916 and 635 in 1915. The decrease 
in the number of breweries is shown as follows: 
In 1915 there were 1,372 breweries; in 1916, 
1,332; in 1917, 1,217; in 1918, 1,092; showing 
that 125 breweries went out of business during 
1917-18. In 1900 the United States revenue 
from the liquor traffic amounted to $177,172,000 ; 
in 1910, $226,207,000; in 1915, $237,054,000; in 
1916, $262,739,000; in 1917 it rose to $297,399,000, 
and in 1918 to $443,839,544. 

_. In Great Britain the total expenditure on 
alcoholic liquors during 1915 was estimated at 
£181,959,000 ($909,795,000), an increase of 
£17,496,000 ($87,480,000) over 1913, the last 
normal year before the war. 

LIQUORICE. See Licorice. 

LIRA, 1é’ra, an Italian silver coin valued 
at about 18 cents in American money. It is the 
_ basis of the Italian monetary system; the gold 
coins are pieces of 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 lire; 
the silver coins, of 5 and 2 lire, besides 1 lira 
anda half lira (50 centesimi) ; also lower coins 
in nickel and bronze. 

LIRRODENDRON. See Tutip TRee. 

LISAINE, lé-zan, Battle of, an engage- 
ment of the Franco-German War, 15-17 Jan. 
1871, on the banks of the Lisaine River near 
Belfort. (q.v). See BourBAKt CHARLES DENIS 
SAUTER. 

LISBON, liz’bon, Ohio, village, county- 
‘seat of Columbiana County, on the Beaver 
River and on the Erie Railroad, about 130 
miles northeast of Columbus. It is situated in 
an agricultural region with extensive coal fields 


in the vicinity. Sheep and cattle raising, the - 


cultivation of grain and vegetables and mining 
are the prominent occupations in this section. 
Lisbon is the trade centre for a large portion 
of the county. It contains also copper mills and 
manufactories of pottery, sewer pipe, etc. The 
village owns and operates the waterworks. The 
public library has about 4,000 volumes. The 
city was the birthplace of Mark A. Hanna. 
Pop. (1920) 3,113. i 
LISBON, Portugal, the capital and prin- 
cipal seaport; beautifully situated on the right 
bank of the Tagus, where the river expands 
itself out into a lake, about nine miles above 
its mouth. It is built on a succession of hills, 
rising from the quays in the form of an amphi- 
theatre. The streets of the older parts, more 
especially in the east, are steep, narrow, crooked, 
badly paved and dirty; the houses, with a few 
exceptions, are old-fashioned and mean. The 
modern portion, however, which flies on even 
ground, in the valley between the Monte do 
Castello on the east and the hills of San Fran- 


‘church of Santa Engracia; 


LIQUORICE — LISBON 


cisco and Do Carmo on the west, consists of 
several parallel streets crossed by others at 
right angles, and is regular, well built, clean, 
traversed by street railways, electrically lighted 
and provided with a telephone service. Of 
these the D’Ouro (Gold), Do Prato (Silver), 
D’ Augusta, Do Chiado (Cloth) streets extend 
about one-half mile, north to south, having at 
their southern extremity the Praca do Com- 
mercio, a large and handsome square, sur- 
rounded on three sides by the naval arsenal, the 
exchange, custom-house and other public build- 
ings, and having the Tagus on the south. At 
the northern extremity of these streets are the 
Praga da Figueira, a picturesque square, used 
as a public market, and a handsome square 
called the Rocio or Praga de Dom Pedro IV, 
with a fine bronze statue of Dom Pedro IV, 
surmounting a tall marble column. To the 
northwest extends, for nearly a mile, a broad 
avenue, the Avenida da Liberdade, lined with 
handsome houses and planted with shrubs, etc. 
Besides this the finest open spaces are the 
Estrella Gardens, the Botanic Garden, the 
Praca do Principe Real and that of Pedro de 
Alcantara. The western quarter, called Buenos 
Aires, is airy and pleasant, and here foreigners 
chiefly reside. The town of Belem, on the west, 
beyond the river Alcantara, forms a sort of 
suburb to Lisbon, and has electric car connec- 
tions. It has a well-known tower, forming one 
of the defenses of the harbor. 

The principal residence is the Ajuda Palace, 
built of white marble on the summit of a hill. 
The castle of Saint George is remarkable for 
the beauty of its situation. Other noteworthy 
buildings are the cathedral, once a Moorish 
mosque, on the slope of the Castle Hill, on the 
east; the church do Coragao de Jesus, sur- 
mounted by a splendid dome; the church of the 
Martyrs, erected on the spot where Alphonso I 
mounted the walls of the city and rescued it 
from the Moors; the church of Saint Vincent, 
a Renaissance building of noble proportions, 
and the burial place of kings; the handsome 
i the magnificent 
church and monastery of Belem, in which Vasco 
da Gama and the poet Camoes are buried, and 
the church of San Roque. The numerous con- - 
vents which crown the hills, and appear like 
palaces and fortresses, are for the most part 
massive and imposing structures. But unques- 
tionably the most remarkable specimen of 
architecture is the aqueduct which conveys 
water to the city from springs rising near the 
village of Bellas, about six miles distant. It 
is partly conducted underground, but on ap- 
proaching Lisbon it crosses the deep valley of 
Alcantara, which is spanned for nearly 2,500 
feet by a bridge of 30 arches, the loftiest of 
which is 240 feet high and 110 feet wide. An 
additional supply is brought in by another series 
of works from a distance of 18 miles. The 
scientific and literary institutions comprise the 
Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in the 
latter part of the 18th century; the well- 
equipped Polytechnic School, with a museum, 
botanic garden and observatory; an academy of 
medicine and surgery; institute of agriculture 
and veterinary medicine; Marine Academy; 
Military College, School of Music, National 
Library, containing about 400,000 volumes, and 
that of the Academy of Sciences, numbering 


LISBURN — LISTER 


about 90,000 volumes; the Schools of Vicente 
de Fora; School of Drawing and Architecture. 
The harbor, or rather the roadstead, is one of 
the finest in the world, and the quays and 
graving docks, which extend for miles along 
the bank of the river, are elegant and com- 
modious. The exports consist chiefly of wine, 
oil, fruit, cork, fish, onions and other vegetables 
and salt; and the ‘principal imports are grain, 
silk, linen, cotton and woolen cloths, iron; steel, 
hardware, dried fish, petroleum, colonial prod- 
uce and coals. The manufactures include vari- 
ous textile goods, tobacco, paper, chemicals and 


soap; there are also sugar refineries, iron 
foundries and potteries. ct 
Lisbon was anciently called Olisipo. Suc- 


cessively in the hands of the Phcenicians, Car- 
thaginians and Romans, it was called Felicitas 
Julia by the last-named. It was captured by 
the Moors in 716, and remained in their pos- 
session till 1147. Vasco da Gama sailed from 
Lisbon on his famous expedition of 1497. Un- 
der the Spanish occupation from 1580-1640 the 
city greatly declined. In 1755 it was visited by 
the historic and terrible earthquake, which 
threw down a considerable portion of the city 
and destroyed above 30,000 of its inhabitants. 
It was taken by the French in 1807, but resisted 
ae aCe by Masséna in 1809. Pop. about 
435,3 


LISBURN, lis’bérn, Ireland, a market and 
cathedral town in the counties of Antrim and 
Down, eight miles southwest of Belfast, on the 
river Lagan, It is in general well built and has 
a clean and thriving appearance with a market- 
house and courthouse, the episcopal cathedral 
church of the united dioceses of Downs, Con- 
nor and Dromore, containing a monument to 
Jeremy Taylor, who died here in 1667; a Ro- 
man Catholic church and other places of wor- 
ship; county infirmary; a fine park, donated by 
Sir R. Wallace in 1888, etc. It is an important 
centre of the linen industry. Pop. 12,388. 


LISSAJOUS  (lé-sa-zhooz’) FIGURES, 
curves formed by compounding two simple 
harmonic motions at right angles to one an- 
other. They are generated when a ray of light 
is reflected from the limb of an upright tuning- 
fork to the limb of a horizontal tuning-fork, 
and thence to a screen, a point of which it 
illuminates. When the tuning-forks vibrate, if 
they are perfectly in unison the spot on the 
screen describes a straight line, or a circle, or an 
ellipse, but if not, various complex curves are 
described. They can also be formed by the 
bob of a pendulum, the effective length of which 
differs in two perpendicular planes. Such a 
pendulum may be formed by suspending a string 
and bob from the middle of a string the ends 
of which are fixed. The equation of a Lissa- 
jous curve is of the form 


{ Yom 1 sin (b:+ cit) 
y = az sin (bo+ cot) 


Lissajous curves derive their name from Jules 
Antoine Lissajous, who presented a paper con- 
cerning them to the Paris Academy of Sciences 
in 1857. Some of his work, however, had been 
anticipated by Nathaniel Bowditch of Salem, 
Mass., in 1815. 


LIST, Friedrich, German economist: b. 
Reutlingen, Wiirttemberg, 1789; d. 1846. He 
began life as a clerk in the public service and 


503 


in 1816 was ministerial under-secretary. The 
following year he was appointed to the chair 
of political economy at Ttbingen, but resigned 
in 1819. He became a member of the Wirttem- 
berg Diet, but was expelled in 1822 and impris- 
oned for his censures on the government. He 
effected his escape and lived successively in 
Baden, Alsace and in Switzerland. He emi- 
grated to America in 1825, engaged in farming 
in Pennsylvania but soon became editor of a 
German journal. Coal was discovered on his 
farm lands about this time and he became 
wealthy. He was appointed United States con- 
sul at Hamburg in 1830 but the Senate refused 
to confirm him in this office. Three years later 
he was made consul at Leipzig, but remained in 
office only a short time. He became interested 
in railroad development in Germany and advo- 
cated a national navy and a national commercial 
system for the German states. He traveled in 
Austria and Hungary in 1844 and England two 
years later, where he tried to promote a com- 
mercial treaty with Germany. His failure in 
this project caused him to become depressed 
and he shot himself during a fit of insanity. 
He wrote ‘Outlines of a New System of Polit- 
ical Economy (1827); ‘Das nationale System 
der politischen Oekonomie? (1841). Consult 
lives by Goldschmidt (Berlin 1878) and Jentsch 
(ib. 1901) and ‘Friedrich List, ein Vorlaufer 
und ein Opfer fiir das Vaterland (Stuttgart); 
Palgrave, ‘Dictionary of Political Economy? 
CFendon 1899). 


LISTER, Joseph (Baron LisTER), Eng- 
lish physician, the founder of aseptic surgery: 
b. Upton, Essex, 5 April 1827; d. Walmer, 10 
Feb. 1912. The son of a member of the Society 
of Friends who was engaged in business in 
London as a wine merchant, he was educated 
for his profession at University College, Lon- 
don, and became house surgeon at Edinburgh 
Royal Infirmary under Professor Syme, whose 
daughter he married. He was professor of 
surgery at Glasgow University, 1860-69; pro- 
fessor of clinical surgery at Edinburgh Univer- 


sity, 1869-77; and from 1877-93 held the same. 


chair in King’s College, London, and practised 
as a consulting physician. His claim to be re- 


garded as the founder of modern surgery is. 


indisputable. The discovery of anesthetics 
had widened the field for the surgeon, making 
possible a vast increase in the number of oper- 
ations; but his footsteps were followed by a 
great mortality among the patients due to what 
would now be attributed to blood poisoning. 


J 


Lister realised the significance in their applica-v 


tion to surgery of the results of Pasteur’s ex- 
periments on fermentation, and in 1865 he an- 
nounced his new method of disinfecting 
wounds, bandages and instruments by means of 
antiseptic dressings, originally cotton wool and 
carbolic acid and thereby killing the germs. 
Later he improved on his methods by the intro- 
duction of aseptic surgery, which aims at the 
exclusion of bacteria in wounds by a scrupulous 
cleanliness in the operating theatre and the 
sterilization of instruments rather than by 
poisoning them after they have obtained lodg- 
ment. Summing up Lord Lister’s work, the 
British Medical Journal declared that “he had 
saved more lives by the introduction of his sys- 
tem than all the wars of the 19th century to- 
gether had sacrificed”. Honors world wide 


504 


rained thick upon him; he was created a baro- 
net in 1893, raised to the peerage in 1897 and 
was one of the first recipients of the Order of 
Merit. He left no issue. 


LISZT, Franz, frants list, Hungarian 
Pianist and composer: b. Raiding, near Oden- 
burg, Hungary, 22 Oct. 1811; d. Baireuth, 31 
July 1886. He was scarcely nine years of age 
when he made his first appearance as a pianist 
and improvisator in Odenburg and Presburg 
with such success that several noblemen under- 
took the expenses of his training at Vienna 
under Czerny the pianist, and Salieri the com- 
poser. In 1823 he made a great sensation 
as executant and improvisator on the piano 
in Vienna, Munich, Paris and other cities. 
His father thereupon traveled with him 
through France, Switzerland and England 
for further study of his art. While yet 
a boy he composed the operetta ‘Don 
Sancho? (1824) and the following year launched 
out into grand opera at Paris. For a time he 
experienced the conflict between his religious 
predilections, which beckoned him to the 
Church, and his father’s wishes for his musical 
success, which resulted finally in the choice of 
music as his profession. His hearing of Paga- 
nini in 1831 affected him greatly and had a most 
stimulating influence on his cultivation of vir- 
tuosity. In 1835 he had completed his studies 
as composer for the piano, and in company with 
the Countess d’Agoult who afterward became 
the mother of his children (one of whom be- 
came the wife of Von Bilow and afterward of 
Richard Wagner) he began his travels, during 
which he gave.a series of concerts in Switzer- 
land, Italy and Hungary, winding up with some 
remarkable performances in Vienna. From 1839 
to 1847 he made a triumphal progress through 
the whole of Europe. His success was due less 
to the astounding power of execution ‘with 
which he rendered the masterpieces of every 
age, than to the sublimity, the noble feeling, the 
depth of expression with which he rendered 
every number of his program. Honors néw 
were showered upon him; he was made Kapell- 
meister to the Grand Elector of Weimar; Fred- 
erick William IV knighted him, and he was 
decorated ‘by every court in Europe. In 1848 
he settled at Weimar with the Princess Karo- 
line Sayn-Wittgenstein, and became the teacher 
and “Ginspirer” of a large circle of young musi- 
cians. In 1861 he settled at Rome; in 1865 he 
took minor orders in the 'Catholic Church, and 
became known as Abbé Liszt. In 1870 he was 
made president of the Royal Musical Academy 
at Budapest and henceforth lived in turn there, 
at Rome and at Weimar. The villa in the last 
city which he occupied now contains the Liszt 
museum. 

In the career of Liszt as a composer there 
are three distinct periods. The compositions 
of his first period consist partly of ‘Transcrip- 
tions? for the pianoforte (a department in 
piano music inaugurated by him); partly of 
piano pieces, songs and choruses for male voices. 
In the second period, during his residence at 
Weimar, he applied himself to purely instru- 
mental music, in accordance. with the principles 
which he had learned of Berlioz. He sought 
on the piano to express by a symphony familiar 
poetic objects and by means of this to adum- 
brate ideas of a lyric or dramatic order. To 


LISZT — LITANY 


this class of compositions belong his twelve 
‘Symphonic Poems,» namely, (1) ‘Ce qu’on 
entend sur la Montagne? known also as ‘The 
Mountain Symphony? ; (2) Tasso’s “Lamento 
e Trionfo?; (3) Preludes, after Lamartine’s 
‘Notre Vie est-elle autre Chose qu'une Serie 
de Preludes’; (4) ‘Orpheus’?; (5) ‘Prome- 
theus,? etc. Later in. this period appeared 
‘Missa Solemnis» and ‘The Hungarian Coro- 
nation Mass.’ In his third period, from. his 
residence in Rome to his death, he is chiefly 
remarkable as a composer of sacred music. 
He produced the oratorios ‘Christus? ; and ‘The 
Legend of Saint Elizabeth) ; a ‘Requiem, for 
male voices and the organ; wages “Cantatas,” 
“Psalms,” ‘Paternosters,? and short pieces for 
the church choir. In all these works he fol- 
lowed the method inaugurated by Berlioz and 
Wagner, and his works indicate the high water 
mark of the North German school. What per- 
haps won him most renown were his ‘Sym- 
phonic Poems? and his.sacred compositions, in 
which latter he strove to blend the liturgical 
and dramatic elements of music. He was also 
a musical critic of considerable power. Among 
his published works may be enumerated 
‘Frederic Chopin? (1852); ‘Lohengrin et 
Tannhauser de ‘R. Wagner? (1851); and ‘Les 
Bohemiens et leur musique en Hongrie? (1859). 
Consult “Lives? or studies by Coloocoressi 
(Paris 1905) ; Gollerich (Berlin 1908) ; Hervey 
(London 1911): Kapp, Julius (Berlin 1911); 
Ramann (Leipzig 1894) ; Wagner, C. (Munich 
1911). His letters were published i in eight vol- 
umes under the editorship of Maria Lipsius 
(1893-1905) ; his correspondence with Wagner 
serena in an English translation by Hueffer 
in 


LIT DE JUSTICE, 1lé dé zhiis-tés, a sol- 
emn proceeding in France, in which the king, 
with the princes of the blood royal, the peers, 
and the officers of the Crown, state and court 
proceeded to the Parliament, and there, sitting 
upon the throne or lit, caused those commands 
and orders which the Parliament did not ap- 
prove to be registered in his presence. The 
Parliament had the right of remonstrating in 
behalf of the nation against the royal com- 
mands and edicts. Louis XV held such a lit 
de justice in 1763, in order to introduce certain 
imposts, but on account of the firm resistance 
of the Parliaments he was finally obliged to 
yield. The last lits de justice were held by 
Louis XVI in 1787 and 1788. 


LITANY (from the Greek litaneia, sup- 
plication, prayer), a form of prayer or song, 
first used especially on occasions of public ca- 
lamity and introduced according to Zonaras 
and Nicephorus by Proclus, about the year 446, 
at Constantinople, in the reign of Theodosius ; 
according to Paulus Diaconus, under Justinian, 
at Antioch, in consequence of the following 
circumstance: An earthquake, says the legend, 
having driven the people into the fields, a boy 
was suddenly taken up into the air in their 
presence, but was again let down unhurt, on the 
people crying out “Kyrie eleison!” (O Lord, 
have mercy). The boy related that he had 
heard the song of the angels, “Holy God! Holy 
and Mighty, Holy and Immortal! have mercy 
upon us!” and this gave rise to the Litany. 
This kind of common prayer was perhaps not 


LITCHFIELD — LITERARY FORMS 


unusual among the Jews, and Psalm cxxxvi 
seems to have been adapted to this purpose. 

The litanies in general use in the Roman 
Catholic Church are the “Litany of the Most 
Holy Name of Jesus,» the “Litany of the 
Saints” and the “Litany of Loreto” The “Lit- 
any of the Most Holy Name of Jesus”. is com- 
posed of a series of addresses to Jesus Christ, 
in which. the different names by which He is 
called are used. Like all the litanies it begins 
with “Kyrie eleison” (Lord have mercy) and 
ends with an entreaty to the “Lamb of God 
who taketh away the sins of the world.” This 
litany is said aloud in the churches by the mem- 
bers of the “Holy Name Societies” on general 
communion days. The “Litany of the Saints” 
is composed of supplications to God for favors, 
the rendition of thanks and a number of peti- 
tions to saints asking their intercession. This 
litany is a part of the special church service for 
Saint Mark’s day, the rogation days, the ru- 
brics for the consecration of churches and 
cemeteries, for ordinations and for. other 
church services. The “Litany of Loreto” re- 
ceives its name from being sung on Saturdays 
and feasts of the Virgin Mary, in thé Santa 
Casa of Loreto. It consists of a number of 
petitions to the Virgin Mary using her differ- 
ent titles as found in the Scriptures and in 
sacred writings and asking her intercession. 

Litanies are found in the old hymnbooks of 
the Lutherans, but are no longer used by Prot- 
estant Germans. In the Anglican prayer-book 
the litany is retained, and though it adheres in 
many respects to the ancient forms, it differs 
from those of the Roman Catholic Church and 
contains no invocation of the Virgin or the 
saints. Since 1661 it is no longer a. distinct 
service, but, when used, forms part of the 
morning prayer, after the third collect for 
Grace. 


LITCHFIELD, Conn., borough, one of 
the county-seats of Litchfield County, near 
Bantam Lake, and on the New York, New 
Haven and Hartford Railroad, about 15 miles 
northwest of Waterbury and 28 miles west of 
Hartford. The first settlement was made in 
1719 and the place was called Bantam, but after 
a few years the name was changed to Litch- 
field. During the Revolutionary War Litch- 
field was used for the storage of supplies. The 
women of Litchfield melted and made into bul- 
lets the statue of George III which the people 
of New York City had torn down from Bowl- 
ing Green on 9 July. Sarah Pierce opened here, 
in 1792, a school for the higher education of 
women. Judge Tapping Reeve, in 1784, also 
founded here the first law school in the United 
States. It was patronized by many young men 
who afterward became prominent in the af- 
fairs of the nation. It was the birthplace of 
Ethan Allen and of Henry Ward Beecher and 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. Lyman Beecher was 
a pastor here for 16 years from 1810. Litch- 
field is situated in a region where grazing and 
dairying are the prominent industries, but valu- 
able deposits of nickel ore are found in the 
vicinity. The beautiful scenery, mild climate 
and places of historic interest make it a fa- 
vorite pleasure resort. The chief industrial es- 
tablishments are creameries. Bantam Lake, 
nearby, is the largest in the State. Pon. 
{1920) 707, 


505 


LITCHFIELD, Ill., city, in Montgomery 
County, on the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, 
Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the Wa- 
bash, the Chicago, Peoria and Saint Louis, the 
Chicago and Alton and the Chicago, Burling- 
ton and Quincy and Litchfield and Madison 
railroads, about 50 miles northeast of Saint 
Louis, Mo., and 45 miles south of Springfield. 
It is ina good farming section, with oil, coal 
and natural gas in the vicinity. The chief in- 
dustries are mining and manufacturing. The 
principal manufactures are railroad cars, 
foundry products, glass, briquet ornaments, 
mine engines, brick, tile, flour, lumber, steel 
gates and farm accessories, galvanized cans, 
silos, cement sack bailers, wind-mills and 
creamery products. The trade is in the manu- 
factures, coal, oil and some farm products. It 
has good schools, a public library and several 
prominent buildings. The government is vested 
in a mayor whose term of office is two years, 
and in a council, with administrative officials 
appointed by the mayor and approved by the 
council. Pop. (1920). 6,215. 


LITCHFIELD, Minn., village, county- 
seat of Meeker County, on the Great Northern 
Railroad, about 63 miles west of Saint Paul 
it is situated in an agricultural and stock-rais- - 
ing region. Its chief industries are connected 
with farm products and the shipping -of live- 
stock. It has machine shops, flour and lumber 
mills, wagon and carriage factory, a foundry 
and brick yards. Pop. (1920) 2,790. 


LITCHI, lich’i, or LEE-CHEE, a tree 
(Nephelium litcht) of the soapberry family, 
native to southern China. It is of moderate 
size, with brown bark, large leaves and fruit 
produced in bunches, which are pendant from 
the extremities of the twigs. Each berry, 
known in trade simply as “litchi,” is one to two 
inches in diameter, with a tough, thin, leath- 
ery coat anda colorless half- -transparent pulp, 
in the centre of which is a single brown seed. 
The fresh fruit is pleasantly sweet and reputed 
to be one of the most. delicious known. It is 
sold extensively in America and Europe in a 
dried state, and though the pulp is much di- 
minished in size it retains a considerable por- 
tion of its original flavor. Attempts have been 
made to cultivate it in the United States with 
some success in southern California and Flor- 
ida, but the tree seems extremely susceptible 
to cold. Other species of Nephelium, as the 
longan tree (N. longanum) of the East Indies, 
yield similar fruit and seem better adapted to 
American cultivation. The nuts of the last are 
smaller and less sugary than those of the litchi, 
but are regarded by the Chinese, by whom they 
are also cultivated, as having useful medicinal 
qualities. 


LITERARY FORMS. The term litera- 
ture is sometimes applied to all printed dis- 
course intended to be preserved for permanent 
use; but more specifically it is reserved for 
forms of discourse intended to serve artistic 
rather than utilitarian purposes and developed 
chiefly by the processes of the imagination 
rather than those of the reason and the sense 
of fact. (De Quincey, in a famous passage, 
distinguished this class of writings as “Litera- 
ture of Power,” tn contrast to “Literature of 
Knowledge”). These forms are classified most 


506 


inclusively under the main divisions of prose 
literature and poetry, though some, like the 
drama, exist amphibiously in both divisions. 


Prose LITERATURE. 


The Essay is the simplest form of prose dis- 
course, and the form most closely related to the 
“literature of knowledge.» In the least devel- 
cped type it may be looked upon as a collection 
of gnomic sayings or aphorisms and be called 
Gnomic or Aphoristic. In the Old Testament 
“Book of Proverbs? one may see, in certain 
chapters, the aphoristic essay growing out of 
the mere collection of aphorisms. For English 
literature the chief example of this type is the 
Essays of Francis Bacon (q.v.). If, instead of 
expressing general ideas, the writer sets down 
his individual experiences and feelings, frankly 
representing his personality rather than ab- 
stract truth, the essay becomes personal or fa- 
- miliar; of this type the chief example in Eng- 
lish literature is the ‘Essays of Elia? (q.v.), by 
Charles Lamb. A further development takes 
place when the essay represents critical think- 
ing, elaborated on themes literary, political, 
historical, etc.; often this type takes its rise in 
a book review. It may be called the critical or 
expository; the chief example in English lit- 
erature is the Essays of Lord Macaulay (q.v.). 
See further under Essay. 

Prose Fiction, or imaginative narrative, is 
closely related to poetry, because so freely cre- 
ative in character; and at certain periods, not- 
ably in the Middle Ages; the distinction be- 
' tween prose and verse romance is almost negli- 
gible. In general, fiction is most distinctively 
classified under the two heads of Romance and 
Novel. The romance deals characteristically 
with the unfamiliar or wonderful — with mat- 
ters distant in time or space, with heroic or su- 
pernatural adventure, and with romantically 
moving backgrounds and emotional situations; 
the novel deals characteristically with the famil- 
iar, with the sense of reality and the represen- 
tation of the problems of contemporary life. 
The romance, therefore, tends to be more po- 
etic and to be less concerned with ethics and 
social organization; the novel tends to be more 
critical — often satiric, and frequently, though 
not invariably, concerns itself with sociological 
and kindred themes. A third type, the tale or 
(as it is now commonly called) the short 
story, may partake of the character of either 
romance or novel; the short stories of Haw- 
thorne and Poe exemplify the former tend- 
ency, those of recent American writers like 
Sarah Orne Jewett and “O. Henry,” the latter. 
Poe distinguished, in a well-known passage, 
the true short story (which some prefer to 
write “Short-Story”) as one which can be read 
at a single sitting, and in which every word 
contributes to a single preconceived effect. Be- 
tween this and the novel stands the novelette, 
in which the method of the novel is followed 
in abbreviated form. See further under 
NoveL; ROMANCE. 

The Drama is fiction presented not in the 
words of the author, but solely through the 
action and speech of the imagined characters. 
This type is commonly classified as comedy 
and tragedy; formerly comedy was distin- 
guished as dealing with unimportant person- 
ages and with the complications of common 


LITERARY FORMS 


life, tragedy as dealing with great personages 
and lofty and fateful themes, but in modern 
times the usual distinction is based on the pre- 
vailingly “happy ending” of comedy and the 
hero’s defeat (and, usually, death) character- 
istic of the end of tragedy. In the period when 
tragedy normally confined itself to characters 
of rank or importance, an exceptional type was 
often distinguished as bourgeois tragedy, or 
tragedy of common life. Comedy may be con- 
veniently classified as comedy of manners, 
romantic comedy, and farce. The comedy of 
manners satirizes familiar types of contempo- 
rary life; examples are the chief plays of Ben 
Jonson, in the Elizabethan Age, and of Bernard 
Shaw in the present. As this sort of comedy 
is akin to the novel, romantic comedy is akin 
to the romance, dealing with the less familiar 
side of experience, and treating it sympathet- 
ically rather than satirically. Shakespeare re- 
mains the chief exemplar of romantic comedy; 
it does not flourish tn modern times. Farce 
is comedy based on amusing action, in which 
plausibility of plot and emphasis on character 
are frankly abandoned. (Farce is sometimes 
distinguished as “low comedy,” comedy based 
on the delineation of character as “high 
comedy”). Besides these principal types, vari- 
ous mixed or indeterminate forms must be 


noted. Tragi-comedy —a term chiefly used in 


the 17th century—is drama dealing with 
dignified persons and serious events, but reach- 
ing a solution instead of a catastrophe: Shake- 
speare’s ‘Cymbeline? and ‘A Winter's Tale? 
are examples (though the former was classified 
as a tragedy, the latter as a comedy, in the 
folio edition of his plays). To these late 
Shakespeare plays of blended character the 
term “Romance” is also applied. Modern usage 
tends to call the blended type simply “a play” 
or a “drama” (French drame); this class may 
also include plays which end with death or 
disaster (like Rostand’s ‘Cyrano de Bergerac? 
and Ibsen’s ‘Hedda Gabler?), which for one 
or another reason the dramatist does not wish 
to call tragedies. The Melodrama (originally 
meaning music-drama) is a~term somewhat 
loosely applied to what might be called the 
serious farce,—a drama dependent on incident 
rather than character, and appealing not to the 
comic sense but to the sentiments. The Masque 
(or Mask) is an early form, occasionally re- 
vived in the present time, in which music and 
pageantry are used to embellish the dramatic 
art, and in which the characters are usually 
symbolic or allegorical; the chief English ex- 
ample is Milton’s ‘Comus? (q.v.). See further 
under DRAMA. 

In addition to the definitely established types 
of prose literature, there remain certain kinds 
imperfectly definable, of which one might note 
the fantasy or prose-poem,— a form of compo- 
sition seeking the effects of poetry while keep- 
ing to the medium of prose. In English litera- 
ture the chief examples are certain reveries of 
De Quincey, such as that called ‘Levana and 
Our Ladies of Sorrow.’ 


PoETRY. 


For the definition of poetry in general, see 
under Poetry. Poetic literature is commonly 
classified as Narrative, Lyrical, or Dramatic, 
though there are certain other subsidiary kinds. 


\ 


LITERARY FORMS 


This distinction is primarily based on the poet’s 
subject matter and his relation to it. In nar- 
trative poetry the principal subject is action, 
objective or external, usually relatéd by the 
poet as one standing outside it; in lyrical 
poetry the principal subject is feeling, personal 
or subjective, expressed ‘by the poet as for him- 
self or for an imagined speaker; in dramatic 
poetry the subject is both action and feeling, 
but the action is represented objectively while 
the feeling is expressed subjectively by the 
various characters. ) 

Of narrative poetry the chief types are those 
of early periods, this kind having greatly 
diminished in significance in the modern period 
characterized by the rise of prose fiction; these 
chief early types are Epic and Ballad. The 
epic is a long narrative poem dealing with 
heroic adventures of a traditional character, 
usually concerned with national or racial themes 
and involving supernatural elements. One may 
distinguish the primitive or communal epic, 
like the “Iliad? (q.v.), of uncertain authorship 
and representing the legendary of a whole race 
rather than the invention of an original poet, 
and the individual or art epic, like the ‘A#neid? 
(q.v.), representing the conscious art of a 
single composer. Modern epics, like Milton’s 
‘Paradise Lost? (q.v.), are usually written in 
deliberate imitation of the ancient, with an 
application of the old methods to more reflec- 
tive or spiritual subject matter than is charac- 
teristic of the primitive type. The Ballad is 
a shorter narrative, intended to be recited (in 
early days perhaps more commonly sung) at a 
single sitting, and dealing with a single adven- 
ture or episode of popular story. Many of the 
old ballads centre about certain popular themes 
and heroes, forming what is called a “cycle”; 
the best-known example is the cycle dealing 
with Robin Hood and his outlaws of the 
Greenwood. Another early type, though be- 
longing to the era of written rather than oral 
poetry, is the Metrical Romance, distinguished 
from the epic very slightly at times, but chiefly 
in ‘being less concerned with national themes, 
and more with those of chivalric adventure 
and love. Like the ballads, the romances ap- 
pear in cycles, the most notable examples_be- 
ing those concerned with the story of King 
Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. 
In modern English poetry the metrical romance 
was revived by Walter Scott and Lord Byron. 
The Fabliau, still another medizval type, is 
a humorous tale analogous to the comic short 
story in prose. In general, modern narrative 
verse avoids the following of fixed types. The 
term Idyl has been loosely and variously used,— 
most often to describe a narrative poem with 
a large descriptive element, especially in pas- 
toral setting, but in a special sense by Tennyson, 
for the separate narratives (spiritualized re- 


workings of Arthurian romances) which he - 


called ‘Idylls of the King» (q.v.). Finally, 
we may note that occasional experiments have 
been made in the use of poetry for narratives 
of familiar life in the manner of the novel; 
examples are Clough’s ‘Bothie of Tober-na- 
Vuolich®> and Owen Meredith’s (Lord Lyt- 
ton’s) ‘Lucille? (q.v.). 

Lyrical Poetry is characterized on the one 
hand by its association with music, and on the 
other by the personal or subjective feeling 
which it normally expresses. Its simplest and 


507 


most typical form is the Song. As the type 
develops, with the natural course of civilization, 
a larger and larger element of reflection, or 
intellectual expressiveriess, is added to the 
Originally simple and ‘song-like utterance of 
feeling, resulting im what may be called the 
Reflective Lyric. Of the song-lyric the poems 
of Burns are the most important examples 
in modern English literature; of the reflective 
lyric the chief masters are Wordsworth, Shel- 
ley and Tennyson (e.g., ‘Tintern Abbey,? ‘To 
a Skylark,» ‘Tears, Idle Tears’). Special- 
forms of-the reflective lyric are the Ode, the 
Elegy, and the Sonnet. The term Ode is 
loosely applied to a lyric of a highly dignified 
or impassioned character, elaborated at some 
length, especially when addressed to some per- 
sonified idea (as Coleridge’s ‘Ode to France? 
and Wordsworth’s ‘Ode to Duty) or expres- 
sive of public feeling on some important occa- 
sion (as Tennyson’s ‘Ode on the Death of 
Wellington» and Lowell’s ‘Commemoration 
Ode’). The Elegy is (for English usage, hav- 
ing a much more general significance in class- 
ical poetry) a lyric expressive of melancholy 
or grief, in particular when commemorative of 
a dead friend. The most representative ex- 
amples are Milton’s ‘Lycidas? and Shelley’s 
“Adonais?; of a somewhat different character 
is Gray’s ‘Elegy in a Country Churchyard? 
(q.v.), where the unknown dead of an entire 
village are celebrated. The Sonnet is a con- 
densed reflective lyric, devoted to the expression 
of a single idea or moment of feeling, and 
is always 14 lines in length. Two forms are 
distinguished: the Italian, in which the poem 
divides itself into two parts, octave and sestet, 
usually with some corresponding division of 
the thought; and the English, in which the 
natural divisions are three quatrains and a 
concluding couplet, with a correspondingly more 
progressive development of the thought. The 
chief English sonneteers in the Italian form 
are Sidney, Milton, Wordsworth, and Ros- 
setti; in the English form, Shakespeare and 
Drayton. 

We may also note under the head of ly- 
rical poetry certain forms which in a sense 
combine the method of lyric with that of nar- 
rative. Thus a poem may be at once song and 
story, or be intended equally to express feeling 
and narrate action; for this the term Lyrical 
Ballad has been used, notably by Wordsworth, 
who said that in his narrative poems called 
by this name the reader was to understand 
that the. feeling awakened “gives importance 
to the action and situation, not the action and 
situation to the feeling” Or, a poem may 
represent a song expressive of the feeling of 
a particular imagined person in a_ particular 
situation; for this the term Dramatic Lyric is 
used, notably by Browning (e.g., his ‘Cavalier 
Tunes”). If it is the speech, rather than the 
song, of an imagined character, reflectively 
developed, the poem is called a Dramatic Mono- 
logue; this is one of the most characteristic 
of modern types, being represented especially 
in the work of Tennyson and Browning (e.¢., 
the former’s ‘Ulysses,” the latter’s “My Last 
Duchess?). In the poem ‘Maud? Tennyson 
told the story through a series of dramatic 
lyrics and monologues, and called the whole a 
Monodrama. 

Dramatic Poetry is not, in general, distin- 


508 


guished in its kinds from those of prose drama; 
see, therefore, the account given above under 
prose forms. For the most part, the use of 
poetry in drama is confined to tragedy and 
romantic comedy, and even there, in modern 
English drama, it has been largely displaced by 
prose. . 
A separate class is sometimes made for 
Descriptive Poetry, as represented by examples 
like Thomson’s ‘Seasons’; but description in 
poetry, as in prose literature, is usually sub- 
ordinated to some more characteristic end. 
Still another class is made up of Didactic or 
Expository Poetry, in which the functions of 
prose are most closely approximated, for the 
exposition of ethical or social theory; import- 
ant examples in English literature are Dry- 
den’s ‘Religio Laici? and Pope’s ‘Essay on 
Man.? Wordsworth’s ‘Excursion? combines 
the methods of narrative and didactic poetry. 
Finally, we may note a type sometimes called 
Familiar Verse, more frequently Vers de 
Société, which may be either narrative or lyri- 
cal in form, but is distinguished by its own 
mood and style; it is witty or humorous in 
tone, in style suggestive of polite conversation, 
and deals generally with the manners of artifi- 
cial society rather than with those fundamental 
themes (like nature, love, and death), which 
form the chief subject matter of serious poetry. 
Important examples, for English literature, are 
Pope’s ‘Rape of the Lock»? (in form a mock- 
epic), and various short poems by W. M. Praed, 
C. S. Calverley and Austin Dobson... For vers 
de société modern writers often employ certain 
fixed forms of verse derived from medizval 
French usage, such as the Ballade, the Rondeau 
or Rondel, and the Triolet; these follow exact 
and difficult arrangements of rime, and are 
marked by the repetition of a pointed refrain. 
In Latin literature, and in English literature 
of the Renaissance and the 18th century, Satire 
is a distinct form of poetry,— the imaginative 
indictment of contemporary follies and vices. 
In modern literature no such distinct type is 
commonly recognized, but the mood and pur- 
pose of satire may be discovered in prose or 
verse, and in narrative, lyrical or dramatic 
form. Somewhat similarly, the Pastoral or 
Eclogue was a recognized form of poetry, 
under classical influence, in the Renaissance and 
later; Spenser’s ‘Shepherd’s Calendar? forms 
an important collection. But the term Pastoral 
was loosely used, and is now applied as an ad- 
jective in connection with romance, drama or 
lyric, when the theme concerns the traditional 
beauty. and happiness. of rural — particularly 
shepherd — life. . 
Bibliography.— For works dealing with the 
separate. literary forms, see under Essay, 
DrAMA, Novel, and Poetry. For the types in 
general, consult Gayley and Scott, ‘Introduc- 


tion to the Methods and Materials of Literary . 


Criticism? (Boston 1899); Painter, F. V. N., 
‘Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism? 
(Boston 1903); Hunt, T. W., ‘Literature, its 
Principles and Problems» (New York 1906) ; 
Hudson, W. H., ‘Introduction to the Study of 
Literature” (Boston 1910); Moulton, R. G, 
‘The Modern Study of Literature? (Chicago 


1915). 
RaymMonp M. ALDEN, 
Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior 
University, 


LITERARY LABOR SAVERS — LITERATURE 


LITERARY LABOR SAVERS. See 
OFFICE LABOR-SAVERS. 

LITERARY PROPERTY. See Copy- 
RIGHT. 

LITERATURE (in Latin, Jlitteratura, 


literatura, writing, from littera, letter); in the 
widest sense is the expression, representation 
or manifestation of thought by means of 
alphabetic symbols called letters — the products 
being considered as a collective body, without 
special regard to the excellence and beauty of 
the form of expression. But in a restricted 
and usually preferred sense only the more 
polished or artistic class of such products, to- 
gether with the critical knowledge and apprecia- 
tion of them, may be called literature; for the 
term is, according to this latter usage, applied 
exclusively to writing which has claim to con- 
sideration on the ground of beauty of form or 
emotional effect. Thus, a declaration conform- 
ing to the latter usage is John Morley’s often 
cited sentence: “Literature consists of all the 
books where moral truth and human 
passion are touched with a certain largeness, 
Sanity, and attractive form”; and the best 
recent expression of the same high view is to be 
credited to Lieut. Coningsby Dawson, who 
writes in October 1917: “In the light of my 
experience at the front, the petty personal 
problems which we cloak in words and call 
literature seem so ignoble a presentation of 
men and women who are planned for im- 
mortality and live in an infinite world» The 
passport to this higher class (literature in the 
usually preferred sense and belles-lettres) is 
the possession of what is known as literary 
quality; and the foregoing statements enable 
us to conclude that any work in this field 
should, if its possession of this passport quality 
is to be fully conceded, rise above pettiness or 
triviality of thought and expression, and should 
attain or approximate not only attractiveness 
of form but also soundness and adequacy of 
treatment. 

There is certainly room for doubt as to the 
correct classification of the main divisions of 
this subject, especially in regard to the admis- 
sion or exclusion of distinctive groups. For 
instance, the literary quality of a work in the 
field of science or in the field of oratory (after 
the oration has been printed) may be so marked 
and striking that we easily think of the former. 
as literature in the restricted, and not merely in 
the widest, sense; and we may also, and almost 
as easily, overlook the fact that oratory must 
be held to be expression by vocal sounds and 
not primarily representation by alphabetic 
symbols. On the other hand, some of the 
dramatic works that are now by common con- 
sent classed as secular literature’s best offering 
were originally designed simply to be acted, to 
be played, and without one thought of the 
effect they would produce when printed and 
read. In general usage, however, six or seven 
main groups are recognized, and all of these, 
except the first and the last, were developed in 
Greece or Greek colonies before (some of them 
long before) the middle of the 4th century B.c. 
We have thus the literature of religion, of 
philosophy, of poetry (epic, dramatic and 


LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC 


literature of the several peoples of the world, 
both ancient and modern, are treated fully 
under their special or national titles, as Ameri- 
can Literature, Celtic Literature, English Liter- 
ature, Greek Literature, Latin Literature, 
Latin-American Literature, Jewish Literature, 
Lithuanian Literature, Persian Literature, 
Polish Literature, Russian Literature, etc., etc. 
Reference to the Classified Index will give a 
complete list of articles ‘dealing with special 
periods or phases of literature and literary his- 
tory, as’ Comparative Literature, Classical 
Literature, Literature of the Middle Ages, 
Elizabethan and Victorian literatures, etc. In 
addition, the great masterpieces of world liter- 
ature have received special treatment under 
their own titles, giving an outline of the plot, 
characters, literary excellence and literary his- 
tory of the work in question, e.g. Hedda Gabler, 
Autobiography of Franklin, Man without a 
Country, Jane Eyre, Peter Ibbotson, Hernani, 
Gil Blas, La Vita Nuova, Amiel’s Journal, Anna 
Karenina, Kalevala, Madame Bovary, etc. 


LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC, 
Influence of the World War On. All wars 
have a profound influence on the life and 
thought of the nations — they either sterilize 
when disasters are overwhelming or awaken to 
new energy when conditions are more favorable. 
The inspiration of any momentous and long- 
continued struggle is contagious—it spreads 
from camp to city and enters every sphere of 
activity, molding a nation’s literature, art and 
music, spheres that are so readily affected. 
Naturally the full force of that influence may 
not be felt immediately, but it cannot long be 
deferred nor its importance underestimated. 
For war in intensifying the sense of national- 
ity arouses attention to those lines of activity 
in which nations take special pride —arts and 
letters. 

The war of 1914 had at first an unfavorable 
effect on literature, with the whole bent of the 
nations turning in other directions. The old 
Latin proverb that amid arms the laws are 
silent has a much wider application. A shrink- 
age followed in the output of books; and 
literary plans, including notable translations, 
had to be changed or deferred in the severance 
of relations with the Central Powers and the 
added difficulty of research work in certain 
lines. It did not take long, however, before 
compensation followed in the rapid output of 
war literature. It was found necessary after 


October 1918, owing to the shortage of paper,. 


for American publishers in the interest. of 
economy to cut down the number and titles of 
books for general readers as well as in some 
lines of textbooks, The total number of books. 
inclusive of pamphlets, issued in the United 
States in 1914 was 8,563; in 1915, 6,932; in 1916, 
8,430; in 1917, 8,107; in 1918, 7,686. The de- 
crease in fiction and in general literature for 
1918 was more than counterbalanced by war 
books in different lines. 

The various departments of war literature 
included diplomacy of war, diaries of diploma- 
tists, international relations between United 
States and Germany, documentary histories of 
diplomatists. Then. comes. newspaper. corre- 
spondence, usually reprinted in book form, the 
causes. of war, military history, war poetry, 
soldiers’ letters,-fiction in the style of Wells, 


509 


Sinclair and Barbusse, personal sketches, novels, 
camp journalism,— wide in range and variety 
of subject. Happily the tension of war has not 
been allowed to interfere with the average 
reader’s enjoyment of books. The work of the 
American Library Association in providing a 
million and more books for various camps, the 
result of a public appeal, was of marked value. 

It is difficult to be specific in examples of 
war literature that have merit enough to be 
given mention here. Many books of the day 
are written only for the day, and quickly pass- 
into forgetfulness.. In the haste of composi- 
tion and lack of literary qualities, the majority 
of war books belong to that category. Some 
will be treasured as keepsakes or considered as 
curiosities of a notable epoch, and be con- 
signed to the vault with curios, antiques, etc. 
A few works, however, have done their share 
in forming public opinion. Schreiner’s ‘From 
Berlin to Bagdad?; Wood’s ‘The Cradle of 
the War?; Jastrow’s ‘The War and the Bag- 
dad Railway,> have undoubted excellence and 
historic value. Dr. Mithler’s ‘The Vandal of 
Europe,? his diary in the early days of the 
war, has its place next to Prince Lichnowsky’s 
famous ‘Memorandum,’ as the most-talked-of 
books of the era. In fiction ‘The Four Horse- 
men of the Apocalypse? by the Spanish novel- 
ist Ibanez is a war story vibrant with Spanish 
feeling, while Malherbe’s ‘The Flame that Won? 
gives the emotional French point of view. In 
poetry, which is never ceasing, as Leigh Hunt 
puts it in an oft-quoted sonnet, Frank Fox- 
croft’s ‘War Verse? will be found fairly repre- 
sentative. Those who like to read. soldiers’ 
letters, many of which are written with much 
simplicity of diction and beauty of thought, 
may turn to the ‘The Good Soldier, by N. P. 
Dawson. Villiers’ ‘Britain after the Peace? 
opens up the question of revolution or recon- 
struction for Great Britain after the war. 

It will take some years before the authorita- 
tive history of the war, with broad vision and 
free from prejudice, will be written. Diploma- 
tists’ diaries, written originally for the maga- 
zines and utilized by the movies, while vivid 
and suggestive, lack the even poise and dignity 
of histories. The far-sighted, well-balanced 
historian demands a few years of preparation 
and another perspective than that of the jour- 
nalist or the occasional letter-writer. A prac- 
tical help for the future historian has been be- 
gun in the Universal Library of Bologna, Italy, 
with its collection of books, pamphlets, publica- 
tions, photographs, documents, etc., pertaining 
to the war of 1914-18. .The works are cata- 
logued under 800 different classifications and 
numbered at the close of 1918 nearly 10,000 
volumes and pamphlets, exclusive of rare docu- 
ments and special reviews. The collection is 
not restricted to Italy but includes every coun- 
try and phase of the war. 

It is generally admitted that the war inter- 
rupted a general renaissance of industrial art 
in Europe. In England, it is true, thanks to 
William Morris and his immediate predecessors, 
the awakening had already come. In fact in 
the summer of 1914 an exhibition of the 
decorative arts of Great Britain was held to 
show the French people how far England had 
advaneed in the task of making artisans of her 
artists and artists of her artisans. In the same 
year in the report to the London county coun- 


510 


cil of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, 
it was stated that “workmen, employers, and 
educationists are awaking to the need of an 
organized scheme of education in art which 
shall be both ideal and practical.” Further 
and more detailed testimony to the progress of 
art education in England are furnished by the 
special autumn number of 1916 of the Jnter- 
national Studio, which gave a careful review 
of the work done by students in .a limited num- 
ber of the leading art schools of Great Britain 
and Ireland. The problem of meeting foreign 
competition is being resolutely met. 

In the United States the war has not been 
allowed to check efforts in industrial art, but 
the modest beginning made will be developed 
in due course when suitable methods adapted to 
our people will be acquired. France has 
shown its vigilance by organizing in war time 
its art teaching and establishing committees to 
ascertain conditions and requirements in its 
various manufacturing centres. Paris had an 
exquisite display in the exhibition of Pagnot 
typography in 1918. The four brothers of that 
name, who were leaders in the book art, had 


fallen in. battle. In other lines the master 
craftsmen have had their gatherings and 
demonstrations — the metal workers’ craft 


showing a particularly remarkable develop- 
ment. 

As the direct outcome of the world con- 
flict has sprung into prominence what might be 
termed the technique of war, in which the in- 
fluence of impressionists and cubists might be 
traced as well as that of legitimate art, under 
the popular name of camouflage. Among 
English painters C. R. W. Nevinson with his 
‘Searchlight? merits the highest praise for 
the genius displayed; among the French, 
Faivre and Farré may be mentioned. The en- 
trance of artists and craftsmen in this field of 
art was everywhere successful and their work 
in the military and naval service was very help- 
ful. If America owes the initiative to the 
camouflage corps of the French army, it*has 
shown an ability and a versatility of its own, 
especially in the problem of marine camouflage. 
Patrol boats and merchantmen have been 
painted so as to create low visibility at sea. In 
New York the work has been chiefly concerned 
in designing and carrying out street decora- 
tions for the many receptions given to com- 
missions from the Allies, which culminated in 
the Avenue of the Allies for the Fourth 
Liberty Loan drive, of whose fine features 
perhaps the most remarkable was the series 
of paintings done by American artists, one each 
day, to commemorate the spirit of the 22 
pepsin engaged on our side of the world strug- 
gle. 

Further work of the artists was to make 
signs and posters for the army and navy to 
encourage enlistment— which were scattered 
all over the country. As a consequence, a 
camouflage corps was formed for service in 
France, and it included painters, sculptors, 
architects, craftsmen such as scene painters, 
stage carpenters, plaster cast molders and 
masons. Thus France received a little repay- 
ment for her copyright in-camouflage. Some 
further commendable work in this direction 
was done by artists beyond the draft age in 
sending original paintings and decorative pieces 
to the various rest homes and Y. M. C. A. huts. 


LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC 


Thus art was brought into the lives of our 
soldiers in the many centres of army life in 
America and France, to wield a more than 
transient influence on character and efficiency 
both during war time and the peace that was to 
follow: 

As to the effect of the war on art prices, any 
inquiry is legitimate. We shall probably wit- 
ness a change in the class of art purchasers and 
the appearance of a new coterie of wealthy 
buyers, with whom an intelligent appreciation 
of the best work is only a matter of time, and 
who at first will pay higher prices. 

American music has to be grateful to the 
war for a larger share of attention and appre- 
ciation. The tendency to lay emphasis on the 
foreign element both in programs as well as in 
education has been followed by a proportionate 
higher regard for the American teacher and 
methods as well as for the typical American 
features in.composition. If Wagner went to 
medizval Teutonic legends for his themes, why 
cannot the American utilize the Indian chant 
and folklore with as superb results? It all de- 
pends upon the genius and equipment of the 
composer. There is possibly a larger field for 
the American music-drama in the very com- 
plexity of the American nation and the role it 
has assumed in diffusing democracy in all 
lands—a field which offers a richer oppor- 
tunity both for theme and elaboration. 

The first effect of the war was hardly in- 
spiring in the flood of patriotic and war songs, 
only a few of which possessed fair merit. Next 
followed a change in the concert program, with 
the Teutonic music less and less represented, 
and greater prominence given to French, Eng- 
lish, Italian, Russian and even Japanese com- 
posers. Bands of music and special artists 
from the Allied nations toured the country 
and did much to increase popular knowledge 
and appreciation. A number of prominent. 
symphony societies in our large cities were 
obliged to dispense with their German con- 
ductors. 

It was a timely protest against tendencies 
that seemed likely to injure American stand- 
ards of music when the Musical Alliance of the 
United States was founded by John C. Freund, 
whose aim was to add a Secretary of Fine 
Arts to the Cabinet. A further step was the 
effort to organize a National Conservatory of 
Music and Art, which was introduced in the 
House of Representatives on 17 June 1918. Its 
purpose was the national control of music and 
revised standards of music. It was shown that 
there was no need to pay many millions yearly 
and educate in music boys and girls abroad, 
when our own country afforded opportunity for 
good training, if it could only encourage its 
students as a number of European nations do. 
It was pointed out forcefully that music was 
more than an accomplishment and a luxury 
for the rich-——it was a great ethical force and 
“a factor in refining and elevating character.” 

In marked contrast to the attitude of Ger- 
many and England where the music of enemy 
countries was played and sung, the United 
States witnessed a boycotting of German music 
at recitals and concerts—a war measure that 
had both its critics and supporters. Mr. H. T. 
Finck mentioned the case of the French govern- 
ment which arranged concerts for the wounded, 
and allowed the preference for Bach, 


LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE 


Beethoven, Mozart and Schumann to be 
granted. ’ 

The war stimulated recitals and musical 
entertainments for war charities, giving a more 
cosmopolitan character to programs. It had 
its effect, also, on community and pageant 
music in our larger and smaller cities and the 
development of mass singing in the army camps. 
Abroad the war possibly encouraged the man- 
agers to produce many novelties at the various 
capitals — London, Paris, Rome, Berlin, Vienna. 
At least it had no adverse influence. One in- 
teresting fact might be mentioned—a Welsh 
composer of much power gave to the public a 
number of excellent songs, some of which 
were written in the» German prison camp at 
Ruhleben. If a Bunyan could write in prison, 
why cannot a singer compose in captivity? 

One may confidently anticipate a marked 
revival in popular interest in music after the 
war-—the efforts made at camp and canton- 
ment, abroad and at home, to reach the soldiers 
cannot fail to have more than a transient in- 
fluence. The public school is likely to de- 
velop as a music centre and music will prove 
more and more a factor in public enlighten- 
ment. 


ABRAM S&S. Isaacs. 


LITERATURE, Comparative. 1. History 
and Development of Study.— Comparative 
literature is a term that only within the 
last 30 years has come into prominence, but is 
applied to so many different fields and lines of 
research that it would be difficult to find two 
scholars who would agree absolutely on the 
particular scope and purpose of this discipline. 
The English term,— obviously a misnomer,— 
seems of quite recent coinage, whereas the cor- 
responding French, German and Italian terms 
have been in use for nearly a century (Littéra- 


ture comparée; Vergleichende Literaturge- 
schichte). The first scholar who pro- 
jected a study of human civilization on 
a philosophical and comparative basis was 
Francis Bacon: some _ remarkable. adum- 
brations of modern theories of evolution 
may be found scattered through his ‘In- 
stauratio magna. -Other  pathfinders in 


this field are the Italian Giovanni Vico, ‘Sci- 
enza nuova? (1725); Dryden, John Dennis, 
Thomas Warton in England; Perrault, Saint 
Evremond, Montesquieu, Batteux in France; 
Baumgarten and Winckelmann in Germany. 
The greatest synthetic mind of his age was Her- 
der whose ambition it was to understand all 
literary phenomena as manifestations of deeper 
cultural impulses and who first insisted upon a 
relative valuation of literary productions ac- 
cording to the specific character and genius of 
each individual nation. Goethe’s broad humani- 
tarian views and genuinely cosmopolitan tastes 
remain an inspiring example for all times. It 
is one of history’s little ironies that many of 
these critics, like Perrault, the Warton brothers 
and Herder, were primarily moved by the de- 
sire to defend their aspirations toward a na- 
tional literature against the tyranny of absolute 
standards or traditions and that, in speaking pro 
domo, they were indirectly obliged to speak pro 
unwverso. The Romantic movement gave a new 
impetus to the expansion of literary interests 
all over Europe. The rediscovery of the for- 
gotten treasures of medizval poetry, or older 


. €Paris 


S11 


ballad and saga literature, the opening up of the 
Oriental world and the study of Southern liter- 
atures,—all these activities tended to enlarge 
the horizon, although they contributed very 
little to comparative analysis. It is sufficient 
to mention the names of Coleridge and Scott, 
of the Schlegel and Grimm brothers, of Mme. 
de Staél and Ampére, and to remind of the fact 
that three leading French periodicals: Le Globe, 
la Revue des deux Mondes, and especially la 
Revue Européenne, were international in char- 
acter and had correspondents in all European: 
countries. From 1850 on, with the strengthen- 
ing of the philological disciplines on one side 
and the rapid growth of biology and sociology 
on the other, new tendencies and methods were 
introduced in the treatment of literary prob- 
lems. Philological analysis resulted in a large 
number of investigations in which literary cur- 
rents, themes and forms were traced through 
different literatures or periods and studied in 
their reaction upon each other. Benfey’s 
‘Pantschatantra? (1859), in which literary rela- 
tions between Orient and Occident are investi- 
gated, was one of the first attempts in compar- 
ative criticism, although Dunlap’s ‘History of 
Prose Fiction» and Graesse’s ‘Sagenkreise des 
Mittelalters? (1837) should not be omitted as 
earlier forerunners. The philosophical and 
synthetic tendency, on the other hand, drew 
inspiration from biology, ethnography and soci- 
ology, in particular from the new gospel of evo- 
lution and its prophets from Darwin to Weis- 
mann and De Vries. The influence of environ- 
ment, climate, race, social institutions upon lit- 
erary life was studied and laws were formulated 
to explain the growth and decline of literary 
types and forms. The theories of Taine, Le- 
tourneau, Posnett, Brunetiére, Manly and others 
are the result of these investigations. At the 
present time literary research shows rather a 
preponderance of technical and analytic studies, 
but a certain speculative element is noticeable 
in many of them and some biological analogies 
seem to have become established. 

2. Field of Study and Topics for Inves- 
tigation.— There is no reason why any literary 


‘problem within any field should not be treated 


in a comparative spirit, but it seems reasonable 
to limit the term “Comparative Literature” to 
investigations which do not merely introduce 
parallels and analogies occasionally, but make 
them their chief end and object. It will not be 
difficult, within these boundaries, to set aside 
certain topics and problems as. belonging pri- 
marily to the domain of Comparative Literature. 
The following list may serve this purpose. 
From the inexhaustible supply of books and 
articles only a few are quoted in each case to 
furnish illustrations. (a) Authors (compari- 
sons for the purpose of analogy or contrast; 
for studies in literary influence see under d): 
Stendhal, ‘Racine et Shakespeare? (Paris 
1823); Stapfer, P., ‘Moliére et Shakespeare? 
1890); Bekk, A., ‘Shakespeare und 
Homer? (Leipzig 1885); Wiehr, J., ‘Hebbel 
und Ibsen) (Stuttgart 1908); Raveggi, P., ‘I 
poeti della visione celeste: Dante, Milton, Klop- 
stock? (Firenze 1903); Betz, L., ‘Heine und 
Musset? (Ziirich 1897). (b) Literary Produc- 
tions (comparisons, ‘not including studies of in- 
fluence): Bauer, “Das Buch Hiob und Dante’s 
Gottliche Komédie? (Gotha 1904); Meinck, 
‘Hebbels und Wagner’s Nibelungen Trilogie? 


512 


(Leipzig 1905); Moguel, A., ‘Calderon’s Magi- 
cien prodigieux et Goethe's Faust? (Paris 1883). 
(c) Literary Themes, Legends, Types, Motifs: 
Paris, G., ‘Histoire poétique de Charlemagne? 
(Paris 1865) ; Castle, E., ‘Die Isolierten Varie- 
taten eines literarischen Typus” (Berlin 1899) ; 
Mallinger, L., ‘Médée. Etude de littérature 
comparée’? (Paris 1897); Simone-Brouwer, 
‘Don Giovanni nella poesia e nell’ arte musi- 
cale? (Napoli 1894); Berg, L., ‘Der Ueber- 
mensch in der neueren Literatur? (Leipzig 
1897). (d) International Relations, Imitations, 
Sources and Influences: Comparetti, D., ©Vir- 
gilio nel Medio Evo? (1896) ; Reinhardstottner, 
C. von, ‘Plautus in der Weltliteratur’? (Leipzig 
1896) ; Rossel, V., ‘Histoire des relations lit- 
téraires entre la France et l’Allemagne? (Paris 
1897) ; Schmidt, E., “Richardson, Rousseau und 
Goethe? (Jena 1875); Oelsner, H., ‘Influence 
of Dante on modern thought? (London 1895) ; 
Baldensperger, ‘Goethe en France? (Paris 
1904). (e) Literary Currents and Tendencies: 
Egger, E., ‘L’Hellénisme en France? (Paris 
1869) ; Texte, J., “Rousseau et les origines du 
cosmopolitisme littéraire? (Paris 1895); 
Brandes, G., ‘Main Currents in Nineteenth 
Century Literature’ (New York 1905); 
Hamann, R., ‘Impressionismus in Leben und 
Kunst? (Cologne 1907). (f) Literary Forms, 
History of Genre: Bédier, ‘Les Fabliaux? 
(Paris 1893); Rajna, ‘Le origini dell’epopea 
francese? (Firenze 1884); Greg, W., ‘Pastoral 
Poetry and Pastoral Drama? (London 1906) ; 
First, R., “Vorlaufer der modernen Novelle? 
-(Halle 1897); Bovet, E., ‘“Lyrisme, épopée, 
drame? (Paris 1911). (g) 4sthetic Emotions: 
De Laprade, ‘Histoire du Sentiment de la 
Nature? (Paris 1883); Biese, ‘Entwicklung des 
Naturgeftthls? (Leipzig 1888) ; Kawczynski, M., 
‘Essai comparatif sur l’origine et Vhistoire des 
Rythmes? (Paris 1889); Volkelt, ‘A®sthe tik 
des Tragischen? (Miinchen 1897). (h) Liter- 
ature as Determined by Intellectual or Emo- 
tional Currents, Social or Political Institutions, 
Physiographic Conditions, Racial Factors; Cor- 
relation of Literature and Art, etc.: Posnett, 
.- M., ‘Comparative Literature? (London 
1886) ; 
ihre Formen? (Leipzig 1884); Letourneau, C., 
‘L/évolution littéraire dans les diverses races 
humaines? (Paris 1894); Mackenzie, A. S., 
‘The Evolution of Literature’ (New York 
1911) ; Maigron, ‘Le Romantisme et les Moeurs? 
(Paris 1910); Stephens, ‘English “Literature 
and Society? (London 1903); Grosse, E., ‘The 
Beginnings of Art? (New York 1897); Hos- 
kins, F. P., ‘Biological Analogy in Literary 
Criticism,» Modern Philology (April 1909). 
“There is no reason why the comparative and 
international point of view should not be ap- 
plied to narrower fields within national or even 
provincial boundaries. Scherer for instance in 
his ‘History of German Literature? is very fond 
of comparing or contrasting writers for pur- 
poses of “reciprocal illumination,» to use his 
favorite term. Schiller’s famous essay on 
“Naive and Sentimental Poetry” may be cited 
as one of the few cases in which two widely re- 
mote epochs of human thought are con- 
trasted. 

3. Principles of Comparative Criticism.— 
These may be reduced to three: evolution, val- 
uation and causation. The principle of evolu- 
tion covers problems stated under (h), (f) and 


Carriére, ‘Die Poesie, ihr Wesen und ~ 


LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE 


(c): literary history, forms and themes. In 
how far biological laws may be safely applied 
to literary problems is a question that might 
arouse scepticism. Works of art, the organiza- 
tion of the human mind and the whole process 
of intellectual transmission are such complex 
phenomena that biological facts or theories 
could furnish only very crude analogies. Soci- 
ological theories have been applied by Posnett 
in his book on ‘Comparative Literature? in 
which literary evolution is traced through the 
four stages of clan life, city, commonwealth, 
national life and cosmopolitan humanity. The 
ethnographical point of view dominates in 
Grosse’s ‘Anfange der Kunst? and Mackenzie’s 
‘Evolution of Literature. Very illuminating 
are books in which certain phases and “currents 
of literature are correlated with a particular 
social milieu or with corresponding movements 
in Art and Culture, as in Stephen’s ‘English 
Literature and Society,’ or in Taine’s ‘Philoso- 
phie de l’Art.? The principle of literary valua- 
tion involves questions as to the absolute or 
relative validity of esthetic standards and offers 
splendid opportunities for the student of com- 
parative literature. The natural reaction in 
zsthetic questions is the naive expression of 
likes and dislikes or the judicial attitude, 
wheréas continued training and reading in a 
comparative spirit is bound to develop a sense 
of relativity of literary and esthetic values and 
thus to save us from ithe tyranny of one-sided, 
absolute norms of taste. The literary move- 
ments of the last four centuries from the mani- 
festo of the French Pléiade down to the claims 
of the Naturalistic school, took in most cases 
the form of revolts against esthetic or intellec- 
tual absolutism of some description, and while 
they often ended by enthroning a new dogma in 
place of the discarded one, yet they helped im- 
mensely to widen the horizon and to foster the 
spirit of tolerance. Among modern critics the 
Dane, Georg Brandes, leads by far with regard 
to breadth of taste and fairness of judgment. 
He has a marvelous ability to project himself 
into literary characters and productions of all 
kinds, countries and ages, and yet to establish 
a definite centre of interest and an illuminating — 
principle of interpretation. A third group of 
problems fall under the head of the law of 
causation, such as literary sources, borrowings, 
influences, adaptations, etc. If carried to an 
extreme this method develops the type of the 
philological antiquarian or fanatic source- 
hunter who is not happy until he has traced 
every effect back to an external cause. The 
mistake made in so many cases is to assume 
influences or definite relations, where it would 
be safer to speak of parallels or analogies, in 
other words to work with the principle of cau- 
sation instead of correlation. The comparative 
study of literature ought to encourage critics 
and scholars to have more faith in the sponta- 
neity of literary growth and originality of the 
human mind, instead of looking always for de- 
rived inspiration. The Marivaux-Richardson 
controversy illustrates the various possibilities 
of interpreting a literary parallel as conscious 
imitation, as a play of chance or as an analogy 
due to similar literary impulses in England and 
France. A collection of literary analogies 
which could definitely be proved to fall outside 
of the principle of causation would be one of © 
the most grateful tasks for comparative analy- 


LITHIA — LITHIUM 


sis and might for a while dampen the enthu- 
siasm of our source-hunters, . 

4. Definition. A brief survey of the sub- 
jects and principles of a comparative study of 
literature will be quite sufficient to demonstrate 
the difficulty, if not impossibility, of giving a 
brief satisfactory definition. There will always 
be wide differences of opinion among scholars 
with regard to the real nature, province and 
purpose of Comparative Literature, while in the 
popular mind the term will probably continue to 
call up a more or less vague conception of a 
philosophical, speculative or at any rate broader 
treatment of literary problems. Strictly speak- 
ing, the comparative method is not at all on a 
level with other methods, but has to be regarded 
as one of the fundamental principles or instincts 
of. scientific investigation. in all forms and 
fields. It-has as its natural opposite the isolat- 
ing method, Specialization, concentration and 
isolation would be found on one side, generali- 
zation, expansion and correlation on the other. 
Any subject in any field. of research may be 
treated either by isolating the problem or by 
introducing analogies and collateral material. 
{t is self-evident, however, that, in the first 
place, scholars will differ widely in. the choice 
of their methods and that, secondly, different 
subjects require different treatment in order to 
yield the best possible results. Biographies like 
Brandes’ ‘Shakespeare,’ ‘Woerner’s. ‘Ibsen, 
Campbell’s ‘Holberg,’? Lafoscade’s _‘Musset? 
are written in a comparative spirit, without be- 
longing to the field. of Comparative Literature 
proper. Perhaps the comparative treatment of 
the lives of great men will become gradually 
recognized as a special type of biography. The 
phrase “Comparative: Literature” ought to be 
reserved for research or criticism which is con- 
ducted on the basis of comparisons, influences 
and analogies for the purpose of interpreting 
international or interindividual relations in 
terms of literary evolution, valuation or catsa- 
tion: : 

5. Comparative Literature as Related to 
Universal and World Literature.—These three 
terms are often. used interchangeably whereas 
they represent three different aspects of literary 
study. Universal or general literature refers to 
the sum total of all literatures and, as.a literary 
study, expresses rather a broad, catholic attitude 
of the reader or scholar toward his. subject than 
any particular purpose or method of,research. 
Among the publications,in this field may be 
mentioned Loliée’s ‘Short History of Compar- 
ative Literature,» because the title is altogether 
misleading; the book is merely an aggregate of 
national literatures’ with occasional cross-refer- 
ences. The term. “World Literature”. may be 
employed either to include recognized represen- 
tative writers of all countries and..ages, or a 
selected list of writers from all literatures vary- 
ing according to the subjective taste, of nations 
and individuals. Moulton’s: “World Literature? 
and R. M. Meyer’s ‘Weltliteratur im zwanzig- 
sten Jahrhundert?. are books. of this kind in 
which selected writers or writings are focussed 
to, the eyes of. English or German readers. 
Several. German. publications, like Baumgart- 
ner’s and Busse’s histories of ‘Weltliteratur’ 
are in reality handbooks of universal literature. 
The well-known series ‘Periods of European 
Literature,’ ed. by Saintsbury, gives cross-sec- 
tions of the leading movements, arranged geo- 

VOL. 1/7 —33 > 


513 


graphically, but treated in a somewhat compar- 
ative spirit. 

Bibliography. The most indispensable 
book is the bibliography by Betz, P., ‘La Littér- 
ature comparée? (2d ed. by Baldensperger, F., 
Strassburg 1904). Many valuable references 
and critical remarks are found in Gayley- 
Scott’s “Introduction to the Methods and Mate- 
rials of Literary Criticism? (Boston 1899), 
More recent articles on definition and theory: 
Gayley, Ch. M., “What is Comparative Litera- 
ture” (Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XCII, July 1903) ; 
Routh, H. V., ‘The Future of Comparative 
Literature? (Modern Language Review, Vol. 
VIII, January 1913). Courses in Comparative 
Literature are offered at the larger American 
universities, though many of them would come 
rather under the head of General Literature. 
The most valuable contributions will be found 
in the publications of the Modern Language 
Association of America, in Modern Philology 
and in the Modern Language Review. 

if Ewa.p A. BouckgE, 
Professor of German and Scandinavian, Uni- 
versity of Michigan. 


oe in chemistry, oxide of lithium 
q.v.). 
LITHIA MICA. See LeEpIDorite. 


LITHIC ACID. See Uric Acip. 
LITHIOPHILITE or TRIPHYLITE.: 


A mineral consisting of phosphate of lithium, 
manganese and iron, Li (Fe Mn) POs,, of sal- 
mon to honey yellow color. Occurs in southern 
California and Black Hills of South Dakota. 
A possible source of lithia salts. 


_ LITHIUM, a name applied to an alkali 
discovered in the year 1817. Lithia has since 
been detected in spodumene, lepidolite, triphy- 
lite, amblygonite, tourmaline, meteoric stones, 
mineral waters, coffee, tea, blood, milk, etc. A 
process for procuring it is the following: One 
part of petalite or spodumene in fine powder is 
mixed intimately with two parts of fluor-spar, 
and the mixture is heated with three or four 
times its weight of sulphuric acid, as long as 
any acid vapors.are disengaged. The silica of 
the mineral is attacked by hydrofluoric acid, and 
dissipated in the form of fluosilicic acid gas, 
while the alumina and lithia unite with sulphuric 
acid. After dissolving these salts in water, the 
solution is boiled with pure ammonia to precipi- 
tate the alumnia; is filtered, evaporated to dry- 
ness and then heated to redness to expel the 
sulphate of ammonium. The residue is pure 
sulphate of lithium. Its color is white; it is not 
deliquescent, but absorbs carbonic acid from the 
air; it is soluble in water; it is acrid and caus- 
tic, and acts on colors like the other alkalis; 
heated with platinum it corrodes it rapidly. It 
combines with the different acids, and forms 
erystallizable salts with them. The phosphate 
and carbonate are sparingly soluble; ° the 
chloride is deliquescent and soluble in alcohol, 
and this solution burns with a red flame. Un- 
like the other alkalis it cannot be reduced from 
its carbonate by carbon, but it requires the ac- 
tion of ‘a galvanic battery. The compound em- 
ployed is the chloride, which, while in a state 
of fusion, is acted on by the battery. Small 
globules collect. round the negative pole, and 
these are removed and cooled under petroleum. 
It.is the lightest of metals. It has a bright 


7 


514 


silver-white metallic lustre, melts at 356° F., 
and can be welded at ordinary temperatures. 
It is rather harder than potassium, can be 
drawn into a wire, but has a low degree of 
tenacity. Exposed to the air it tarnishes, but 
it combines with oxygen less rapidly than either 
sodium or potassium. It decomposes water, and 
when heated in oxygen, chloride and other 
gases burns with a brilliant light. 

Compounds of lithium are used in pyro- 
techny on account of the splendid red color 
they impart to flame. In medicine the car- 
bonate is employed especially as a solvent for 
uric acid, to prevent the formation of calculi 
and to remove it from the system in gout. 
Effervescing lithia water is sometimes used in 
place of soda or potash water. Citrate of 
lithia is also employed. It is a white, soluble, 
crystalline salt, prepared by dissolving the car- 
bonate of lithium in citric acid. Its thera- 
peutic properties are similar to those of the 
carbonate. See MINERAL PRODUCTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 


LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON. See LrI- 
THOGRAPHY. 


LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. See _ Lr- 
THOGRAPHY. 
LITHOGRAPHY. (Greek lithos, “stone,” 


and graphein, “to write”), may be divided 
into two distinct branches—the art of 
writing, drawing or engraving on stone, and 
the process of chemical or surface printing 
from stone or metal, by means of which such 
writings, drawings or engravings are multiplied, 
in a manner differing essentially from letter- 
press or relief printing and from steel and 
copper plate or intaglio printing. Lithographic 
printing is based upon the physical principle of 
the antagonism of grease to water and upon the 
porous nature of the printing surface. By 
virtue of this property, a drawing made upon 
such surface with unctuous ink or crayon will 
adhere to it so that. the parts of the surface 
containing the drawing or design will accept 
and hold grease or ink, and those parts of the 
surface free from design will receive and 
retain water to the evaporating point. Thus 
if a roller covered with fatty printing ink is 
passed over the printing surface previously 
moistened, the ink will adhere only to the parts 
constituting the design and will be repelled by 
the moisture covering the remaining part of 
the surface, in consequence of which the design 
only will appear in the impression. 

History.— Aloys Senefelder is generally 
conceded to be the inventor of lithography. He 
was born at Prague in 1771, the son of an actor, 
and at an early age removed to Munich. Al- 
though disposed to follow his father’s calling he 
entered the university at Ingolstadt, which 
later, through the death of his father he was 
compelled to leave and. was thrown on his own 
resources for a livelihood. He met with in- 
different success as an actor, and later, as a 
playwright, his inability to pay for the publica- 
tion of his work bestirred him to devise some 
means of doing it himself, and he set about to 
become familiar with the printing art. He pur- 
chased a small press and being unable to pay 
for the engraving of his compositions, he turned 
his attention to etching on copper. Frequent 
errors through his inexperience in forming the 
reversed characters on the plate, and being 


LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON — LITHOGRAPHY 


unfamiliar with the “stopping out” so-called 
solution used by etchers in rectifying mistakes, 
he succeeded in devising one of his own. The 
ingredients he used were those nearest at hand 
— the wax with which he coated the plates pre- 
vious to etching, the soap with which he washed 
the ink from the plates, and the lamp-black 
which he used in preparing his ink for printing. 
Thus accidentally he discovered the compo- 
sition which forms the basis of all crayons and 
lithographic drawing inks. The labor of grind- 
ing and repolishing the copper plates led him 
to experiment with a piece of Kellheim stone 
and by treating this in the same way as the 
copper plates he succeeded in getting fair im- 
pressions. He later reversed the etching proc- 
ess by writing on the stone with the “stopping 
out” composition and bitrng down the surface 
with aqua fortis, bringing out the characters in 
relief, which he inked in and printed in the 
manner of type. He further discovered that 
relieving ‘the characters was unnecessary and 
that by simply writing on the stone with his 
composition he produced the same results. This 
was in the year 1798; eight years later, after 
many disappointing and discouraging experi- 
ences, the inventor succeeded with the assistance 
of the Bavarian government in establishing 
himself as a lithographic printer in Munich. 
This city became the centre of the art, and 
three years thereafter no fewer than seven 
separate concerns were established as well as a 
number of private presses. Senefelder died in 
1834, and with the possible exception of the 
introduction of photography the general meth- 
ods and underlying principles he laid down are 
those in use to-day. 
Of the early lithographers many others are 
entitled to credit, they having done much to 
develop and foster the craft. Ferdinand Pilotti 
in 1808 published 432 copies of the old masters, 
and in 1815 reproductions from the Munich 
gallery. His partner, Lochle, was also con- 
spicuous in the early development of lithog- 
raphy, as well as Count Lasterie, who intro- 
duced the art in Paris. It fell to Gottfred 
Engelmann to found the first permanent estab- 
lishment in Paris in 1816. In 1837 he was 
granted letters patent on the invention of 
chromo-lithography. The first house in Berlin 
was established in 1834 by Franz Hanfstangel, 
and in London in 1822, by Hullmandel, a pupil 
of Engelmann. Senefelder also attempted to 
establish himself in London but failed owing to 
difficulties with his partner, Andre of Offenbach. 
Lithography as an art reached its climax in 
Paris during the reign of Louis Philippe. 
Among the masters who distinguished them- 
selves were the satirists Daumier, Grandville, 
Travies and Gavarni, Deveria, Delacroix, 
Johannot and Gigoux, the delineators of ro- 
mantic literature; Charlet, and Raffet, who 
found material in the glorification of Na- 
poleon’s career. Other painter-lithographers of 
the day were Géricault, Richard Park Boning- 
ton, James Duffield Harding, Eugene Isabey, 
Alexandre Calame and Julien, whose “Etudes 
en Deux Crayons” made him famous. Since 
the introduction of the power-press and the 
consequent development of the lithographic in- 
dustry as a commercial factor, the medium of 
lithography has found less favor as a mode of 
individual artistic expression. Commercially it 
has grown to be one of the most important 


LTH OGRAPHY 
Plates and Printing required for Design of Six Colors 


| 


\ 


i 


Aj 


yO SAPS \ 


LO \ ihe 
ALAA TEA 


1. Outline of Design 


4, First and Second Color 5. Third Color Plate 6. Combination of Three 
Plates Combined Color Plates 


t 
10. Five Color Plates 11. Sixth Color Plate 12. Printing Complete in 
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LITHOGRAPHY 


branches of the printer’s craft. The Depart- 
ment of Commerce, census of manufactures for 
1919, published in 1923, gives the number of 
establishments 831, employees 15,618, invested 
capital $60,817,330, and value of annual product 
$45,432,898. 

Materials. The stone used, known as 
“ithographic stone,” is a compact, ‘homogeneous 
limestone of porous texture and varies in color 
from light cream, dull yellow, drab or gray to 
darker shades of the same colors, the best being 
found among the light gray varieties. The 
darker the color the harder the stone. Litho- 
graphic stone is quarried chiefly at Solenhofen, 
Germany, from beds of Jurassic Age, and while 
similar stone has been found in England, France 
and America, none possess the quality of the 
Solenhofen product. The most satisfactory 
American product is said to come from Bran- 
denburg, Ky. It is sawn at the quarries 
into slabs of from three to five inches in thick- 
ness, varying in size from 6 X 8 inches to 44 X 
64 inches, and is sold by weight. The price per 
pound being based on quality and size, the very 
large stones when free from blemishes such as 
veins and chalk spots are the most expensive 
and very scarce. Owing to the expense in- 
curred in handling and storing the cumbersome 
stone, a substitute embodying the same prop- 
erties has been the desideratum of lithographers 
almost since the invention of surface printing. 
Zinc has been in use for 50 years or more, but 

up to 10 years ago was used only for very 

ordinary work. Since that time it has come into 
considerabe use for offset lithography (de- 
scribed later). Aluminum has been. satisfac- 
torily used as a substitute for stone for about 
20 years and for some purposes is preferable 
to zinc as a substitute. 

Lithographic crayon is composed of bees- 
wax, shellac, tallow, mastic turpentine, soap and 
lampblack in several degrees of hardness. 
Lithographic ink adapted for pen work on 
stone contains the same ingredients as the 
crayon, with a larger quantity of the soap, in 
order to make it soluble in water. The ink is 
furnished in sticks and rubbed over a plate or 
saucer and then gradually dissolved with water 
or turpentine until it becomes fluid. Gum 
arabic and acids are important factors in li- 
thography; in fact, Senefelder’s original inven- 
tion would have proven of little practical value 
had he not also discovered the use of these in 
reinforcing the qualities of the stone. 

Process.— The stone is first leveled and if 
desired for crayon work the surface is grarned 
by grinding with fine sand and water between 
two slabs of stone until its surface has a grain 
similar to the grain on fine drawing paper. 
For pen or stipple work the stone is polished 
with pumice or scotch stone. The drawing is 
made on the stone in the same manner as if it 
were drawn on paper, except that the design is 
reversed. Considérable experience is required 
by the artist to obtain proficiency in rendering 
a reverse facsimile of the original. In the 
hands of a capable artist no reproductive art 
can offer greater possibility than that of crayon 
on a grained stone. It permits greater freedom 
as compared with steel, copper plate or wood 
engraving, inasmuch as technique is less im- 
portant than true artisticability, while an infinite 
variety of tones, from the most delicate shade 
to rich, deep black, lies within its possibilities. 


615 


Somewhat more mechanical is the pen stipple 
manner, and which as its name implies consists 
of drawing with small dots, the relative values 
of shading being determined by the varying 
density of the dots. This manner is employed 
mainly in chromo-lithography, its chief recom- 
mendation being the clean, sharp, solid nature 
of the work. 

When the drawing is completed: its sur- 
face is treated with a solution of gum arabic 
and nitric acid, effecting a chemical change in 
its nature where it is not protected by the 
grease or ink of the drawing. The carbon is 
freed and a nitrate deposited in the form of a 
full-grained pellicle, the pores of which re- 
tain the gummed water, thus creating a sur- 
face impermeable to grease. Furthermore the 
drawn parts are rendered insoluble in water by 
decomposing the alkali contained in the crayon 
or ink. The object of this etching is not to 
elevate the drawing so much as to make the 
impression cleaner and sharper. 

After the stone is etched, it is washed stc- 
cessively with water and turpentine; the de- 
sign is scarcely perceptible, but after repeated 
moistening and rolling in with ink it reappears 
and accepts the ink. It is then covered with a 
weak solution of gum arabic and is ready for 
printing. 

The stone-engraving manner — used exten- 
sively for bank notes and stationery —is based | 
on the same principle, although the mode of 
procedure differs in every respect. A polished 
stone is used and its face is prepared or etched 
with gum-water acid and covered with a dark 
ground consisting of lampblack in solution with 
gum-water or albumen. Into this ground the 
design is engraved or scratched with an en- 
graving needle or a diamond. Linseed oil is 
then poured over the whole and is absorbed by 
the stone where the needle has laid it bare. The 
ground is washed off, the surface moistened 
and printing ink rubbed in with a tampon or 
dauber, the ink adhering only to the lines of 
the design, by reason of the oil which they have 
absorbed. 

The greatest achievement of lithography 
undoubtedly centres in reproduction of oil 
paintings and aquarelles, commonly known as 
chromo-lithography. Either the crayon or pen 
stipple manner alone, or both together, in con- 
nection’ with other manners, such as “rub- 
tints,” “asphalt tints, etc., are brought into the 
work. Its most simple form is the tint used for 
crayon drawings,.its highest, the reproduction 
in colors of an oil or water color painting, re- 
quiring a series of drawings on separate stones, 
one for each of the colors necessary to pro- 
duce the facsimile. To obtain perfect. register 
of the various printings, a key plate is neces- 
sary. A detailed tracing is made of the 
original by means of an engraving needle, 
scratching the surface of a sheet of transparent 
gelatine or celluloid, indicating the boundaries 
of even the most minute patches of color. 
These engraved lines are charged with litho- 
graphic ink and then transmitted to stone by 
pressure. Register. marks (usually crossed 
lines) are then put in the margins. The stone 
is etched, rolled up with printing ink, and im- 
pressions corresponding to the number of 
colors or printings required, are pulled. These 
impressions ‘are then powdered with finely 
ground powder (usually Venetian red) and are 


516 


called “offsets,» which are then transmitted to 
the surface of the stones to be drawn on and 
furnish a guide for the artist in drawing his 
color plates. In cases where no key of the 
original is made, offsets from the drawing of 
the black supplied with the necessary register 
marks answer the same purpose. The number 
of colors necessary to produce a given result 
varies largely according to the nature of the 
original to be reproduced, ranging for com- 
mercial purposes from 3 to 15, although es- 
pecially fine results may require 20 or more. 

Photography.— Since its invention pho- 
tography has been more or less allied with the 
lithographic art. Its early application was. the 
process called photo-lithography, by means of 
which pen or line work or reprints from type 
could be inexpensively transferred to stone or 
plate. The half tone or Meisenbach process was 
also used to*advantage in furnishing key plates 
for chromo-lithography, but the introduction 
and development-of the offset press, which was 
made possible through development of rotary 
printing from plates instead of stone, has 
greatly enlarged the use of photography, 
opened entirely new fields and possibilities in 
the art of color reproduction, and has caused 
an immense expansion of the lithographic in- 
dustry. One of the earliest photo-lithographic 
processes is that of Lemercier, patented in 
1852, which is based on the sensitive property 
of asphaltum, discovered by Niepce in 1833. A 
lithographic stone is coated with a solution of 
asphaltum in oil of lavender and exposed to 
‘light under a half-tone screen negative, the 
film of which has been turned on the glass to 
secure the necessary reversed position, effect- 
ing a slow change in the asphaltum. The parts 
thus affected by the light become insoluble in 
turpentine, leaving the other parts soluble. 
Thus a (reversed) positive is rendered on 
stone, which, owing to the unctuous nature of 
its composition, can be prepared for printing 
purposes in the usual manner. The method 
most commonly used is the albumen process, 
invented by Poitevin in 1855. In this case 
the stone is coated with albumen in solution 
with bichromate of potassium which is much 
more sensitive to light action than asphaltum; 
after exposure the stone is immediately covered 
with printing ink to prevent further action, and 
washed with water which removes the parts 
that remain soluble, while the ink adheres only 
to the parts that have become insoluble. 

The same general principles apply where 
plate instead of stone ig used, with variations 
of solutions and methods for the preparation 
of the plate, the developing and reversing of 
the design. 

The perfection reached in printing half-tone 
work on the offset press has made possible the 
faithful reproduction of almost any color sub- 
ject, through the use of color sensitive or col- 
lodion emulsion photographic plates, usually 
three plates, one for each of the primary 
colors, yellow, red and blue, which when prop- 
erly developed give color-separated negatives 
which are then printed on the plate in the 
usual manner. For variations of the primary 
colors the plates are either over or under 
printed and after development are carefully 
worked over by the artist adding to or taking 
from the work as desired. 

Transferring.— Unless limited editions are 


LITHOGRAPHY 


required, designs that have been drawn or en- 
graved on stone are very rarely printed from 
directly. By the process of transferring, one 
design may be reproduced as many times as the 
relative size of the work and sheet to be printed 
will allow — ensuring greater economy in print- 
ing and keeping intact the original drawing 
stone. Transfer impressions are taken -on a 
paper, coated with a sizing of starch and gly- 
cerine with a specially prepared ink. These 
impressions are laid in their proper positions 
on a sheet of paper of the required size and 
fastened to it by means of pricking with the 
dull point of an engraving needle. The sheet 
to which the transfers adhere is laid face down 
on a polished stone or plate and pulled through 
a hand press until the transfers adhere firmly 
to the stone, the paper being frequently dam- 
pened during this process. This done, the 
sheet is carefully raised from the stone, leaving 
the thin paper transfers still adhering to its 
surface and these in turn are dampened and - 
removed. A weak solution of gum and water 
is applied and the stone rolled up with printing 
ink. It is then etched in the same manner as 
an original drawing and is ready for the press. 
In chromo-lithography the first transfer made is 
that of the key plate, supplied with register 
marks. An impression from this transfer is 
mounted on a sheet of aluminum or zinc and 
coated with shellac to prevent shrinking or 
stretching. All succeeding transfers are “stuck 
up” or fixed on this key sheet, which ensures 
accurate register of the colors. 

Lithographic Printing.— The lithographic 
hand-press consists of a frame provided with 
rollers on which the bed runs to and fro, 
the scraper or impression-bar and a tympan of 
leather, fitted to an iron frame ‘hinged to that 
end of the bed nearest the scraper. The 
scraper consists of a flat piece of box wood 
beveled on both sides and covered with leather. 
The manner of printing is as follows: The 
stone with the design upon it is placed face 
up upon the movable bed, then moistened with 
a sponge, rolled up with ink and the sheet 
which is to take the impression laid thereon. 
Several sheets of paper are placed over it to 
secure the necessary backing, the tympan 
lowered upon it to cover the entire bed and 
stone, and the carriage brought forward under 
the scraper. Pressure is applied by means of a 
hand-lever at the side of the press, and the 
entire length of the bed passed under the im- 
pression bar. The pressure is then released, 
the bed brought back to its original position, 
the tympan raised and the printed sheet taken 
off. Until the introduction of the power-press 
in 1867 this method of printing was exclusively 
used for lithographic printing. At the present 
time its only utility is for the purpose of mak- 
ing artist-proofs and transfers for- printing 
on power-presses. The lithographic flat bed 
power-press differs but slightly from that of 
the typographic power-press. The principle of 
operation remains the same, taking in place of 
the letter-press form a lithographic stone in 
its bed and being supplied with a contrivance 
for distributing the moisture with which the 
stone must be covered before the ink is ap- 
plied. The use of rotary printing presses, with 
an increased speed of 50 per cent over the 
flat-bed presses, has been made possible by the 
substitution of the flexible aluminum plate for 


LITHOLOGY — LITHUANIA 


lithographic stone, and has enlarged the field | 


of multi-color printing by the lithographic 
process, whereby two or more colors are 
printed in rapid succession before the sheet 
is delivered. The rotary press consists prin- 
cipally of two cylinders—one to hold the 
plate and the other to furnish the pressure — 
and is supplied with a mechanism similar to 
that of the flat-bed press for distribution of 
moisture and ink. Rotary presses having two, 
three and four plate cylinders and printing re- 
spectively two, three and four colors each 
time a sheet is fed are in general use. The 
presses described above all print by direct con- 
tact from the stone or plate to the paper, 
whereas the offset press, a very important de- 
velopment in modern lithography, prints from 
the plate to a rubber blanketed cylinder, which 
in turn prints on the sheet. These presses are 
built on the same general principle as the 
rotary press but having three cylinders, one to 
carry the printing plate, another to carry the 
rubber blanket and a third to carry the sheet 
which takes its impression from the rubber 
blanket. Provided with automatic feeding ap- 
paratus, a production double the rotary presses 
is possible. They produce wonderfully soft 
effects on rough or uncoated papers being in 
fact the only method whereby half-tone color 
subjects can be printed on other than the highly 
glazed or coated papers. 

Bibliography.— Bergman, ‘Das Ganze des 
Steindrucks, nebst Angang von der Zinkog- 
raphie’ (1843); Bregeant, ‘Nouveau Manuel 
complet de l’Imprimeur Lithographe? (1850) ; 
Engelmann, ‘Traite theorique et pratique de 
Lithographie? (1849) ; Richmond, ‘Grammar of 
Lithography? (1879, 1880, 1881, 1883, 1885); 
Weishaupt, ‘Das Gesammt Gebiet des Stein- 
drucks, nebst Anhang von der Zinkographie? 
(1865); Weishaupt, ‘Theoretisch-praktische 


Anleitung zur Chromolithographie? (1847) ; 
Aluminum Press and Plate Company, CAlum- 
ography»? (New York 1899); Audsley, ‘Art 


of Chromo Lithography? (London 1883); 
Curtis, ‘Lithography? (New York 1897); Bro- 
quelet, ‘Manuel Complet de L’imprimeur lithog- 
raphie? (Paris 1908); Fleck, ‘Die Photolithog- 
raphie Handbuch» (Vienna 1912); Goodman, 
“Practical Method of Modern Metalithography? 
(London 1914); Rhodes, ‘The Art of Lithog- 
raphy? (London 1914); Fuchs and Lang Com- 
pany, ‘Invention of Lithography,’ Senefelder, 
translated by J. W. Muller (New York 1911); 
Browne, ‘Textbook of Practical Lithography? 
and ‘Offset Lithography? (New York 1917). 

Revised by FREDERICK RAUSCH, 
OL ee and Wilhelms Corporation, New 

or 


LITHOLOGY. See PErtrRo.oevy. : 


LITHOSPHERE, the solid rock crust of 
the earth as contrasted with the waters, hydro- 
sphere, and the air, atmosphere. See Rocks 
and also section on Geognosy in the article on 
GEOLOGY. 


LITHOTOMY, in surgery, the operation 
of cutting for stone. (See’ Catcutus). As 
usually performed it consists in cutting by the 
side of the anus in the perineum, so as to reach 
and divide the urethra and neck of the bladder, 
where it is surrounded by the prostate gland. 
A grooved and curved staff is introduced into 


517 


the bladder first, and then the incision is made 
in the perineum to reach the bladder, the 
groove in the staff serving asa guide to the 
knife. When the calculus or stone is felt with 
the finger the staff is withdrawn and the stone 
extracted by means of forceps, proper treat- 
ment to ward off inflammation and other acci- 
dents being then adopted. When thus per- 
formed, unless there be unusual difficulties, the 
length of time required to extract the stone is 
seldom more than three minutes, often one or 
one and a half. At first the urine escapes 
through the wound, but in favorable cases it 
issues by the natural passage within a week, 
and the wound heals in the course of a month. 


LITHOTRITY, in surgery, the operation 
of crushing a stone in the bladder into frag- 
ments of such a size that they may be expelled 
by the urethra. ‘The instrument is called a 
lithotrite, by which the stone is broken up. Itis 
introduced in the same manner as a catheter or 
sound into the bladder, and after catching the 
stone crushes it to pieces. The instrument has 
two movable blades at the extremity introduced 


‘into the bladder, and these are brought together 


to crush the stone by means of a powerful 
screw. This operation is only applicable where 
the bladder is not irritable, where the canal of 
the urethra is of good.size ‘and the stone small. 
It is inapplicable to children, but this is the less 
to be regretted, because there’ is perhaps no 
surgical operation more generally successful 
than that of lithotomy in children. In lithotrity 
care must be taken that no portions of the stone 
are left in the bladder, as such fragments are 
almost certain to form the nuclei of fresh con- 
cretions. 


LITHUANIA (Lietuva), a republic of 
northeastern Europe, bounded north by Latvia, 
east by Russia, south by Poland, southwest by 
East Prussia, west by East Prussia, Memel and 
the Baltic, It occupies the former Russian 
province of Kovno, most of the province of 
Vilna, part of that of Grodno, most of the prov- 
ince of Suvalki, part of Courland and part of the 
district of Illuksta. The eastern frontier is de- 
fined in the treaty with Russia, signed at Mos- 
cow 12 July 1920. The northern frontier with 
Latvia has been settled under a special arbitra- 
tion conyention. The frontier with Poland has 
not yet been conclusively decided on. The area 
of. the present territory is 59,633 square miles 
with a population of 4,800,000. The Lithuanians 
also claim Memel, with an area of 1,080 square 
miles and a population of 145,000, but so far 
this region is administered by the Allied 
Powers. The total purely Lithuanian popu- 
lation is estimated at about 3,350,000. Thus, 
while Lithuania proper is generally regarded 
as the region between the Lower Dvina and the 
Niemen, the historical-geographical name is 
applied to a far larger area. The Lithuanians 
were tributary to Russia in the 11th century, 
but gained their independence when Russia was 
distracted, by the troubles under the successors 
of Vladimir. Ringold, in 1235, bore the title 
of grand-duke, and under his successors. the 
whole of Russian Lithuania became independ- 
ent. At that time (during the 13th century) 
the Lithuanians, hemmed in between the Slavs 
and the Germans, were also confined between 
two civilizations — Oriental and Occidental — 
Greek Christianity on the one side and the 


518 


Roman Church on the other. Though lacking 
natural frontiers, they not only maintained their 
national existence and customs, but even ex- 
tended their dominions to the Black Sea. 
Ringold (or Ryngald) gained several victories 
over the Mongols and stopped their advance 
into western Europe. His successor, Mindaugis, 
fought against the Russians, the Poles, the 
Sword-Bearers and the Teutonic Knights. He 
appealed to the Pope for aid -against the 
Knights, was baptized in 1252 and defeated his 
enemies in 1261. Two years later he was mur- 
dered. His sons drenched the soil with blood 
in revenge upon the murderers, and the country 
fell into a 20 years’ anarchy. The real founder 
of Lithuanian power was Gediminas (1315- 
40), head of the Jagellans dynasty. He ruled 
the country wisely and formed alliances with 
western Europe. He arranged with the Pope 
to establish Christianity in Lithuania, but Ger- 
man intrigues prevented the plan. One of his 
sons, Algirdas (1345-77), defeated Teutonic 
Knights, Poles, Tartars and Muscovites, 
marched three times to Moscow and even in- 
vaded the Crimea. Jagello, son of Algirdas, by. 
his marriage with Hedwige, united Lithuania 
with Poland and succeeded in establishing 
Christianity. At the time of the union with 
Poland (1386), Lithuania included the basin of 
the Niemen and of its tributary, the Neris, with 
Vilna as the metropolis; Samogitia (Zemai- 
tiga); White Russia: the ancient principalities 
of Polotsk and Vitebsk; Black Russia, with 
Kiev, Chernigov and Perejaslav: and ‘Volynia 
~and Podolia, with Brest-Litovsk, Lutsk and 
Cherson. Though forming the largest Euro- 
pean state at the time, the Lithuanians lacked 
unity; the country was split between the Greek 
and Roman Catholic creeds. By the “Political 
Union” at Lublin in 1569 Lithuania and Poland 
became more closely united under one head, 
with the proviso, however, that each country 
should retain its own laws, army, chancellor 
and other dignitaries. The “Polonization” of 


the country was inevitable, the Lithuanians be- 


ing in a minority. But the “union” produced 
only disunion, internecine, strife and anarchy. 
Instead of having two armies, they had none, 
and in consequence the three partitions of 
Poland-Lithuania by Russia, Prussia and Aus- 
tria were easily accomplished in 1772, 1775 and 
1779. Poland was cut up between Russia, Prus- 
sia and Austria, and the two former shared 
Lithuania between them. In 1840 an imperial 
ukase abolished the name of Lithuania; the 
process of “Russification” was carried through 
with bloody repression. The Latin alphabet 
was prohibited and many thousands of Lithu- 
anian books were burnt by government orders. 
It was not till 1904 that the dees persecu- 
tion regulations were repealed by Russia. 

That part of Lithuania under Prussian 
dominion enjoyed better treatment at first. The 
kings of Prussia favored and protected the 
people. 
literature was established at K6nigsberg Uni- 
versity. From the days of Bismarck to 1918, 
however, things changed; the Lithuanian lan- 
guage was suppressed and the people were 
“Prussianized” with but little effect. In the 
early stages of the European War the Russians 
overran the Lithuanian part of East Prussia, 
but the victory of Hindenburg in the Mazurian 
Lakes region led to the German invasion of 
the Baltic provinces, while the whole of the 


A chair of Lithuanian language and - 


LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


great Polish salient also fell to the Germans. 
Russia having alienated Lithuanian sympathies, 
the people welcomed the German invaders in 


1915. While recognizing Lithuanian sovereignty 


in 1916, the German government would not 
acknowledge the independence of the country. 
During the war the general movement for 
liberation among the subject races of Russia, 
Germany and Austria-Hungary revived the 
smoldering. national sentiment of the Lithu- 
anians. They formed a State Council and 
pressed their claims for independence and for 
political union with their half-brothers, the Letts. 
In 1916 they appealed to President Wilson for 
recognition of sovereignty, though the country 
was in German possession at the time. A con- 
vention of Lithuanian delegates assembled in 
Vilna in October 1917 and adopted a resolution 
demanding independence. At a similar gather- 
ing in the same place that independence was 
proclaimed by the delegates in January 1918. 
On 23 March the council announced that it 
advocated a permanent relation of alliance with 
Germany. Four months later (July 1918) the 
Lithuanian bureau of information in Switzer- 
land revealed that the council proposed to offer 
the crown of Lithuania to the Duke of Urach, 
a lineal descendant of the ancient Lithuanian 
dynasty and an officer in the German army. But 
already in March a convention of American 
Lithuanians held in New York had declared 
for a republic and advanced the _ territorial 
claims referred to above. The inspired Ger- 
man press denied that the council had power 
to form a state without conforming to German 
interests. Early in May 1918 it was announced 
in the American press that a Lithuanian deputa- 
tion had been received by President Wilson. 
The end of the war on 11 Nov. 1918 and 
the ensuing Peace Conference at Paris in 1919 
marked the beginning of a new era for Lithu- 


ania. There are said to be over 700,000 Lithu- 
anians in the United States. See War, Euro- 
PEAN. 


LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LIT- 
ERATURE. The Lithuanian language is 
more ancient than Greek, Latin, German, Celtic 
and the Slav. tongues. It belongs to the Indo- 
European group and is the nearest idiom to 
Sanskrit. The resemblance, indeed, is so close 
that Lithuanian peasants can i understand Sans- 
krit sentences pronounced by learned scholars. 
Hence philologists are generally agreed that 
Lithuanian is the most ancient of all the living 
languages. It is not easily possible to compare 
it with Arabic, the antiquity of which has not 
been fathomed. A remarkable feature of 
Lithuanian is also the fact that it has as much 
likeness to Greek and Latin as to Sanskrit: 

Lithuanian — Virai traukite jungan; 

Latin — Viri trahite jugum 

(“Men drag the yoke”). 

Lithuanian — Dzievs (Dievs) davé dantis, 
duos duonos; 

Greek — Zeus dedoke odontas dosei siton. 

(“God has given teeth, he will give bread”). 

The invaluable service of the language to 
philologists was recognized by Kant (1724- 
1804), who was born in Prussian Lithuania and 
acquired a knowledge of it. In his preface to 
a Lithuanian grammar he wrote: “Lithuania 
having a royal character, deserves the protec- 
tion of the state. She must be preserved, for 
her tongue possesses the key which opens all 


LITITZ — LITOLFF 


the enigmas not only of philology but also of 
history.» This statement was scientifically sup- 
ported and confirmed by the great philologist 
Schleicher in his work on that language, while 
Reclus, in his monumental ‘Géographie Univer- 
selle, says: “If the value of a nation in the 
whole of humanity were to be measured by the 
beauty of its language, the Lithuanians should 
rank first among the inhabitants of Europe.” 

Lithuania had no writers at the time of her 
existence as a great state. Traditional songs, 
poems and legends were chanted by itinerant 
burtininkas or national bards. About the 16th 
century they ceased to exist owing to clerical 
persecution, and their songs died with them — 
they are lost. The bards differed from the 
minstrels of other countries and races in that 
they glorified no heroes real or legendary: they 
sang only dirges for the dead, the so-called 
raudas. A popular style of lyric singing with 
musical accompaniment is the “daina,» mild and 
tender in spirit, simple and resigned, breathing 
resignation in grief and devotion to patriarchal 
customs. There is in them nothing of the 
slashing, fire-eating bravado that distinguishes 
most of the ancient ballads of love and war. 
If the soul of a nation is revealed in its songs, 
then the Lithuanians deserve to be classified 
as the most harmless, peaceful race in the 
world. Even the German poets Goethe and 
Herder are said to have borrowed inspiration 
from the Lithuanian “dainos,” of which many 
thousands exist, adapted to all phases of life 
excepting war. 

During the Reformation religious literature, 
written by Jesuits, made its appearance in 
Prussian Lithuania. »The oldest book in the 
language was a catechism translated from the 
German and dated 1547. Until the 18th cen- 
tury only translations of the Bible and other 
devotional works existed in Lithuanian, when 
the fine national epic poem, ‘Metas? (The 
Four Seasons), by Duonelaitis (1714-80) was 
published. The three leadérs in the national 
revival were Daukantas, Poszka and Bishop 
Valanczevskis. The first wrote a number of 
literary and historical works, among which the 
most important are ‘Lietuvos Istorija? (His- 
tory of Lithuania) and ‘Budas Lietuviu Kal- 
nenu ir Zemaitiu? (Character of the Lithuanian 
Highlanders); the second produced many 
poems and translations; and the bishop wrote 
a history of the introduction of Christianity 
into Samogitia. During the first half of the 
19th century the national literature progressed 
favorably if slowly when the Russian govern- 
ment intervened in 1864 and ordered the Latin 
type hitherto used to be replaced by Russian 
characters. Proscribed in Russian territory, 
the printing presses were removed to Prussian 
Lithuania, where books and papers were 
printed (mainly at Tilsit) and smuggled across 
the borders to the Lithuanians under the Tsar’s 
rule. Since that time some notable additions 
have been made to the literature, though it can 
hardly claim a prominent position as yet. The 
majority of later writers devoted themselves to 
poetry —-the national favorite. Kudirka wrote 
‘The Bells of the Fatherland? and the hymn 
‘Lithuania our Country”? (Lietuva tevyne 
musu). The highest rank in the modern school 
was reached by the dramatic poet, Vidunas, 
who wrote a trilogy, ‘The Shadows of An- 
cestors,? the force and beauty of which has 


“yate~ 


519 


been favorably compared with Shakespeare’s 
work. The poet and publicist, Jaksztas, con- 
ducts his own review, Draugija, in the columns 
of which his original works make their first 
appearance. Quite a number of women writers 
have added to the modest total of the budding 
Lithuanian literature: Rogana, Peleda, Bite- 
Petkevicz, Lazdynu, Zemaite and Szatrijos. 
The famous Polish novelist, Henryk Sienkie- 
wiecz (d. 1916) was of Lithuanian origin, as 
also was the patriot Kosciuszko. Political re- 
pression and lack of educational opportunities 
have hitherto hampered the development of 
both language and literature in the past. The 
law of 1905 permitted the introduction, during 
the first two years, of the Lithuanian language 
in schools where the teaching was exclusively 
Russian. All the higher schools have been 
abolished and elementary education is not com- 
pulsory. Beyond a few native societies which 
promote popular lectures, there is no facility 
whatever for adult education. Two such so- 
cieties were broken up by Russia as recently 
as 1908. Consult Gabrys’, Jerzy, ‘Sketch of 
the Lithuanian Nation» (Paris 1911). 


LITITZ, lit’its, Pa., borough, in Lancaster 
County, on the Philadelphia and Reading Rail- 
road, about 28 miles southeast of Harrisburg, 
and eight miles north of Lancaster. The first 
permanent settlement was made in 1757. by 
Moravians. Some of the United Brethren had 
formerly lived in Bohemia and they named the 
place after their old home. They showed their 
loyalty to their new country by providing shel- 
ter, food and care for wounded soldiers of 
the Revolutionary War. The graves of some 
of the early patriots are still pointed out. 
Lititz is situated in a region where there are 
many good farms, but its chief industries are 
in manufacturing. The principal manufactures 
are corn-starch, knit-goods, planing mills, ani- 
mal traps, shoes, box board, paper, pretzels, 
cocoa, chocolate, cigars and some dairy products. 
The mineral springs are noted and much fre- 
quented. The borough is the seat of Linden 
Hall Seminary, established in 1794. Pop. 3,680. 
Consult Mombert, ‘History of Lancaster 
County, Pa.? (Lancaster 1868); ‘Moravian 
Historical Society Records? (Vol. II, Bethle- 
hem, F'a.). 

LITMUS, or LACMUS, is a blue pigment 
obtained from’any lichen which yields archil. 
(See LicHENs, Fungi). The plant, bruised be- 
tween stones, is exposed to the air for several 
weeks, and moistened with some liquid contain- 
ing ammonia, lime and potashes being also 
added. Fermentation sets in, the lichens be- 
comes red and finally blue, and when it has 
acquired the proper tint, chalk or sulphate of 
lime is added, and the soft paste is made into 
square cakes by pressure in molds, and the 
cakes are then dried. Litmus is complex in 
nature; it contains several coloring matters of 
definite composition, which can be separated 
by the use of glacial acetic acid and absolute 
alcohol. 


LITOLFF, lit’dlf, Henry Charles, Euro- 
pean composer and pianist: b. London, 6 Feb. 
1818; d. Paris, 6 Aug. 1891. He studied piano- 
forte playing under Moscheles, and made his 
first public appearance as a pianist at the Co- 
vent Garden Theatre, London, in 1832. At 17 
he went to France and for some time lived 


520 


a wandering life, traveling in France, Holland 
and Germany, giving concerts. In 1851 he 
settled in Brunswick, married the widow of the 
music-publisher Meyer, and took control of the 
business. Later he transferred the management 
of affairs to his adopted son, who began the 
publishing of cheap editions of classical music. 
In 1860, after the death of his wife, he moved 
to Paris, and married the daughter of the 
Count de la Rochefoucauld. His compositions 
include piano pieces (including the ‘Spinn- 
lied?) ; symphony concertos; and the operas 
“Heloise et Abelard? ; ‘Die Braut von Kynast? ; 
‘Les Templiers,? and ‘King Lear.» As a pian- 
ist he showed feeling and was brilliant of ex- 
ecution, but uneven, and sometimes inaccurate. 


LITOPTERNA, a group of extinct South 
American hoofed animals of the order Toxo- 
dontia, herds of which pastured on the Argen- 
tine pampas during the whole Tertiary Period. 
It has been thought that these animals should 


be merged with the Perrisodactyla, but the 


later view is that they present a case of conver- 
gence, fulfilling on the plains of South America 
the role of the horses in North America; 
yet not all of the Litopterna were horselike. 


In the Miocene and Pliocene two very dis- | 


tinct’ families existed within this order — the 
Macrauchenide and the Proterotheriide. The 
former were grotesquely camel-like, the early 
forms (as Thesodon) having much the size and 
shape of a llama, with a remarkably long snout, 
while their later descendants (Macrauchenia) 
._ resemble long-necked, heavily-built camels 
whose nose had developed into a real trunk 
nearly as long as the skull. The legs were long 
and stout and the feet had three toes, but in 
structure the foot was not like either the camel’s 
nor the horse’s. This queer, composite creature 
is believed to have obtained its living by 
browsing on trees. 


LITORINA. See PERIWINKLE. 


LITRE, le’tér, or LITER, the French 
standard measure “of capacity in the decimal 
system. It is a cube, each side of which meas- 
ures 3.937 inches, and it contains 61.02 cubic 
inches, or 1.056 quarts. See also Metric 
SYSTEM. 

LITTELL, li-tél’, Eliakim, American. pub- 
lisher: b. Burlington, N.J.,.2 Jan°1797; d. 
Brookline, Mass., 17 May 1870. He learned 
the printer’s trade, and in .1819 established at 
Philadelphia a literary periodical, the National 
Recorder, the name of which was changed in 
1821 to the Saturday Magazine. In 1822 he 
began to publish a monthly, the Museum of 
Foreign Literature and Science, giving selec- 
tions from the best periodical literature of 
Europe. In 1844 he started in Boston Littell’s 
Living ‘Age, a weekly literary eclectic periodical 
which is still continued. 


LITTLE BELT, The. 
AND LittLe BELT. 


LITTLE BLUE CREEK, a small stream 
in Jackson County in the western part of Mis- 
souri. A contest occurred, in 1864, on the 
banks of this stream, between Federal troops 
under General Curtis and Confederate troops 
under Gen. Sterling Price. The contest lasted 
several hours, when the Confederates fell back 
on Big Blue Creek, in the same county, and 
made a strong resistance, The Union cavalry, 


See PRESIDENT 


LITOPTERNA — 


LITTLE FALLS 


under General Pleasanton, finally routed the 
Confederates, who retreated into Arkansas. 


LITTLE COLORADO, a river which has 
its rise in Apache County, Ariz. running 
northwest to its junction with the Colorado 
River. The amount of water is sometimes 
large, but again the river resembles a chain of 
small lakes or ponds, with dry or nearly dry 
river bed in many places. The river is about 
230 miles long. It flows a little south of the 
southern boundary of the Navajo Indian Reser- 
vation, around the region where many “Cliff 
Dwellers” once lived in Arizona, and on 
through arid wastes and among low mountains 
to near the Colorado, where it enters a deep 
cafon, through which it passes into the Colo- 
tado just at Marble Cafion. 


LITTLE CORPORAL, The, a name be- 
stowed upon Napoleon by his admiring soldiery 
after the battle of Lodi, in affectionate allusion 
to his small stature. 

LITTLE CROW, the family name of a 
ruling dynasty of the Medaywakanton Sioux 
Indians prominent in the history of the North- 
west. Leaders among them were: Chatan 
Wakoo wa mani (“He who walks pursuing a 
hawk”), b. 1769; d. 1827; Wamde Tanka 
(“Big Eagle”), b. 1800; d.. 1845; Ta Oyati Duta 
(“His Red People”), b. 1820; d. 3 July 1863. 
By the Treaty of Mendota, Minn., 5 Aug. 1851, 
the Dakota ceded nearly all their lands in 
Minnesota to the United States. Although he 
was a signer of the treaty, Ta Oyati Duta 
chafed under its terms, and was the leader of 
the uprising which culminated in 1862. when 
ever 1,000 settlers were killed. He was. unsuc- 
cessful in an attack on Fort Ridgley, Minn., 
and after a disastrous defeat at Woods Lake, 
fled with about 300 followers to his western 
kinsmen. He was killed by a settler named 
Lampson in McLeod County, Minn. Consult 
Bryant and Murch, ‘History of the Great 
Massacre by the Sioux Indians in 1862,? 


LITTLE DORRIT, a novel by Charles 
Dickens (q.v.) published in 1856. There is but 
slight plot to the story, which contains more 
than 50. characters. 


LITTLE EGRET, any of several small, 
white herons. See EGRET: HERON, © 


LITTLE FALLS, Minn., city and county- 
seat of Morrison County, on the Mississippi 
River and on the Northern Pacific Railroad, 
about 100 miles northwest of Saint Paul. The 
place was settled in 1856, and in 1889 was 
incorporated. A dam ‘across the river aids in 
furnishing extensive water power. It is situ- 
ated in an agricultural and lumbering region. 
Its. chief manufactures° are flour, lumber, 
machine-shop products, paper, bricks and dairy 
products. It is the commercial centre for a 
large part of Morrison and adjoining counties. 
It has.a fine courthouse, Saint Gabriel’s Hos- 
pital, Saint Otto’s Orphan Asylum, a city library 
and several good school buildings. Pop. (1920) 

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y., city, in Herki- 
mer County, on the Mohawk River, the New 
York State Barge Canal and on the West 
Shore and the New York Central and Hudson 
River railroads, midway between Albany and 
Syracuse. The country around is rolling and 
diversified by many low hills, but Little Falls 


LITTLE GIANT —LITTLE OLD WORLD 


occupies that spot in the Mohawk Valley where 
in ages past the foothills of the Adirondack 
Mountains, the “Alps of America,” were joined 
to the headlands of the Catskill range by a 
barrier that set the waters back over a con- 
siderable portion of the fertile lands now under 
cultivation. When the barrier broke away by 
the action of the waters, the western gatewav 
of New York State was opened,with its pecul- 
iar rock formations. Through that narrow 
gateway occupied by Little Falls runs the Mo- 
hawk River, the new barge canal, the tracks of 
west- and east-bound steam and electric rail- 
roads and the main highway for automobile 
and carriage travel. So narrow is the gateway 
that in early colonial days the Indian warriors 
sped their messages on arrows from one hilltop 
to the other. The city occupies the site of an 
Indian village, visited in the 17th century by 
Jesuit missionaries. A white settlement was 
made here about 1770 or a few years later. 
In 1782 this setthement was destroyed by In- 
dians and Tories. General Herkimer, a Rev- 
olutionary officer after whom the county is 
named, is buried in a cemetery near the city. 
No successful efforts were made to rebuild 
until 1790, when a colony of Germans took 
possession. The place was incorporated ASpat 
village in 1811; as a town in 1827; as a city 
in 1895. The "city gets its name from the 
falls, or a series of cascades in the river, which 
descends 45 feet in less than a mile. “Pic- 
turesque and productive,” the grazing region 
around famous for its dairy and market prod- 
ucts, Little Falls is especially noted for its 
diversified and prosperous manufacturing indus- 
tries. These include knit-goods, hammers, felt 
shoes, knitting machines, paper, bicycles, in- 
cubators, cow-milking machines, sectional book- 
cases, leather, chemical laboratories, cream, 
butter, cheese and junket products, etc. Well- 
established banks, a prosperous. building, sav- 
ings and loan company and a _ progressive 
merchants’ and manufacturers’ association look 
after its commercial and financial interests. 
The city’s assessed valuation is $6,963,870. 
The city has fine school and church buildings, 
Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C.. A. buildings and pub- 
lic library, new city hall, handsome government 
building, nurses’ training school, city hospital, 
new Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows’ Hall, thea- 
tres, good hotels and a well-equipped country 
club. Eleven public parks and squares, covering 
44 acres, include Moreland park, one of the most 
picturesque hillside parks in central New York. 
A gravity system of waterworks furnishes in 
abundance pure mountain spring water; there 
are 20 miles of water mains; a modern salaried 
fire department; a modern electric light and 
power station; 25 miles of streets; and 8 miles 
of pavement. Pop. 13,100 


LITTLE GIANT, The, a familiar name 
applied to Stephen A. Douglas (q.v.) by his 
political admirers in allusion to his small stat- 
ure and great intellectual capacity. 


LITTLE JOHN, one of the outlaw com- 
- rades of Robin Hood. He was famed for his 
strength and was the only’one of the company 
who could approach Robin Hood in skilful han- 
dling of the bow. By some authorities his 
name is supposed to have been John Nailor. 


LITTLE KANAWHA, ka-na’wa, a river 
which rises in the central part of West Virginia, 


521 


flows west and northwest and enters the Ohio 
River at Parkersburg. It is about 100 miles 
long, has considerable rapidity in the mountain 
section and is of benefit as a route for the 
transportation of the oil and lumber of that 
portion of the States through which it flows. 
It has been made navigable as far as Burning 
Springs, about 40 miles from Parkersburg. 


LITTLE KEI, one of the important mem- 
bers of the group of East Indian islands known 
as the Kei Islands (q.v.). 


LITTLE LORD FAUNTLEROY, a pop- 
ular story for children by Mrs. Frances Hodg- 
son Burnett, originally published in 1885 as a 
serial in the magazine Saint Nicholas. 


LITTLE MAC, a nickname applied by the 
soldiers of the Union army during the Civil 
War to Gen. George B. McClellan (q.v.). 


LITTLE MINISTER, The, by Sir James 
Matthew Barrie, “a love story, thrown into 
relief by a backing of Scotch puritanism,” as 
it was epitomized by an English reviewer, has 
for its scene of action the same as that of 
so many of Barrie’s other tales and sketches, 
the Scotch village of “Thrums,” under which 
alias the author presents his own birthplace, 
Kirriemuir, a town largely populated by linen- 
weavers, about 62 miles north of Edinburgh. 
The novel was first published in 1891. The 
hero, Gavin Dishart, the young minister of 
that rock of rigidly orthodox Presbyterianism, 
the “Auld Licht Kirk,» serious, conscientious 
and indomitably brave, falls deeply in love with 
the fascinating and mysterious gypsy, Babbie; 
who, we are told by a Scottish critic, is de- 
lightful, yet “belongs not to Scotland, but to 
the realm of Oberon and Titania.” The young 
minister has no doubt that his first duty is 
toward the woman he loves, though a tempest 
of wrath is brewing in his devoted, but fiercely 
bigoted congregation; and in bringing the ro- 
mance of his antithetical pair of lovers to a 
happy yet plausible ending through the heroism 
of the Little Minister, the author exhibits not 
only his ingenuity as a disentangler of plots 
but also, incidentally, his acknowledged mastery 
in depicting the pathos and humor of Scotch 
village life. Barrie’s own dramatic version of 
the story has been repeatedly produced in both 
the United States and Great Britain with a 
success rivaling even the exceptional success 
of the book. 

- ARTHUR GUITERMAN. 


LITTLE NELL, a child character in the 
novel ‘Old Curiosity Shop, » by Charles Dickens. 
She was reared amid vice and crime, yet pre- 
served a beautiful purity of character. 


LITTLE OLD WORLD, The (‘Piccolo 
mondo antico,’? 1896), the undoubted master- 
piece of the Italian writer, Antonio Fogazzaro, 
and one of the greatest novels of modern Italy, 
is the first of a trilogy, the other two volumes 
of which are ‘Piccolo mondo moderno? (1901) 
and ‘Il Santo? (1905). Known in English as 
‘The Patriot? (‘Little Old World), ‘The Sin- 
ner) and ‘The Saint, these novels project 
against the background of Italian life in the sec- 
ond ‘half of the 19th century the spiritual prob- 
lems of the protagonists and their offspring. In 
the entrancing setting of Lake Lugano amidst 
whose beautiful hills Fogazzaro spent the im- 


522 


pressionable years of his youth, ‘Piccolo mondo 
antico? is a study of somnolent Valsolda during 
the eight years that preceded the expulsion of 
the Austrians in 1859. With a fidelity born 
only of accurate observation, Lombards and 
Venetians of every type appear in this magnifi- 
cent evocation of those years of silent prepara- 
tion. They speak their various northern dia- 
lects and are set off by that rich humor so typ- 
ical of Fogazzaro’s minor characters. The 
stony-hearted marchesa and her train of satel- 
lites, the lovable uncle Piero, the provincial gen- 
try, the minions of Austrian despotism, patriots 
and spies, all stand forth with individual dis- 
tinction. It is in this milieu that the main 
theme develops out of the conflicting ideals of 
husband and wife. Essentially a love match 
which has resulted in the young man’s disin- 
heritance, this union, through the inactivity and 
lack of energy of the dilettantic Franco Mai- 
roni, a devout religious idealist and a dreamer, 
is fast approaching disaster. The wife, Luisa, 
is a woman of strong will and moral force, 
filled with a sense of rectitude and justice, but 
lacking in religious faith. In the crisis brought 
about by the accidental drowning of their child, 
it is the husband who proves the stronger of the 
two. Taking consolation in his religion, he 
arouses himself, leaves for Piedmont to join 
his regiment and die for his country. The clash 
between the divergent ideals of Franco and 
Luisa, the separation and final reconciliation are 
worked out with characteristic poignancy. The 
novel typifies the intellectual and emotional 
- conflict so favored by Fogazzaro. As is usual 
with him, it is the man whose spiritual nature is 
the higher, and in the triumph of Franco’s in- 
tensely emotional and fervent Catholicism over 
Luisa’s colder rationalism, we see exemplified 
the author’s fundamental aspiration: “To live, 
love, labor, suffer and ascend.” 

Consult Lapham, L. E., ‘Fogazzaro and his 
triology? (in The Catholic World, Nov. 1906- 
Jan. 1907); Faguet, Emile, ‘Fogazzaro? (in 
Revue des ‘Deux Mondes, 15 May 1911); Al- 
bertazzi, Adolfo, ‘Il Romanzo? (Milan 1902) ; 
Croce, Benedetto, ‘La letteratura della nuova 
Italia? (Bari 1914-15). The English transla- 
tion, ‘The Patriot, is by M. Pritchard-Agnetti 
(New York 1906). 

ALFRED G. PANARONI. 


LITTLE ROCK, Ark., capital of the State, 
the seat of Pulaski County and the largest city 
in the State, on the Missouri Pacific, the Rock 
Island and the Saint Louis Southwestern rail- 
way systems, 133 miles west of Memphis, 346 
miles southwest of Saint Louis, 165 miles east 
of Fort Smith and 145 miles northeast of 
Texarkana. Little Rock and North Little Rock 
is situated on both banks of the Arkansas River 
and takes its name from the rocky promontory 
which rises on the south bank some 50 feet 
above the river, now used as one of the abut- 
ments of one of the four bridges which span 
the river. This rock is the first seen ascending 
the river and was_.called Little Rock in con- 
tradistinction to the bold precipice, about 10 
times higher, which rises some three miles 
above upon the opposite bank and called the 
Big Rock. This commanding eminence is now 
the site of an army post. The eastern border 
of the city touches rich alluvial cotton lands, 
without rocks and subject to a high state of 


_ center of the State. 


LITTLE ROCK 


cultivation; its western border reaches to the 
foothills of the Ozark Mountains. It is situ- 
ated near lat. 35° and long. 92°, almost at the 
The Arkansas River is 
navigable up to this point during the major 
portion of the year for the large steamboats, 
while smaller vessels ply as far up as Fort 
Smith. Pop. (est. 1919) about 90,000. 

Trade and Commerce.— The growth of the 
commerce of Little Rock has been gradual but 
steady. The total annual- business is estimated 
at $300,000,000, of which the retail business 
exceeds $100,000,000 : a large portion of the 
other consists of cotton and its by-products. 
For example, in an average year Little Rock 
handles approximately 250,000 bales of cotton, 
representing financial transactions of over $35,- 
000,000. The total freight traffic for the year 
1918 employed 105,332 cars. The real estate 
transactions during the same year aggregated 
3,555 sales, amounting to $5,237,194. The pos- 
tal receipts for the fiscal year total about 
$890,763. The local Board of Commerce, a 
consolidation of all commercial organizations, 
is the organ for concert of action among busi- 
ness men, Little Rock is also the supply head- 
quarters of the United States Bureau of Mili- 
tary Aeronautics for Arkansas, Oklahoma and 
northern Texas, and a million dollar warehouse 
plant is located at this point. During the late 
war the government constructed a munition 
plant at a cost of $7,000,000, which it is pro- 
posed to convert into a chemical or fertilizer 
plant, while Eberts Field, located 20 miles east, 
is a flying field, costing nearly $2,000,000. Camp 
Pike, an army cantonment built during the war, 
through which between 200,000 and 300,000 men 
passed, located eight miles north of Little 
Rock, has been designated by the government 
as a permanent army division post and has a 
capacity for 70,000 soldiers. This camp was 
named in honor of Gen. Zebulin Montgomery 
Pike, the explorer of the great West and South- 
west, who discovered Pikes Peak. The citizens 
of Little Rock, through its Board of Commerce, 
donated in fee simple for $1 to the govern- 
ment the site for Camp Pike, 3,000 acres, and 
the munition plant, 400 acres, at a total cost of 
over $400,000. 


Manufactures.— The largest single industry 
is the manufacture of cottonseed oil. There 
are six mills which have shipped, during a 
single season, 877 cars, or about 4,000,000 gal- 
lons of oil, 2,200 cars of meal and 584 cars of 
hulls. The latest available figures show 273 
factories, employing about 15,000 persons, with 
an approximate annual pay-roll of $20,000,000. 
The manufacture of lumber and lumber prod- 
ucts, such as staves, sash and doors, etc., prin~ 
cipally hard woods, takes prominence, followed 
by furniture, tractors, automobiles, fertilizers ; 
the largest brick factory and stone quarries 
and crushers in the State are located here; 80 
per cent of the Bauxite ore of the United 
States from which aluminum is made is mined 
within a radius of 20 miles. Ice factories, print- 
ing and lithographing, overalls and garments, 
tents and awnings, harness, candies, packing- 
house products, foundries and railroad shops 
and four cotton compresses operate here. 

Banks.— There are two national banks with 
a capital stock of $500,000 and surplus of $325,- 
694.73, and annual deposits amounting to 


LITTLE ROCK 


$4,727,159.93; also 12 trust companies with a 
capital stock of $2,983,000, surplus. and profits 
$1,201,315.89, with deposits of $25,780,355.39 and 
loans of $23,300,000. The local bank clearings 
for 1918 aggregated $272,875,892. Besides these, 
there are building and loan associations with ag- 
gregate stock of about $10,000,000. 
Government and Finances.— All municipal 
corporations in Arkansas are governed by gen- 
eral laws and not by special charter. The 
mayor, treasurer, police judge, city clerk and 
city attorney as well as the aldermen are elected 
biennially. The city council is composed of the 
mayor and 18 aldermen, two of whom are 
elected from each of the nine wards by the 
voters of the entire city and are required to 
reside in their several wards. The adminis- 
trative officers are partly appointed by the 
mayor and partly elected by the council. 
Churches and Charitable Institutions.— 
Little Rock is a city of numerous churches and 
chapels. It is the seat of Roman Catholic and 
Protestant Episcopal cathedrals, Saint An- 
drew’s and Trinity. The former, at the corner 
of Seventh and Louisiana streets, is a noble 
edifice, built of native granite, the most striking 
piece of architecture in the city. Other notable 
buildings are Christ Church (Protestant Epis- 
copal), the Eighth Street Methodist, the Ger- 
man Evangelical Lutheran, the First Presby- 
teral Church and the Jewish Temple. There 
are 7 Baptist churches, 4 Catholic churches, 3 
Christian churches, 1 Congregational, 1 Chris- 
tian Science, 6 Episcopal, 2 Hebrew, 3 Holiness, 
2 Lutheran, 12 Methodist, 6 Presbyterian-and 4 
miscellaneous. Of the charitable institutions 
the more notable are the county and city hos- 
pitals, Saint Vincent’s Infirmary, conducted by 
the Sisters of Mercy, the Children’s Home, 
the Methodist Orphanage, the Jane Kellogg 
Home for Aged Women, the Home for 


Aged Colored Women, and the Boys’ Club; the | 


Y. M. C. A. and’Y. W. C. A. both operate well- 
equipped and commodious homes. 

Buildings, Parks and Suburbs.—Little Rock 
is noted for the beauty of its homes. The 
profusion of its flowers have won for the city 
the name of “the City of Roses.» All of the 
State’s public institutions, except the Univer- 
sity of Arkansas at Fayetteville and the Branch 
Normal Institute for colored youths at Pine 
Bluff, are located here. These include the State 
House, the School for the Blind, Deaf-Mute 
Institute, State Hospital and the State Peni- 
tentiary. The State has erected a new capitol, 
built of Arkansas marble. Other public build- 
ings of note are the Pulaski County Court- 
house, constructed of granite quarried in the 
vicinity, the customhouse and post office, and 
the Board of Trade building. Of club houses 
are the Country Club, the Athletic Association, 
Quapaw, and the Elk’s Lodge; social organiza- 
tions, Concordia Association, a Jewish Club, 
Jewish Country Club, the Masonic Temple, the 
Albert Pike Consistory, and the new Shriner’s 
Temple. The City park, consisting of 35 acres 
of ground, is situated in the heart of the resi- 
dence portion of the city and is tastefully laid 
out in walks and drives and well kept up: The 
Arkansas River is crossed by three railroad 
bridges and a free bridge erected by Pulaski 
County at an expense of nearly $400,000, unit- 
ing the northern and southern portions of the 


523 


city. A new concrete free bridge costing over 
$1,000,000 is contemplated. There are two in- 
corporated suburbs of the city, Baring Cross, 
a thriving town of 800 inhabitants lying north 
of the Arkansas River and west of the city 
limits, and North Little Rock, a small town 
lying north of the river and of the city; Pu- 
laski Heights, a picturesque hill overlooking 
the city and river, has become fashionable for 
residences. Mount Holly, the oldest cemetery 
in the city, is beautifully adorned with shrubs 
and flowers, and has many fine monuments. 
Other cemeteries are Oakland, the Jewish, the 
Catholic, the National, the Confederate and the 
Colored. The city is aboundantly supplied with 
pure water obtained from the Arkansas River 
and deep wells. There are two reservoirs with 
a storage capacity of 17,000,000 gallons, with 
an average daily consumption of 6,000,000 gal- 
lons. There are 65 miles of water mains. 

The streets are laid out with regularity. The 
principal retail thoroughfare is Main street, the 
jobbing street is Markham, the former running 
north and south and at right angles to the lat- 
ter. There are within the city 249.02 miles of 
opened streets, 78.49 paved with brick, granite, 
asphalt, Telford or macadam pavement, 190 
miles of sewers and 180 miles of sidewalks. 
The street railway lines cover 29 miles. 

Education.— The single school district of 
Little Rock is a corporation distinct from the 
city, its territory including only that portion of 
the city which is south of the river. Here 
there are 20 schools, with 24 buildings, of 
which five schools with five buildings are for 
the colored children, 325 teachers and an en- 
rollment of 11,425, of whom 1,607 are colored. 
The school census shows a total of 15,000, of 
which about. 3,500 are colored. The North 
Little Rock school district, including so much 
of the city as lies north of the river, has in all 
six school buildings, two of which are for col- 
ored children, 15 teachers and an attendance 
of 885. The school census shows that 2,600 
are entitled to attend the public school in that 
district. Besides the public schools there are 
private and parochial schools. For higher edu- 
cation the Little Rock College for boys and 
Saint Mary’s Academy for girls, both Catholic 
institutions, are the largest; the University of 
Arkansas, the main departments of building of 
which are located at Fayetteville, has branch 
schools of law.and medicine located here. Be- 
sides these are the Arkansas Military Academy, 
a military training school, and the Philander 
Smith College for colored youths. 

History.— When the territory now known 
as Arkansas passed to the United States in 
1803, the site of the future capital was an un- 
broken wilderness. By the act of Congress of 
2 March 1819, the seat of government of the 
newly created territory was fixed at the Post 
of Arkansas on the Arkansas River some 30 
miles above its confluence with the Missis- 
sippi. On 24 Oct. 1820, an act was passed re- 
moving the capital to Little Rock. It has been 
aptly said that so manifest was the destiny of 
the future city that it was made the seat of 
government before it had become a town. A 
post office was established on 10 April 1820. It 
was incorporated as a town 27 Oct. 1825. It is 
said that the inhabitants numbered only 450 
in 1830. On 2 Nov. 1835 it was, by special 


524 


act, incorporated as a city. When the momen- 
tous question of secession arose in 1861, a con- 
vention was called by the legislature to meet at 
Little Rock, which adopted an ordinance dis- 
solving the union existing between the State 
of Arkansas and those united with her under 
the compact entitled, “The Constitution of the 
United States of America” On 10 Sept. 1863, 
Little Rock was captured by the Northern army 
under General Steele and remained in posses- 
sion of the Federal forces during the remain- 
der of the war. The unexpected increase in 
the population between the years 1860 and 1870, 
covering the period of the Civil War, may 


perhaps ibe attributed to the fact that during 


that period of disintegration society was form- 
ing new associations. The growth of the city 
since 1880 has been constant and rapid. Pop. 
(1850) 2,167; (1870) 12,380; (1890) 25,874; 
(1900) 38,307; (1910) 45,941; (1920) 64,997. 

GEORGE FIRMIN, 
General Manager, Little Rock Board of Com- 

merce. 


LITTLE ROCK, Capture of. The State 
authorities of Arkansas seized the United States 
arsenal at Little Rock 8 Feb. 1861, and until 
10 Sept. 1863 the city remained in Confederate 
occupation. After the fall of Vicksburg and 
Port Hudson, 4 and 8 July 1863, Gen. F. Steele 
was ordered from Vicksburg to Helena and 
directed to form a junction with General David- 
son, who was moving south from Pilot Knob, 
Mo., to break’ up’. Sterling’ Price’s “army, 
-and occupy Little Rock. Steele arrived at Hel- 
ena 31 July and organized his expedition, find- 
ing at that place two divisions of infantry, 
a brigade of cavalry and 39 guns; in all, about 
7,000 men. On 5 August he marched for De- 
vall’s Bluff on White River, reached it without 
incident and there was joined by Davidson 
with 6,000 cavalry and three batteries, making 
his force about 13,000 men and 57 guns. A 
few days later he was joined by a brigade 
which raised his aggregate to over 14,000, of 
whom 10,500 were effective, many being sick. 
August 24 Davidson’s cavalry advance skir- 
mished with Marmaduke’s cavalry up to and 
through Brownsville and up to his entrench- 
ments at Bayou Meto. Davidson fell back to 
Brownsville, where, 2 September, Steele joined 
him, and concentrated all his available force. 
The position on the Bayou Meto, 12 miles from 
Little Rock, was flanked, and on the 7th Steele 
reached the Arkansas River near Ashley’s Mills, 
where Davidson’s cavalry had a sharp skirmish 
and drove the Confederates across the river. 
Steele repaired the main road back to’ Bayou 
Meto, and on the 10th Davidson crossed to the 
south side of the river by a pontoon bridge and 
marched on Little Rock, but 10 miles distant, 
Steele marching. along the north bank. The 
city was defended by Sterling Price with 
about 7,700 men, of whom 6,500 were en- 
trenched on the north side of the Arkansas, 
and about 1,200 on the south side, on ‘the line 


of the Bayou Fourche, about five miles from the: 


city. Davidson moved directly on the city, 
without much opposition until he reached 
Bayou Fourche, where he found Marmaduke’s 
cavalry, dismounted, a brigade of infantry and 
two batteries, all drawn up to oppose him. 
Davidson attacked on two roads, driving the 
Confederates back; Steele, who had marched 


LITTLE ROCK — LITTLETON © 


abreast of him on the opposite side of the river. 
opened an enfilading artillery fire; and Marma- 
duke fell back through the city, closely fol- 
lowed by Davidson’s cavalry. Price had with- 
drawn from the north bank of the river when 
he learned that Davidson had turned the posi- 
tion, and evacuated the city at 5 p.m., retreating 
to Arkadelphia. Steele’s cavalry followed Mar- 
maduke’s cavalry for a day, and returned to 
Little Rock on the 12th, At 7 p.m. the city 
was formally surrendered to Davidson by the 
civil authorities. Price burned eight steamers, 
one of them a powerful gunboat, but the arsenal 
was saved. Steele reported a loss of 137 killed, 
wounded and missing; Price reported a total 
loss of 64. Consult ‘Official Records» (Vol. 
XXII); Lossing, ‘History of the Civil War? 
(Vol. Il); The Century Company’s ‘Battles 
and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. IIT). 
E. A. CARMAN. 


LITTLE RUSSIANS. See RuTHENES. 


LITTLE TURTLE, Miami chief: one of 
those who signed the Treaty of Greenville in 
1795. He defeated Harmar on the Miami in 
1790 and St. Clair at Saint Mary’s in 1791. 


LITTLE WOMEN, a popular story for 
ee by Louisa M. Alcott (q.v.), published 
in L 


LITTLEHALES, George Washington, 
American hydrographic engineer: b. Schuylkill 
County, Pa., 14 Oct. 1860. He was graduated 
from the United States Naval Academy in 
1883. He is an associate editor of the Jnter- 
national Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism, 
and has published “The Development of Great 
Circle Sailing? ; ‘The Methods and Results of 
the Survey of Lower California? ; ‘The Mag- 
netic Dip or Inclination»; ‘The Azimuths of 
Celestial Bodies,» and other works, all issued 
by the United States Navy Department. He — 
has made many important researches in hy- 
drography, oceanography and terrestrial mag- 
netism and has published about 3,000 charts. 


_ LITTLEJOHN, Abram Newkirk, Amer- 
ican Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Florida, 
Montgomery County, N. Y., 13 Dec. 1824; d. 
Williamstown, Mass., 3 Aug. 1901. He was 
graduated at Union College in 1845 and took 
orders in the Episcopal Church in 1850. He 
was rector of Saint Paul’s, New Haven, Conn., 
1851-60, and of Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, 
N. Y., 1860-69. He was made bishop of Long 
Island in 1869, and from 1874 was in charge of 
American Episcopal churches on the continent 
of Europe. He wrote ‘Philosophy of Re- 
ligion? ; ‘The Christian Ministry, etc. 
LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON, Sir 
Thomas, English jurist: b. Frankley, Wor- 
cestershire, 1422; d. there, 23 Aug. 1481. He 
was a member of the Inner Temple, sheriff of 
Worcestershire in 1447, recorder of Coventry 
in 1450, and in 1453 was made sergeant-at-law 
and justice of assize in 1455. After holding 
several legal appointments he became justice of 
the common pleas in 1466. His treatise on 
Tenures, with the well-known commentary by 
Sir Edward Coke, ‘Coke upon Littleton,» was 
long the standard authority on the English law 
of real property. It was written in legal 
French, and first published in London about 
1481. ‘Coke upon Littleton? was first published 


LITTLETON — LITURGY 


in English in 1628, and there are many sub- 
sequent editions. 


LITTLETON, N. H., town, in Grafton 
County, on the Ammonoosuc River, and on the 
Boston and Maine Railroad. When it was first 
settled in 1770 it was called Apthorp. When 
it was incorporated, in 1784, the name was 
changed to Littleton. It is in a section of the 
State noted for its beautiful scenery and cool 
summer climate. The river furnishes consider- 
able water power; the chief manufactures are 
shoes, gloves, wagons and carriages, whetstones, 
bobbins, stereoscopic views, woodenware and 
furniture. Electric lighting is municipally 
owned, and the town has a Carnegie library 
and a hospital. The government of the town 
is administered by means of the annual town 
meeting. Pop. (1920) 2,308. ‘Consult ‘History 
of Littleton? (3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1905). 


LITTMANN, lit’man, Enno, German Ori- 
ental scholar: b. Oldenburgh, 1875. He traveled 
extensively in the near East, including Abys- 
sinia, Palestine and Syria; came to America 
where he spent several years as lecturer on 
Semitic philology at Princeton University. He 
was appointed to the chair of Semitic languages 
at the University of Strassburg in 1906. In 
1910-12 he was professor at the University of 
Egypt, after which he returned to his old chair 
at Strassburg. He visited Abyssinia and Syria 
with the Princeton archeological expedition 
and accompanied the Axum expedition of 1906. 
He has published ‘Arabische Schattenspiele? 
(1901); ‘Zur Entzifferung der Safa-Inschrif- 
ten? (1901); ‘Chronicle of King Theodore of 
Abyssinia? (1902); ‘List of Arabic Manu- 
scripts? (1904); ‘Zur Entzifferung der thamu- 
denischen Inschriften®? (1904); ‘Philosophi 
Abessini? (1904); ‘Geschichte der athiopischen 
Literatur? (1907); ‘Arabische Beduinenerzah- 
‘lungen? (1908); ‘Nabatean Inscriptions? 
(1913). 


LITTORAL, that belt along a coast, be- 
tween low and high tide limits. The term is 
sometimes extended to include the very shallow 
water just beyond low tide limit. Currents 
parallel to the shore are known as littoral cur- 
rents, and the deposits of the littoral belt are 
called littoral deposits. See SANDSTONE. 


LITTRE, Maximilien Paul Emile, mak- 
si-mil-i-6n pol a-mel lé-tra, French lexicogra- 
pher and philosopher: b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801; d. 
there, 2 June 1881. After completing his course 
at school he studied deeply in English and Ger- 
man and in classical and Sanskrit literature. 
He intended to follow the medical profession; 


his study of medicine was interrupted by the — 


death of his father. He then engaged in teach- 
ing for a livelihood, took an active part in the 
Revolution of 1830, ‘and soon after was invited 
by Armand Carrel, editor of the National, to 
write for that paper. In 1839 he published the 
first volume of an edition of Hippocrates 
in the original, with a French translation and 
copious notes. This work, in 10 volumes, se- 
cured his admission to the Académie des In- 
scriptions et Belles-Lettres. He translated 
Strauss’ ‘Leben Jesu,» and having adopted 
Comtist principles, wrote an able and lucid 
synopsis of them in his ‘De la Philosophie 
Positive? (1845). In 1854 he was appointed 
editor of the Journal des Savants. In 1863 he 
commenced the publication of his great work, 


525 


begun nearly 20 years earlier, the ‘Dictionnaire 
de la Langue frangaise,’ which has been called 
the best dictionary of any living language yet 
published, and is a monument of its author’s 
patience and lucidity no less than of his erudi- 
tion. This was finished in 1873, two years 
previous to which Littré had been admitted into 
the Académie Francaise. Another important 
work of his was an edition of Pliny’s ‘Natural 
History? with a translation and notes. During 
the siege of Paris he was forced to retire with 
his famly to Bordeaux, and was appointed 
professor of history and geography in the poly- 
technic school there. He was afterward sum- 
moned to Versailles to take his seat in the 
Senate, having been chosen by the department 
of the Seine. He became a life senator in 1875. 
Among Littré’s other works are ‘Application 
de la Philosophie Positive au Gouvernement des 
Sociétés? (1849) ; “Conservation, Révolution et 
Positivisme? (1852) ; ‘Paroles de la Philosophie 
Positive? (1859); ‘Histoire de la Langue 
francaise? -(1862); ‘Auguste Comte et la 
Philosophie Positive? (1863); ‘Etudes sur les 
Barbares et le Moyen Age? (1867) ; “Médecine 
et Médecins»? (1871); ‘Literature et Histoire? 
(1875), and ‘Etudes et Glanures? (1880). 


LITTROW, lit’rd, Joseph Johann von, 
Austrian astronomer: Bischofteinitz, Bo- 
hemia, 13 March 1781; d. Vienna, 30 Nov. 1840. 
In 1807 he obtained the chair of astronomy in 
the University of Cracow, and in 1810 accepted 
a similar chair in Kasan, where he founded the 
observatory. He became in 1816 joint director 
of the observatory of Buda, and from this he 
removed in 1819 to become director of the ob- 
servatory of Vienna. He completely reorgan- 
ized this establishment, and in his lectures 
yearly attracted great audiences, many of them 
strangers from abroad. By far the most popu- 
lar of all numerous astronomical works is his 
“Die Wunder des Himmels,? of which the 8th 
edition was published (1895-97). It ranks as 
one of the best works of astronomy for the 
use of general readers. 


LITTROW, Karl von, Austrian astrono- 
mer: b. Kasan, Russia,. 18 July 1811; d. Venice, 
16 Nov. 1877. He was a son of Johann Littrow 
(q.v.), whom he assisted in the Vienna Observa- 
tory from 1831 and succeeding him as director 
in 1842. He edited the works of his father, 
adding considerably to ‘Die Wunder des Him- 
mels,? developed a new method of reckoning 
longitude at sea, and was the author of ‘Popu- 
lare Geometrie? (1839); ‘Verzeichniss der 
geographischen Ortsbestimmungen? (1844-46). 


LITURGY (Greek Aecrovpyia means a pub- 
lic service; used at Athens to mean a public 
service which the richer citizens discharged at 
their own expense). The Septuagint translators 
used the Greek word leitourgos for that serv- 
ice of God in the sanctuary. In the Hebrew it 
had various kindred meanings; in the Old Tes- 
tament is usually denotes the service of a Jew- 
ish priest, but in the New Testament it is 
used of any service rendered to God. In 
the 4th century, the word as applied to 
priestly ministrations was generally recog- 
nized; and while it continued in use as meaning 
any solemn service, it was applied especially 
to the Eucharistic service. It is in this sense 
that the word is used by the Greek Church when 
they say “Divine liturgy.” 


526 


The records extant which show the exact 
liturgy of the Christian Church in the lst cen- 
tury are mainly allusions found in documents 
of the 2d century. From the year 150 there 
are numerous proofs to show the existence of a 
fixed order and fixed words for the service of 
the mass or for the Eucharistic service. This 
service or liturgy was not made just when men- 
tioned by Cyprian, and in 138 by Justin, and 
many others who committed to writing the or- 
der of the services or the liturgy. But there is 
not sufficient proof to warrant the assertion that 
there was any entire written liturgy before the 
second half of the 4th century. As the liturgies 
exist to-day they may be divide into five 
groups or families of liturgies, distinguished 
from each other chiefly, though not entirely, by 
the different arrangement of their parts. Three 
of the groups are Oriental and two are West- 
ern. ‘They are: 

(1) The West Syrian Group, which includes 
the liturgies of Saint James, Saint Basil, Saint 
Chrysostom and that of Armenia. In this group 
the intercession for the living and the dead is 
placed after the invocation of the Holy Spirit, 
which in the Oriental liturgies follows the con- 
secration. 

(2) The Alexandrian Group, which includes 
three Greek liturgies: Saint Mark, Saint Basil, 
and Saint Gregory; also the Coptic liturgies. 
This group is characterized by the “Great In- 
tercession” for the living and the dead being 
placed in the midst of the Preface. 

(3) The East Syrian Group includes the 
liturgies in the Syriac language as used by those 
who belong to the Roman Catholic Church. In 
this group the “general intercession” is placed 
between the words of institution and the invo- 
cation of the Holy Spirit. 

(4) The Liturgies of Gaul and Spain. In 
this group the “@reat Intercession” comes just 
after the offertory, though the Mozarabic 
liturgy has a memento of the living before the 
Pater Noster. 

(5) Gallican Liturgy. In this the interces- 
sion is divided, that of the living is before con- 
secration, and that of the dead after consecra- 
tion. 

That part of the “Liturgy of the Mass” 
called the “canon” is very ancient, and existed 
almost as at present since the time of the Apos- 
tles (see Mass; MissAL). The liturgy of the 
Church of England is derived from the Ephe- 
sine original through the ancient Gallican 
liturgy which was brought to France by Greek 
missionaries, who were accustomed to use the 
form known as the liturgy of Saint John. 


There is no invocation of the Holy Spirit in’ 


the present English form, although the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church has restored the invo- 
cation, like the Scottish Episcopal Church. 
There is, however, no ritual element wanting in 
these two English forms. whether they be com- 
pared with the Greek or Latin liturgies. The 
liturgy in use in the Protestant Episcopal 
Church more nearly resembles the Gallican 
liturgy than any other group, but in some re- 
spects there is a difference in arrangement, and 
also in meaning. There is no intercession for 
the dead, and the intercession for the living 
comes before the Communion. 

Bibliography.— An exhaustive bibliography 
appears in the catalogue of the British Museum. 
Consult also Tertullian, ‘De Corona? ; Cyprian, 


LITUUS — 


“LIU-KIU 


‘Epistle> ; Report of Council in Trullo? Probst, 
‘Liturgie der drei ersten Jahrhunderte, who 
claims that there was a written liturgy before 


150; Hammond, ‘Ancient Liturgies’ ; Smith and 


Cheetum, ‘Liturgies?; Rock, ‘The Church of 
Our Fathers, as Seen in Saint Osmond’s Rite 
for the Cathedral of Salisbury? (1904); De 
Herdt, ‘Sacra Liturgie? (3 vols.) ; Fortescue, 
‘The Mass: A Study? (1912); Staley, ‘Litur- 
gical Studies? (1907); York, ‘The Roman 
Liturgy? (1908), and ‘The Prayer Book Dic- 
tionary,’ edited by Hartford and Stevenson 


11912), 


LITUUS, lit’ii-iis, (1) a crooked staff, rep- 
resented in works of art as borne by the ancient 
Roman augurs in their divinations. It was like 
a crozier in shape. (2) A trumpet, having a 
mouth which curved upward, and which was 
used by the Roman cavalry. (3) In geometry, 
a spiral, of which the characteristic property is 
that the square of any two radii vectores are 
reciprocally proportional to the angles which 
they respectively make with a certain line given 
in position and which is an asymptote of the 
spiral. 

LIUDGER, li-ood’ger, Saint, the first 
bishop of Muinster, Germany: b. Friesland, 
about 744; d. Billerbeck, 26 March 809. He 
studied. in England under Alcuin and returned 
to preach Christianity to his countrymen. When — 
Wittekind was sent to Friesland in 784 Liudger 
abandoned his mission and went to Rome. Sub- 
sequently he returned to become the first bishop 
of Mitmster. The various Vite S. Liudigeri are 
collected in the ‘Geschichtsquellen des Bistums 
Minster? (Diekamp 1881). Consult also the 
Lives by Htising (1878); Pingsmann (1879), 
and Krimphove (1886). 


LIUDPRAND, li-ood’prand, LI U T- 
PRAND, or LIUZO, Italian historian: 
b. about 922; d. 972. He was of a noble Lom- 
bard lineage. His father, who was King Hugo’s 
Ambassador to Constantinople, dying when the 
son was not more than five years old, young 
Liudprand was educated as a page in King 
Hugo’s court in Pavia, and later entered the 
Church. Hugo’s successor, Berengar, made him 
chancellor, and in 949 sent him on an import- 
ant diplomatic mission to Constantinople. Soon 
afterward he fell into disgrace with Berengar, 
joined himself to the Emperor Otho I, who, in 
962, made him bishop of Cremona, and in 968 
sent him on an important but unsuccessful mis- 
sion to the court of the Eastern Church, which 
called forth his bitter but interesting and lively 
‘De Legatione Constantinopolitana.? His 
‘Antapodosis? covering the period from 886- 
950, and ‘De Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni im- 
peratoris,’ from 960 to 964, are important 
sources of 10th century history. They are all 
found in the Pertz’ ‘Monumenta Germanie 
Historia.” 


LIU-KIU (lé-00’ké-00’) or LOO-CHOO 
ISLANDS, Japan, a chain of 55 islands, three 
large and 52 small, with a total area of 808 
square miles. They form a integral part of 
the empire, and, extending in a southwesterly 
direction from a series of stepping stones be- 
tween Kiu-shu and Formosa. Oshima in the 
northwest, 30 miles long, contains a mountain 
peak 2,300 feet high, and has a mean annual 
temperature of 70°. .Tokuno-shima is in the 
centre of the group. Okinawa or Greater Loo- 


LIU-KUN-YI— LIVE STOCK 


choo in the southwest is 60 miles long by two to 
14 broad. Naha, the capital of the group (pop. 
48,000), is a modern Japanese town. The 
islands constitute the Japanese prefecture of 
Okniawa and have a population of 502,000. 
Sugar, wheat, potatoes, bananas and sago are 
the principal crops. An active trade is main- 
tained with Japan by means of a steamship 
service. The inhabitants are honest, courteous, 
industrious and peaceable. Their language 
differs from the Japanese in being more archaic. 
Liu-Kiu Islands were originally part of the 
kingdom of Liu-Kiu, and were conquered for 
Japan by the Prince of Satsuma in 1609. See 
JAPAN, 


LIU-KUN-YI, __1é-00-koon’yi, = Chinese 
statesman: b. Hunan, about 1820; d. Nanking, 
6 Oct. 1902. He received a military education, 
and though not a scholar held high official posi- 
tions. In 1860 he commanded one of the armies 
raised to oppose the Taiping rebels, and de- 
feated them by a series of successful manceuvers. 
At the time of the Boxer outbreak in 1900 he 
was viceroy of Nanking, the so-called “southern 
capital” of China, and in spite of the vigorous 
anti-foreign agitation in his own province and 
the hostile attitude of the imperial government 
at Peking, he refused to join the anti-foreign 
movement, and used his foreign-drilled troops 
to suppress all Boxer demonstrations. In this 
he was supported by the viceroy of Wuchang, 
and these two viceroys prevented the spread 
of the Boxer movement to the valley of the 
Yang-tse-Kiang, and were consequently in- 
fluential in safeguarding Chinese interests in 
the subsequent peace negotiations. He took a 
leading part in negotiating with Sir James 
Mackay the commercial treaty of 1902. 


LIUTPRAND, lé-oot’prant, Italian his- 
torian. See LIUDPRAND. 


LIUTPRANT, or LIUTPRAND, king of 
the Lombards (q.v.) from 712 to 744, the period 
of their greatest power: b. about 688; d.744. He 
was an.active and popular prince. He captured 
Ravenna in 728, defeated the dukes of Spoleto 
and Beneventum in 741, joined with Charles 
Martel against the Arabs and extended the 
Lombard sway over practically the whole of 
Italy. His death marked the beginning of the 
downfall of the kingdom. His laws are codi- 
fied in the ‘Edicta Liutprandi.’ 

LIVADIA, liv-a-dé’a, or LEBADEA, 
Greece, a town on the Hercyna, 52 miles north- 
west of the capital of the monarchy of Beeotia. 
Under Turkish rule it was the most import- 
ant town in Greece. It is defended by a castle, 
and has manufactures of cotton goods and a 
trade in small articles or raw produce. Pop. 
6,500. Higher up the river, in a narrow gorge, 
is the site of the ancient Hieron or cave of 
Trophonius and the fountains of Lethe and 
Mnemosyne. 

LIVADIA, a Russian imperial residence 
near Yalta, on the southern coast of the Crimea, 
Russia. It is an extensive and beautiful estate, 
with two fine palaces, the new or large palace 
completed in-1911, and many less important 
villas and lodges. It was the favorite residence 
of Alexander III, who died there 1 Nov. 1894. 
When the Emperor Nicholas II was forced to 
abdicate the throne, 15 March 1917, he ex- 
pressed the desire to go to Livadia, to his 
gardens. 


527 


LIVE-FOR-EVER, or GARDEN OR- 
PINE, a small cultivated stonecrop, Sedum 
tlephium. See STONECROP. 


LIVE OAK, species of evergreen oaks 
found growing in various parts of the United 
States, Central America and Cuba. See Oak. 


LIVE STOCK. See Cart te. 


LIVE STOCK, The Feeding of. Bal- 
anced Ration.—A ration is the amount of food 
fed to an animal in one day of 24 hours. As 
with humans this ration is usually fed in three 
meals. A balanced ration is a ration which will 
fully meet all the physiological needs of the 
particular animal to which it is to be fed. Very 
briefly a properly balanced ration must meet the 
following principal needs: 

1. There must be sufficient food to furnish 
the energy to enable the given animal to do its 
work, 

2. The ration must have the proper amount 
of protein and the right kind of protein to meet 
the body needs’ for this important constituent. 

3. The ration must supply the proper mineral 
elements, 

4. The ration must supply the proper 
amounts of those not very well understood sub- 
stances which are called growth accessories or 
vitamines. 

Only those rations eehach meet these four 
primary needs can be said to be properly bal- 
anced. Therefore it is necessary to know some- 
thing of the composition of the animal body 
and of feeds in order to understand why feeds 
should be grouped in certain proportions to 
constitute what is called a ration. 

The body of any animal is made up of 
water and dry matter which must all come from 
the food. 

The Water in the animal body serves four 
purposes: first, it is a part of all bone and 
flesh; second, it serves as a carrier of food from 
the digestive tract, or from those parts of the 
body where the food is put into suitable shape 
to be used by the body cells, to those cells 
wherever they may be located; third, water 
serves to carry away the wastes of the body 
through the perspiration and the urine; fourth, 
it serves to equalize the temperature. This 
water in the body comes from the water that 
the animal drinks and from the water in the 
succulent parts of the food. The water in the 
auimal body constitutes on an average about 
50 per cent of the live weight. 

The Dry Matter of the Body is made up of 
many chemical elements — for example, carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus 
and perhaps half a dozen others. These ele- 
ments are arranged in all sorts of combinations, 
to form bones, flesh, hide, hair, hoofs and other 
parts of the body. For the purpose of this dis- 
cussion, in order to get a clear understanding 
of the relation of the food to the body the dry 
matter may be divided into four groups of sub- 
stances, namely, ash, nitrogenous substances or 
protein, carbohydrates and fast. The dry mat- 
ter of the body is so grouped because this is the 
usual grouping of the chemical compounds that 
make up plants, and it is desired to study the 
relation of the groups in plants with the same 
groups in the body. 

Demands of the Animal from Its Food.— 
Animals need food to maintain their existence, 
which is dependent on matter and energy. The 


528 


part of the body that is more or‘less permanent 
is that made up of ash and protein, while the 
carbohydrates and fats are more changeable 
and have to do more with the energy of the 
body. 
ing worn out, and must be replaced, and this 
requires a new supply of ash and protein from 
the food. 

Besides the ash and the protein constantly 
being replaced in the mature animal, the grow- 
ing animal must have matter to form new tis- 
sue, and the productive animal must have 
matter for products such as milk, eggs, wool 
and the like, all of which contain ash, fat, 
protein and carbohydrates. Then, in the preg- 
nant female, ash, fat, protein and carbohydrates 
are needed for the growth of the young. . 

After this matter has been supplied from the 
food for the maintenance of the dry matter of 
the body, there is a still further demand on the 
food to furnish.energy to the animal for vari- 
ous uses. First, the temperature of the animal 
body must be about 100° F., and, while the tem- 
perature of the surrounding air may vary all 
the way from —20° to + 90° F., this body 
temperature must be kept practically constant, 
requiring considerable energy in the form of 
heat; second, energy is required to keep up all 
the changes in the body in preparing food for 
use by the body, to kee that food where it is 
needed, and to carry out waste matter from the 
body; ‘third, energy is needed to manufacture 
products such as milk, wool, eggs and the like; 
' fourth, energy is needed to enable the animal 
to do work, as in the case of the horse. 

In addition to the requirements for mainte- 
nance of tissues and for energy the body re- 
quires a supply of water daily, in order to keep 
up the water content of the body and to provide 
a medium for the transfer of the food material 
from different parts of the body to other parts 
and. for the elimination of waste matter. 

How the Food Fulfills These Require- 
ments.— Like the body, the common coarse 
feeds, grains, meals and feedstuffs in general 
used for animals are made up of the following 
groups of constituents: 

Water 
Ash 


Dry matter | Carbohydrates (fiber, 


nitrogen-free extract) 
Fats 


The use of the water in the food has already 
been indicated. 

The Ash required by the animal does not 
need to be computed carefully because all the 
ordinary feeds furnish it in sufficient amount, 
provided a good variety is given and plenty of 
salt is supplied. Corn is slightly deficient in 
ash, but in the ordinary ration the feeds fed 
with corn make up for this deficiency. 

Protein, carbohydrates and fats in food are 
commonly spoken of as the nutrients of the dry 
matter, since it is from those groups of con- 
stituents that animals derive the matter and 
energy necessary for the uses already enumer- 
ated. The protein is used to keep up the pro- 
tein of the body — that is, to replace worn-out 
tissues, to build up new tissues, for growth of 
hair, hoofs, horns and the like. A very import- 
ant fact in this connection is that any protein 
in the ration in excess of that required for 
keeping up the nitrogenous tissues of the body 


Nutrients 


However the tissues are constantly be-- 


Protein (nitrogenous) 


LIVE STOCK 


can be used by any animal for the production 
of heat and energy. On the other hand, while 


' protein can be used thus for the production of 


heat and energy, thus serving the purpose of 
carbohydrates and fat, protein cannot be pro- 
duced from the carbohydrates or the fats of 
feeds. Therefore it is always necessary to 
have a sufficient amount of protein in the ra- 
tion. The discussion of the necessary amount 
of protein for different uses will be taken up 
later under various rations given. 

The amount of digestible protein in feeds 
varies within somewhat wide limits. The per- 
centage varies from 0.8 of 1 per cent in succu- 
lent feeds, such as mangels, through 7.6 per 
cent for red clover hay and 8.5 per cent among 
the cereals, to as high as 37 per cent for cotton- 
seed meal. Thus it is seen that there is a large 
list from which to choose in regulating the 
amount of protein in a ration. 

The Carbohydrates are divided by. the 
chemists into what are called “crude fibre” and 
“nitrogen-free extract,” because the crude fibre 
is less digestible than the other carbohydrate 
material. In a feed analysis, ash, protein, fat 
and fibre are first determined. Their sum is 
then subtracted from. the total dry matter, and 
the result is called “nitrogen-free extract.” 
This term includes all the carbohydrates except 
the fibre. The digestible nitrogen-free extract 
and the digestible fibre have the same food 
value for all practical purposes and perform 
the same work in the nutrition of the animal. 
This work consists mainly in furnishing energy 
for whatever need the animal may have. If 
there is more energy provided in the ration than 
is needed at that particular time, the excess 
energy may be stored in the body as fat. 

The amount of fibre and nitrogen-free ex- 
tract in feeds, taken together, varies as much 
as does the protein, but there is.always.a rela- 
tively larger amount of carbohydrates than of 
protein. In every case, when there is a low 
percentage of protein there is a high percentage 
of carbohydrates. 

The Food Fats are.used by the animal in 
about the same way as are the carbohydrates. 
They provide energy to be used in any way 
that the animal needs, and if the animal has 
more energy than is needed, it may be stored 
in the form of fat. The fat, however, has an 
energy value equal to about two and one-fourth 
times the energy value of the same weight of 
carbohydrates. 

The amount of digestible fat in the different 
feeds varies without respect to the other con- 
stituents. It is low in the coarse fodders, run- 
ning up to 11.6 per cent in distillers’ dried 
grains. 

Factors in an Ideal Ration.—In actually 
computing a ration for a given purpose there 
are Six factors that should be considered: 


1. Amount of food. 

2. Digestibility of the ration. 

3. Variety in the ration. 

4. Suitability of the feeds to the animal. 
5. Palatability of the ration. 

6. Cost of the ration. 


The Amount of Food in a ration has refer- 


ence to the relative amounts of roughage and 


concentrates. By roughage is meant the 
coarser feeds, such as hay, corn fodder, silage ; 
by concentrates are meant the grains and the 


LIVE STOCK 


other feeds in the ration that are low in their 
percentage of fibre and water and high in their 
percentage of total digestible nutrients. 

Horses at work should be given two to 
three pounds of feed (roughages and concen- 
trates combined) daily per 100 pounds live 
weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging 
from 10 to 18 pounds, depending on the severity 
of the work. 

Dairy cows in milk should be fed about two 
pounds of dry roughage or one pound of dry 
roughage and three pounds of silage daily per 
100 pounds live weight, with one pound con- 
centrates to three or three and one-half pounds 
of milk yielded. 

Fattening steers need two and one-tenth 
pounds or more of concentrates and dry 
roughage (or the equivalent in silage) daily 
per 100 pounds live weight, the allowance of 
concentrates ranging from less than one pound 
to one and seven-tenths pounds, or more, per 
100 pounds live weight, depending on the rate 
of gain desired and the kind of roughage. 

Fattening lambs will consume about one and 
one-fourth pounds of dry roughage daily when 
fed all the grain they will eat, and up to two 
and three-tenths pounds or over when the grain 
allowance is restricted. ‘Silage may replace a 
corresponding amount of dry matter in dry 
roughage. 

Pigs’ can make but limited use of dry 
roughage, except in the case of brood sows not 
suckling young. 

The Digestibility of the ration also depends 
a great deal on the relative amounts of roughage 
and concentrates, and on the character ‘of the 
concentrates. As a general rule the more in- 
tense the feeding the more concentrated the 
ration will be and consequently the more highly 
digestible it will be. Care must always be taken 
that the ration is not too concentrated. 

Variety in the Ration.—All feeders of ani- 
mals should provide variety in the ration. Vari- 
ety stimulates the animal’s appetite. Best re- 
sults are obtained from rations for dairy cows 
that have two different feeds in the roughage 
and three feeds in the concentrated part of the 
ration. These feeds should come from not less 
than three different plants. Other classes of 
animals do not seem to need so much variety, 
although it is wise to supply it with all classes. 

Sutability of Feeds to the Animal.— The 
feeds in the ration should be suited to the ant- 
mal and to the purpose for which the animal is 
fed. For example, wheat bran is not suitable 
for feeding hogs because of its bulk; wheat 
middlings are much to be preferred. 

Palatability of Feeds to the Animal.— The 
ration should be palatable if the best results in 
production are to be obtained. With dairy 
cows palatability is easily obtained by providing 
succulent feed in the ration... The condition of 
the feed has much to do with its palatability. 
No musty nor damaged feed should be given. 

Cost of the Ration— Without doubt, the 
cost of the ration is the most important factor 
to be considered by the farmer. However, the 
other factors must not be sacrificed for cost in 
every case. There is no general rule to be given 
in regard to cost. If one has access to a set 
of tables which give the pounds of total digest- 
ible nutrients, a rough way, efficient in most 
‘cases, to choose feeds for the greatest economy 
in the ration is to calculate the cost of 100 
pounds of total digestible nutrients in the 

VOL, 17 — 34 


529 


\ 


different feeds available, then to choose those 
that will yield total digestible nutrients the 
cheapest — always taking into consideration the 
five other factors that have just been explained. 
Too little attention has been paid to the proper 
compounding of rations to get the best returns 
in product from the money paid out for feed, 
whether that feed has been actually bought in 
the market or produced on the farm. The pos- 
sible usefulness of many home-grown crops is 
not known to many farmers. If clover hay, 
alfalfa hay, roots and silage are raised, the 
bills for grain may be reduced very much. 
These crops can all be raised and fed at a 
profit, since at their usual market price they 
will yield digestible material cheaper than will 
any of the commercial feeds. A knowledge of 
the composition of these home-grown crops is 
necessary, in order to fit them into the ration 
intelligently. A farmer should study from all 
sides the possibilities of his farm, and produce 
all the feed for his stock that he can. Thea 
he should buy those commercial feeds that will 
round out his rations properly. Many farmers 
never set any price on the feeds produced on 
the farm, considering them merely as feeds pro- 
cured at no money cost and therefore to be fed 
without regard to quantity or composition. 

Instead of feeding in a haphazard manner, 
a farmer should know, at least approximately, 
the cost of producing his homegrown feeds, 
how to plan his rations in order to use these 
feeds to the best advantage and how to buy 
intelligently the feeds on the market. This 
knowledge will enable him to calculate the most 
economical ration for the animal that he wishes 
to feed, whether dairy cow, sheep, horse or 
beef animal. 

A Ration for a Dairy Cow Illustrating 
the Factors Given.—A ration is desired for a 
cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding daily 
30 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent butterfat. 

The following feeds are commonly used for 
cows except the skimmilk, tankage and dried 
blood. They are divided into three groups for 
convenience in the discussion of rations which 
follow. 

| CONCENTRATES. 


Medium protein. 
Red dog flour. 


~ Low protein. High protein. | 
Corn meal or Gluten feed, high 
hop Flour wheat middlings. _ grade. 


chop. 
Corn and cob Standard wheat mid- Malt sprouts. 


meal. dlings. Brewers’ grains, dried. 
Hominy feed. Wheat bran. Buckwheat middlings. 
Wheat. Wheat feed (shorts Cottonseed meal,good. 
Rye. and bran). Linseed meal, old 
Oats. process. 
Barley Pea, field. 
Kafir. Skim milk, centrifu- 
Beet pulp, dried. gal. 
Molasses, cane. Tankage, over 55 per 
cent protein. 
Dried blood. 
Distillers’ grains, 
- dried, from corn. 
ROUGHAGE. 


Succulent roughage. 
Corn fodder. 
Sweet sorghum fodder. 
Green millet, common or 


Dry roughage. 
Corn fodder. 
Corn stover. 
Sorghum fodder, dry. 


Millet hay, common or Hun- Hungarian. 
garian. Mangels. 
Timothy hay. Rutabagas. 
Corn silage. 


Clover and wild grass hay. 
Oat straw. 
Alfalfa hay. 

Red clover hay. 

Soybean hay. 

Peas and oats hay. 
Cowpea, hay. 


Alfalfa, green. 

Red clover, green. 
Cowpeas, green. 
Soybeans, green. 
Peas and oats, green. 
Rape, green. 

Field pea silage. 


530 


- In feeding cows the usual rule is to feed the 
roughage that is available and to use what 
concentrates may be available on the farm, buy- 
ing enough others to complete a suitable ration. 
It will be assumed in this case that there are 
available clover hay, corn silage and corn-and- 
cob meal. Therefore it will be necessary to 
select two other concentrates. A good rule is 
to select for a dairy cow equal parts by weight 
of high, low and medium protein concentrates 
in order to provide concentrates that will pro- 
vide sufficient protein. By following this rule the 
rations could be made up as follows: 10 pounds 
red clover hay; 80 pounds corn silage; 3 pounds 
corn-and-cob meal; 2 pounds wheat mixed feed; 
3 pounds gluten feed; 1 pound oil meal. By 
following these rules in general innumerable 
combinations may be made under different con- 
ditions of home supply. 

A Ration for a Horse Weighing 1,000 
Pounds Doing Medium Work.— Observing 
the general rule given above as to the amount 
of feed necessary for horses at work the fol- 
lowing is given as a typical ration: 12 pounds 
timothy hay; 8 pounds oats; 4 pounds corn. 
Rations for horses do not require as much pro- 
tein as rations for cows. The feeds used are 
generally limited to timothy, clover, alfalfa and 
mixed hays and to barley, corn, oats and hominy 
for concentrates with molasses sometimes added 
when cheap enough. The only high protein 
food used in any quantity for horses is linseed 
oil meal. 

Beef Cattle Ration—A ration is desired 
for a 1,000-pound steer. The following is sug- 
gested: 10 pounds red clover hay; 40 pounds 
corn silage; 4 pounds corn-and-cob meal; 2 
pounds oats (ground); 3 pounds gluten feed. 
As the steer became fatter and nearer the time 
for selling the silage should be cut down and 
the amount of corn increased. Practically all 
of the feeds listed under the ration for a cow 
can be used for steers. Less of the high pro- 
tein feeds are needed because the gain of pro- 
tein in the body is less than the protein put 
into the milk. 

A Ration for Breeding Ewes with Lambs. 
—A ewe of the large breeds will weigh about 
125 pounds. A pen of eight would make 1,000 
pounds. The following ration is suggested for 
each group of eight to be fed: 12 pounds red 
clover hay; 25 pounds turnips; 5 pounds ground 

oats; 5 pounds cornmeal; 3 pounds wheat bran; 
1 pound oilmeal. The feeding of milking ewes 
is practically the same as feeding small dairy 
cows. Sheep are particularly fond of turnips. 
If turnips are not available 16 to 20 pounds of 
corn silage or pea vine silage could be substi- 
tuted. Also it will be noted that less high pro- 
tein feeds are necessary. 

In feeding lambs for market it is a general 
practice to limit the amount of succulent feed 
a little more than in feeding ewes for milk pro- 
duction. The basis of fattening rations is prac- 
tically always a large percentage of corn grain, 
which must be supplemented with good rough- 
age and one high protein feed. Legume hays 
and roots for the roughage and linseed oil meal 
for the high protein concentrate make an ideal 
combination with corn in all fattening and 
growing rations. 

A Ration for Fattening Pigs.— It will be 
assumed that pigs weigh 125 pounds each when 
they are about half fattened for market. It 


LIVEING — LIVER 


would then take eight of them to weigh 1,000 
pounds live weight. The following is suggested 
as a good ration at this point: 20 pounds corn- 
meal; 16 pounds flour wheat middlings; 2 
pounds tankage. 

It is intended, in a ration such as the one 
just given, that the grain shall be fed as a slop 
mixed with water. The corn might be fed 
whole. If skimmed milk or buttermilk were 
available, of course less middlings and no tank- 
age would be necessary. The feeds used for 
pigs are not so numerous as those used for 
dairy cattle. The one thing to avoid i in rations 
for pigs is a feed that is too high in fibre. 
Brood sows like some succulent feed and will 
consume rather large quantities of alfalfa or 
clover hay if it is kept before them in a rack. 
Through the feeding of hay money may be 
saved in the purchase of concentrates. In the 
feeding of pigs and sows in the summer time 
much larger gains can be made and feed saved 
if the pigs and sows are kept on good pasture. 

Bibliography.—Armsby, H. P., ‘The Nu- 
trition of Farm Animals» (New York 1917) ; 
Henry and Morrison, ‘Feeds and Feeding 
(Madison, Wis., 1915) ; ‘The Computation of 
Rations? (Bul. 321, Cornell University Experi- 
ment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., 1916); ‘The Use of 
Energy Values in the Computation of Rations 
for Farm Animals? (Bul. 459, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1916). 

ELMER S. SAVAGE, 
Professor of Animal Husbandry, Cornel Uni- 
versity. 


LIVEING, George Downing, English 
chemist and surgeon: b. Nayland, Suffolk, 21 
Dec. 1827. He was graduated at Saint John’s 
College, Cambridge, in 1850, and in 1853 he be- 
came a Fellow and lecturer in natural science 
in that college. He was appointed professor of 
chemistry at the Royal Military College, Sand- 
hurst, in 1860; and from 1861-1908 professor 
of chemistry in the University of Cambridge. 
In 1911 he was appointed president of Saint 
John’s College, Cambridge. In 1852 he estab- 
lished at his own expense the first chemical 
laboratory for undergraduates in Cambridge 
and may be said to be the founder of the sys- 
tem of experimental teaching that is now such 
a prominent feature of that university. He was 
instrumental in securing the examination and 
inspection by the university of secondary 
schools and the admission of girls’ schools to 
the examinations. He has published ‘On the 
Transmutation of Matter? (Cambridge Essays, 
Ist series, 1855); ‘Chemical Equilibrium the 
Result of the Dissipation of Energy? (1885) ; 
“Report on the University Colleges? (with Mr. 
Warren, 1897); and many papers on spectro- 
scopy, crystallization, etc., in the scientific pro- 
ceedings of various scientific societies. 


LIVER. The liver is the largest glandular 
organ of the body. In man it is situated on the 
right side of the abdominal cavity immediately 
beneath the diaphragm. Its weight in the adult 
is approximately from three to four pounds, 
and its size is roughly indicated by the follow- 
ing measurements: Greatest diameter about 12 
inches, anteroposterior diameter about seven 
inches, thickness at different parts from one to 
three inches. The organ is divided into five 
lobes, of which the right and left are the prin- 
cipal ones; the former comprising the greatest 


LIVER 


part of the bulk of the entire organ. On the 
under surface may be seen a square lobe lying 
anteriorly between the right and left lobes and 
known a8 the quadrate lobe. In a similar po- 
sition between the right and left lobes at the 
posterior part of the organ is the Spigelian lobe, 
while a bridge-like lobe extending from the 
latter to the right lobe is known as the cau- 
date lobe. The upper surface of the right and 
left lobes is convex and fits into the arch of 
the diaphragm. The lower surface of the or- 
gan is more or less concave and is divided by 
five fissures. Of these a longitudinal furrow 
extends from the anterior to the posterior bor- 
der of the organ separating the right from the 
left lobe; a transverse fissure extends at right 
angles from this at a point somewhat nearer 
the posterior than the anterior surface; it di- 
vides the longitudinal fissure into an umbilical 
fissure in front (so called on account of its 
- lodging the umbilical vein in the fetus) and 
the fissure of the ductus venosus behind (on 
account of its lodging the ductus venosus in 
the foetus). Between the lobus Spigelii and 
the right lobe of the liver is the fissure of the 
inferior vena cava, lodging that vein, while at 
the anterior edge of the organ at the side of 
the quadrate lobe is a fissure which accommo- 
dates the gall-bladder. The transverse fissure 
is the most important, as it serves for the en- 
trance into and emergence from the organ of 
the blood vessels, nerves and hepatic ducts. 
The liver is held in place by five ligaments, 
four of which are simple folds of peritoneum, 
while the fifth, or ligamentum teres, is a round 
cord formed by the obliteration of the umbilical 
vein and extending from the anterior edge of 
the liver at the notch between the left and right 
lobes to the umbilicus and along the under sur- 
face of the liver to its posterior border. The 
peritoneal folds which serve the purpose of lig- 
aments are a longitudinal one extending on the 


upper surface of the organ from the notch in. 


front to the posterior border, a coronary liga- 
ment which is found along the posterior bor- 
der, and a right and a left lateral ligament. 
These peritoneal reflexions serve to hold the 
organ in place, keeping it more or less firmly 
in apposition with the diaphragm. 

The blood vessels entering the liver are the 
hepatic artery and the portal vein; the former 
being a branch of the cceliac axis, the. latter 
being the large venous trunk which is formed 
by the union of the superior mesenteric and 
splenic veins. Both the hepatic artery and por- 
tal vein divide in the transverse fissure into 
two parts, a right and a left, which enter the 
substance of the right and left lobes, respec- 
tively. 

The hepatic veins are the efficient veins of 
the liver conveying the blood from this organ 
into the inferior vena cava. In addition to 
these vessels, the liver, like other organs, is 
supplied with large and numerous lymphatics. 
The nervous supply of the organ is derived 
from the left pneumogastric, the hepatic plexus 
of the sympathetics and from the right phrenic 
nerve. The bile ducts and hepatic ducts will be 
described below. 

The gall-bladder is a small pear-shaped sac 
lying on the under surface of the liver. At its 
narrow end it opens into a small duct. (cystic 
duct) which passes back and down to join the 
hepatic duct forming the common bile duct, 


531 


which terminates in the duodenum. The gall- 
bladder is the reserve sac in which bile is stored 
and by the contracting of which a uniform flow 
of this liquid is maintained. 

Structure of the Hepatic Substance.— 
The substance of the liver is made up of lob- 
ules of more or less equal size, separated by 
areolar connective tissue, which is a continua- 
tion of the fibrous covering of the organ or 
capsule of Glisson. In these fibrous septa be- 
tween the lobules are found the larger blood 
vessels, biliary ducts, lymphatics and nerves. 
The lobule under a low power of the micro- 
scope is seen to be composed of radiating col- 
umns of liver cells converging to a central 
point in which is situated a large vein (intra- 
lobular vein) belonging to the system of the 
inferior vena cava. The columns of liver cells 
branch and anastomose with each other, and be- 
tween them are spaces occupied by blood capil- 
laries and the primary biliary passages. The 
liver cells themselves are polyhedral in shape 
and are so arranged that a capillary space, 
known as the biliary capillary, is left between 
them. The capillary blood vessels are simi- 
larly formed by the peculiar juxtaposition of 
the liver cells, leaving spaces in which the ca- 
pillary blood vessels extend from the terminal 
branches of the portal vein in the septa at the 
periphery of the lobules to the central vein al- 
ready mentioned. The latter, collecting the 
blood from the capillary system, transports it 
to larger vessels known as sublobular veins, 
which finally unite and form the hepatic veins 
and discharge the blood into the inferior vena 
cava. The hepatic arteries and their terminal 
branches occupy the septa and supply blood to 
the connective tissue constituting the septa and 
to the walls of the portal veins and biliary ducts. 
The venous blood of this distribution is dis- 
charged into the terminals of the portal vein 
within the septa. 

At the periphery of the hepatic lobules, the 
epithelial cells of the hepatic columns continue 
directly into the smaller bile ducts which are 
situated in the interlobular septa. These pri- 
mary bile ducts unite to form larger ducts and 
finally a right and left hepatic duct emerging 
from the transverse fissure unite to form a 
common bile duct. This is further joined by 
the cystic duct or duct of the gall-bladder and 
it terminates in the duodenum in a common ori- 
fice with the pancreatic duct. 

The structure of the liver is such that the 
blood entering through the portal circulation 
comes in contact with the liver cells on one side 
while the capillary biliary passages are on the 
other side of the hepatic cell. 

The lymphatic vessels accompany the portal 
vein and hepatic artery and another system ac- 
companies the branches of the hepatic vein. 
The capillaries penetrate into the lobules, pass- 
ing between the hepatic cells. 

Functions of the Liver.— The physiologi- 
cal functions of the liver are probably very nu- 
merous and are but imperfectly understood. In 
the foetus the liver is an important source of 
the red blood cells, reversing the process of 
adult life in which they are destroyed by the 
formation of bile. The position of the organ 
indicates that one of its important functions is 
the elaboration of materials presented by the 
blood coming from the gastro-intestinal tract, 
and probably also the purification of this blood. 


532 


As far as they are known, the functions of the 
organ may be divided into the metabolic and 
biliary. 

Metabolic Functions—It is known that the 
liver acts upon sugars and other carbohydrate 
materials to convert them into glycogen which 
is stored up by the hepatic cells. This accumu- 
lates during digestion and is utilized itn the in- 
tervals, so that the percentage of sugar in the 
blood is kept at an approximately uniform stand- 
ard. It is known that in certain diseases (for 
example, diabetes), the function is greatly dis- 
turbed with resulting consequences that affect 
the general health. The liver shares with the 
muscles of the body this glycogenic function. 
It also has the function of removing or neu- 
tralizing certain toxins and of removing cer- 
tain metallic salts. 

Another important metabolic function is that 
of forming urea, the final stage in the meta- 
bolism of albuminous food. Uric acid also is 
to some extent formed in.the liver but is more 
particularly the product of the lymphatic or- 
gans and tissues. 

Biliary Function.— The formation of bile is 
one of the important attributes of the liver, 
though possibly this function is less predomi- 
nating than has hitherto been believed. The 
bile is an albuminous liquid containing bile pig- 
ments (bilirubin, biliverdin), bile salts (glyco- 
cholate and taurocholate of soda), nucleo-albu- 
min, cholesterin, fat and other less important 
substances including various salts. The bile is 
‘secreted more or less intermittently, the amount 
being greatest about the middle part of the day 
and increasing after meals. The daily output is 
from one to two pints. Its functions are nu- 
merous. Among other properties it aids in the 
absorption of fatty foods, stimulates intestinal 
peristalsis and prevents intestinal fermentation, 
and is the vehicle of excretion from the body of 
certain waste products, notably hemoglobin. It 
is known that bacteria and other minute for- 
eign bodies are discharged from the system 
through this medium. 

Authorities are divided as to the amount 
of the work which the liver performs in the 
production of sugar. Bernard believes that the 
glycogen is a reserve of carbohydrates, making 
the deduction from the fact that the liver is 
found to contain more glycogen than any other 
organ and that after death the glycogen is re- 
placed by sugar. Another authority, Pavy, is 
of the optnion that the liver forms no sugar, but 
uses it in the form of glycogen. Still another, 
Seegen, declares that sugar is formed:-in the 
liver and not from glycogen but from protein 
and fat. As the blood normally has about 0.15 
per cent of sugar, an amount which is cut in 
half, if the action of the liver is removed from 
the.circulation, it is considered reasonably good 
evidence that the sugar’ in the blood comes 
either from the liver or from some other prod- 
uct formed in the liver. Also the amount of 
sugar in the blood does not normally rise above 
0.3 per cent without overflowing through the 
kidneys into the urine, which shows that the 
amount of sugar that can be destroyed by the 
liver is limited. The liver thus permits the 
accumulation and storing of this valuable ma- 
terial which would otherwise be lost. If sugar 
in the form of a glucose solution is introduced 
into the blood in such a way as not to pass 


LIVER 


through the liver, it is immediately discharged 
via the urine, while if it is so injected as to 
pass into the liver first, a comparatively large 
quantity remains there. 

Diseases of the Liver.— The diseases of 
the liver may be classified under the following 
heads: Derangements of the Circulation; Nu- 
tritional and Inflammatory Disease of the Sub- 
stance of the Liver; Tumors; Parasitic Dis- 
eases; Functional Disturbance. 

Circulatory Disturbances.— Congestion of 
the Liver is an increase in the volume of blood 
in the organ. This may be transient or more 
or less permanent. 

(a) Transient congestion follows the inges- 
tion of food and drink, especially when these 
are of stimulating quality such as alcoholic 
beverages, spiced and rich foods. It is also 
occasioned by circulatory activity, such as ac- 
companies malarial and other fevers and other 
conditions of. systemic excitement. In these 
cases the increase of blood in the liver is the 
result of an excessive supply of blood to the 
organ. 

An excess of blood in the liver frequently 
occurs after a flow of blood, such as that of 
menstruation, has been stopped, or when, 
through catching cold or even because of some 
nervous condition, such flow of blood, or a 
blood flow that has been caused by hemor- 
rhoids, has been stopped. 

(b) Passive congestion is the form in which 
the outflow of blood from the liver is interfered 
with. This form is likely to be more or less 
durable or permanent. Among the causes, 
most important are diseases of the heart and 
the lungs, or any other cause of obstruction to 
the circulation in the thorax. 

It is said that malaria is the most frequent 
occasion of an attack of congestion of the liver 
and that it occurs most frequently in autumn 
and in persons of middle age. 

Pathological Anatomy.—In active or acute 
congestion no marked alteration is observed on 
examination of the organ. In passive conges- 
tion the liver becomes enlarged, and the cen- 
tral verns within the lobules are seen to be in- 
creased in size, while the peripheral parts of the 
lobule often become light-colored from degen- 
eration of the liver cells. This gives the sur- 
face of section of the organ a peculiar appear- 
ance that this has been well designated “nutmeg 
liver». When passive congestion is long con- 
tinued, the hepatic cells, compressed by the di- 
lated. blood-vessels and otherwise disturbed in 
their nutrition, undergo atrophy, while at the 
same time some fibrous tissue growth replaces 
the degenerated hepatic cells, and the whole 
organ becomes darker in color from deposit of 
pigment from the stagnated blood. The result 
is that the organ decreases in size, hecomes 
harder and of a darker color than normal. The 
term cyanotic or red atrophy is given to this 
condition. . 

The symptoms of congestion of the liver 
vary with the kind, the degree and stage of the 
disease. In acute congestion, such as follows 
over-indulgence in stimulating food and drink, 
a sense of heaviness in the region of the liver, 
and perhaps slight disturbances of digestion 
with general malaise constitute the symptoma- 
tology. In chronic or passive congestion, such 
as accompanies heart disease, the symptoms are 


LIVER 


quite distinctive. The organ increases in size 
so much that it is easily felt in the upper part 
of the abdominal cavity and it becomes tender 
or even acutely painful. Digestive disturbances 
are very common, partly as the result of the 
condition of the liver itself and partly as the 
result of the underlying condition which occa- 
sioned the congestion of the liver. Among 
these digestive symptoms, loss of appetite, diffi- 
cult and painful digestion, nausea and vomiting 
are the most conspicuous. 
tion of the liver is pronounced, more or less 
jaundice occurs. This results from the thicken- 
ing of the walls of the biliary ducts and the 
compression of the finer biliary channels by the 
swollen state of the organ. In marked cases, 
the jaundice may be _intense; usually it is 
slight. 

In the last stages of congestion of the liver 
when the organ has undergone cyanotic indura- 
tion, the symptoms may be similar to those of 
cirrhosis (q.v.). 

Treatment.— The treatment of congestion of 
the liver is directed primarily toward the relief 
of- the condition which causes the congestion. 
In heart diseases, cardiac tonics are important. 
Sometimes a prompt relief is obtained by vene- 
section. Depletion from the portal circulation 
by brisk purgation may also be efficacious, and 
regulation of diet is important as the congested 
organ is less able to withstand injurious effects 
of stimulating foods or drink than the healthy 
liver. 

Diseases of the Substance of the Liver.— 
Among these may be considered: (1) Simple 
atrophy; (2) acute yellow atrophy; (3) fatty 
liver: (4) cirrhosis, amd (5) abscess. 

Simple Atrophy of the Liver occurs in cases 
of starvation or inanition from long-continued 
disease. Pressure atrophy is found in cases 
of deformities of the chest, in which the ribs 
are pressed inward against the liver, as a result 
of tight lacing and the substance of the organ 
does not change very greatly in atrophy, though 
the individual liver cells are smaller than nor- 
mal and usually somewhat pigmented. The 
shape of the liver is often peculiar. In the 
case of deformities of the chest, the pressure 
exerted by the ribs may cause deep grooves in 
the surface of the liver, or there may be a 
single transverse furrow at the lower margin 
of the ribs where this is pressed against the 
organ. 

The function of the liver is probably not 
seriously impaired in any of these cases, though 
some disturbance undoubtedly occurs. 

Acute Yellow Atrophy is a disease in which 
the liver is decreased in size, often to a re- 
markable degree. It is soft and on transverse 
section the substance is of a light yellow color 
with mottled areas of reddish or purplish hue, 
the latter being portions in which the substance 
is congested or in which hemorrhages have 
taken place. : 

Changes are found also in various other tis- 
sues of the body, showing that acute yellow 
atrophy is not wholly a disease of the liver but 
a general infection or intoxication, having its 
most marked manifestations in the liver. 

Symptoms.—After a period of indefinite di- 
gestive disturbances, acute jaundice and marked 
nervous symptoms set in. The patient also be- 
comes delirious, and sometimes comatose. In 
the course of 10 days or two weeks the disease 


When the conges-, 


533 


in a large percentage of cases tetminates 
fatally. The treatment consists in stimulation 
or other measures called for by the general 
condition. 

Fatty. Liver— There are two varieties of 
fatty disease of the liver, that known as infil- 
tration and that termed fatty degeneration. In 
the former there is a deposition.of fat in the 
liver cells, similar to that which is found in 
the subcutaneous tissues in ordinary obesity. 
In the latter the liver cells undergo destruction 
with formation of fat. Fatty infiltration may. 
be the result of excessive supply of nutriment 
as in ordinary obesity, and is also found in 
certain states of general weakness and wasting, 
particularly in association with diseases of the 
lungs. In the latter cases, the cause is to be 
found in the deficient consumption of fat, 
owing to diminished oxygenation. Fatty de- 
generation may be caused by various infectious 
diseases, but is more particularly the result of 
poisoning with phosphorus, arsenic, mercury 
and other poisons. 

In fatty infiltration, the liver is enlarged, 
lighter than the normal organ in specific gravity 
and in color, and on section with a knife the 
increased fat is indicated by an oily character 
of the cut surface. In fatty degeneration the 
liver is usually diminished in size and the sub- 
stance is of a friable softened character. 

Cirrhosis of the Liver is the most frequent 
and important of the diseases of this organ. 
It is essentially a replacement of normal liver 
tissue by connective tissue, causing more or 
less hardening. 

The causes of cirrhosis of the liver are 
numerous, though one in particular occupies a 
very prominent position on account of its fre- 
quency. The cause referred to is over-indul- 
gence in alcohol, especially raw spirits, whence 
the terms alcoholic liver, gin drinker’s liver, etc. 
It must not be supposed, however, that alcohol 
is the invariable cause. Over-eating, gouty con- 
ditions, syphilis and various other infectious 
diseases may ‘be followed by cirrhosis entirely 
like that caused by alcohol. It has been noted 
in the description of congestion of the liver 
that a form of cirrhosis (cyanotic induration) 
results from long-standing congestion. Some- 
times cirrhosis of a peculiar type is caused by 
obstruction of the biliary ducts. This produces 
a stagnation of the bile and an irritation of the 
substance of the liver that terminates in the 
formation of connective tissue. 

Pathological Anatomy.— Two forms of cir- 
rhosis of the liver are recognized. One known 
as the atrophic, in which the liver is decreased 
in size; the other, hypertrophic, in which the 
organ is increased in size. In atrophic cirrhosis 
(hob-nail liver, granular liver), the organ has 
an irregular nodulated or granulated surface, 
the irregularities being caused by the contrac- 
tions of the connective tissue which forms the 
basis of this pathological state of the organ. 
It is very firm, and on section the increased 
connective tissue can be recognized in the form 
of more or less distinct septa interlacing the 
lobules or groups of lobules of the liver sub- 
stance. The lobules and groups of lobules are 
compressed by the contracting connective tis- 
sue, and as a result undergo atrophy and de- 
generative change. The connective tissue 
formation which is characteristic of this form 
of cirrhosis is found in the interlobular tissues 


534 


surrounding the terminal branches of the portal 
vein. Consequently the portal circulation is ob- 
structed, and congestion of the various abdom- 
inal organs whose blood is discharged through 
this circulation results. When cirrhosis has 
proceeded for some time, new channels of cir- 
culation may be established, by which the con- 
gestion of the abdominal organs is relieved. 
There results from this visible enlargement of 
the veins of the abdominal walls an increased 
size of the veins in the lower end of the 
cesophagus and in the rectum. 

Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is a form 
in which the liver is increased in size. The 
surface is usually smooth and the substance of 
a uniform character. This is due to the fact 
that the new connective tissue is uniformly dis- 
tributed within as well as between the liver 
lobules. This form of disease may be the result 
of the same causes as the atrophic variety, but 
is more commonly due to obstructions of the 
flow of bile. Very commonly interference with 


the discharge of bile is found in this form, as. 


interference with the circulation of blood is 
characteristic of the other variety. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of cirrhosis of 
the liver in earlier stages are very obscure and 
uncertain, but frequently include a pallor and 
sallowness with peculiarly muddy complexion. 
Later interference with the portal circulation 
causes congestion of the mucous membrane of 
the stomach and intestines, with resulting dis- 
turbances of digestion, such as dyspepsia, 
vomiting, constipation and even hemorrhages 
from the stomach or bowel. There is also 
a thinness and emaciation with drawn and oc- 
casionally bloated face, sunken eyes with dis- 
colored whites. The spleen is enlarged from 
congestion’ of its substance, the abdomen is 
distended forming a marked contrast to the 
fleshless face and limbs, and the last phase of 
the disease is marked by dropsical effusion 
in the abdominal cavity (ascites). Cirrhosis of 
the liver is a chronic disorder which may ex- 
tend over a period of many years and which 
may be arrested even after it has reached an 
advanced stage. Among the symptoms of hy- 
pertrophic cirrhosis are tenderness and increase 
in the size of the liver, the development of 
jaundice, and sometimes the occurrence of 
fever. The disease is more rapid in its course 
than the atrophic variety. 

Treatment.—The treatment of this condition 
is preventative rather than curative. When due 
to alcohol it may be arrested if not too well 
advanced, by a control of the habit of drink- 
ing; and a restitution of normal conditions may 
be favored by careful diet, including mainly the 
avoidance of stimulating or irritating food, and 
of general excesses of diet. The use of saline 
waters may be beneficial. When advanced to 
the stage of dropsy of the abdominal cavity, 
depletive measures, such as are used for the 
relief of dropsies in general, may be useful; or 
it may be necessary to remove the liquid ‘by 
tapping. 

Abscess of the Liver may result from dysen- 
tery and other ulcerative conditions of the in- 
testines, in which cases the abscess is likely to 
be solitary ; or it may accompany a septicaemia 
originating in the abdominal cavity from some 
local disease like appendicitis or puerperal in- 
fection, in which case multiple small abscesses 


LIVER 


are found throughout the substance of the liver. 
Another variety of multiple abscess is that in 
which obstructions of the biliary ducts by gall- 
stones occasion retentions of bile and the for- 
mation of local foci of suppuration. Abscess 
is more common in tropical countries, probably 
on account of the greater frequency of dysen- 
tery in such localities. 

Pathological Anatomy and Symptoms.— 
The liver is enlarged, and sometimes a project- 
ing mass can be seen in the upper right portion 
of the abdomen. The abscess may be of small 
size, but frequently reaches very considerable 
proportions, containing perhaps a pint or more 
of thick pus. It may discharge externally 
through the skin, into the abdominal cavity or 
some of the abdominal organs, and even 
through the -diaphragm, into the lung and 
bronchi. Occasionally a spontaneous cure re- 
sults in this way. More commonly the patient 
perishes before the abscess ruptures, from gen- 
eral infection or from prostration. The disease 


‘is frequently attended with great pain, with 


jaundice and with irregular fever. 

Treatment.— The only effective treatment 
of abscess is surgical operation. 

Tumors.—Among the tumors of the liver, 
the most important is cancer. This is usually 
secondary to cancer of the stomach or intes- 
tines. It may, however, be primary in the 
liver. The liver is found enlarged and its 
surface irregularly studded with nodules vary- 
ing in size from that of a pea to that of an 
apple, or even larger masses. 

Symptoms.— The important symptoms are 
profound disturbance general health with 
emaciation, such as characterize cancer in any 
part of the body; pain in the region of the 
liver, and increase in the size of the organ; 
jaundice of intense and‘ lasting character; and 
occasionally dropsy of the abdominal cavity. 

Parasitic Diseases — The most important of 
these is the hydatid cyst, which results from 
the lodgment of the embryo of the Tenia echi- 
nococcus, a tapeworm occurring in the adult 
state in the intestines of dogs and some others 
animals. The eggs of this tapeworm are com- 
municated by the dog to the human through 
drinking water or fresh vegetables. As all of 
the blood from the enteric canal passes through 
the liver the parasite embryo is generally 
lodged there. Fortunately this disease is rare 
in North America. In man the larval condi- 
tion alone is met with. The embryo in the 
liver becomes surrounded by a capsule in which 
a light liquid collects and thus a cyst is formed. 
Secondary cysts (daughter-cysts) may -develop 
within the original one and thus a large cavity 
filled with smaller spherical cysts may result. 
The liver increases in size and the cyst may be 
visible, or it may be felt through the abdominal 
walls as a resilient projecting mass. The hy- 
datid cyst may subsequently contract by absorp- 
tion of its liquid contents or it may rupture in 
the same manner as an abscess. The symptoms 
of this disease are frequently obscure, but 
jaundice (from pressure on the bile ducts), 
dropsy of the abdominal cavity from pressure 
on the portal vein and other “mechanical” 
symptoms may occur. 

Jaundice is a functional disturbance of the 
liver in which the biliary coloring matter is ab- 
sorbed by the blood and deposited in the tissues 


LIVER-LEAF — 


of the body. Jaundice may result from any 
cause of obstruction of the outflow of the ‘bile 
through the biliary ducts or from any serious 
disease of the liver substance, such as abscess, 
cancer, acute yellow atrophy, etc. Various poi- 
sons and infectious diseases cause jaundice by 
their destructive action on: the liver. 

The most frequent form of jaundice is that 
known as simple catarrhal jaundice, which re- 
sults from digestive disturbances, especially 
such as follow great excess in eating or drink- 
ing and exposure to cold. In this variety, the 
outflow of the bile is impeded by swelling of 
the mucous membrane of the duodenum where 
the common bile duct discharges, and also by 
swelling of the lining membrane of the larger 
bile ducts themselves. When the bile formed 
within the liver cannot find normal discharge, 
it is absorbed into the blood, and finding its 
way to various parts of the body discolors 
these, causing the yellow appearance of the skin 
and mucous membranes which characterizes the 
disease. 

Symptoms.— The symptoms of catarrhal 
jaundice are, in the first place, those of intense 
disturbances of digestion, such as great pain in 
the region of the stomach, nausea and vomit- 
ing; later, the appearance of a yellowish dis- 
coloration of the skin and mucous membranes. 
The feces become light-colored from the ab- 
sence of biliary coloring matter, and in ad- 
vanced cases they are actually a light clay color 
or even white. The urine becomes dark brown 
or greenish in color. The patient is depressed, 
often even melancholy. The pulse is slow; the 
temperature as a rule is depressed, though there 
may be a moderate degree of fever. 

Treatment.— Careful dieting is an essential 
in the treatment. The patient must abstain from 
food entirely at first, and later take the less 
irritating of-foods, such as milk, broths and 
the like. Bismuth, pepsin, small doses of 
calomel and salines are administered to im- 
prove the state of digestion and lessen the con- 
gested condition of the stomach and duodenum. 
Drastic purgatives are harmful. Warm appli- 
cations over the region of the liver are effica- 
cious. The disease usually subsides in a few 
days or in a week or two. 

Gall-stones— Gall-stones are usually formed 
within the gall-bladder; very rarely in the 
biliary ducts within the liver. The gall-stone 
consists of biliary pigment matters, but in some 
cases almost wholly of one of the constituents 
of bile, cholesterin. On section through a gall- 
stone, a central nucleus may be seen which is 
composed of epithelial detritus and inspissated 
mucus, together with bacteria in many cases. 
Around this is deposited cholesterin or biliary 
pigment. The gall-bladder may contain a sin- 
gle stone or, more commonly, a number, and 
sometimes even hundreds are found. 

Gall-stones are more common in women 
past middle life than in younger persons or in 
the male sex. ; 

Symptoms may be wanting until a stone en- 
ters the cystic duct and becomes lodged in the 
latter, or passing through this, becomes ob- 
structed in the common bile duct, and causing 
what is known as biliary colic. The patient is 
seized with intense pain, radiating to the right 
and to the back, sometimes as high as the right 
shoulder. Vomiting and other reflex disturb- 


LIVERPOOL 535 


ances and even collapse may occur. When the 
stone lodges, jaundice is the most pronounced 
symptom. Frequently the gall-stone passes with 
some effort and the paroxysm is relieved. 
Sometimes this relief is brought about by a 
recession of the stone into the gall-bladder. 

Treatment.— The treatment of gall-stone 
consists of careful diet and the use of saline 
waters to improve the digestive conditions and 
render the bile as liquid as: possible. Gall- 
stones may thus be diminished in size and 
enabled to pass through the ducts. During the 
paroxysm of biliary colic, remedies to relieve 
pain are imperatively necessary. Hypodermic 
injections of morphine and even narcosis with 
ether or chloroform may be required. Surgical 
operation for removal of the stone is often de- 
sirable. 


LIVER-LEAF, or 
WORT. See Hepatica. 


LIVER OILS. See On. 


LIVERMORE, Mary Ashton Rice, 
American reformer and lecturer: b. Boston, 
Mass., 19 Dec. 1821; d. Melrose, Mass., 23 May 
1905. She was married in 1845 to Rey. D. P. 
Livermore, a Universalist minister (d. 1899), 
and was early in life active in the anti-slavery 
and temperance movements. In 1862 she was 
appointed agent of the Northwestern branch of 
the United States Sanitary Commission at 
Chicago, and after the Civil War period was 
conspicuous in her efforts to promote the 
woman suffrage and témperance movements. 
With Frances E. Willard she edited American 
Women. Among her popular lectures are 
“What Shall We Do with Our Daughters??; 
“Women of the War?; ‘The Moral Heroism 
of the Temperance Reform. She is the author 
of ‘Pen Pictures? (1865); ‘Thirty Years Too 
Late? (1878); ‘My Story of the War? (1888); 
‘The Story of My Life? (1897), etc. 


LIVERPOOL, Charles Jenkinson, Ist 
Earl of, English statesman: b. Winchester, 26 
April 1727; d. London, 17 Dec. 1808. He was 
educated at Charterhouse School, and later en- 
tered University College, Oxford, whence he 
was graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1760 he be- 
came private secretary to Lord Bute; in 1761 
he was elected to Parliament and during the 
same year was appointed to the post of Under 
Secretary of State; in 1763 became joint Secre- 
tary of the Treasury; was made Lord of the 
Admiralty by the Grafton administration in 
1766; became one of the vice-treasurers of 
Ireland in 1772; Master of the Mint 1775, and 
Secretary of War under Lord North 1778-82. 
He was appointed by Pitt in 1783 a member of 
the Board of Trade and continued to serve in 
that body till 1801, from 1786 serving as its 
president, but he did not enter public life from 
the time of his retirement from the Board till 
his death. In 1786 he became president of the 
council for trade and the plantations, and the 
same year Chancellor of the duchy of Lancas- 
ter, and was created Baron Hawkesbury, and 
Earl of Liverpool 1796. His association with 
Lord North in the closing yeafs of the Ameri- 
can War made him for a time very unpopular; 
but this he outlived, and he took a prominent 
part in arranging the first commercial treaty 
with the United States. He published, among 
other works, ‘Discourse on the Conduct of 


“~~ 


NOBLE LIVER- 


536 


Government Respecting Neutral Nosionea 
(1758); ‘Collection of All the Treaties of 


Peace between Great Britain and Other Powers 
from 1648 to 1783? (3 vols., 1785) ;. ‘A Treatise 
on the Coins of the Realm? (1805), etc. 


LIVERPOOL, Robert Banks Jenkinson, 
2d. Earl of, English statesman: b. - London, 
7 June 1770; d. there, 4 Dec. 1828. He was the 
eldest son of Charles Jenkinson, lst Earl of 
Liverpool (q.v.). He was educated at Charter- 
house School and Christ Church College, Ox- 
ford, 1786-89; 
Europe, reaching Paris during the French 
Revolution and witnessing the fall’of the Bas- 
tile. He was elected to Parliament in 1790; 
in 1803 was created Baron Hawkesbury; and 
in 1808 upon the death of his father succeeded 
to the title of Earl of Liverpool. In Parliament 
he was prominently identified with the Tories; 
for seven years was a member of the India 
Board; in 1799 became Master. of the Mint; 
and in 1801 became Foreign Minister in the 
Addington Cabinet, and while in that office 
negotiated the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon. 
On 12 May 1804, when Pitt was returned to 
power, he accepted the office of Home Secre- 
tary and became leader of the House of Lords 
and held that post until Pitt’s death. During 
the Whig ministry of 1806-07 he led the op- 
position, but on 25 March 1807 was again ap- 
pointed Home Secretary in the Portland ad- 
ministration; and Secretary of War and the 
Colonies, 1809-12, He held various portfolios 
during Perceval’s administration and when the 
‘latter was assassinated in 1812 became Premier 
and continued to direct English affairs until 
April 1827, when a stroke of paralysis forced 
him to resign office. He opposed the Roman 


Catholic emancipation movement. and the re-' 


form of Parliament and his term of office was 
marked for a time by a somewhat retrograde 
policy on the part of the ministry and wide- 
spread discontent among the people. Public 
finances were Criticized as being poorly admin- 
istered; the duty on imported grain was in- 
creased: and the policy of forcible repression 
was followed by him till 1826, but from that 
time he sought to modify and reform the bur- 
densome Corn Laws. He was instrumental in 
sending Napoleon to Saint Helena and in read- 
justing French affairs in 1815 and 1818. With- 
out being a man of eminent talents, he was pos- 
sessed otf unfailing tact, good temper and-an 
instinct for practical solutions. 


LIVERPOOL, England, a city, municipal, 
county, and parliamentary borough, and seaport, 
on the right bank of the Mersey, three miles 
from the sea, and extending about eight and a 
half miles along the east side of the river. It 
is the second seaport of the British Empire, and 
is fourth in population among the cities of the 
United Kingdom. The port of Liverpool ex- 
tends from Hoylake, at the mouth of the river 
Dee, along the Cheshire coast of the river Mer- 
sey to Ince Ferry, and from Dungeon Point on 
the Lancashire coast. of the river to Formby 
Point at its mouth. Liverpool is. (by rail) 201 
miles northwest* of London, 251 miles from 
Harwich (northwest), 92 miles from Birming- 
ham (northwest), 34 miles from Manchester 
(west), 96 miles from York (southwest), 124 
miles from Hull (southwest), and 227 miles 
southwest of Edinburgh. 


in the latter year traveled in: 


LIVERPOOL 


Area.— The area of the city is 16,642 acres 
(23 square miles); the ratable value £4, 470,837. 
The population in 1905 (officially estimated) was 
730,143. The following statistics of population 
will show the comparatively rapid growth of the 


city: 11,833 (1720); 35,600 (1770); 77,708 
(1801) ; 376,065 (1851); 517,980 (1891); 684,- 
958 (1901); 746,421 (1911). The great. ad- 


vance in the population in later years indicated 
by these figures is partly explained by the 
extension of the city boundaries so as to take 
in several adjoining townships. 

Divisions.— The city is divided into nine 
parliamentary divisions returning nine members 
to Parliament; and into 35 wards, returning 137 
members to the city council. 

Public Buildings.— Down to the middle of 
the 19th century Liverpool contained very few 
public buildings; the streets were narrow and 
architecturally unattractive. During the last 
60 years a complete change has taken place; 
and within a radius of half a mile from the 
town-hall the city has been rebuilt; new streets 
have been made, and old ones widened. The 
following are amongst the most important of 
the public buildings: 

Saint George’s Hall, opened 1854, cost 
ESAs town-hall, 1795, cost £170,490; munici- 
pal offices, 1867, cost £141,170; post office, 1899, 
cost £400, 000 (including site) : Picton Reading- 
Room, 1878, cost £20,000; Central Technical 
Schools, 1901, cost £110, 000; University build- 
ings, cost £220,000 (including sites). The Wil- 
liam Brown Library and Museum (1860) and 
the Walker Art Gallery (1877) were the gifts 
of the generous citizens whose names they 
bear. The Anglican Cathedral, begun in 1904, 
will, when completed, be one of the most im- 
posing ecclesiastical buildings in the British 
Empire. The Royal Infirmary, the Blue Coast 
Hospital and the Seamen’s Orphanage are hand- 
some buildings devoted to the cause of charity.. 

Many of the buildings associated with com- 
merce have been designed by some of the fore- 
most architects of the day and must be ranked 
amongst the finest in the city. 

With the completion of the three great 
buildings now in progress, viz.: the cathedral, 
the dock offices and the cotton exchange, 
Liverpool, from an architectural point of view, 
will be unsurpassed by any provincial city or 
town in the United Kingdom. 

Libraries.— The free public libraries of 
the city consist of one large central reference 
library (already referred to) and 11 lending 
libraries and reading-rooms. An extension of 
the reference library has been made to receive 
the Hornby collection of art books, prints and 
autographs. Other important libraries in the 
city are the Atheneum (founded 1798), The 
Liverpool, Library (founded 1758), and The . 
University (founded 1881). There are also 
special theological, legal and medical libraries. 

Art Gallery and Museums.— The famous 
collection of pictures in the Walker Art Gallery 
is extremely valuable, and contains works by 
Burne-Jones, Herkomer, Holman Hunt, Leigh- 
ton, Millais, Albert Moore, Poynter, Briton 
Riviere, D. G. Rossetti and others. 
sculpture is also well represented. An autumn 
exhibition is held annually when the most im- 
portant pictures of the year are placed on view. 
The public museums containing archeological, 


Modern . 


LIVERPOOL 


ceramic and natural history collections (the 
latter including an aquarium) are amongst the 
most popular institutions in the city. 

Places of Worship.— The bishopric of 
Liverpool was founded in 1880, when an endow- 
ment of £100,000 was raised by public subscrip- 
tion. There are over 100 churches in the city 


(which does not comprise the whole of the dio- 


cese). The various Non-Conformist denomina- 
‘tions have amongst them about 190 places of 
worship. 

Education.— The city possesses an efficient 
system of education. The elementary, second- 
ary and technical schools are under the control 
of the city council. There are a considerable 
number of scholarships to enable students to 
pass from the elementary to the secondary 
schools and on to both the Liverpool Univer- 
sity and the universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. 

The Liverpool University was first estab- 
lished as a college in 1881, and obtained its 
charter as a university with power to confer 
degrees in 1903. The teaching staff numbered 
in 1914 138 members, with 700 students. The 
university is endowed both for teaching and 
research and connected with it is the famous 
School of Tropical Medicine. 

Water, Electricity and Tramways.— The 
city and district are supplied with fresh water 
from Rivington in Lancashire, and. Lake 
Vyrnwy, Montgomeryshire (Wales). The engi- 
neering difficulties connected with the supply 
of water from such distances have been very 
great and the cost proportionately heavy. The 
total cost of the water undertaking has been 
£6,586,793. There is a total capacity of 70,000,- 
000 gallons per day, and the daily consumption 
in the city is about 40,000,000 gallons. In 1896 
the corporation purchased the works and rights 
of the Liverpool Electric Supply Company at 
a cost of £400,000. Since that date the demand 
for electricity for light and power has rapidly 
developed and the undertaking has proved finan- 
cially successful. The total capital expenditure 
was, on 31 Dec. 1904, £1,719,000. For many 
years a portion of the profits has been contrib- 
uted to the rates of the city. In 1904 the 
amount so contributed, after paying all working 
expenses, charges for interest ont sinking fund, 
was nearly £17,000. 

In 1897 the corporation decided to ninchato 
the tramways, which down to that date had 
belonged to a limited company. The amount 
paid was £567,375. The overhead trolley sys- 
tem of electric traction was quickly substituted 
for the horse system hitherto in use. New 
routes were opened up, streets widened, the 
length of track nearly doubled and fares re- 
duced. The length of track is now over 116 
miles and the average length of the penny stage 
two and one-half miles. The introduction of 
“first-class” cars at enhanced fares has been 
attended with success. 

Insanitary Houses.— During the past 40 
years the corporation has spent large sums of 
money in the demolition of insanitary cottage 
property, and in the reconstruction of artisans’ 
dwellings. The city is also well provided with 
public baths, the oldest in the kingdom, being 
established in 1794, including open air baths 
(free), and in the poor quarters of the town 
there are corporation buildings efficiently 
equipped for public laundry work, 


537 


Parks, Etc.— The city possesses a number. 
of fine parks, gardens and recreation grounds, 
The total number of acres thus allotted to pub- 
lic use is about 1,200 —including Sefton park 
with 269 acres, the cost of which, including 
the laying out, was £410,269. About 100 acres 
of the above represent churchyards, and plots 
of land varying’in size from one-fourth of an 
acre to three acres, which have been turned 
into gardens and recreation grounds, thus 
greatly improving the appearance of many lo- 
calities and adding to the pleasure of the inhab- 
itants. 

All the land here referred to has not been 
purchased by the corporation. The Wavertree 
playground, 108 acres, was the gift of a gener- 
ous citizen, and cost about £100,000; while the 
Roby estate (100 acres), situated on the eastern 
boundary of the city, was donated by Alderman 
Bowring ‘and dedicated to the use of the citi- 
zens. The estate of Calderstones, south of the 
city, is the most recent purchase. 

Hospitals.— The medical charities are on a 
very extensive scale. Some of the charities 
are old, but all are now housed in modern 
buildings possessing all the latest scientific re- 
quirements. Most of the charities are main- 
tained by endowments and public subscriptions, 
but seven of the largest hospitals in the city 
have been built and are maintained by the cor- 
poration, and in 1904 the sum of £46,000 was . 
expended: in their administration. In ‘addition 
to the hospitals in the city there are sanatoria 
for consumptive patients at Delamere Forest 
and Heswall Hills. The Royal Southern Hos- 
pital has special arrangements for patients suf- 
fering from tropical diseases. 

Railways.— Nearly all the English railway 
companies are connected with Liverpool. The 
London and North Western, the Lancashire and 
Yorkshire and the Midland Railway companies 
have large and commodious passenger stations. 
In 1895 a new riverside railway station was 
opened for the convenience of ocean travelers, 
There are 100 stations in the Liverpool area. 
The city.is also connected by canals with the 
manufacturing towns of.-Lancashire, Yorkshire 
and the. Midlands. Within recent years the 
Mersey Railway, which connects Liverpool with 
Birkenhead by a tunnel under the river, and the 
Lancashire and Yorkshire line to Southport 
were electrified, and the latter was connected at 
Seaforth with the Overhead Electric Railway 
which runs along the line of docks from The 
Dingle. f 

Trade and Shipping.— Liverpool-has a few 
manufactures, but it is essentially a port. So 
far as the export. trade is concerned statistics 
prove that it is the leading port in the United 
Kingdom, while for imports it 1s second only 
to London. It is the natural outlet for the great 
manufacturing industries of Lancashire, and 
most of the raw cotton is imported here. The 
total value of exports to the United States in 
1917 was $24,065,832 compared with $30,144,189 
in 1916, a decrease due to the war of. over '$6- 
000,000 chiefly in Egyptian cotton. Shipments 
of ‘manufactured goods, however, increased 
from $8,200,834 in 1916 to $10,444, 820 in 1917, 
a gain of $2,243,986. Not the least important 
part of the shipping industry is the ocean pas- 
senger traffic. Connected with the port of - 
Liverpool are fleets of the largest ships afloat, 
and the daily sailings and arrivals of these 


538 


steamers to and from all the great ports in the 

world draw to the city large numbers of emi- 
grants and other passengers. The tonnage of 
arrivals and departures, including Birkenhead, 
But excluding coastwise shipping, was in 1914 
22,771,000 tons. 

Docks.— The first wet dock dates from 
1715, when an area of four acres was enclosed, 
The Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, which 
was constituted by act of Parliament in 1858, 
has control of the systems of Liverpool, Birken- 
head and Bootle. There are 65 wet docks, 
which, from Gladstone Dock at the north end 
to the Herculaneum Dock at the south end, 
occupy a river frontage of over seven miles, 
with a water area of 450 acres, and quayage ex- 
tending for 27 miles. Herculaneum Dock has 
a fine petroleum reservoir cut out in. solid 
rock, with a holding capacity of 60,000 gallons. 
The Birkenhead Docks on the south side of 
the river have a water area of 172 acres and 
a quay length of 10 miles. The warehouses of 
the port, particularly those devoted to the stor- 
age of grain and tobacco, are of gigantic dimen- 
sions, and fitted with every modern appliance. 
The great passenger steamers nearly all embark 
and discharge their passengers at the landing 
stage, which is one of the attractions of the 
city. 

Landing Stage.—It is a floating structure 
. 2,478 feet in length with a general width of 
about 80 feet. The northern portion of this 
stage is allotted to the use of the ocean going 
- and coasting steamers, while the southern por- 
tion is reserved for the busy ferry traffic across 
the river to the Cheshire coast.. 

River Dredging.— One of the most import- 
ant duties of the Mersey Dock Board is the 
dredging of the river and increasing the depth 
of water at the bar which is I'l miles from the 
landing stage. By the end of the year 1909 
nearly 42,000,000 tons of sand had been removed 
from the bar. The revetment of certain sand- 
banks has also been undertaken, with 100,000 
tons of stone to protect the under stone from 
erosion. Before dredging was commenced the 
depth of water at low water of spring tides was 
11 feet, whilst now under the same conditions 
there is a depth of 30 feet. 

Such are the efforts necessary to maintain 
the city in that position so eloquently described 
by James R. Lowell in the words which appro- 
priately close this notice: “Liverpool is one end 


of the three thousand mile loom on which the, 
shuttles which are binding us all in visible ties 


more and more together are continually shoot- 
ing to and fro.” 


History.— The history of Liverpool practi- . 


cally dates from the issue of the letter patent, 
or charter, by King John in 1207, and the erec- 
tion of a castle. This latter structure has long 
since disappeared, part of its site being now 
occupied by a statue of Queen Victoria. In 1709 
a wet dock was constructed, the first in the 
kingdom. From this event dated the rapid ex- 
tension of its commerce and population, In 
1880 Liverpool was made the see of a bishop, 
and‘in that year a charter was granted consti- 
tuting it a city. The town developed very 
slowly until after the civil wars, in which it 
_ played a prominent part, being besieged three 
times. The facts stated in this article will prove 
that Liverpool is in every sense of the word a 


LIVERPOOL — LIVERWORTS > 


modern city, its development during the 19th 
century being almost unparalleled. 

Liverpool is justly proud of the distinguished 
men and women who have been either born 
within its boundaries or associated with it. 
There are statues of William Roscoe, William 
Ewart Gladstone, William Rathbone and 
others, while the birthplaces of Mrs. Hemans, 
Arthur Hugh Clough and W. E. Gladstone 
have had memorial tablets placed on them. The: 
house at Rock Ferry, wherein Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne resided, is well known. 

Bibliography.— Baines, ‘History of the 
Commerce and Town of Liverpool? (1852); 


Ellison, ‘The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 


with a History of the Liverpool Cotton Mar- 
ket? (1886); Morton, ‘The Geology of the 
Country Around Liverpool? (1891); Picton, 
“Memorials of Liverpool, Including a History 
of the Dock Estate? (2 vols., revised ed., 1903) ; 
Muir and Platt, ‘History of Municipal Govern- 
ment in Liverpool to 1835> (1906); Muir, 
“Municipal History of Liverpool? (1907) ; ‘Vic- 
toria History of Lancashire? (Vols. II and IV, 
1908) ; Young, H. S. and H. E., ‘Bygone Liver- 
pool? (1918); ‘Handbook for the City of 
Liverpool. 
GrorcE T. SHAW, 
evediay and Librarian, The Atheneum, Liver- 
pool. 


LIVERPOOL, Nova Scotia, Canada, the 
capital of Queen’s County, a town and port of 
entry on the south bank of the Mersey estuary 
at its entrance into Liverpool Harbor, 80 miles 
southwest of Halifax. Founded by settlers 
from Connecticut in 1760, and at one time a 
centre for privateers, and possessing later an 
important shipping trade, it has large fisheries 
and some manufactures of lumber and machin- 
ery, grist, pulp, paper and saw mills. Pop. 2,109. 


LIYERSIDGE, liv’ér-sidj’, Archibald, Aus- 
tralian chemist and mineralogist: b. Turnham 
Green, England, 17 Nov. 1847. He was edu- 
cated at the Royal School of Mines and the 
Royal College of Chemistry and at Christ’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. In 1867 he was appointed 
acting instructor of chemistry in the Royal 
School of Naval Architecture; in 1870 became 
university demonstrator in chemistry at Cam- 
bridge; and since 1874 has been professor of 
chemistry, from 1883-1904 dean of the faculty 
of science, and from 1870-1904 Fellow of the 
senate in the University of Sydney, New South 
Wales, Australia. He retired in 1909. He also 
founded the Australasian Association for the 
Advancement of Science. He has written ‘The 
Minerals of New South Wales? ; ‘Reports upon 
Technical Education and Museums, etc. For 
many years he edited the Journal of the Royal 
Society of New South Wales. 


LIVERWORTS, or HEPATICZE, a group 
of cryptogamous plants, forming one of the two 
divisions of the class Bryophyta or Muscinee 
(moss-worts), and closely related to the true 
mosses (Musci), with which some of the species 
are apt to be confounded. They are either 
spread out in the form of a simple lobed thallus, 
showing differentiation into a dorsal (upper) 
and a ventral (lower) surface, or they are com- 
posed of a small ramified stem bearing sessile 
leaves in two or three ranks. Root-like bodies 
(rhizoids) attach the plant to its substratum. 


LIVES, PARALLEL — LIVES OF THE POETS 


Many liverworts reproduce themselves by 
means of brood-cells (thallidia or gemme), 
formed asexually in cups on the surface, in 
leaf-margins, etc. They are also reproduced 
sexually by means of club-shaped antheridia, 
containing the male elements (antherozoids), 
and flask-shaped archegonia, containing each an 
egg-cell or odsphere. These sexual organs occur 
in groups either in small depressions or special 
outgrowths of the thallus, or as so-called flowers 
at the tips of the leafy ‘shoots, or in the axils 
of their leaves. The spore-capsule is. formed 
after fertilization within the archegonium, and 
the spores are often provided with hygroscopic 
elaters which assist in their dispersal. On ger- 
mination a spore produces, not the common 
liverwort plant, but a very small filamentous 
protonema. There are four families of liver- 
worts, namely, Ricciacee, Marchantiacee, An- 
thocerotacee and Jungermanniacee. The first 
includes the duck-weed-like crystalwort (Riccia 
natans); the second the exceedingly common 
Marchantia polymorphia, formerly used as a 
basis for medicine for ailments of the liver 


(whence the name “liverwort”) ; and the last, 


which is much the largest family, comprises all 
the leafy, as well as some thalloid forms. The 
Hepatice are generally distributed over the 
world, and prefer situations similar to those 
occupied by the mosses. There are about 4,060 
species, of which about 3,500 belong to the 
Jungermanniacee. See authorities on crypto- 
gamic botany, especially Cooke’s ‘British He- 
patice? (1893); and Strasburger, ‘Text-book 
of Botany? (1903). 


LIVES, Parallel (ior rapdAdnior), the work 
upon which Plutarch’s fame chiefly rests, were 
published by him late in life after his re- 
turn to Cheronea, and, if one may judge from 
the long lists of authorities given, must have 
taken many years in the compilation. The bi- 
ographies appear in pairs, each of which places 
a Greek and Roman in juxtaposition. For ex- 
ample, Theseus and Romulus are compared as 
the legendary founders of states. Twenty-two 
pairs are extant: Theseus and Romulus, Ly- 
curgus and Numa, Solon and Valerius Publi- 
cola, Themistocles and Camillus, Pericles and 
Fabius Maximus, Alcibiades and Coriolanus, 
’ Timoleon and A‘milius Paulus, Pelopidas and 
Marcellus, Aristides and Cato the Elder, Philo- 
poemen and Flaminius, Pyrrhus and Caius Ma- 
rius, Lysander and Sulla, Cimon and Lucullus, 
Nicias and Crassus, Sertorius and Eumenes, 
Agesilaus and Pompey, Alexander and Julius 
Cesar, Phocion and Cato the Younger, Agis 
and Cleomenes and Tiberius and Caius Grac- 
chus (a double comparison), Demosthenes and 
Cicero, Demetrius Poliorcetes and Antony, 
Dion and Brutus. To these are added the four 
single lives of Aratus, Artaxerxes Memnon, 
Galba and Otho, making a total of 50 lives. 
There are traces of perhaps 12 more biogra- 
phies that are now lost. Eighteen of the 22 
pairs close with a sort of balanced judgment 
(obyKptotc) of the two careers and characters. 
These formal comparisons abound in con- 
trasts rather than in resemblances, the latter in- 
deed being sometimes a trifle forced. This 
need not be wondered at, inasmuch as Plu- 
tarch’s object was not to write history, but to 
prove that the more remote past of Greece 
could show its men of action and achievement 


539 


as well as the nearer and, therefore, more im- 
pressive past of Rome. In these biographies, 
therefore, the interest is primarily ethical, al- 
though they have no mean historical value. 
In spite of his lack of judicious discrimination 
in the use of authorities and the consequent er- 
rors and inaccuracies, Plutarch gives an abun- 
dance of citations and incidentally a large num- 
ber of valuable bits of information which fill 
up numerous gaps in the historical knowledge 
obtainable elsewhere. Owing to the liveliness 
and warmth of portrayal and the moral earnest- 
ness and enthusiasm displayed by their author, 
the ‘Lives? have not failed.to attract a large 
circle of readers throughout the ages, in spite 
of a certain degree of uniformity inherent in 
the very plan of the series. Their wide appeal 
is instanced by the fact that ‘Julius Cesar, the 
first of Shakespeare’s Roman plays, like those 
that followed, namely, ‘Coriolanus? and ‘An- 
tony and Cleopatra,» was based. on Plutarch’s 
‘Lives? as translated from the French trans- 
lation of Jacques Amyot (1559) and published 
by Sir Thomas North in 1579, ‘Timon of 
Athens? likewise is based, at least in part, upon 
Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony. The chief 
manuscripts of the ‘Lives? date from the 10th 
and 11th centuries; the first edition appeared 
at Florence in 1517. The most generally ac- 
cepted text is that of the minor edition of Carl 
Sintenis in the ‘Bibliotheca Teubneriana? (5 
vols., Leipzig 1852-55; reissued without much 
change in 1873-75). There are annotated edi- 
tions by I. C. Held, E. H. G. Leopold, Otto 
Siefert and Friedrich Blass and Carl Sintenis, 
all in German; and by Holden, in English. Be- 
sides North’s translation (mentioned above), 
there are English translations by John and 
William Langhorne (1770), by Dryden and 
others (1683), and, of the Roman lives, by 
George Long. A. H. Clough’s revision of the 
so-called Dryden edition was published in five 
volumes in 1859 and reprinted in one large oc- 
tavo volume in 1876 and 1880. Finally, mention 
must be made of Bernadotte Perrin’s transla- 
tion, with the Greek and English texts en re- 
gard, in the ‘Loeb Classical Library,? in 10 
volumes, five of which have already appeared. 
HERBERT F. WRIGHT, 
Sometime of the Department of Latin, The 
Catholic University of America. 


LIVES OF THE POETS. The ‘Lives of 
the Poets,’ the “most memorable of Johnson’s 
literary works,” is an established English clas- 
sic. It is so ranked in spite of inequalities and 
numerous defects resulting from: -Johnson’s 
predilections and methods of work. Early in 
1777, to meet the competition of the Martins, 
Edinburgh publishers, the leading booksellers 
of London were under the necessity of bringing 
out an edition of the English poets. Johnson 
was selected to write what he himself called 
{ittle lives and little prefaces” to such “a lit- 
tle edition.” It was at first the intention to be- 
gin with Chaucer. That the collection did not 
begin with Chaucer, that it included such in- 
ferior poets as Broome, Duke, Granville, 
Hughes, Sheffield, Edmund Smith and Stepney, 
while Carew, Crashaw, Herbert, Herrick, Love- 
lace, Marvell and Vaughan were omitted, is 
doubtless due to the fact that Johnson did not 
care to undertake the task of treating periods 
for which he had no particular liking and with 


540 


which he was not thoroughly familiar. So far 
as possible he confined himself to the poets of 
the classical school. 
poets were named by the booksellers; Black- 
more, Watts, Pomfret and Yalden were added 
upon the request of Johnson. There is little 
doubt that the booksellers would have been 
glad to follow any suggestions that Johnson 
cared to make. The “little? work originally 
contemplated steadily grew. “My _ purpose,” 
he wrote, “was only to have allotted to every 
poet an advertisement containing a few 
dates, and a general character; but I have been 
led beyond my intention, I hope by the honest 
desire of giving useful pleasure.” The ‘Lives? 
were written at intervals between July 1777 
and March 1781. 

Johnson did not follow modern methods of 
research; he wrote from a full mind, took what 
easily came to hand and gave little thought to 
what he could not find. Of mere details, he 
was impatient: “To adjust the minute events 
of literary history,” he asserted in the’life of 
Dryden, “is tedious and troublesome: it re- 
quires indeed no great force of understanding, 
but often depends upon inquiries which there 
is ‘no opportunity of making, or is to be 
fetched from books and pamphlets not always 
at hand.” Not all of the narratives were writ- 
ten for the purpose in hand, nor were all, the 
result of Johnson’s own labors. The ‘Life of 
Savage? had been published in 1744. The ‘Life 
of Edward Young? was written at Johnson’s 
request by Herbert Croft. The ‘Life of But- 
ler? was derived from a comparison of ac- 
counts given by an unknown writer of doubt- 
ful authority, and by Anthony Wood. The 
‘Life of Parnell? is an abstract from the nar- 
rative by Goldsmith. Of Edmund Smith, John- 
son says: “I shall subjoin such little memorials 
as accident has enabled me to collect.” He 
confessed at the close that he had written “dila- 
torily and hastily, unwilling to work, and work- 
ing with vigor and haste.» His standards of 
criticism, those of the classical school, pre- 
vented him from doing full justice to such 
poets as Milton, Collins and Gray. Against 
the defects of work so produced, the general 
reader should be warned. “With its slips and 
errors uncorrected,” says J. Churton Collins, 
“and read without guidance, no unfitter book 
could be placed in any reader’s hands; properly 
edited, and with a proper commentary, no book 
more serviceable.” 

What, then, is the value of such a work? 
It is manifold. For one thing, Johnson killed 
forever the merely panegyric type of biography. 
“We have had enough honeysuckle lives of 
Milton,” he said; “mine shall be in a different 
strain.” In none of the narratives is he merely 
a praiser or a fault-finder; he strikes a sane 
balance. The greatest value of the whole lies 
not alone in the facts, although students must 
always reckon with Johnson for certain facts, 
many of which, but for him, might have been 
lost. It does not depend upon the mere meth- 
ods of biography, which in many respects 
might have been improved. Its greatest value 
arises from the fact that we are therein given 
the last judgments of a great literary dictator. 
The ‘Lives of the Poets? is the product of 
Johnson’s privileged old age. He had read 
much, experienced much, thought much. We 


Forty-eight of the 52, 


LIVIA DRUSILLA — LIVINGSTON 


are enabled to listen to the mature mind of one 
great literary man delivering itself in regard 
to other literary men, small as well as great. 
The ‘Lives? are thus invaluable as documents 
of that school of classical criticism so well rep- 
resented by Johnson. They are equally invalu- 
able for the element of philosophical comment 
which runs throughout. “His work closes an 
age; it is the Temple of Immortality of the 
great Augustans, and, when it was published, 
already Burns and Blake, Crabbe and Cowper, 
were beginning to write.” 

Two of the best critical articles are J. Chur- 
ton Collins’ “Dr. Johnson’s ‘Lives of the 
Poets? » (in Quarterly Review, Vol. CCVILII, pp. 
72-97); and Chapter 6 of Prof, Walter Ra- 
leigh’s ‘Six Essays on Johnson.’ 

Watpo H. DuNN. 


LIVIA DRUSILLA, li’vi-a dro-sil’la, wife 
of the Roman Emperor Augustus: b. about 55 
B.c.;_d. 29. A.D... She was- the dapehteroen lL. 
Livius Drusus Claudianus, who committed 
suicide after the battle of Philippi. Livia be- 


.came the wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, by 


whom she had two sons, Tiberius the future 
emperor, and Drusus. While still pregnant 
with the latter she was married to Octavianus 
(Augustus), who had been captivated by her 
beauty and her talent, and who to bring about 
this union had divorced Scribonia, and forced 
Tiberius Nero to divorce Livia. The union 
with Augustus seems to have been a happy one, 
but there is a suspicion that Livia’s ambition to 
secure the succession for her own sons caused 
her to commit many crimes in order to remove 
the members of the family of Augustus, to 
whom the succession would naturally have 
fallen. Thus the death of Marcellus, nephew 
of Augustus, and of Lucius and Gaius Cesar, 
sons of Agrippa, was charged to her machina- 
tions, nor was she free from the suspicion of 
having hastened the end of Augustus himself. 
Meantime her surviving son, Tiberius, had been 
adopted by Augustus, who designated Livia and 
Tiberius as his principal heirs. On her son’s 
succession to the imperial dignity Livia con- 
tinued for a long time to exercise great in- 
fluence, so much so that at first it seems to 
have been felt that Tiberius was subservient 
to her will; but in fact Tiberius, while con- 
siderate of his mother, always maintained an 
attitude of independence toward her in all 


affairs of state, and thus by degrees a spirit of 


alienation grew up between them which in- 
creased so much with years that Tiberius re- 
fused to visit her on her death-bed, or even to 
execute the directions of her will. She died at 
an advanced age. Consult Tiibker, Frederich, 
‘Reallexikon des klassischen Altertums? (Vol. 
I], 8th ed., Leipzig 1914). 


LIVING MAMMALS, Distribution of. 
See DistriBuTION oF Livinc MAMMALS. 


LIVINGSTON, Burton Edward, American 
plant physiologist: b. Grand Rapids, Mich., 9 
Feb. 1875. In 1898 he was graduated at the 
University of Michigan and in 1902 obtained the 
degree of Ph.D. at the University of Chicago. 
In 1895-98 he was assistant in plant physiology 
at the University of Michigan and from 1899 to 
1905 was Fellow and assistant in plant physiol- 
ogy at the University of Chicago. He served 
as soil expert of the United States Bureau of 


. LIVINGSTON 


Soils and had charge of fertility investigations 
in 1905-06. From 1906 to 1909 Mr. Livingston 
was staff member of the department of botan- 
ical research of the Carnegie Institution, Wash- 
ington, D. C. In the latter year he was ap- 
pointed professor of plant physiology at Johns 
Hopkins, where since 1913 he has also served 
as director of the laboratory of plant physiol- 
ogy. He has published ‘Role of Diffusion and 
Osmotic Pressure in Plants? (1903) and 
numerous scientific papers. He translated and 
edited Palladin’s ‘Plant Physiology? (1918). 
Professor Livingston has invented a porous cup 
atmometer for measuring evaporation asta 
climatic factor and of an auto-irrigator for 
automatic control of soil moisture in potted 
plants. 


LIVINGSTON, Edward, American states- 
Mag amine clermout, cv. Y.,. 20 ,May,.1/64; -d, 
Rhinebeck, N. Y., 23 May 1836. He was grad- 
uated from the College of New Jersey in 1781, 
was admitted to the bar in 1785, was a New 
York representative in Congress (1795-1801) 
and was a leader of the opposition. In 1801 he 
was appointed by President Jefferson United 
States attorney for the New York district, and 
in that year became also mayor of New York. 
During the yellow fever epidemic in 1803 he 
was stricken with the disease, and during his 
illness $43,666, for which he was responsible to 
the United States government, were misap- 
propriated by his fiscal agent. He confessed 
judgment in favor of the United States for 
$100,000, and resigned both his offices. Every 
dollar of this amount was subsequently repaid. 
In 1804 he began the practice of law at New 
Orleans and, accepting land in lieu of fees, 
acquired a lucrative practice, and drew up a 
code of legal procedure. At the time of the 
preparation for the battle of New Orleans, he 
was president of the committee of public de- 
fense, and Jackson’s chief assistant. During 
the battle he served on Jackson’s staff. In 1820 
he was elected a representative to the State 
legislature of Louisiana, in 1822-29 represented 
the New Orleans district in Congress, and 
from 7 Dec. 1829 to 3 March 1831 was United 
States senator from Louisiana. In 1831 he be- 
came Secretary of State in Jackson’s Cabinet. 
This post he resigned to become Minister to 
France in 1833; and in 1835 he returned to the 
United States. He was a distinguished lawyer; 
and as Secretary of State exercised strong in- 
fluence on the administration of Jackson, whose 
state papers, including the  Nullification 
proclamation of 10 Dec. 1832, are generally be- 
lieved to have been written by him. The most 
remarkable of his legal works is his ‘System 
of Penal Law for the State of Louisiana,” 
which, written between 1821 and 1824, was 
accidentally destroyed by fire, was rewritten 
and published in 1826, and earned for its author 
from Sir Henry Maine the description of “the 
first legal genius of modern times.” He also 
wrote ‘System of Penal Law for the United 
States? (1828). His ‘Complete Works on 
Criminal Jurisprudence? append in 1873. Con- 
sult the biographies by C. H. Hunt (New York 
1864) ; and Carleton Hunt (New Orleans 1903). 

LIVINGSTON, Henry Brockholst, Amer- 
ican jurist: b. New York, 26 Nov. 1757: d. 
Washington, D. C., 19 March 1823. He was a 
son of William Livingston (q.v.), and grad- 


541 


uated from the College of New Jersey in 1774, 
was commissioned a captain in the Continental 
army and later became aide to Gen. Philip 
Schuyler in the northern department with rank 
of major. He was also aide to Gen. Arthur 
St. Clair, took part in the siege of Ticonderoga 
and was present at Saratoga. Subsequently he 
was again with Schuyler and ‘was promoted 
lieutenant-colonel. In 1779 he went to Spain as 
private secretary to John Jay, in 1782 on the 
return voyage was captured by the British, and 
was for a time imprisoned at New York. In 
1783 he was admitted to the bar and entered 
practice in New York. He was judge of the 
New York Supreme Court in 1802-07, and 
from 1807 was associate justice of the United 
States Supreme Court until his death. On the 
organization of the New York Historical So- 
ciety in 1805 he became its second vice-presi- 
dent. He was popularly known as Brockholst 
Livingston. 

LIVINGSTON, John H., American divine 
and virtual founder of two institutions of 
learning, Rutgers College and the Theological 
Seminary of the Reformed Church in America, 
at New Brunswick, N. J.: b. Poughkeepsie, 
N. Y.,; 30 May 1746; d. 20 Jan. 1825. He was 
graduated from Yale College and studied law 
two years, but in New York came under the 
influence of Archibald Laidlie (Flushing) and 
chose the ministry. He sailed. for Europe, 
12 May 1766, being the last of American youth 
in the then Dutch Reformed Church to study 
theology in Holland. At Utrecht University, he 
sought and won, by discussion in the Latin 
language, the degree of doctor of divinity and 
wrote a Latin thesis. Called to the Collegiate 
Reformed Church in New York City, he acted 
as a peacemaker between the parties in the 
denomination formed chiefly on the idea of 
speedy, or of slow Americanization and use 
of the English language. .Largely under his 
personal influence, Rutgers College (chartered 
in 1766) and the Theological Seminary, the 
second oldest in America, were begun. In 
the Revolution, his Americanism was so ar- 
dent during the British occupation that he 
had to leave the city. To the Utrecht Uni- 
versity motto, of 1648, after the end of the 
Netherlands ’80 years’ war for freedom, “Sol- 
justitiz illustra,» Livingston added for Rut- 
gers College “et occidentem”— “[Divine] Sun 
of righteousness illuminate also the West.» 
Probably no institution of learning, with the 
Atlantic between, has a closer historical con- 
nection with Europe than Rutgers College with 
Utrecht University. On 9 July -1909, the 
friends of Rutgers College unveiled in the 
aula of the University of Utrecht a bronze 
tablet to the memory of Livingston with the 
inscription in Latin, meaning “We salute 
Utrecht University as the dear “mother of our 
dear mother.” Livingston’s voluminous writ- 
ings include the first hymnbook (in English) 
and the constitution of the Reformed Church 
in America. Consult Gunn, ‘Memoirs of Dr. 
Livingston? (1836). 

LIVINGSTON, Peter van Brugh, Amer- 
ican merchant: b. Albany, N. Y., October 1710; 
d. Elizabethtown, N. J., 28 Dec. 1792. He was 
graduated from Yale in 1731, at New York was 
active in the shipping business with William 
Alexander, Lord Stirling, and in 1755 provided 


542 


the supplies for Governor Shirley’s expedition 
to Acadia. He was long a member of the 
provincial council, and in 1775-76 was a dele- 
gate to the Ist and 2d provincial congresses 
of New York, of the former of which he 
was president. In 1776-78 he was treasurer 
of the congress. He was prominent in most 
of the measures that led up to the Revolu- 
tionary War, notably as a Mohawk of the 
“Nancy Tea Party» in New York City in 1774, 
and was referred to by John Adams as “staunch 
in the cause.” As a Presbyterian he was also 
one of the founders of the College of New 
Jersey, which later became Princeton College. 


LIVINGSTON, Philip, American patriot: 
bs'Albany, Ne MiSs fanold/16;:d/ York,cPas 
12 June 1778. He was graduated from Yale in 
1737, became a prosperous merchant in New 
York, in 1758-69 was a member of the Colonial 
assembly, of which he was speaker in 1768, but 
was unseated by the Tory majority because of 
his strong Whig views. In 1774-78 he repre- 
sented New York in the Continental Congress, 
and in 1776 signed the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. Subsequently he sat in the New 
York provincial congress, in the State assem- 
bly and in the senate. His legislative services 
were many. He was also a benefactor of 
King’s (later Columbia) College, of Yale Col- 
lege, and was one of the founders of the New 
York Chamber of Commerce. 


LIVINGSTON, Robert, American colonial- 
proprietor: b. Ancrum, Scotland, 13 Dec. 1654; 
d. Albany, N. Y., 20 April 1725. He emigrated 
to America in 1673, spent a part of a year at 
Charlestown, Massachusetts Bay, removed to 
Albany, N. Y., and was there in 1675-86 sec- 
retary of the commission who directed the 
affairs of Albany, Schenectady and the region 
adjacent. In 1686-1721 he held the corre- 
sponding office of town clerk. In 1686 he re- 
ceived from Gov. Thomas Dongan the grant 
of a large tract, which comprised extensive 
portions of the present counties of Dutchess 
and Columbia, and which was confirmed by 
royal charter of George I in 1715. This tract 
was erected into the lordship and manor of 
Livingston, and as Livingston Manor has since 
been known. Livingston was the first to ob- 
tain the means for the equipment of the ex- 
pedition of Capt. William Kidd (q.v.) against 
the pirates. He was elected member of the 
assembly for Albany in 1711, and sat for his 
manor in 1716-25. From 1718 he was speaker. 
Consult ‘The Livingstons of Livingston Manor? 
(New York 1910). 


LIVINGSTON, Robert R. (the initial R. 
having been assumed for purposes of distinc- 
tion), American statesman, commonly known as 
“Chancellor Livingston” : b. New York, 27 Nov. 
1746; d. Clermont, N. Y., 26 Feb. 1813. He 
was ‘graduated from Columbia (then King’s 
College) in 1765, was admitted to the bar in 
1773, was for a brief period partner in legal 
practice with John Jay, in 1773-75 was recorder 
of New York city, lost this post through His 
revolutionary spirit, and in April 1775 was 
elected from Dutchess county to the New York 
State assembly. In 1776 he was sent by the 
assembly to the Continental Congress, where he 
was one of the committee of five appointed to 
draft the Declaration of Independence, which, 
however, he did not sign owing to his return 


LIVINGSTON 


to enter the provincial convention. He took 
his seat on 8 July 1776, and was of the com- 
mittee to draw up a State constitution. Under 
this instrument he became the first chancellor 
of New York (1777-1801). He resigned from 
the Continental Congress in 1777, but was again 
one of its members in 1779-81. He was secre- 
tary for foreign affairs of the United States 
Confederation in 1781-83, in which post he con- 
ducted with much success the business previ- 
ously entrusted to the committee of secret cor- 
respondence. As chancellor he administered 
the oath of office to George Washington on the 
latter’s inauguration as first President of the 
United States (30 April 1789). In 1801-05 he 
was Minister to France, in which capacity he, 
with James Monroe as additional plenipoten- 
tiary, concluded the treaty by which Louisiana 
was ceded to the United States for the sum of 
$15,000,000. He became the partner of Robert 
Fulton (q.v.) in experiments toward the em- 
ployment of steam-power in navigation; 
launched a boat on the Seine, but was not fully 
successful; and later continued the work with 
Fulton in the United States, where in September 
1807 the Clermont made the trial trip from New 
York to Albany in 22 hours, the average rate 
of speed thus being five miles per hour. Liy- 
ingston also introduced merino sheep into New 
York, made general the use of gypsum for fer- 
tilizing purposes, was the principal founder 
(1801) of the New York Academy of Fine Arts 
and its first president, and was also for a time 
president of the New York Society for the 
Promotion of Useful Arts. He was styled by 
Franklin the “Cicero of America.» By act of 
Congress his statue was placed in the Capitol 
at Washington, as one of the two representa- 
tive citizens of New York State, George Clinton 
being the other. He published ‘Essays on 
Agriculture, an ‘Essay on Sheep? (1809), and 
some addresses. Consult the biographical 
sketch by De Peyster (New York 1876) ; Dela- 
field, ‘Robert R. Livingston of New York and 
his Family? (Albany 1911); and E. B. Living- 
ston, ‘The Livingstons of Livingston Manor? 
(New York 1910). 


LIVINGSTON, William, American states- 
man: b. Albany, N. Y., 30 Nov. 1723; d. Eliza- 
bethtown, N. J., 25 July 1790. He was gradu- 
ated from Yale in 1741, was admitted to the bar 
in 1748, attained distinction in practice, was 
elected to the provincial legislature from Liv- 
ingston manor, and in 1760 established himself 
at the well-known country-seat of “Liberty Hall” 
at Elizabethtown, N. J. In 1774 he became a - 
delegate for New Jersey province to the First 
Continental Congress, and later served in the 
second and third congresses. He was a member 
of the committee of the first congress that pre- 
pared the address to the people of Great Britain. 
It was with great reluctance that he set himself 
in opposition to the mother country; but the 
step having been taken, he supported the Revo- 
lution with all his powers. In June 1776 he 
took command of the militia of New Jersey, 
with rank of brigadier-general, and was thereby 
prevented from signing the Declaration of Inde-_ 
pendence. On 28 Aug. 1776 he was elected first 
governor of New Jersey, and this post, having 
resigned his military command, he held until 
his death. During the first two years of his 
administration the State of New Jersey was 


LIVINGSTON — 


perhaps more than any other exposed to the 
operations of the British forces, and this was 
the cause of many difficulties and dangers. The 
legislature was compelled to meet at various dif- 
ferent places, and Tory hostility was strong 
against the governor, whose capture was several 
times attempted. In his message of 1777 to the 
assembly, Livingston recommended the abolition 
of slavery, and in 1786 caused the passage of an 
act forbidding the importation of slaves into 
New Jersey and himself liberated his two 
slaves. In 1787 he was appointed a delegate to 
the convention that framed the Constitution of 
the United States. He was at one time presi- 
dent of the “Moot,” the well-known lawyers’ 
club founded at New York in 1770. He pub- 
lished in 1752 52 numbers of The Independent 
Reflector, a weekly periodical, in which he 
opposed the Episcopal Church. His writings 
include ‘Philosophic Solitude? (1747); ‘A Fu- 
neral Eulogium on the Rev. Aaron Burr? 
(1757) ; and ‘A Digest of the Laws of New 
York, 1691-1762? (with W. Smith, Jr., 1752- 
62). Consult Sedgwick, ‘Life and Letters of 
William Livingston? (1833). 

LIVINGSTON, Guatemala, seaport situ- 


ated on the Gulf of Amatique, at the embou-. 


chure of the Dolce. It is an important trade 
mart as the port of Izabal, with which it has 
boat connections on the Dolce. Cabinet woods, 
coffee and bananas are the chief, items of its 
export trade, which is mostly with the United 
States. A consulat agent of the United States 
maintains an office here. Pop. 2,000. 


LIVINGSTON, Mont., city, county-seat of 
Park County, on the Yellowstone River, and 
on the Northern Pacific Railroad, about 45 
miles north of the Yellowstone National Park, 
and 100 miles southeast of Butte. It is situ- 
ated in a mining and lumbering section of the 
State. A branch of the Northern Pacific Rail- 
road extends from Livingston to the Yellow- 
stone park. It is the division headquarters for 
the Northern Pacific. Its chief manufacturing 
establishments are machine shops, lime works, 
railroad shops and lumber mills. Its trade is 
mainly in mining tools, wool, coke, coal and 
gold, and it is a distributing centre for gro- 
ceries, dry goods and clothing for an extensive 
region. Livingston is a favorite resort for 
sportsmen, as game and fish abound. Pop. 
(1920) 6,326. 


LIVINGSTON MANOR, at one time a 
large tract of land in New York State, on the 
east side of the Hudson River, and the north- 
ern part of what is now Dutchess County. This 
land was obtained by Robert Livingston, in 
1674, and comprised about 160,240 acres. The 
title was confirmed in 1715, and the patent ob- 
tained gave the land to the heirs forever. In 
1752-54 Governor Clinton of New York had 
to settle a dispute as to the eastern boundary; 
Massachusetts and the Livingstons both claim- 
ing the same land. The manor was divided and 
subdivided into holdings which were let to ten- 
ants. In 1795 the tenants made an effort to 
have the title pronounced invalid, but it was 
decreed that the land was Livingston property. 
In 1844 the tenants again sought to get posses- 
sion, and they petitioned the legislature to set 
aside the grant, but the petition was not granted. 
Since that time the owners have sold to indi- 
viduals the larger part of the old Livingston 


LIVINGSTONE 543 


Manor. Consult Vol. III of ‘Documentary His- 
tory of New York State? (Albany 1850). 


LIVINGSTONE, _liv’ing-ston, David, 
Scottish missionary and African traveler: b. 
Blantyre, Lanarkshire, 19 March 1813; d. near 
Lake Bangweolo, Africa, 1 May 1873. His 
parents had settled in the neighborhood of the 
cotton mills near Blantyre, where David be- 
came a “piecer” at the age of 10. While at 
work in the mill he learned Latin and read 
extensively, and having attended the medical 
and Greek classes at Glasgow University dur- - 
ing the winter months finally became a 
licentiate of the Faculty of Physicians and 
Surgeons of Glasgow. Under the direction of 
the London Missionary Society he proceeded in 
1840 to South Africa, where he joined Robert 
Moffat in the missionary field. His first sta- 
tion was in the Bechuana territory, and here 
his labors for nine years were associated with 
Mr. Moffat, whose daughter he married. Hear- 
ing from the natives that there was a large lake 
north of the Kalahari Desert, he proceeded to 
explore that region, and discovered the valley 
of the Zouga and Lake Ngami. Subsequently 
he penetrated farther northwest until he reached 
Linyanti, the capital of the Makololo territory, 
situated on the Chobe, a tributary of the Zam- 
besi, which river he also visited. In 1853-56 he 
made a great exploratory journey, or series of 
journeys. Starting from Linyanti he ascended 
the Leeambye (Upper Zambesi), journeyed 
overland to Lake Dilolo, and thence to Saint 
Paul de Loanda on the west coast. Returning 
to Linyanti, he went eastward from there in 
1855, tracing the Zambesi to the Indian Ocean, 
and reaching Quilimane on the east coast in 
1856, having thus crossed the entire continent. 
The record of this journey is found in his 
Missionary Travels and Researches in South 
Africa? (1857). He severed his connection with 
the London Missionary Society in 1858 and was 
appointed British consul at Quilimane. From 
that year until 1864 he with Sir John Kirk ex- 
plored the Zambesi, Shire and Roouwa rivers 
and discovered Lake Nyasa, the literary result 
of which was ‘The Zambesi and its Tributaries? 
(1885). Livingstone set forth in 1865 to set 
at rest the question of the sources of the Nile. 
From this time till his death he was engaged in 
laborious explorations in the lake region of 
South Africa, especially to the westward of 
Nyassa and Tanganyika, where he discovered 
Lakes Bangweolo and Moero, the Upper Kongo, 
etc. For about three years no communication 
had come from him, and the doubts regarding 
the traveler’s safety were only set at rest when 
it was known that H. M. Stanley, the special 
correspondent of the New York Herald, had 
seen and assisted Livingstone at Ujiji, on Lake 
Tanganyika. They parted in March 1872, Liv- 
ingstone going to explore the southern end of 
Tanganyika and Stanley proceeding to Zanzi- 
bar. After another year’s wanderings he was 
attacked with dysentery near Lake Bangweolo, 
and there he died. His body was buried in 
Westminster Abbey, having been conveyed to 
the coast, rudely preserved in salt, by his faith- 
ful followers. Consult ‘Livingstone’ s Last 
Journals? (1874) ; Stanley, “How I Found Liv- 
ingstone? (1873); Blaikie, ‘Livingstone’s Per- 
sonal Life? (1880) ; Hughes, ‘David Living- 
stone? (1891) ; Johnston, ‘Livingstone and the 


544 


Exploration of Central Africa» (1897) ; Mac- 
lachlan, ‘David Livingstone? (1900) ; Stanley’s 
‘Autobiography? (1911) and ‘How I. Found 
Livingstone? (1913), and Horne, 

ingstone? (1913). 


LIVINGSTONIA MISSION, British Ny- 
assaland Protectorate, central Africa, founded 
in 1875 by Stewart. of Lovedale for the Free 
Church of Scotland (now the United Free 
Church). The first settlement was made at Cape 
Maclear at the southern end of Lake Nyassa, 
but the chief settlement is at Bandawé, on the 
west shore of the lake. The establishment of 
the mission was the result of a suggestion made 
by Livingstone (q.v.) that the shore of this 
lake was a good position. for a mission that 
might counteract the slave trade which was 
carried on by the Arabs and Portuguese. The 
Church of Scotland established a mission at 
Blantyre, in the Shiré Highlands, near the 
lake—a mission which it is anticipated may 
soon be united with the Livingstonia Mission. 
At Blantyre some manufacturing establishments 
have been established, a foundry, basket fac- 
tory, cloth mill (the ‘cloth is made from the 
bark...of.. trees), and.ja.catton, .factory..,..,1 he 
Portuguese, in 1889, tried to get possession, but 
since 1890 the British have had control. . 


LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the founder of 
Roman epic poetry and drama, by birth a Greek 
of Tarentum. He first went to Rome at the 
commencement of the 3d century B.c. as in- 
structor to the children of Livius: Salinator. 
He introduced upon the Roman stage dramas 
after the Grecian model and wrote a transla- 
tion of the ‘Odyssey? in the old Saturnine 
verse. His fame, however, rests chiefly upon 
his hymn written in celebration of the battle of 
the Metaurus River. Consult Duff, J. W., ‘A 
Literary History of Rome? (New York 1909). 


LIVNY, lyév’ni, Russia, capital of the dis- 
trict of the same name, Situated in the govern- 
ment of Orel, on the Sosna River, 95 miles 
southeast of the city of Orel, It. contains a 
bank, a gymnasium or high school and two li- 
braries. Its industries include manufactures of 
flour, leather, soap, tallow and tobacco. There 
is also a large trade in grain. The city dates 
from 1586. Pop. 23,700. 


LIVONIA, li-vd’ni-a (Ger. Livland; Russ. 
Livlandya), a former government of Russia 
and one of the three Baltic provinces, bounded 
on the north by Esthonia, south by Courland, 
on the west by the Gulf of Riga and east by 
Lake Peipus and the governments of Petrograd, 
Pskov and Vitebsk. ‘Together with Oesel, 
Mohn, Paternoster and some smaller, islands 
in the Gulf of Riga the total area is about 
17,500 square miles, with a population | of 
1,740,000 in 1914. Riga, the capital, is the most 
German town outside Germany and has a popu- 
lation. of 560,000, . Consisting mainly of marsh 
and low sand, the territory has little fertility 
and few forests. Over 18 per cent of the area 
is meadow land, over which great herds of 
cattle are spread, particularly horses. There is 
an abundance of inland waterways, though only 
the Dvina, the Pernau and the Aa near the 
Embach are of any importance for communica- 
tion. The Salis and the Pernau are only. par- 
tially navigable, owing to rapids, narrowness 
and shallow bottom. The one trunk line of 


“David Liv- | 


LIVINGSTONIA MISSION — LIVONIA 


railway runs from Riga through Dorpat and 
Taps to Petrograd. Little wheat is grown in 
Livonia; rye, potatoes and oats are standard 
crops; dairy farming, though extensively car- 
ried on, yields but little profit. Altogether the 
country is in a backward and neglected con- 
dition. Some 400 factories were in operation 
before the war; Riga was the centre of the 
Russian flax and timber trade, also of rubber 
and textiles, foundries, pulp-mills and china 
manufacture. In 1915 the Russians started 
scrapping and dismantling all the machinery to 
prevent it from falling into German hands, 
leaving Riga little more than an empty shell. 

The population of Livonia is predominantly 
Russian; about 8 or 10 per cent is German; the 
aborigines are of Finnish origin and are more 
closely allied to the Slavs than the Germans. 
Letts, Esthonians, Swedes, Poles and Jews 
make up the remainder of the inhabitants. The 
Esthonians occupy the north and east portion 
of Livonia; the Letts the south and west. 
Most of the people are Protestants of the Augs- 
burg Confession. 

During the 12th and 13th centuries the Lett 
tribes of the Baltic were considered by the 
Russian princes and republics of the north- 
west as their subjects or tributaries. Danes 
conquered Esthonia, and Yaroslav the Great 
founded Yuriev (Dorpat). With the German ~ 
Hanseatic merchants Latin missionaries ap- 
peared on the Baltic. The archbishop of 
Bremen sent the monk Meinhard to convert the 
Livonians. In 1187 the latter built a church at 
Uexkull and a fortress round the church. From 
this day the tribes lost their lands and their 
liberty. The Livonians rose in revolt in 1198 
and Meinhard’s successor, the second bishop of 
Livonia, was killed in battle. The natives re- 
turned to their heathen gods and plunged into 
the Dvina “to wash off the baptism they had 
received, and to send it back to Germany” 
(Rambaud). Pope Innocent III (reigned 1198- 
1216) preached a crusade against the Livonians 
and another bishop was appointed over the 
natives. He arrived with a fleet of 23 ships, 
built-the town of Riga and made it his capital 
in 1200. -This ecclesiastic, Albert of Bux- 
heevden, founded the German rule in Livonia. 
The natives implored the help of the princes 
of Polotsk and marched on Riga, where they 
were defeated in 1206. The Prince of Polotsk 
besieged the town during the bishop’s absence, 
but it was saved by the arrival of a German 
flotilla. In 1410 the power of the Teutonic 
Knights was broken by the Poles under the 
Lithuanian kings. The expansion of Muscovy 
(Russia). turned the Tsar’s desires toward the 
Baltic; between them and the goal, however, 
lay Sweden, the Livonian Knights, Lithuania 
and Poland. War broke out in 1554 under 
Ivan the Terrible and Gustav Vasa of Sweden. 
Four years later the Russians conquered a con- 
siderable part of Livonia. The Poles come to 
the rescue, and by 1562 they had gained con- 
trol over the Baltic provinces. Gustav Adolph 
of Sweden captured Riga in 1621, and Sweden 
enjoyed the supremacy of the Baltic for nearly - 
a century. The war between Peter the Great 
assisted by Prussia and Charles XII resulted in 
the defeat. of Sweden in 1709, and in 1721 
Russia finally received Livonia, Esthonia, In- 
gria, Carelia and part of Finland. For 196 


LIVRE — LIZA 


years Livonia remained part of the Russian 
Empire, until it was overrun by the Germans 
in 1917, and Riga fell on 3 September. That 
event led the Kaiser to declare that the Ger- 
manization of the Baltic lands was “now made 
secure for all time.” Under the terms of the 
Brest-Litovsk peace treaty, signed by the Bol- 
shevist leaders on 3 March 1918, Russia agreed 
to abandon territories amounting to nearly a 
quarter of the total area of European Russia, 
in which Livonia, Esthonia and Courland were 
included. Under the terms of the armistice, 
dictated by the Allies to Germany on 11 Nov. 
1918, all German troops were to be withdrawn 
from territories which had before the war be- 
longed to Russia, as soon as the Allies should 
decide. On 15 Nov. 1918 it was announced that 
Livonia, Esthonia and Courland had decided to 
form a joint Baltic state. 


LIVRE, 1é-vr’, an ancient French coin, now 
superseded by the franc as the unit of value. 
The livre was equal to about 20 francs ($4). 
The livre was also the unit of weight until 
superseded by the kilogram — the equivalent of 
two livres —in the metric system. 


LIVY (Titus Livius), Roman historian: 
b. Patavium (Padua), 59 B.c.; d. there, 17 B.c. 
He spent most of his time at Rome, but kept 
aloof from active political life, although among 
his friends were numbered the most eminent 
men of his day. In spite of his republican 
leanings he was befriended by Augustus, who 
counted him, with Virgil and Horace, as one 
of the literary ornaments of his court. His 
principal work is the ‘History of Rome? in 142 
books (Titi Livi ab Urbe Condita Libri), which 
comprehends a period extending from the build- 
ing of the city to the year 9 Bc. Only 35 of 
these books are extant, namely, the first 10, 
which cover the period ending 293 B.c., and the 
25 from the 2lst to the 45th books, which com- 
prehend the years between 218 and 167 B.c., as 
well as a number of fragments and short ab- 
stracts, or tables of contents of all the books 
excepting the 136th and the 137th. Livy under- 
took this work, as he states in his preface, 
partly that he might plunge his mind into things 
of the past, and so forget the grievances of the 
present, and partly that he might spread out 
before his contemporaries a picture of the 
nation’s ancestral glories. He has indeed pro- 
duced a work which is truly national, which has 
always received the admiration and esteem of 
antiquity and is in modern times regarded as 
one of the most precious relics of Latin litera- 
ture. Since his time it has been the source of 


all knowledge of the period it deals with. He - 


began its composition between the years 27 B.c. 
and 25 z.c., and published it from time to time 
in a series of detached parts; the present di- 
vision into decades is of later origin. It ap- 
pears that he was engaged upon his history up 
to the time of his death, but failed to carry it 
on to the end he had meditated, which would 
have included the death of Augustus. He had 
a practical object in view in the accomplishment 
of this task, but this was less to achieve a 
critical and scientific exploration of the past 
than to produce a moving, lifelike and readable 
representation of the time and country in which 
he lived. With this end in view he has chosen 
a style of his own; not the transparent splendor 
of Cicero, nor the condensed and epigrammatic 
VOL. 17— 35 


- an insoluble substance. 


545 


pungency of Tacitus, nor the dilettante, though 
sometimes effective, archaism of Sallust. His 
narrative moves along with stately dignity; it 
teems with anecdote and glows with patriotic 
emotion. He employs a phraseology remark- 
able for copiousness, for picturesqueness, for 


‘ vivid description and occasionally for an elo- 


quence that.1s burnished into poetic lustre. His 
materials must mainly have been derived from 
preceding annalists, but he weaves into his 
work the local traditions of a mythic age and 
rivals Virgil in his love for the fables of Tus-- 
cany and Latium. His account of the Punic 
wars he draws from Polybius. We must not, 

however, expect to find in his writings a clear 
account of the origin and development of the 
Roman constitution. He seems to have cared 
little for the study of constitutional law, and 
even less for that of military art. Yet his 
political views were very decided, and in his 
account of the civil war, which resulted in the 
downiall of the republic, he shows himself a 
strong partisan of the aristocratic party, so that 
Augustus did not hesitate to style him a Pom- 
peian. The historic basis for the Roman his- 
tory of Livy cannot be fully understood with- 
out reading the works of Niebuhr. Livy’s com- 
plete works have been published by Gronov 
(1679) ; Drakenborch (1828); Zingerle (1883) ; 
an English translation appears in the Bohn Li- 
brary, and a complete German translation by 
Klaiber and Teuffel appeared (Stuttgart 1854— 
56). Fugner’s ‘Lexicon Livianum? (1889), al- 
though incomplete, is important in Livian litera- 
ture. Consult Niemann, ‘Etudes sur la Langue 
et Littérature de Live? (1884); Taine, ‘Essai 
sur Tite Live? (1888); Madvig, ‘Emenda- 
tiones Livianz? (1877). 


LIXIVIATION, lik-siv’i-a’shtin, the proc- 
ess of separating by percolation a soluble from 
“Leaching” is the com- 
mon English term for this process. Advantage 
is taken of the different degrees of solubility of 
the components of the chosen solvent. In 
metallurgy the process has been used from the 
earliest times in the extraction of copper and 
silver ores. Solvents are employed to dissolve 
the silver, after which the silver is precipitated 
from the solution. Usually sodium hyposulphite 
is used as solvent and sodium sulphide as the 
precipitant. In recent years investigations have 
resulted in discovering lixiviation. processes 
which may be employed on a commercial scale 
for ore extraction. See CopPER; SILVER. 


LIZA. By Ivan Sergéyevitch Turgénief. 
There are several translations for the original 
title of this novel, ‘Dvoryanskoye Gnyezd0” 
—‘A Nest of Nobles,’ ‘A Nobleman’s Nest, 
‘A House of Gentlefolk.» The title is evi- 
dently more or less symbolical, ‘The Nest? not 
referring to the residence of any particular 
gentleman or nobleman. The action passes 
mainly in the city home where Liza lives with 
her worldly-minded mother and her shrewish- 
tempered great-aunt. The principal character, 
Lavretsky, occupies only for a brief time a 
small country-house which had belonged to 
his father’s sister. The preliminary chapters 
are largely devoted to tracing the heredity of 
the various actors in the drama and portray 
selfish men and women of an earlier genera- 
tion and their environment. When these ex- 
planations have been cleared away and one 


546 


understands the hidden forces of relentless cir- 
cumstances, the development of the simple yet 
unexpected complication of the plot is con- 
ducted with a masterly knowledge of human 
nature. The solution of the tragedy of dis- 
appointed love is seen to be in exact accord- 
ance with the psychology of the persons in- 
volved. 

Lizavieta Mikhailovna Kalétina, known as 
Liza, is the daughter of a government official, 
stubborn and harsh, who died when she was 
10 years of age, leaving a large property in the 
hands of his widow, Marya Dmitrievna, a 
woman fairly well educated, sentimental and 
amiable when her will was not crossed. Dur- 


ing her impressionable childhood Liza. was. 


given over to the care of the old nurse, 
Agafya Vlasievna, who had occupied an equiv- 
ocal position in her grandfather’s household 
but on the old man’s death had become fanat- 
ically devout. Liza’s mother made no attempt 
to offset the influence of those early religious 
practices. At the beginning of the story Liza 
is. about 20, very pretty, graceful, winning, 
unselfish. and affectionate, “loving everyone in 
general but no one in. particular.». When a 
distant kinsman of the family, Feodor Ivano- 
vitch Lavrétsky, returns to Russia after a long 
residence abroad, she considers it her duty to 
try to reconcile him with his wife, whom he 
had repudiated on account of her immoral 
relations with a Frenchman. Lavrétsky is no 
longer young; but he is still attractive and 
Turgénief evidently did his best to depict him 
as a sympathetic type of the Russian gentle- 
man, in spite of his birth (his mother had 
been a servant maid, first seduced and then 
hastily married against his: tyrannical grand- 
father’s wishes). Notwithstanding a one-sided 
and distorted education, Lavrétsky has done his 
best to remedy the defects in his training 
and is now ready to take up his duties as 
benefactor to his serfs and.as manager of his 
large estates. While studying at the univer- 
sity he had married Varvara Pavlovna Koro- 
buina, the beautiful daughter of a general who 
had been disgraced by reason of certain dis- 
honest practices. She was unworthy of him 
and when he found proofs of her unfaith- 
fulness, he settled a pension on her and left 
her. He is immediately attracted by Liza, 
whom her mother wishes to marry to Vladimir 
Nikolayevitch Panshin, a good-looking young 
official who had been sent to the provincial 
town of O (evidently intended to mean Orel 
where Turgénief..was born). Panshin is the 
type of the brilliant and superficial Russian, 
half-educated after the Western mode, speaks 
several languages, plays the piano, composes 
sentimental songs, sketches with a clever hand, 
acts well in private ‘theatricals and considers 
any woman as legitimate game. He and. La- 
vretsky are admirably contrasted. .When Liza, 
at the fateful moment before she has made 
up her mind to accept Panshin’s. offer, reads 
the newspaper report .of Varvara. Pavylovna’s 
death, she confesses her love for Lavrétsky. 
They have one hour of happiness; then Fate 
interposes. Lavrétsky’s wife is not dead: she 
arrives at Lavrétsky’s house with her little 
daughter. Liza begs Lavrétsky to forgive Var- 
vara Pavlovna and she herself follows the ex- 
ample of her old nurse and takes refuge in a 
nunnery in a distant part of Russia: Varvara 


LIZARD FISH —LIZARD - 


Pavlovna is the exact antithesis of Liza: she 
is beautiful but false. She immediately  be- 
gins a new intrigue with Panshin, and again 
Lavrétsky finds himself alone. Eight years 
later he revisits the house where Liza had lived. 
“The Nest” still belongs to the family though 


‘ all the old people are dead; a new generation 


is living there. He catches a glimpse of their 
gaieties; he sees the bench on which he and 
Liza had sat in the bliss of their love con- 
fessed; he touches the piano: “a faint pure tone 
rings out and trembles in his. heart.” He 
realizes that he had ceased to think of his 
own happiness; his mind is calm but he is old, 
old in body and in soul; but he is not unhappy; 
breathing a silent blessing on youth, he turns 
away “with sadmess yet without envy” and 
drives slowly to his deserted, home. 

‘Liza? belongs to a Russia vastly different 
from that of our day. The. age in which it 
was written has passed, but the pictures which 
it gives of the period will always be treasured 
by mankind. It was first published in 1858, 
just before the Crimean War and the libera- 
tion of the serfs, and reflects the ideas that 
were beginning to ferment in Russia toward 
the end of the reign of Nicholas I.- It was 
translated into English by W. R. S. Ralston 
and published in 1869 (new ed., 1884). It was 
included in a five-volume translation of Tur- 
génief’s masterpieces in 1889. It is included 
in the complete edition of Turgénief translated 
by Mrs. Constance Garnett and it makes the 


‘fourth volume of the complete works of Tur- 


génief’s novels translated by Miss Isabel F. 
Hapgood, published in 1903. he 
NATHAN HASKELL DOLE. 
LIZARD FISH, a fish of the family Syno- 
dontide of the order Iniomi, remarkable for 
its wide mouth and very long body. It abounds 


_inshore in tropical seas but is sometimes found 


in deep water. A well-known Antillean species 
is the Synodus fetens, variously known as 
galliwasp, soap-fish and, in lLatin-America, 
lagarta. It is olive above and yellow beneath, 
attains a length of 12 inches and is very vora- 
cious. 


LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, 
England, a headland in Cornwall, 181 feet high, 
forming the southernmost point of Great Brit- 
ain, 24 miles southeast of Land’s End, and 
having two lighthouses with, flashes seen 21 
miles, 230 feet above sea-level. The Lward 
was the Promontorium Damnonium of Ptol- 
emy. The name is also applied to the penin- 
sula, with its broken and charming coastline, 
off which are the Manacle Rocks, a dangerous 
reef which has been the scene of many ship- 
wrecks. 


LIZARD, a subclass of reptiles, whose 
anatomical features and classification have been 
described under LacertTitia. A general account: 
of their habits and ecology has been reserved 
for the present article. Lizards as a group 
are of comparatively recent origin, most of 
the fossils known not being older than the 
middle of the Tertiary, when representatives 
of many of the modern genera were in exist- 
ence. The Pleistocene rocks of Queensland 
have furnished skeletons of several gigantic 
extinct representatives of the monitor family, 
one of which (Megalonia) was about 30 feet. 
long.. The lizards, as a group, are remarkable 


AMERICAN LIZARDS 


Heloderma 


Tupinambis 


eju or 
Gila Monster or 


7A AY 
4 


Inam ameiva 


1 Uraniscodon umbra 


3 Sur 


OLD WORLD LIZARDS 


1 Skink 4 


2 Lacerta agilis 5 Agama colonorum 
3 Nile Monitor or Varanus ; 6 Wall geckos 


Zonurus cordylus 


LLAMA 


for the great variety in size and shape, and 
in the character of the skin-armature and the 
dentition. These variations are usually mani- 
festly adaptations to the local environment. 

Lizards abound in all the warmer parts of 
the world, most numerously in the tropics. 
In North America only three or four species 
pass the northern boundary of the United 
States, penetrating southern Ontario in the east 
and British Columbia on the Pacific side of 
the continent, where, in the arid Southwest, 
most of the species known in this country are 
to be seen. Most kinds of lizards are re- 
stricted in range, being adapted to a definite 
sort of environment, yet the families may 
have a very wide distribution. Thus that 
of the geckos (q.v.) is spread all over the 
tropical and subtropical zone of the Old 
World, and also in South America; and it 
includes both arboreal and terrestrial forms, 
diversified by modifications of the type. to 
meet conditions as_ different as are. the 
steaming jungles of Malaya from the sandy 
deserts of Persia and Africa. On the other 
hand the big monitors (Varanid@e), scattered 
from the Nile to the Philippines and Australia, 
are able to seek their prey on burning desert- 
ground, in and under water, and among the 
branches of forest-trees. This is a case of 
remarkable versatility, for there is little adap- 
tive alteration of structure in the family. 
Again, similarity of habitat and local influ- 
ence sometimes produce striking likeness in 
appearance in totally disconnected species, as, 
for example, our spiny-coated horned toads and 
the Australian molochs (q.v.), which are not 
at all related structurally. A large number 
of lizards belonging to widely different families 
have taken to a more or less complete under- 
ground life; and in these the limbs show 
reduction from a slight degree in some to en- 
tire absence in others, for instance the boa-like 
glass-snake (q.v.). Many species are good 
swimmers, and are of aquatic habit to a large 
extent, but only one truly marine species is 
known — the large, gregarious sea-lizard (Am- 
blyrhynchus) of the Galapagos Islands, which 
feeds on seaweed, gathered at a considerable 
depth; yet it is reluctant to take to the water 
except for food. The American iguanas, how- 
ever, although habitually residents of tree-tops, 
stay as near to rivers as they can, and plunge 
into them for safety whenever frightened. 

Lizards are primarily terrestrial animals, 
and most sorts run with amazing swiftness, 
usually on all four feet, but the curious frilled 
lizard (q.v.) of Australia holds up its fore 
parts and runs on its hind legs when in haste. 
Except a few heavy forms, and those that dwell 
in burrows, lizards are extremely agile, climb- 
ing walls and tree-trunks, and running and 
leaping about their branches, with speed and 
precision; and some Oriental species, as the 
flying dragon (q.v.), have expansions of. the 
skin about the forearms enabling them to make 
long, sailing leaps through the air. 

The senses of sight and hearing are highly 
developed, as is requisite for their livelihood. 
Most species are carnivorous, the larger kinds 
feeding on small mammals, birds and_ their 
eggs, and the lesser reptiles, including other 
lizards. These are seized by a rush and leap, 
and are passed down the throat whole. Many 
of the smaller kinds live altogether on worms 


547 


and insects, the latter caught in most cases 
by. a swift dart and recovery of the sticky 
tongue, a method peculiarly characteristic of 
the chameleons (q.v.). The tongue in this 
group assumes a wide variety of shapes, in 
some families having a slender, forked form 
like that in snakes, and acting only as a feeler. 
One lizard only, the Gila monster (q.v.), is 
aided by the injection of poison into its victim 
when he bites it, and this is the most sluggish 
of all its race. The iguana family and certain 
other species eat vegetable food. 

Lizards themselves are sought as prey by all 
sort of carnivorous beasts, birds and reptiles, 
in avoiding which they must rely mainly on 
their alertness and agility in dodging or out- 
running the foe. Most of them are conspicu- 
ously colored, and many exhibit as great gaudi- 
ness as do tropical birds, so that this class of 
animals would seem to have been denied any 
benefit that might accrue from “concealing 
coloration” as ordinarily understood. One re- 
markable peculiarity of lacertilian structure, 
however, is perhaps protective, although the 
expedient is: rather a costly one, namely, the 
ability of most lizards to part easily with the 
tail. -This is the part of the lizard most likely 
to be snapped at by a captor, the more so as 
it is commonly held aloft when its owner runs, 
and breaking off easily enables the remainder 
of the lizard to go on running, while the baf-. 
fled foe contemplates his useless booty. A 
new tail speedily replaces the lost member, 
but it is never quite as good as the original 
one. Some small lizards, when startled, cast 
off their tails with a jerk before they are 
touched; on the other hand, the big monitors 
indulge in no such sacrifice, but utilize their 
long and strong tails as powerful whip-like 
weapons of defense. 

Reproduction in lizards as a rule is by a 
small number of eggs laid in damp earth, 
but a few, as the skinks, bring forth young 
alive. Lizards are of service to mankind in de- 
stroying insects and other vermin, and in the 
tropics are welcomed in native houses for that 
reason. The water monitor is a valuable curb 
on crocodiles, by devouring their eggs and 
young. Many lizards furnish good human food, 
especially the larger iguanas, that are a regular 
part of the aboriginal diet in South America, 
as are other lizards among the Blackfellows 
of Australia. Certain species also make amus- 
ing pets. Consult, besides general works, Ga- 
dow, ‘Amphibia and Reptiles’ (New York 
1901); Pycraft, ‘Story of Reptile Life? (Lon- 
don 1905) ; Ditmars, ‘The Reptile Book”? (New 
York 1907); Boulenger, ‘Reptiles and Batra- 
chians? (London 1914). 

ERNEST INGERSOLL. 


LLAMA, 1a’ma, one domesticated form 
(often specifically distinguished as Lama glama) 
of the huanaco (q.v.), the other being the wool- 
bearing alpaca (q.v.). It is larger than the 
wild huanaco (about three feet at the shoulder), 
and may be white, brown, black or variegated 
with patches of all three colors. This animal 
was domesticated long before the era of the 
Incas. When the Spaniards conquered Peru 
they found hundreds of thousands in use as 
riding animals and beasts of burden in the 
southern part of the country; and as they were 
the only domestic ungulate of the kind in South 
America their importance was very great. The 


548 LLANDUDNO — LLORENTE 


Spanish conquerors adopted llamas as burden- 
beasts, and soon long strings, in charge of.a 
few native drivers, were passing back and 
forth between the mountain mines and the 
coast, laden with ore or bullion or with sup- 
plies, a proper burden not exceeding 120 pounds, 
which may be carried about 12 miles a day. 
Until toward the middle of the 19th century 
this remained almost the only means of car- 
riage in the Cordilleras, where the endurance 
of cold, ability to live on the mountain herbage 
and sure-footedness peculiarly fitted them for 
this service. Only the mature males were used 
as burden-beasts, the smaller females being 
reserved for their milk and flesh, which re- 
sembles mutton, and is extensively eaten. 
Llamas produce only one offspring annually, 
so that care is needed to sustain the herds 
which are still numerous and valuable. Various 
breeds are known, but the differences are not 
very great. The wool, which is inferior to 
alpaca, is used among the native Indians for 
the manufacture of textile fabrics. The skin 
is made into leather. The dried dung is used 
for fuel, and the milk is also employed as an 
article of native diet. When overloaded these 
animals lie down and refuse to budge; when 
irritated they have the habit of kicking at their 
adversaries, supplemented by the ejection of 


food when undergoing remastication in the . 


mouth, along with quantities of evil-smelling 
saliva. An unsuccessful attempt has been made 
to acclimatize them in Australia. 


LLANDUDNO, lan-dtid’ns6, Wales, a sea- 
side resort of Caernarvonshire, 40 miles south- 
west of Liverpool, on the London and North- 
western Railway, 227 miles northwest of Lon- 
don. It has a magnificent marine drive around 
Great Omre Head, on which is the ancient 
oratory of Saint Tudno. Druidical remains 
abound in the neighborhood. Up to 1850 Llan- 
dudno was a poor fishing village but it has 
since become a fashionable resort with golf 
links, palatial hotels and all the appanages of 
such places. The water-supply, gas, power 
and electric-light plants and refuse incinerator 
are municipally owned. There are also mu- 
mich slaughter-houses. and markets. Pop. 
10, : 


LLANELLY, 18-néth’li, Wales, a seaport 
town of Carmarthenshire, on the Burry Inlet, 
14 miles southeast of Carmarthen. It is: the 
outlet for the products of a great mining dis- 
trict, with extensive collieries, iron-foundries, 
copper works, tin-plate works, potteries, chem- 
ical works and lead and silver works. The 
trade is facilitated by commodious docks and 
ample harbor accommodation. It is the seat 
a a United States consular agent. Pop. 32,- 

he 


LLANES, lya’nas, Spain, seaport on the 
north coast, in the province of Oviedo, on the 
Bay of Biscay at the embouchure of the Car- 
rocedo, 45 miles west of Santander. It. has 
narrow, irregular streets lined with many an- 
cient dwellings, an old monastery: and a 14th 
century Gothic church. .A meteorological sta- 
tion is now housed in the monastery and part 
of the buildings are used for school purposes. 
It has a large coasting trade carried on in 
light-draught vessels. This trade is concerned 
mainly with agricultural products, timber, but- 
ter, fish, etc. Pop. 21,700 


LLANGOLLEN, | 1an-goth’lén, Wales, 
town and summer-resort of Denbighshire,’ on 
the Dee, 10 miles southwest of Wrexham and 
202 miles from London, on the Great Western 
Railway. There are many interesting ruins in 
the town and in its vicinity, including a famous 
14th century bridge, two monasteries and an 
abbey church of the 13th century. There are 
linen and woolen mills, collieries and iron 
works, breweries and quarries. Pop. 3,240. 
Consult Simpson, Robert, ‘History of Llan- 
gollen”? (3d ed., Llangollen 1852). 


LLANO ESTACADO, 1a’no 4s-ta-ka'dé, 
or STAKED PLAIN, Tex., an extensive 
plateau forming part of the Great Plains of 
the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, east 
of the Pecos River, in northwestern Texas 
and eastern New Mexico and the source of 
many rivers flowing to the Mississippi and the 
Gulf of Mexico. It has an area exceeding 
40,000 square miles, and is dry and almost 
woodless; grass is produced for cattle in the 
rainy season; water is obtained by boring, 
and irrigation necessary for the growing of 
crops. In the north the plateau has a general 
elevation of about 5,000 feet, but it slopes to 
the south where it is not over 3,000 feet high. 
The name is Spanish and means a plain’ with 
stakes, referring to the many stalks of the 
Yucca or Spanish bayonet which abound in the 
region. . 


LLANOS, 1a’nds or lya’nds, the name 
given in the northern part of South America, 
particularly in Colombia and Venezuela, to 
vast plains, almost entirely level, and inter- 
rupted only at intervals by detached elevations, 
called in Spanish mesas. The superficial.area 
of the llanos is estimated. at 300,000 square 
miles; they extend from the delta of. the 
Orinoco .inland to the Yapura, a tributary of 
the Amazon. 
sandy and without much vegetation, except 
on the banks of the rivers and during the wet 
season. At this period great stretches are in- 
undated to the depth of 12 to 15 feet, owing 
to the rivers overflowing their banks. The 
villages must, therefore, ‘be built on the ele- 
vated ground. Considerable portions are cov- 
ered with forest; in the grassy regions great 
herds of cattle pasture; the climate is warm 
and moist. Not including the forest section, 
nor any of the foot-hills of the Andean Cor- 
dillera, the llanos of the northern part of South 
America would cover only about 150,000 square 
miles. The inhabitants of these plains are 
called Llaneros. They are a hardy, vigorous 


race, and although mainly of Indian extraction | 


are proud of their descent from the first Span- 
ish colonists; but their mode of life resembles 
more that of the Indians than that of their 
boasted ancestors. Farther to the south: such 
plains are called pampas. 


LLANQUIHUE, lyan-ké’wa, a lake in the 
province of the same name, in Chile, South 
America. Largest lake in Chile; nearly. cir- 
cular in form, about 30 miles in length and the 
same in width. 
very small inlets, being mainly fed’ through 
the porous granite rocks of the region, and 
having its outlet in the Maullen River. 


LLORENTE, Juan Antonio Don, hoo-in’ 
an-t6’né-6 d6n lyd-ran’ta, Spanish historian: b. 


A large portion of them is 


It is a deep lake, with only 


> 


LLOYD 


Rincon de Soto, near Calahorra, Aragon, 30 
March 1756; d. Madrid, 5 Feb. 1823. He 
studied theology at Tarragona and Madrid; 
was ordained priest in 1770; was doctor in 
canon law, chancellor of the University of 
Toledo; was commissary of the Inquisition at 
Logrono in 1785, and general secretary of the 
Inquisition at Madrid in 1789. He was com- 
missioned in 1793 to draw up plans for a 
general reform of the procedure of the court. 
During the crisis of 1808 he sided with the 
Bonapartists, superintended the measures for 
the abolition of monastic orders and made a 
close examination of the archives of the In- 
quisition. His greatest work is the ‘Critical 
History of the Spanish Inquisition? (1815-17), 
which, however, has no authoritative standing 
among scholars. He wrote also ‘Memoirs Re- 
lating to the History of the Spanish Revolution? 
(1815-19). His autobiography was published 
in 1818. 

LLOYD, loid, Arthur, Anglican clergyman 
and missionary to Japan, who, engaging in the 
study of Buddhism, early Christianity and 
patristic literature, opened new lines of inves- 
tigation and made important discoveries con- 
cerning the early contact of the two religious 
systems, revealing the great borrowings of the 
one from the other, especially of the Bud- 
dhists from the Gnostics (q.v.). ‘Consult his 
“Wheat among the Tares? (1908); ‘Shinran? 
(1910); ‘Every Day Japan? (1909), and his 
contributions to the Transactions of the Asi- 
atic Society of Japan. 

LLOYD, Charles Hartford, English mu- 
sician: b. Thornbury, Gloucestershire, 1849; d. 
16 Oct. 1919. He displayed musical talent early, 
and at 10 was organist of Rangeworthy Church, 
and after 1862 studied music with Barrett of 
Bristol, confining his attention almost entirely 
to Bach and Beethoven. He graduated from 
Oxford, where he came under the influence of 
Stanier and definitely determined to make music 
his calling. He conducted the Gloucester mu- 
sical festivals of 1877 and 1880, became or- 
ganist of Gloucester Cathedral in 1876 and of 
Oxford Cathedral in 1882. In 1892 he was 
precentor and musical instructor at Eton. Among 
important compositions of his are the cantatas 
of ‘Hero and Leander? ; ‘The Song of Balder? ; 
“Andromeda? ; ‘Alcestis? ; ‘Song of Judgment? ; 
“Longbeard’s Saga.’ He also wrote many can- 
ticles and anthems for the church, glees, madri- 
‘gals and part songs, choruses, etc., and several 
instrumental pieces. 

LLOYD, Francis Ernest, American botan- 
ist: b. Manchester, England, 4 Oct. 1868. In 
1891 he was graduated at Princeton University 
and studied also at the universities of Munich 
and Bonn. In 1891-92 he was instructor in 
Williams College; in 1892-95 professor of 
biology and geology; in 1895-97 of biology at 
Pacific University. From 1897 to 1906 he was 
adjunct professor of biology at Teachers’ Col- 
lege, Columbia University. In 1906 Professor 
Lloyd was investigator of the Desert Botanical 
Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, Washington; 
in 1907 instructor at the Harvard Summer School 
and cytologist of the Arizona Experiment Sta- 
tion. From 1908 to 1912 he was professor of 
botany at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute 
and in the latter year was appointed MacDonald 
professor of botany at McGill University, Mont- 


549 


real. In 1905-08 he edited The Plant World, 
and has published ‘The Teaching of Biology 
in the Secondary School? (1904); ‘The Com- 
parative Embryology of the Rubiacez? (1902) ; 
‘The Physiology of Stomata? (1908) ; ‘Guayule, 
a Rubber Plant of the Chihuahuan Desert? 
(1911), also various other botanical papers, in- 
cluding studies on transpiration, stomata, tan- 
nin, rubber, cotton, etc. 


LLOYD-GEORGE. 
Lioyp. 


LLOYD, Henry Demarest, American 
writer on economics: b. New York, 1 May 
1847; d. 28 Sept. 1903. He was graduated from 
Columbia University; lectured. on_ political 
economy in New York schools; studied law and 
was admitted to the bar in 1869: In 1872 he 
went to Chicago where he was employed on the 
Chicago Tribune till 1885, the latter part of the 
time as a member of the editorial staff. His 
later life was devoted to writing. His publica- 
tions include “A Strike of Millionaires against 
Miners, the Story of Spring Valley? (1890) ; 
“Wealth against Commonwealth? (1894), a his- 
tory of the growth and methods of the Stand- 
ard Oil Company; ‘Labor Copartnership? 
(1899), notes of visits to various co-operative 
shops and farms in Great Britain; “A Country 
without Strikes? (1900), an account of the 
history and workings of compulsory arbitration 
in New Zealand; and ‘Newest England? 
(1900); ‘A Sovereign People: A Study of 
Swiss Democracy? (1907) ; ‘Men, the Workers? 
(1909) ; ‘Lords of Industry? (1910); ‘Mazzini 
and Other Essays? (1910). He made the labor 
question his special field of research, and was 
an advocate of co-operation and a believer in 
socialistic —or, as he called it, democratic — 
control of industry, to which he maintained 
that social evolution was leading. He possessed 
the power of presenting economic facts in an 
unusually interesting manner, especially his 
‘Wealth against Commonwealth,’ though com- 
piled from court records and other official docu- 
ments, is written with a force and vividness 
which give it real literary quality. 


LLOYD, John Uri, American chemist and 
author: b. West Bloomfield, N. Y., 19 April 
1849. He was educated in private schools; was 
professor of pharmacy at the Cincinnati Col- 
lege of Pharmacy, 1883-87; professor of chem- 
istry at the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1878- 
1900, and president of the Eclectic Medical In- 
stitute, 1896-1904. He has been president of 
the Lloyd Library since its inception, and is 
senior member of the firm of Lloyd Brothers, 


See Gerorcr, Davip 


manufacturing pharmacists and chemists of 


Cincinnati, Ohio; and in the laboratory has 
devoted his life work to plant pharmacy, in- 
cluding investigations of plant alkaloids and 
proximate principles. He has contributed very 
largely to current chemical and pharmaceutical 
literature, and outside his professional writings 
has made special studies in the dialect, super- 
stitions and folklore of northern Kentucky. His 
best-known publications are ‘The Chemistry 
of Medicines? (1881); ‘Supplement to King’s 
American Dispensatory> (1885); ‘King’s 
American Dispensatory,» revised and rewrit- 
ten with H. W. Felter, M.D. (1898-1900) ; 
‘Elixirs, their History and Preparation? 
(1892); SA Study in Pharmacy? (1894); 
‘Etidorpha, the End of Earth? (1895); ‘The 


550 


Right Side of the Car? (1897); ‘Stringtown 
on the Pike? (1900) ; “Warwick of the Knobs? 
(1901); ‘Red Head? (1903); ‘Scroggins? 
(1904) ; ‘The Eclectic Alkaloids, Resinoids and 
Concentrations? (1910); ‘History of the Vege- 
table Drugs of the Pharmacopeia of the 
United States? (1911); ‘A Study of Digitalis? 
(1912), and ‘A Study of Coca? (1913). He 
is the author of the article on “Pharmacy” in 
the ‘Encyclopedia Americana.? He is a mem- 
ber of the Society of Colonial Wars, Sons of 
the Revolution, Sons of the American Revolu- 
tion, Authors’ Club of New York, New York 
Deutscher Apotheker Verein © (honorary), 
Franklin Inn Club and Franklin Institute of 
Philadelphia, the Literary Club of Cincinnati, 
and is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
Arts, England. 


LLOYD, Nelson McAllister, American 
journalist and author: b. Philadelphia, 18 Dec. 
1872. He was educated at the Germantown 
Academy, aud was graduated in electrical engi- 
neering at the Pennsylvania State College, in 
1892. He engaged in newspaper work on the 
New York Evening Sun, of which he was city 
editor from 1897 to 1905. He retired in 1908 
from newspaper work. He has contributed 
many historical sketches and short stories to 
magazines and has also published ‘The Chronic 
Loafer? (1900); ‘A Drone and a Dreamer? 
(1901); ‘The Soldier of the Valley? (1905) ; 
‘Mrs. Radigan? (1906); ‘Six Stars? (1907) ; 
‘The Robberies Company? (1908); ‘David 
Malcolm? (1913). He is a member of the 
National Institute of Arts and Letters. 


LLOYD’S, an incorporated firm engaged 
in marine insurance in London, its other activ- 
ities being in the line of collecting and pub- 
lishing news of shipping. The corporation has 
rooms in the London Royal Exchange. Mem- 
bers are admitted by subscription and the 
affairs of the institution are conducted by a 
committee. Reports are received daily from 
all foreign ports, and this information is posted 
in the common or merchants’ room. ‘This 
service requires an enormous staff of corre- 
spondents and the conducting of a chain of 
special signal stations to which ship captains 
are required by law to report certain maritime 
news when passing. Besides this there are 
other rooms for the use of the underwriters 
and for ship-auctions, a library, restaurant, -etc. 
Lloyd’s list, containing shipping reports, is pub- 
lished daily, and various other publications re- 
lating to shipping are also issued. (See also 
Lioyp’s REGISTER). Originally the London 
underwriters met at Edward Lloyd’s Coffee- 
house, that institution dating as far back at 
least as 1688; hence the name. Consult Martin, 
F., ‘History of Lloyd’s? (London 1876). 


LLOYD’S BONDS, in England, from 1850 
to 1870 a well-known commercial security; 
mostly instruments under the seal of a rail- 
way or other such company admitting the in- 
debtedness of the company to a_ specified 
amount, with a covenant to pay such amount 
with interest within a stated time. These 
companies had generally statutory authority to 
borrow only when a certain amount (usually 
the whole) of their capital had been sub- 
scribed and a specified portion paid up; their 
power of borrowing must also be exercised 
with the sanction of a general meeting. Such 


LLOYD — LOAD LINE 


restrictions were severely felt by companies 
whose works were being constructed. A bar- 
rister, John Horatio Lloyd, relieved the com- 
panies from this embarrassment by taking ad- 
vantage of the fact that companies, though 
prevented in such cases from borrowing, could 
contract debts in any other way and acknowl- 
edge their obligations in various forms. He 
introduced a form in which such acknowl- 
edgments would become almost as binding on 
the grantors as a statutory debenture, and so 
become sufficiently marketable. Railway com- 
panies now having ample borrowing powers, 
the necessity for these instruments no longer 
exists. 


LLOYD’S REGISTER, a shipping record 
of vessels in commission and their ratings ac- 
cording to construction, physical condition and 
equipment. Lloyd’s Register had its beginning 
in 1799, when the Underwriters’ Registry, or 
Green Book, published by a committee of 
Lloyd’s (q.v.) was denounced as unfair by the 
British ship owners whose vessels were therein 
given arbitrary ratings. The ship owners 
formed an association of their own and began 
publishing the Red Book, with ratings accord- 
ing to their own judgment. The rivalry con- 
tinued until 1833, when Lloyd’s engineered a 
combination of the two publications under the 
control of the ship owners, and they accepted 
the name “Lloyd’s Registry of Shipping” as 
the title. The society has a staff of skilled 
surveyors who examine vessels periodically, 
changing their rating as occasion demands. 
They are also detailed to watch the construc- 
tion of vessels in the yards, make inspections 
and tests of steel used, strength of cables and 
chains and examinations of equipment. The 
rating 100 Al is the type of wholly approved 
ship; 90 Al for a. ship not wholly approved in 
build; 100A — for a ship approved as to build, | 
but lacking as to equipment.. The general 
committee of the society is located at London; 
there are subcommittees at Liverpool, Glasgow 
and in the United States. Besides the Register 
the society publishes a separate register of 
American yachts and motor-boats, and rules 
and regulations for the building of steel vessels 
and yachts. 


LOA, the African eyeworm of man. One 
of the Filariide among the Nematoda (q.v.), 
conspicuous because of its migrations through 
the subcutaneous connective tissue of the 
human body, a habit which brings it at times 
in front of the eyeball. It has often been re- 
moved from this place and said to occur in 
each eye. Cases in North America are all im- 
ported from the west coast region of Africa, 
which is its proper home. It is transmitted to 
man by the bite of the mangrove fly. 


LOAD. See ELeEctrIcAL TERMS. 


LOAD LINE, a mark placed by recognized 
authority on the side of a vessel to indicate 
the maximum depth to which she may be 
legally loaded under the British law. It is 
required to be 12 inches in length and one inch 
in width, and is accompanied or enclosed by a © 
circle struck from the centre of the upper edge 
of the line. Generally the line is made longer 
than the required 12 inches, and extends be- 
yond the circle in both directions. On wooden 
ships the line and the circle are to be cut into 


LOADSTAR — LOBACHEVSKY 


the wood at least one-fourth of an inch deep. 
On steel vessels the line and circle are to be 
painted on—in white or yellow, if the hull 
is dark; in black if the hull is light in color. 
In the case of the steel ship it is required that 
the centre of the circle shall be indented with 
a punch, so that if painted over for any reason 
the point may be identified beyond any ques- 
tion. The load line as indicated is for the 
summer loading of ships traversing salt water. 
Several modifications have been allowed by 
law: a slightly deeper loading for the Indian 
Ocean in summer, and a still deeper loading if 
the vessel is to navigate only in fresh water. 
In the other direction a lighter loading is re- 
quired for winter, and a still lighter loading 
if the winter voyage is to be made in the 
stormy north Atlantic Ocean. These modifi- 
cations of the load-line are painted alongside 
of the line and circle somewhat in the form 
of a gridiron—as shown in the diagram. 


Loap LINE. 
FW 
iS 
he R 
Ss 
Ww 
WNA 


The signification of the letters is as fol- 

lows: 
FW, fresh water load-line (steamer). 
IS, summer load-line, Indian Ocean. 
S, summer. 
W, winter. 
WNA, winter, north Atlantic. 
F, fresh water sailing ships. 

There are three executive bodies authorized 
by the British law to affix or to approve these 
marks: Lloyd’s Register, the Bureau Veritas 
and the British Corporation. Initial letters 
(LR, BV or BC) are usually placed at the 
ends of the line which project beyond the cir- 
cle, showing which of these bodies has verified 
the correct placing of the line. 

The load line is a development of the for- 
mer “Plimsoll mark” established by Samuel 
Plimsoll (q.v.) in the effort to prevent the 
hazard to the lives of seamen in the overload- 
ing of vessels. Consult Lloyd’s Register, 
‘Rules and Regulations for Steel Vessels? (or 
“for sailing vessels,» as the case may be) pub- 
lished annually in London. 


LOADSTAR. Sce LopgEsTar. 


LOAM, soil consisting of a mixture of 
clay, sand and lime, with animal and vegetable 
matters in intimate mixture. The clay varies 
from 20 to 50 per cent; the proportion of lime 
is usually not more than 5 per cent. Loamy 
soils are among the best and most fertile; they 
are not stiff and tenacious like clay soils, and 
they are much more fertile than sandy soils. 
.Even in mere mechanical properties, they are 
superior to both. The “clay” used for bricks 
is often really a loam in which the proportion 
of true clay is large. In Italy, France and 
some other countries, walls are made of loam 
beaten down between planks placed at the 
requisite width. These walls become very 
solid and last for centuries. The loam used 


551 


in foundries consists of a mixture of clay, 
sand and horsedung, ground up with water in 
a sort of mortar called a loam-mill. When 
cold, the loam has sufficient consistency to be 
struck up to any desired outline by means of 
a “loam-board” (See Cray; Sanp; Sort). 
Consult Van Slyke, ‘Fertilizers and Crops? 
ee York 1912) and Hilgard, ‘Soils? (ib. 
1904). 


LOAN, anything lent or given to another 
on condition of return or payment. In civil 
law loans are considered to be of two kinds — 
mutuum and commodatum; the former term 
being applied to the loan of such articles as are 
consumed in the use, aS provisions or money; 
the latter to the loan of such articles as must 
be individually returned to the lender. The 
acknowledgment of a loan of money may be 
made by giving a bond, a promissory note or 
an I. O. U. 


LOANGO, French West Africa, the chief 
port of the French colony, 100 miles north of 
the Kongo River. Under native rule it was a 
flourishing city of 15,000 souls, but is now re- 
duced to a few wharves and warehouses. 
Steamers are unloaded by means of lighters. 
There is a submarine telegraph connecting it 
with Europe. 


LOANGO, West Africa, a district on the 
Atlantic Coast, extending 200 miles to the 
north from the mouth of the Kongo. The 
coast is thinly wooded; inland the surface 
rises, but the interior is a succession of pla- 
teaus. Palm-oil, gum, wax, copper, rubber, 
orchil and ivory are exported. Cotton, coffee 
and bananas are the chief crops. Loango was 
formerly a part of the native kingdom of 
Kongo and is now divided between French 
Kongo, the Portuguese Kabinda and the Belgian 
Kongo. The native population are of small 
size but are skilled in many industries, espe- 
cially as weavers of bast and straw. Loango 
is the principal city. 


LOBACHEVSKY, or LOBATCHEW- 
SKY, Nicholas Ivanovitch, Russian mathema- 
tician: b. Makareif, Nigni-Novgorod, 1793; 
d. 24 Feb. 1856. He entered the University of 
Kazan in 1807, became assistant professor of 
mathematics in 1814 and extraordinary pro- 
fessor in 1816. In 1823 he became ordinary 
professor retaining his chair (in addition being 
for 19 years rector) until 1846, when he fell 
into disfavor. Unlike many professional men, 
he was a good business man and his adminis- 
tration of the affairs of the university was 
marked by many beneficial changes. He or- 
ganized the force of teachers, and even studied 
architecture, so that when the new buildings 
were erected he supervised their erection, econ- 
omized space and saved thousands of dollars. 
He wrote his ‘Pangéometrie? in 1855, giving the 
result of his long years of geometrical studies, 
and presented it to the university. He was 
one of the first thinkers to apply a critical 
treatment to the Euclidean principles of geom- 
etry. He gave his first contribution to the 
theory of hyper-geometry in a lecture at Kazan 
in 1826,-but later wrote several treatises on the 
subject. He also wrote a treatise on algebra 
(Kazan 1834) and contributed many other arti- 
cles on mathematics. His complete works 
were edited by Janischevsky (1870) and have 


552 


been translated by several writers. His collec- 
tion of geometrical writings was published in 
Kazan in 1883, the first volume containing Rus- 
sian articles only, and the second and last vol- 
ume containing the French and German arti- 
cles. For his geometry consult ‘New Princi- 
ples of Geometry with Complete Theory of 
Parallels, translated by Halsted (Austin, 
Tex. 1897). Consult also Engel, F., ‘N. I. 
Lobatchewsky? (Leipzig 1899). 


LOBBY, The, a class of persons who seek 
to influence legislation outside of the regular 
legislature which has come in the United States 
to be known derisively as the “third chamber.” 
The term was originally applied to the waiting- 
rooms of legislative halls, and then to those 
persons who frequented these rooms for the 
purpose of interviewing legislators with a view 
to influencing their votes. The lobby includes 
both those who are regularly employed in the 
work, and those who on particular occasions 
wish to promote or oppose some specific legis- 
lation. All large corporations and firms have 
regular paid lobbyists at Washington and at 
State capitals where legislation is likely to 
affect their interests. Women as well as men 
are employed as lobbyists, and are said to be 
very successful. The lobby is not in theory, 
nor necessarily in practice, a corrupting agency. 
It may furnish an entirely legitimate and de- 
sirable method of giving legislators necessary 
information in regard to certain laws; but it 
may also be, and often is, the means of obtain- 
ing legislation in the interests of a few with- 
out regard to the public good. The methods of 
the lobby differ with the character of the lobby- 
ist and of the legislator approached. They 
vary from the legitimate presentation of facts 
and argument in regard to a law to the use of 
bribery, threats of preventing re-election, etc.; 
and include the obtaining of letters and peti- 
tions from constituents, the employment of 
press articles and social attentions. The suc- 
cessful lobbyist must thoroughly understand 
the men with whom he_has to deal and the 
methods of legislation; it has been found, 
therefore, that former members of the legis- 
lature make the most successful and sometimes 
the most dangerous lobbyists. The dangers of 
the lobby are due to three chief causes: (1) 
the large number of special and private bills, all 
of which cannot be fully considered at the reg- 
ular sessions; (2) the system of referring all 
bills to committees, and accepting, as a rule, 
the report of the committee, so that the lobby- 
ist has practically but fews men to deal with; 
(3) the secrecy which attends the work of the 
lobby, giving the public no effective means of 
knowing or dealing with its evils. To oppose 
the grosser evils of the lobby both Federal and 
State laws attach heavy penalties to giving or 
taking a bribe for legislation. Many of the 
States also have lessened the number of bills 
to be presented by forbidding in their constitu- 
tions the passing of special acts in certain 
cases. Among States that have passed enact- 
ments to lessen the lobbying evil are — Cali- 
fornia, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee, Oregon, New 
York, Montana, Arizona and South Dakota. 
Ma sachusetts has sought to lessen the secrecy 
by requiring every promoter of a law in the 
interest of others to be registered, with the 
name and address of his employer and a state- 
ment of the matter on which he is employed. 


LOBBY —LOBITO BAY 


This law has had the effect of giving legal 


' sanction to the lobbyist’s work, improving the 


character of the lobbyists, and of lessening, 

though not entirely preventing, the evils attend- 

ing secrecy. The lobby sent to Washington to 
oppose the Underwood Tariff Bill of 1913 drew 
forth strong criticism and warning from Presi- 

dent Wilson, and the operations of the Na- 
tional Association of Manufacturers were in 
this connection severely animadverted on by 
the Investigation Committee in 1914, Consult. 
Bryce, ‘American Commonwealth; Bridgman, 

“The Lobby? (in New England Magaz sine, n. S. 

Vol} XVI, p.. 131) ;*Tanner;4d. -G,2f ime Lobby 
and Public Men? (Albany 1888); Reinsch, 

R. S., ‘American Legislatures and Legislative 
Methods? (New York 1907); ‘First Report of 
the Interstate Commerce Commission? (Wash-. 
ington 1887); and the ‘Cyclopedia of American 
Government. 


LOBELIA, a genus of annual and peren- 
nial herbs and a few undershrubs of the family 
Lobeltacee, closely allied to the harebells. 
More than 200 species are distributed through- 
out the temperate and tropical zones, especially 
in damp soils. They are characterized by al- 
ternate, usually narrow leaves and two-lipped 
tubular flowers (three petals forming one lip 
and two the other), arranged in terminal 
racemes. Several of the species are highly 
prized as garden plants, the best known being 
the cardinal-flower (q.v.), the great lobelia (L. 
syphilitica), both common natives in marshy 
grounds and along streams; L. Erinus, a favo- 
rite African plant for edging flower beds; and 
L. fulgens, a Mexican species, which like the 
first named has brilliant red flowers. The 
other two have blue blossoms. They are all 
of simplest culture. Some species have been 
used in medicine, and one common species, 
L. inflata, is ealled Indian tobacco because its 
dried leaves were extensively smoked by the 
southern Indians, who enjoyed the narcotic 
effect in spite of the bitter flavor. _Lobelin, 
lobelacrin, and lobelic acid are organic deriv- 
atives. 


LOBENGULA, 16-béng-goo'la, king of the 
Matabeles (see MATABEL. ELAND): b. about 1833; 
d. 1894. He was a son of Mosilikatse, whom 
he succeeded in 1870. Fixing his capital at 
Bulawayo (q.v.), he made himself a powerful 
opponent of Western civilization, and pro- 
hibited his people, on pain of death, from 
accepting Christianity. After years of diplo- 
matic effort, following the discovery of gold in 
his domain, Great Britain, by treaty in 1888, 
acquired suzerainty over his kingdom, and in 
1890 the British South Africa Company _ob- 
tained from him permission to settle’in Mash- 
onaland (q.v.), paying him a stipulated rent. 
After preparing to hold the country and work 
the gold mines, the company provoked the en- 
mity of Lobengula, who began against the 
English a war which resulted in his disastrous 
defeat, after shocking slaughter of his men 
by Maxim guns. Bulawayo was taken, and 
Lobengula fled. During his flight he ambus-— 
caded and killed Major Wilson and a British. 
detachment, but the contest ended with his own 
death. Consult Wills and Collingridge, ‘The 
Downfall of Lobengula? (London 1894). 


LOBITO BAY, Portuguese West Africa, 
seaport and railway terminus of Angola. It is 


LOBLOLLY BAY — LOBSTER 


the terminus of the railroad to Katanga. There 


2 a good harbor permitting ocean-going vessels 
o dock. 


LOBLOLLY BAY, or TAN BAY, an 
elegant pyramidal shrub or , {ree (Gordonia 
lasianthus) of the tea family, which covers 
considerable tracts of swampy coast along the 
Gulf of Mexico. It is a handsome tree, some- 
times 50 or 60 feet tall, with evergreen leaves 
and large white fragrant flowers. Its bark is 
used in tanning. 

LOBNOR, Lake, a lake of central Asia 
situated on the border of the desert of cen- 
tral Asia and near the base of the Altyn-Tagh 
Mountains in East Turkestan. It is fed by the 
Tarim, of which the lake is merely the sink. 
According to the Chinese the lake was for- 


merly of much greater area than at present- 


but modern explorers do not support this view. 
The lake’s borders are reed-covered marshes. 
The portions of the lake distant from the mouth 
of the Tarim are salt. Consult Hedin, Sven, 
“Trans-Himalaya? (New York 1912). 


LOBO, Francisco Rodrigues, Portuguese 
author: b. Leiria, about 1575; d. about 1627. 
Nothing is known of his life beyond the fact 
that he came of a wealthy family; that he 
studied at the University of Coimbra where 
he took the degree of licentiate about 1600; 
and that he lived at ease near his birthplace, 
writing pastoral and! other verse. His first 
volume of verse, ‘Romances? (1596), was writ- 
ten in Spanish, but thereafter he wrote in his 
native Portuguese, with the exception of his 
last work, a rhymed welcome to Philip III in 
1623. In his day Spanish was the language of 
Portuguese high society and Lobo rendered an 
important service to his native land by writing 
in Portuguese at the critical period in the his- 
tory of that. language during the Spanish domi- 
nation of Portugal. ‘Primavera,’ a novel, ap- 
peared in 1601, and was continued in ‘O Pas- 
tor Peregrino, in 1608, and ‘O Desenganado,? 
in 1614. Although considered his best prose 
they are dull for the modern reader, for whom 
their only relieving features are the pastoral 
songs or serranilhas. In his eclogues he fol- 
lowed Camoens closely and they are poor 
imitations at best. His redondilhas are infi- 
nitely superior, due perhaps to his reliance upon 
true national inspiration. His ‘Corte na Al- 
deia> contains an interesting series of philo- 
sophic and literary discussions in the form of 
dialogues. Lobo also wrote an epic in 20 can- 
tos, ‘El Condestable de Portugal? (1610), but 
it falls far below the level of his other works. 
Lobo ranks as one of the leading authors of 
Portugal because of the purity and elegance 
of his style. His works went through several 
editions in the 17th and 18th centuries—a 
remarkable feat for Portugal. An edition of 
his works appeared at Lisbon in one volume 
in 1723, and a less complete edition there in 
four volumes (1774). Consult Bouterwek, F., 
“History of Portuguese Literature? (London 
1823) and la Silva, I. F., ‘Diccionario biblio- 
graphico portuguez? (Vols. III, IX, Lisbon 
1859; 1870). 


LOBOC, 16-bék’,; Philippines, a pueblo of 
the province of Bohol, situated in the southern 
part of the province on the Socar-Vilar-Loay 
River, three miles from its outlet, and 12 miles 
east ef Taghbilaran, the provincial capital. It is 


553 


on the road leading from the coast. Pop. 


10,756. 
LOBOS, 10’bos, or SEAL ISLANDS, 


Peru, two groups of small islands in the Pacific, 
12 miles from the mainland, so named from the 
Spanish lobo, “seal,” large numbers frequenting 
the islands. The ‘largest and: most northerly 
is Lobos de Tierra, five miles long and two 
broad.. They were famous for their extensive 
deposits of guano, which have been depleted. 


LOBSTER, the name of certain large 
crustaceans of the crab group, and especially 
of the genera Homarus, Nephrops and Pal- 
nurus. To the first belong the common Euro- 
pean and American lobsters (Homarus gum- 
marus and americanus). Nephrops differ chiefly 
in possessing 19, instead of 20, pairs of gills, 
and its most important species is the Nor- 
wegian lobster (N. norvegicus). To Palinurus 
belongs the rock-lobster or marine crayfish 
(P. vulgaris) of Europe, as well as some trop- 
ical species, all of which differ from the com- 
mon lobster in the absence of the large claws, 
while they possess long rigid antenne and 
spiny shells. A large and handsome species 
of this group is abundant in West Indian 
waters. 

THe American lobster is found along the 
western Atlantic Coast from Delaware to Lab- 
rador; from the shore to a depth of 100 fath- 
oms. It is most abundant on the shores of 
Maine and Nova Scotia and less common on 
the New Jersey coast. Though living amid a 
variety of surroundings, the lobster prefers 
rocky bottoms, on which it reaches the greatest 
size and abundance, probably a direct result of 
a more plentiful food supply. Like many 
fishes, but to a much less degree, the lobster 
is migratory, moving into shallow water in 
the spring and returning to greater depths as 
the water grows colder in the fall. This habit, 
however, is very far from being universal, 
and many lobsters remain in shallow waters 
throughout the year. The food of the lobster 
consists of all kinds of animals, both living 
and dead, and to a less extent of vegetable 
matter, the indigestible parts of which are 
regurgitated. At times they are cannibalistic. 
Although so well protected by their hard shells, 
powerful claws and burrowing habits, lobsters 
have many enemies besides man. The most 
important of these are bottom-feeding fishes, 
such as the cod, tautog, skate and dogfish, 
which destroy great numbers of young lob- 
sters when two to six inches long, as well as 
the egg-bearing females and moulting adults. 


‘During the free-swimming larval stages great 


numbers probably fall a prey to surface-feeding 
fishes like the menhaden and herring, though 
little direct proof of this exists. The num- 
ber of eggs produced by a female lobster 
varies from 3,000 to nearly 100,000, according 
to the size and age of the animal, maturity 
being attained at an age of three or four years 
and a length of about 8 to 12 inches. The great 
majority (about four-fifths) lay their eggs 
during the summer, the remainder during the 
fall and winter, and it is probable that each 
female lays once in two years. After extru- 
sion the eggs are borne on the appendages 
attached to the lower side of the abdomen or 
tail of the female, where they remain under- 
going a slow development for 10 to 11 months, 


554 


most of those laid during the summer hatch- 
ing in June of the following year. After 
hatching, the young passes a_ period of six 
to eight weeks as a_ free-swimming pelagic 
larva, which moults five or six times, with 
corresponding changes in form and color. By 
this time it has assumed the form of the adult 
and is about three-fourths of an inch long. 
It now sinks to the bottom and burrows into 
the gravel or hides in rock crevices near shore. 
At the end of the first year it is about four 
or five inches long and has moulted from 
14 to 17 times, after which growth is much 
less rapid and moulting less frequent. The 
rate of growth varies greatly according to the 
food supply and other conditions, but a lobster 
of 10 or 12 inches is about five years old. A 
great age and size are sometimes attained, 
individuals weighing upward of 40 pounds be- 
ing recorded, though even 25 pounds is very 
rarely reached. 

The toothsomeness of the American lobster 
was early recognized and a regular fishery has 
existed on the Massachusetts coast for nearly 
a century. Owing to a rapidly extending de- 
pletion of the fishing grounds and a consequent 
diminution in the size and number of lobsters, 
the centre of the fishery has shifted northward, 
first to Maine and then to the British provinces. 
The lobster fisheries of the United States in 
1913 employed 4,508 persons with a capital in- 
vestment of $2,460,898. The catch numbered 
8,832,017 lobsters, weighing 12,067,017 pounds, 
of a value of $2,394,822. Between the years 
1889 and 1913 there was a decrease of 18,- 
504,556 pounds, or 60 per cent, while the re- 
ceipts of 1913, compared with those of 1889, 
increased 178 per cent. The price of fish in 
Maine rose from 1.8 cents per pound in 1880 
to 19.8 cents in 1913, or 11 times greater. 

There are no better oyster grounds in the 
world than the eastern provinces of Canada, 
from Grand Manan to the Labrador boundary. 
Not so many years ago the finest lobsters 
could be bought and sold for 50 cents per 
100. In Chaleur Bay they occurred in such 
numbers that farmers used them by thousands 
to manure the land. Canneries began to be 
established about 1870, and in 1910 there were 
677 canneries in the eastern provinces. The 
catch in 1890 amounted to 11,559,984. pound 
cans, while the quantity shipped to market in 
shell amounted to 104,940 hundredweight; the 
whole of a value of $1,648,344. During the 
next 20 years the quantity taken remained al- 
most stationary, but the value greatly increased. 
In 1910 the total was 9,071,600 pound cans, 


with shipment in shells of 103,907 hundred- 


weight, with aggregate value of $3,657,146; in 
1915-16 the catch was 445,277 hundredweight, 
and value $4,506,155. As measures toward 
maintaining the lobster supply, laws have been 
enacted fixing fines for. the possession of egg- 
bearing lobsters or those below a specified 
minimum size, and recourse has been had to 
artificial propagation. In the latter. practice 
many millions of eggs are annually taken from 
the bearing lobsters, artificially hatched, and 
the larve distributed by the fish commissions of 
the United States and the British provinces. 
In 1914 our bureau planted upward of 194,670,- 
000 of fry, and the Canadian government 
operates on an even more extensive scale. The 
beneficial results have been scarcely apparent, 


LOBWORM --LOCAL GOVERNMENT 


but the recent successful rearing of lobsters be- 
yond the larval stages has introduced a more 
hopeful outlook. The methods of the lobster 
fishery are very simple and uniform: Use is 
made of a trap or pot, a box-like affair gener- 
ally made of laths placed about one inch apart, 
and with a funnel-shaped opening of coarse net- 
ting placed in one end. The pot is baited with 
otherwise useless fish, weighted with stones, and 
lowered to the bottom by means of a rope to 
the upper end of which a buoy, with the owner’s 
private mark affixed, is attached. The pots are 
visited daily, and the lobsters, which after en- 
tering are unable to find their way out, re- 
moved. They are kept alive in floats until a 
sufficient number for shipment ‘has been 
gathered. Besides those sold in the shells, 
large quantities of the meat are canned, partic- 


‘ularly at Portland. 


Consult especially the elaborate account of 
the American lobster by Herrick in ‘Bulletin 
of the United States Fish Commission? for 
1895, in which full bibliographical references 
will be found; also Barnes, E. W., ‘Methods 
of Oyster Protection and Propagation (Proyi- 
dence 1911); Herrick, H. F., ‘Natural History 
of the American Lobster? (Washington 1911) ; 
and the evidence laid before the Canadian 
Fisheries’ Commission on ‘Lobster Fishery in 
Quebec and the Maritime Provinces? (Ottawa 
1909-10). 


LOBWORM. See Lucworm. 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT, Principles of. ° 


In all countries of any size the work of govern- 
ment is divided between the central authorities 
and officials in local districts; and the general 
character of the government as a whole is 
affected largely by the system of local govern- 
ment and the relations between the central and 
local authorities. The principles involved in 
local government systems are more complicated 
than are often realized; and governments 
which resemble each other in the main features 
of the central government may differ radically 
in their machinery of local governmert. This 
article calls attention to some of the leading 
factors to be considered in the study of local 
government, with illustrations from some of the 
more important countries. 

Local Government Areas.— One import- 
ant consideration is the nature of the local 
government areas. In some countries, there 
are comparatively large districts, often called 
provinces, which in modern times are historical 
divisions, in some cases representing formerly 
independent states. Such are the provinces of 
Prussia and Italy. In other countries, the older 
provinces have disappeared, and more recently 
established districts, generally smaller than the 
provinces, have been created, as the “depart- 
ments” of France. With these may be com- 
pared the counties of England. Both of these 
classes of districts include both urban and rural 
territory. 

In addition to such districts, in most coun- 
tries there are now somewhat smaller local 
government areas,—such as the “circles” in 
Germany, the “arrondisements” in France and 
the “rural districts”? of England; and in most 
of the American States, counties are compar- 
able in size and importance with such districts 
of the second order in European countries. 
Most of the districts of this class include both 


LOCAL GOVERNMENT 


urban and rural territory; but with the develop- 
ment of urban population during the last cen- 
tury, there are now distinctively urban dis- 
tricts of this type, and the district government 
is often combined with that of the city. 

Still further, there are in all countries local 
communities of smaller area, ranging from 
rural villages, parishes or towns, to large 
metropolitan cities. In some countries, as in 
Germany and England, there is an important 
legal distinction between rural towns or parishes 
and urban municipalities, such as cities and 
boroughs. In France both rural and urban 
communities are organized as communes. In 
the United States there are wide variations be- 
tween the different States. In the north Atlan- 
tic States, the term city is limited to places of 
over 10,000 or 12,000; in the Southern and 
Western States the minimum population for 
cities is lower,— from 5,000 in Ohio to 300 in 
Kansas. Smaller semi-urban districts are 
classed as villages or boroughs; while in New 
England the town government usually includes 
that of the villages. 

In addition there is a great variety of special 
districts for particular purposes, overlapping 
the other areas. These are frequently organ- 
ized as administrative subdivisions 
central government; but in England and the 
United States many such districts have also 
been established with locally elected authori- 
ties— such as poor law, port and burial. dis- 
tricts in England; and school, drainage, sani- 
tary and many other districts in the American 
States. The recent tendency in England is to 
eliminate such special districts; and to carry on 
public functions, as on the continent of Europe, 
by the more general local authorities, sometimes 
uniting several such districts for particular pur- 

oses. 

i Centralization and Decentralization.— In 
the organization of government one of the 
most important factors is the relative degree 
of central control and local autonomy as to the 
work done by local officials. In this respect 
both history and present systems show a wide 
range of variation from extreme centralization 
to an extensive field of local home rule. 

As Rome extended its dominion, the former 
city-states which it conquered were allowed 
to retain a large measure of self-government. 
But beginning with a centralized system of 
military and tax administration, the sphere of 
central control was gradually enlarged; and as 
‘ultimately organized in the time of Diocletian 
the whole system of government became 
thoroughly centralized, with the officials of 
the prztorian prefectures, the provinces and 
the municipalities appointed by and subject to 
the control of the higher authorities. 

With the decline and breakup of the Roman 
Empire, the highly centralized system disap- 
peared; and the feudal system which prevailed 
through western Europe during the Middle 
Ages was largely one of decentralized local 
government, where power was largely in the 
hands of the feudal lords. This system was 
modified by the development of cities, which 
also gained a large measure of local autonomy, 
exercised mainly by the merchant classes, and 
leading to another form of local oligarchy. 
Beginning in the latter part of the medieval 
period, principalities and kingdoms arose, the 
rulers of which steadily gained power, reducing 


for the - 


555 


the autonomy of the local communities and 
minor nobles on the one hand, and at the same 
time weakening the central authority of the 
medizval empire and the Roman Church. 

Local institutions in Anglo-Saxon England 
were highly decentralized, in the hands of shire 
or county courts, composed of representatives 
of the hundreds and presided over by the 
sheriffs, appointed by the Crown. After the 
Norman Conquest the power of: the sheriffs in- 
creased; and the central control of the Crown 
was still more strengthened by the develop- 
ment of law courts held by judges appointed 
by the Crown. But the movement toward 
complete centralization was affected by the de- 
velopment of justices of the peace and Parlia- 
ment. The unsalaried justices were appointed 
from property-owners and were thus more in- 
dependent and were also not subject to active 
central control. In Parliament, the more im- 
portant local districts — counties and boroughs 
—as well as the local nobility, were represented. 
The result was a system of legislative rather 
than executive centralization, with the control 
over both central and local government in the 
hands of the well-to-do classes. 

During the 19th century, the English system 
of local government was extensively altered. 
It has been made much more democratic by the 
establishment of popularly elected local coun- 
cils. The scope of local functions has been 
radically enlarged. At the same time, the local 
authorities have been made subject to a large 
degree of central administrative control, exer- 
cised by the Local Government Board. and 
other departments of the central government. 
The fundamental legal basis of ultimate legis- 
lative centralization in the hands of Parlia- 
ment remains; but Parliament has been reor- 
ganized on a more democratic basis, and with 
a more equitable representation of the local 
districts. 

On the continent of Europe the tendencies 
toward centralization in each country continued 
to the end of the 18th century. These were 
most marked in France, where, after a brief in- 
terruption in the early years of the Revolution, 
a new and completely centralized system was 
established under Napoleon I, with prefects, 
sub-prefects, mayors and local councils, all ap- 
pointed by and subject to the control of the 
central government. Since 1830, however, there 
has been some relaxation. Locally elected 
councils have been established; and the munic- 
ipal councils elect the mayors of the communes, 
except in Paris. But the system of local gov- 
ernment remains more highly centralized in 
form than in any other important country. 

In Italy, Spain, Holland and Belgium the 
local government systems have been largely in- 
fluenced by the French system; but with some- 
what more local autonomy. 

German local institutions have also been re- 
organized during the 19th century; and the 
recent system showed the influence of both 
French and English factors, as well as distinctly 
German elements. The general tendency has 
been toward an increase of local autonomy; 
and the expansion of local functions has been 
much more marked than in France and in some 
respects more than in England. Administra- 
tive control by the central governments of the 
several states over the local authorities has 
been less intensively organized than in France, 


556 


but more highly developed than in England. 
On the other hand, with the comparative weak- 
ness of popular control and the importance of 
professional officials, the local government 
has operated much asa highly centralized sys- 
tem. 

What will be the permanent result of the 
changes following the great war cannot be 
definitely predicted. 

Local government as developed in the Ameri- 
can colonies followed the main lines of the 
English system of the 17th century; and until 
the middle of the 19th century the tendencies 
toward legislative centralization and adminis- 
trative decentralization continued to develop. 
Since about 1850 there has been some move- 
ment in the opposite direction. The power of 
the State legislatures has been limited to some 
extent; and State officials have been established 
with supervision over local authorities and in 
some fields with powers of direct administra- 
tion. 

Each State has control over its own system 
of local government, which is determined in 
part by the State constitution and more largely 
by detailed statutory legislation, with no clear 
distinction between State laws of general in- 
terest and those dealing with local affairs. At 
the same time these laws are largely adminis- 
tered by locally elected officials; and many 
State constitutions provide for the local elec- 
tion of county officers. Legislative control is 
also limited in many States by constitutional 
provisions prohibiting and restricting special 
legislation; and in some of the Central and 
Western States cities have authority to adopt 
their own charters of local government. On 
the other hand, there are now State officials 
with powers of administrative supervision over 
local officers in the fields of education, chari- 
ties, public health, public utilities and finances; 
and in these and other lines there has developed 
a considerable amount of direct State adminis- 
tration. These tendencies toward a more cen- 
tralized administration are, however, still far 
behind the conditions in continental Europe, or 
even in England. There is need for further 
changes so as to develop a more coherent 
policy of local government. 

Local Organization.—In the organization 
of local institutions it is important to note: 
(1) The degree of concentration or division of 
authority tn the several local districts; and (2) 
the professional or non-professional character 
of local officials. 

Local powers in England are almost. uni- 
formly vested in elected councils of unpaid 
members, such as the county council, the bor- 
ough council and the urban or rural district 
council. These councils act largely by means 
of committees of their own members; and the 
chairman or mayor is merely the presiding of- 
ficer. Subordinate to the council are perma- 
nent expert officials. 

In France there is also a series of popu- 
larly elected councils in each local district, with 
financial and local legislative powers. But the 
executive authority of each district is vested 
in a single official—as the appointed prefects 
of the departments, and the mayors of com- 
munes elected by the communal councils. The 
prefects are a class of professional officials; 
but the mayors are not usually trained. Under 


‘professional officers. 


LOCAL GOVERNMENT 


these are subordinate experts for the various 
branches of administration. 

German local organization is more compli- 
cated; it includes elected local councils and 
trained professional experts; but the latter 
have more independent authority and larger in- 
fluence than in France or England. The may- 
ors of cities, as well as the chief executive of- 
ficers in the provinces, districts and circles, are 
Much use is made of ad- 
ministrative boards, composed of professional : 
and non-professional members, in contrast with 
the single-headed executive authority in France. 

In the United States there is a wide variety 
in the forms of. local organization. County 
government is divided between a series of 
elected officials, with no common superior, and 
an elected board of commissioners or super- 
visors — the latter in most States a small body 
elected at large, but in some States a larger 
body elected by towns or districts.- New Eng- 
land town government has a similar unconcen- 
trated organization; but in some of the Central 
States the town supervisor or trustee is the 
head officer. Cities formerly had a similarly 
loosely organized government; but in recent 
years there have been marked tendencies to- 
ward a more concentrated organization. In 
many places this has been brought about by 1n- 
creasing the power of the elected mayor; in 
many others by placing the city government in 
charge of a small commission of three or five 
elected members; while the latest plan provides 
for the election of a small council, which 
chooses a city manager as the chief executive 
officer. Civil service laws have also secured a 
better trained and more permanent subordinate 
service. 

The method of electing a large Humber of 
officials by popular vote for short terms has 
hindered the development of a professional ex- 
pert service; and as a result local administra- — 
tion has been extremely inefficient. ‘The more 
recent tendencies in city government toward 
a more concentrated organization have been 
accompanied by an increase in the class of 
trained officials. But local government in the 
United States remains more loosely organized 
and with a larger proportion of untrained of- 
ficials than in any other of the countries here 
noted. 

Popular Control.— The general tendency 
in all governments since the end of the 18th 
century has been toward an increase of popular 
control by the extension of the elective fran- 
chise. This has reached its maximum in the 
United States, where the prevailing system 
is one of the general adult suffrage, with 
short residence qualifications. In a consider- 
able number of States women also have the 
right to vote—and in some States where 
women do not vote in all elections, they may do 
so in some local elections. In the Southern 
States, however, the negro vote has been prac- 
tically eliminated. But the numerous elections 
and long lists of elective officials have hindered 
the effective exercise of popular control, and the 
real power is often in the hands of party and 
other political organizations. 

France also has manhood suffrage in local 
elections. In England local councils are elected 
under a widely extended suffrage, including 
women but excluding the floating population. 
In Germany the suffrage for local elections 


LOCAL OPTION 


has been more restricted: in Prussia all tax- 
payers could vote; but the voters were grouped 
in classes based on the amount of taxes paid, 
and this placed the effective control in the 
hands of the well-to-do classes. 

Summary.— To sum up, local government 
in the United States is the most democratic in 
form, and the most loosely organized, makes 
the least use of trained officials and has the 
maximum of administrative decentralization; 
but is subject to a large degree of State legisla- 
tive control. English government is demo- 
cratic and has a more concentrated organization, 
more trained officials and a considerable de- 
gree of central administrative supervision. In 
France, local government is democratic, but 
has a highly concentrated executive organiza- 
tion, expert officials and the highest degree of 
administrative centralization. The Prussian 
system has had the least popular control of 
any important country, a complicated organiza- 
tion, a large degree of central administrative 
control and the most highly trained, expert pro- 
fessional officials. 

Bibliography.—Ashley, P., ‘Local and Cen- 
tral Government?; Fairlie, J. A., ‘Local Gov- 
ernment in Counties, Towns and Villages? ; 
Goodnow, F. J., ‘Principles of Constitutional 
Government? (chs. 23, 24, 25). 

JoHN A. FAIRLIE, 
Professor of Political Science, University of 
Illinots. 


LOCAL OPTION. The phrase local op- 
tion may be applied to a great variety of mat- 


ters which may be determined by the action of. 


local communities. In the broadest sense, it 
includes all powers of local government, as dis- 
tinguished from mandatory duties. More com- 
monly the term is used with reference to per- 
missive or adoptive laws dealing with specific 
subjects —such as the choice between the 
-county and township forms of local govern- 
ment, the alteration of boundaries and the con- 
duct of elections. Before January 1920 when 
national prohibition was to take effect, the term 
was commonly used with reference to the local 
prohibition or license of the sale of intoxicat- 
ing liquors, usually by popular vote. 

In 1829 the selectmen of each town in 
Maine were authorized to decide whether or 
not to permit the sale of liquor; but this 
method soon ceased to have statutory warrant. 
In 1868 Massachusetts recognized the local op- 
-tion principle in its liquor laws; and in 1881 
definitely established the local option system. 
Other States gradually provided for some 
method of local prohibition of liquor selling; 
and by 1900 laws for this purpose had been 
passed by 37 States. Later a number of local 
option States adopted State prohibition, while 
other States provided for some form of local 
option. In 1916 there were 19 States where the 
sale of liquor was prohibited; 26 others had lo- 
cal option laws, applying to a variety of dis- 
tricts; while in the three remaining States 
(Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Nevada) 
methods had been found to exclude the sale 
of liquor from certain limited areas. 

In three States— Maryland, Michigan and 
Montana — the local option laws on the sale 
of liquor’ applied to counties. In eight 
other States, the vote could be taken by coun- 
ties or by smaller districts; and in such cases 


557 


smaller districts might usually be voted “dry” 
although the county as a whole was “wet.” 
This group of States included Florida, Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, New 
Mexico, Texas and. Utah. In 15 other States 
the vote was taken by cities, villages, towns or 
county districts. This group included the New 
England States (except prohibition Maine), 
New York, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Wisconsin, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wyoming 
and California. In New York the option of 
prohibiting the-sale of liquors was given only 
to towns and not to cities. In Illinois a town- 
ship which included a city might exclude sa- 
loons from the whole area, although the city 
gave a “wet” majority. In a few States, as 
Ohio and Minnesota, districts within a city 
might exclude saloons. 

Local option elections on the sale of liquors 
in most of the States were held on petition of 
the electors—-the percentage required ranging 
from 10 per cent in Connecticut to 40 per cent 
in Ohio, with 25 per cent as the prevailing ratio. 
The question might be resubmitted at inter- 
vals, varying from one to four years in the 
different States, two years being the most com- 
mon period. In Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
shire and Vermont the question of license or 
no license was voted on without petition at 
each town election. South Dakota was all 
considered “dry” until a local district voted 
“wet”; and a new election had to be held each 
year to continue saloons. In Wyoming, the 
municipal councils might refuse to license 
saloons. 

Under local option laws and State prohibition 
80 per cent of the land area of the United 
States with 54 per cent of the population had 
no licensed saloons. Of the local option States, 
12 had more than half the population in “dry” 
territory; and 14 had less than half. The dry 
regions were mainly in States with a large 
rural population and also the States where the 
proportion of native population was largest; 
while the States with a large urban and foreign 
population were predominantly “wet.¥ The 
most important instances where urban districts 
excluded saloons under local option laws were 
Cambridge and other suburban cities near 
Boston; while a similar situation existed in 
the no license districts within the city of 
Chicago. 

Notwithstanding the large increase of no- 
license territory, there was a steady increase 
in the per capita consumption of intoxicating 
liquors in the United States. From 1840, the 
per capita consumption had multiplied five-fold; 
but the greater part of this had been in the 
milder fermented liquors; and the rate of in- 
crease had been less during the last 25 years. 
In the 10 years from 1903 to 1913, while popu- 
lation increased about 20 per cent, the con- 
sumption of distilled spirits increased about 
25 per cent and of malt liquors about 40 per 
cent. During the same period, the production 
of distilled spirits increased about 70 per cent. 
Part of the increase in distilled spirits was 
probably due to the larger use of alcohol in 
the arts. See ScIENCE; Liquor TRAFFIC. 

Bibliography.— ‘Local Option in the United 
States” in the National Municipal Review, Oc- 
tober 1916; Anti-Saloon League Year Book; 
U. S. Brewers’ Association Year Book; Rown- 


558 


tree and Sherwell ‘Public Control of the Liquor 
Traffic? (1903). 
JoHN A. FAIRLIE, 
Professor of Political Science, University of 
Illinots. 


LOCALITY, Perception of. Our sensa- 
tions are associated with positions in space. 
That this is the case with vision and joint 
sensations is obvious, while in all the other 
senses a stimulus is referred to the approxi- 
mate spatial position of the organ that perceives 
it, and is possibly further referred to some 
place in space from which it is believed to 
arise. ‘The senses with the most direct spatial 
reference appear to be vision, the sensations of 
the skin, and those of the joints. The spatial 
relations of two objects presented to the eye 
are as immediately given as their. relations of 
color-intensity or color-quality. In the same 
way, the location of an object on the skin or 
the position of a joint are primitive attributes 
of the experience of the object. However, 
the visual, tactile and articular spatial worlds 
are per se of a bi-dimensional character. The 
relations of space in the third dimension are 
not directly given in experience, but are the 
result of the synthesis of a large number of 
different factors. In the case of vision, these 
factors are the parallax of the visual objects 
with reference to the interocular distance, the 
experiences of the muscles of the eyeballs as 
they focus the eyes and regulate their degree 
of convergence and such phenomena of geo- 
metrical and atmospheric perspective as have 
“been given by habit a three-dimensional inter- 
pretation. The cutaneous senses acquire their 
three-dimensional interpretation through asso- 
ciation with visual experiences and experiences 
of joints, and through the complex of cutaneous 
sensations resulting when two parts of the in- 
tegument are brought into contact with one 
another. The sensations of a single joint are 
necessarily uni-dimensional or bi-dimensional, 
as the joint cannot have more than two degrees 
of freedom, but the combined sensations of two 
adjacent joints furnish a _ three-dimensional 
manifold, corresponding to the three degrees of 
freedom of a point at the end of a doubly 
jointed rod. The three-dimensional worlds of 
sight, touch and joint-position formed in the 
manner thus indicated are amalgamated into a 
single space by that intimate association of their 
phenomena which is impressed on us from the 
very start of our experience, and which is 
possibly even prior to our consciousness of this 
association. An important theory in this con- 
nection is that due to Lotze, and known as the 
theory of local signs. According to this view, 
each cutaneous sensation carries with it a 
peculiar qualitative distinction that is always 
associated with the point of its origin. As it 
appears impossible, however, to discover any 
qualitative characteristic peculiar to each place 
on the skin, the local sign of a cutaneous sensa- 
tion is probably just that visual localization that 
accompanies. it. 

It is altogether probable that hearing and 
smell, at any rate, have no distinctly spatial 
attribute, and that the localization of sounds 
and scents is due to the association of certain 
non-spatial characters on their part with the 
sight-touch spatial system. In the case of sound 
the chief factor is the relative intensity of the 


LOCALITY — LOCH 


sensations in the two ears, as is shown by the 
poorness of localization in cases where hearing 
of one ear is lost, and by the practical impos- 


sibility of determining the source of a sound in 


the median plane. The quality and absolute 
intensity of the sound are also indices of its 
source. The quality is somewhat dependent on 
the direction from which the sound reaches the 
pinna, and so enables a certain degree of local- 
ization in hearing with a single ear. In the-case 
of smell, localization depends on the relation 
between the position of the head and the in- 
tensity of the sensation. 

The accuracy of localization can be measured 
in two ways. The first is to determine the 
lower limen (see Limina) of the interval be- 
tween two stimuli; the second is to indicate the 
absolute position of a stimuli, and measure the 
average error of the localization. While the 
former method often indicates a greater sen- 
sitivity than the latter, the relation between the 
acuity of absolute and relative discrimination of 
locality varies in the different senses. In sight 
relative discrimination preponderates, and two 
points subtending an angle of one minute or a 
retinal distance of .004 millimetre can be dis- 
tinguished. A. binocular parallax of five 
seconds suffices to give an impression of depth. 
In the case of the pressure sense, the average 
absolute error of localization is 5 to 10 milli- 
metres on the wrist. The discrimination limen 
for the tactile senses is not clearly defined, and 
the sensation from pressure at two points goes 
through several stages of elongation before it 
is distinctly double. If the pressure is applied 
at pressure spots, the two point limen assumes 
a much smaller value than otherwise, and is 
about 0.3 millimetre on the back of the hand, 
0.5 millimetre on the forehead, .08 millimetre 
on the chest, and 4 millimetres on the back. 
The corresponding values for the cold sense 
are 2, 0.8, 2, and 1.5 millimetres; for the sense 
of warmth, 3, 4, 4, and 4 millimetres respectively. 
The least noticeable movement of the hip- 
joint is 0.5 degree; for the ankle, 1 degree. 
The localization of organic sensations is highly 
irregular, and exhibits many anomalies. (See 
LimINA; SPACE; Vision). Consult Kulpe, O., 
‘Outlines of Psychology? (tr. New York 1909) ; 
Ladd, G. T., and Woodworth, R. S., ‘Elements 
of Physiological Psychology? (New York 
1911); Lotze, R. H., ‘Medizinische Psychol- 
ogie? (Leipzig 1852); Titchener, E. B., ‘Text- 


Book of Psychology? (New ~ York 1910); 
Wundt, W., ‘Grundziige der physiologischen 
Psyychologie? (6th ed., Leipzig 1908-11). 


LOCARNO, 16-kar’nd, Switzerland, town 
in the canton of Ticino, on Lake Maggiore at 
the embouchure of the Maggia, 14 miles south- 
west of Bellinzona. It is only 680 feet above 
sea-level and is said to be the: lowest part of 
Switzerland. Nearby is the sanctuary of the 
Madonna del Sasso, frequented annually by 
great numbers of pilgrims. Brushes and can- 
dles are the only industries of importance. 
The Milanese lost Locarno to the Swiss in 
1512; in 1798 it was included in the canton of 
Lugano in the Helvetic republic. In 1555 its 
Protestant inhabitants were driven out and, | 
going to Zurich, founded the silk industry 
there. Pop. 5,630, mostly Italians. 


LOCH, 16k, Henry Brougham Loch, First 
Baron. British colonial administrator: b. 23 


LOCH LOMOND — LOCK 


May 1827; d. London, 20 June 1900. He joined 
the navy in 1840, but in 1842 entered the service 
of the East India Company, being commis- 
sioned in the Bengal Light Cavalry. He served 
in the Sutlej campaign. In the Crimean War 
he commanded a brigade of irregular Bulgarian 
cavalry and in 1857 was made attaché to Lord 
Elgin on a mission to China. In 1858 he 
brought home the treaty of Yedo. In 1860-he 
went to China a second time as secretary of 
embassy. During the negotiations for peace at 
Tungchow he was made prisoner, taken to 
Pekin, where he and Parker endured all the 
horrors of a Chinese prison. He was released 
within a short time but his health was greatly 
impaired. Loch was knighted on his return to 
England and in 1863 was made lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of the Isle of Man. From 1884 to 1889 
he was governor of Victoria and in the latter 
year became governor of Cape Colony and 
high commissioner of South Africa. In 
South Africa Loch supported the policy of 
Cecil Rhodes and several times opposed Presi- 
dent Kruger in the latter’s attempts to prevent 
British expansion to the north. In 1895 Loch 
returned to England and was raised to the 
peerage. At the outbreak of the Boer War he 
raised and equipped the body of men known as 
“Loch’s Horse.” 


LOCH LOMOND. Sce Lomonp, Loc#. 
LOCHES, lésh, France, town and capital 


of an arrondissement in the department of 
Indre-et-Loire, situated on the Indre, 30 miles 
southeast of Tours. It contains an ancient 
castle of the Anjou family with many inter- 
esting medieval remains. Here, also, are the 
oratory of Anne de Bretagne and the tomb of 
Agnes Sorel. It has also a fine town hall, the 
church of Saint Ours, a communal and train- 
ing college. Leather, liqueurs and textiles are 
manufactured. The town grew up about the 
monastery founded here in 500 by Saint Ours. 
For a long time after 1250 the castle was a 
residence of the kings of France. Pop. 3,940. 


LOCHINVAR, 16k’in-var’, the hero of a 
famous ballad in Sir Walter Scott’s ‘Mar- 
mion.? 


LOCHLEVEN. See Leven, Locu. 


LOCHNER, loch’nér, Stephen, German 
painter: b. Meersburg, on Lake Constance, date 
unknown; d. 1451. Very little is known of 
his life or of his artistic education. About 
1426 he removed to Cologne where he soon be- 
came prominent. In -1447 and in 1450 he was 
councilor to the Painters’ Guild of that city. 
Lochner’s greatest work is the triptych called 
the Kolner Dombild (lit. Cologne Cathedral 
Painting). The centre panel is devoted to 
‘The Adoration of the Magi, the right con- 
tains, ‘Saint Ursula and her Handmaids,? and 
the left “Saint Gereon and the Theban Legion.? 
It is the greatest work of the Cologne school 
and one of the finest in Germany, Other 
works of Lochner are ‘The Madonna with 
Violets,» in the Archepiscopal Museum, Co- 
logne, ‘Christ and Saints,? in the Nuremberg 
Museum; ‘Madonna in the Rose Arbor, in the 
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne, and ‘The 
Presentation in the Temple,? at Darmstadt: 
Lochner was an excellent colorist but a medi- 
ocre draftsman. Consult Aldenhoven, Carl, 


“Geschichte der kd6lner Malerschule? (Litibeck 


559 


1902) and Escherich, Mela, ‘Die Schule von 
Koln? (Strassburg 1907). 


LOCK, a mechanical appliance used for 
fastening doors, chests, etc., generally opened 
by a key; or more broadly speaking, a lock is 
a bolt guarded by an obstacle, and controlled 
by a key. The bolt may be pivoted or rotary, 
but usually slides; the key generally rotates, 
but may act by sliding or pushing; the obsta- 
cle, which in order to operate the bolt must 
be overcome by the key, may be of the 
warded (fixed) or of the tumbler (movable) 
types. 

History.— The history of the art of the 
locksmith is probably as old as the history of 
civilization, and references to it are found in 
the early literature of every nation. Wood 
was undoubtedly: the first material used in 
construction, but the Egyptians appear to 
have, at an early date, employed brass and 
iron also. The Hebrews and Greeks used 
crooked keys, with ivory or wooden handles, 
for the purpose of bolting or wunbolting 
doors. Some of the modern Greeks still em- 
ploy the primitive method of closing doors 
from the inside by a wooden or metallic bar, 
attached to the door by means of leather 
strings or small iron chains; wood or iron 
keys, made in the shape of hooks, were in- 
serted through a hole in the door and by 
turning lifted up the bar on the inside. The 
similarity of these primitive locks rendered 
access to the house easy and soon led to an 
improvement upon the method, resulting in 
the so-called Lacedemonian lock. This too 
was improved, but of the workings of this lock 
no description has come down to us. 

Among the nations of antiquity lock-mak- 
ing made little progress in advance of what 
had been done by the Egyptians. Even the 
Romans, who excelled the other nations of 
the world in iron-work, used very simple 
locks, resembling those of the modern 
Greek. The tumbler lock was next in suc- 
cession, and was probably first invented and 
used by the Chinese. In this lock a lever or 
slide entered .a notch in the bolt, which could 
not be moved till the tumbler was lifted by 
the key. The warded lock, used by the Etrus- 
cans, was the next form of lock which came 
into general use. While the Roman _ locks 
belong to the same description, they were dis- 
tinctly different. In locking and unlocking 
the keys did not make a complete revolution 
and consequently were identical with the 
spring locks of modern days. After the 
downfall of the Roman Empire, lock-making 
took on an unprecedented impulse, owing to the 
increased danger of robbery, and human in- 
genuity was: taxed to the limit to provide 
means for the safe-keeping of valuables. About 
1650 a fourth type of lock, the /etter or dial 
lock, was invented by M. Regnier, director of 
the Musée d’Artillerie at Paris, and these four 
types form the basis for the majority of our 
modern locks. 

Locks were first manufactured in England 
during the reign of Alfred (a.p. 871-901), 
but no substantial improvement in their con- 
struction was made till the latter part of the 
18th century. These improved locks were the 
Barron, first patented in 1778, the Bramah lock, 
patented in 1784; these were followed in 1818 
by the Chubb, and later by the American 


560 


Parautopic lock of Day and Newell. Of those 
then manufactured, this latter lock beeame 
the most generally used for safes because it 
presented the least possibility of being picked, 
but this lock finally. succumbed to the skill of 
Linus Yale, Jr., an American inventor (b. 
1821; d. 1868). Yale had for a number of 
years been interested in and had patented locks 
of diverse types and ingenious construction. 
The modern combination lock was then un- 
known, and Yale’s earlier inventions related to 
locks operated by keys, but great security was 
obtained by making the “bit” of the key 
changeable at will and also detachable from 
the handle, so that, as the latter was rotated 
in the lock, the former was detached and 
carried away from the key-hole to a remote 
part of the lock, and there brought into contact 
with the tumblers to set them ‘in position to 
permit the bolt to move, the continued rota- 
tion of the key handle then operating the bolt 
and returning the “bit” to the key-hole for re- 
moval. 
improved form of which is now in universal 
use in America for safes and vaults, and which, 
as now made, is proof against picking by any 
methods thus far discovered. 

Mr. Yale’s most important invention, brought 
out in 1860 to 1864, was the key lock univer- 
sally known as the Yale lock, the United States 
patents for which were issued on 29 Jan. 1861 
and 27 June 18605. This combination of a flat 
key and revolving “plug” has almost entirely 
superseded the crude and bulky lock, of indiffer- 
- ent security and inferior. workmanship, which 
was opened by a round key, and the intro- 
duction of the Yale or cylinder type. com- 
pletely revolutionized the art of lock-making in 
America. 

Yale’s inventions led to the dial lock of 
James Sargent, but as the user of both of these, 
the Yale and the Sargent, could be coerced 
to open them, and were indeed picked by ex- 
perts, the inventors turned their attention to 
making the only lock which is absolutely unas- 
sailable——the time-lock. This was first sug- 
gested in 1831 by an Englishman, William 
Rutherford; in 1857 Holbrook and Fish of the 
United States devised another, but the first 
successful time-locks put on the market were 
the Sargent and Yale time-locks, brought out 
in 1875, and followed later by the Pillard, the 
Homes, the Hall and others. 

Warded Locks.—In the majority of this 
class there is a “back spring” or dog, the feel- 
ing of which, when using the key, resembles 
that of a tumbler, but which adds nothing to 
the security. 

Lever Tumbler Locks.— These locks may 
contain several tumblers, the number of key 
changes usually being limited to from 12 to 24 
and possibly 72, while in a good three-tumbler 
lock of this style as many as from 200 to 500 
key-changes are possible. Round, barrel and 
flat keys are used. 

Cylinder and “Pin-Tumbler” Locks.— The 
former term applies to locks in which the pin 
tumbler is contained in a cylinder separate 
from the lock case; the latter is applied to 
those wherein the pin tumblers are contained 
in the lock itself. 

Master-Keyed Locks.— A series of locks 
is said to be “master-keyed” when so constructed 
that each lock can be operated by its own key, 


Yale then perfected the dial lock, the 


LOCK HAVEN 


which fits no other lock of the series, and also 
by another key which will operate every lock 
in the entire series. Warded locks are master- 


' keyed by means of a “skeleton” key, with the 


bit cut away sufficiently to ayoid all the wards 
in all of the locks of the series. Lever-tumbler 
locks are master-keyed in three ways, either by 
providing two “gatings” on each tumbler, one 
of which is brought in line with the corre- 
sponding “fence” or post on the bolt by the 
change-key and the other by the master-key: 
by providing a “lifter,» which, when actuate 

by the master-key, moves the tumblers in the 
same manner as does the change-key when the 
latter acts directly on the tumblers; or by pro- 
viding a set of secondary levers, which, when 
operated by the mastc:-key, move the primary 
tumblers in the same thannef as the change-key 
which acts on them directly. Pin-tumbler locks 
are master-keyed by cutting each pin in two 
places, or by encircling the plug (which con- 
tains the key-way) with a larger annular plug, 
thus providing two points at which each tum- 
bler may be set to permit the plug to rotate, and 
utilizing one set of these points for the change- 
key and the other set for the master-key. 

Time of Chronometer Locks.—In these 
the mechanism is actuated by clock-work, and 
is used, in connection with the heavy bolt work 
of a safe door, to prevent the unlocking of the 
latter except upon the hour at which the clock 
is set. There “are generally three chronometer 
movements, each of which will of itself actuate 
the lock, so that shonld one or two be disabled 
or inoperative, the other will open the door at 
the time indicated. In connection with the 
time lock an automatic bolt operating device is 
often used. 

Dial or Combination Locks.— These con- 
sist esseritially of a bolting mechanism guarded 
by a set of changeable tumblers or wheels, and 
actuated by a spindle passing through the door, © 
provided on the outer end with a graduated 
dial, by rotating which in a certain manner the 
tumblers can be set and the lock be operated. 

Lock-Making.— The first locks made in 
this country naturally were patterned after 
those made in Europe, but whereas the Euro- 
pean artisan used wrought metal in con- 
struction, the American manufacturers soon 
turned: from this and employed cast metal. 
This change, together with the introduction 
of vastly improved machinery, soon reduced 
the cost of production, so that now locks of 
the best type can be purchased at a merely 
nominal cost, and while, for a few years after 
1870, the sharp competition among manufac- 
turers tended to reduce the quality of the 
production, the mechanical advancement 
since that time has been marked and at the 
present time the highest grade of workman- 
ship and mechanical skill is manifest in the 
articles on the American market. The chief 
centres of lock-making are in Eastern Pennsyl- 
vania and Connecticut. Consult Fox-Pitt- 
Rivers, ‘On the Development and Distribution 
of Primitive Locks and Keys» (London 1883) ; 
F. E. Kidder, section on Locks in ‘Building 
Construction» (part 2, pp. 580-603, New York © 
1913); and H. R. Towne, ‘Locks and Hard- 
ware) (ib. 1904), 


LOCK HAVEN, Pa., city, county-seat of 
Clinton County; on the Susquehanna River and 
on the New York Central and the Pennsylvania 


LOCKE 


railroads; about 68 miles northwest of Harris- 
burg. The first settlement was made in 1769 
and, in 1833, it was incorporated as a town. 
In 1844 it was made a borough, and in 1870 re- 
ceived its city charter. It is situated in an agri- 
cultural, manufacturing and lumbering region. 
Its chief industrial establishments are lumber 
and planing mills, tanneries, cigar factory, 
foundries, fire-brick works, silk mills, breweries, 
paper mill, woven wire. works, steam laundries, 
dye atid chemical works and furniture factory. 
The State Central Normal School is situated 
here and there is a new high school. Some of 
the prominent buildings are the courthouse, a 
hospital and several fine churches. The citv 
has a circulating library containing about 6,000 
volumes. The waterworks are the property o 
the municipality. Lock Haven has adopted the 
commission form of government. Pop. 8,557. 


LOCKE, lok, David Ross (“PrErroLeuM V. 
Nassy”), American humorist and satirist: b. 
Vestal, Broome County, N. Y., 20 Sept. 1833; d. 
Toledo, Ohio, 15 Feb. 1888. He learned the 
trade of printer and after being connected with 
several newspapers was editor and owner of the 
Toledo Blade in 1865, and very soon became 
popular as a humorous writer and later as a 
lecturer. He began his “Nasby” letters in-the 
Findlay Jeffersonion in 1860 and _ continued 
them throughout the Civil War. They exer- 
cised much influence in molding popular opin- 
ion, upholding as they did the policy of the Lin- 
coln administration. In later years the satire 
of the letters, which still continued to appear, 
was aimed at President Johnson and his pecu- 
liar methods. They were collected and pub- 
lished in book form under the titles ‘Divers 
Views, Opinions and Prophecies of Yours 
Truly? (1865); ‘Swingin’ Round the Cirkle? 
(1866) ; ‘Ekkoes from Kentucky? (1867) ; ‘The 
Struggles — Social, Financial and Political — 
of P. V. Nasby? (1872). He also published 
“Hannah Jane”; ‘The Moral History of Amer- 
ica’s Life Struggle?; ‘The Morals of Abou 
Ben Adhem?; ‘A Paper City? (1878), and 
“Nasby in Exile? (1882). 


LOCKE, John, English philosopher: b. 
Wrington, Somerset, 29 Aug. 1632; d. Oates, 
Essex, 28 Oct. 1704. He was the son of an at- 
torney who became a captain in the Parlia- 
mentary army. Locke was educated at West- 
minster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, 
where he was graduated and took his bachelor’s 
degree in 1656; two years later took the degree 
of M.A. and entered upon the study of medi- 
cine. He lectured at Oxford (1660-64) on 
Greek, rhetoric and philosophy, and during this 
period became interested in experimental phys- 
ics, especially chemistry and meteorology, and 
in metaphysics showed a preference for study- 
ing Descartes, although his own philosophy 
powerfully antagonizes that of the French 
master. “Theology and _ politics, including 
diplomacy, also engaged his attention. At Ox- 
ford before 1666 he is said to have practised 
medicine, in which, however, he was never 
graduated. As secretary to Sir Walter Vane, 
British envoy, he went in 1665 to Cleves, Prus- 
sia, returning to Oxford in the following year, 
during which time he made the acquaintance of 
Lord Ashley, afterward Ist earl of Shaftes- 
bury, became his family physician and secre- 
tary, under his patronage held various offices, 

VOL. 17 — 36 


561 


and in 1682 accompanied him into exile to Hol- 
land. Locke continued to reside abroad until 
1689, when, after Revolution had been accom- 
plished, he returned to England to become com- 
missioner of appeals. His association with 
Lord Ashley, between whom and himself there 
was close intellectual sympathy, was stimttlating 
to his genius, and it was in Ashley’s house that 
Locke first planned the ‘Essay on the Humar 
Understanding.» Fully elaborating this work 
during his voluntary exile, he published it. in 
complete form in 1690, with a dedication to 
the earl of Pembroke, whose acquaintance he 
had made at Montpellier many years before. 
The ‘Essay,’ which had largely occupied him 
for almost 20 years, met with much criticism in 
England, being particularly opposed at Ox- 
ford: but on the Continent it brought him great 
celebrity, and was translated into French and 
Latin and later into other languages. For the 
copyright of the first edition he received but 
£30, and although he had previously published 
two works this was the first to bear the author’s 
name. In 1696 Locke was made a commissioner 
of trade and plantations, but in a few years be- 
came iticapacitated and retired, and from 1700 
until his death lived with his friend, Sir F. 
Masham, at Oates. Meanwh_le being drawn 
into the violent controversies over the essay 
which arose among different sects and schools, 
he had sturdily maintained his ground in a 
style of epistolary polemics which still possesses 
an academic interest. 

As a philosopher Locke’s place is usually 
fixed at the head of the English Sensational 
School, although this classification by no means 
does justice to his many-sidedness as a thinker, 
and the term “sensationalism,” with its ordi- 
nary connotations, is wholly inadequate for a 
correct representation either of his speculative 
inquiries or of those still less definable medita- 
tions which led him profoundly to search the 
realms of ethics and of spiritual laws, in an en- 
deavor to assign the relations and functions of 
these in the world of practical politics and that 
of instituted religion. Of that sensationalist 
school of which he is reputed to have been 
founder, it has been said with much pertinence 
that its ultimate conclusions are such as “his 
calm and pious mind would have indignantly 
repudiated.» The ‘Essay on the Human Under- 
standing? holds a permanent place among the 
greater works of philosophy, in the history of 
which, however, Locke’s method may be super- 
seded, and although his main doctrine be ex- 
ploded, the book retains its importance as an 
epoch-marking achievement. It .seeks the 
primal sources and the scope of human knowl- 
edge, denying the existence of innate ideas, 
presenting the mind as a sheet of white paper 
prepared to be written upon by experience, 
which alone supplies the knowledge there im- 
pressed, and tracing the sources of all ideas to 
what he calls sensation and reflection. This 
doctrine of the tabula rasa or white paper 
found a vigorous controverter in Leibnitz 
(q.v.). The opposition which Locke thus repre- 
sented between all intuitional and experiential 
philosophies still -remains a central point of 
dispute among thinkers of various schools, but 
he was a forerunner in psychology, as he was 
also in the advocacy of civil and religious 
liberty, for which he suffered persecution and 
betook himself to exile. 


562 


Upon questions of government Locke was 
in the main a follower of Hobbes (q.v.) in so 
far as the latter regarded governmental author- 
ity as something delegated by the subjects for 
the creation of the state, through a compact 
which carried in itself the principle of obliga- 
tion.. But he went far beyond Hobbes in the 
application of his views to the concrete affairs 
of politics. In 1689 a constitution for the Caro- 
lina colonists was drafted by him, and was an 
evidence of his concern to put political philos- 
ophy to practical service. (See Essay CONCERN- 
ING THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING). Besides the 
‘Essay,? his works include letters ‘Concerning 
Toleration? (1689); ‘Two Treatises on Govern- 
ment? (1690); ‘Some Thoughts Concerning 
Education»? (1693); ‘The Reasonableness of 
Christianity? ; and a little, book ‘On the Con- 
duct of the Understanding,» posthumously pub- 
lished. Frazer’s edition of the ‘Essay’ (1894) 
is the most desirable. His philosophical writ- 
ings have been published in various editions, 
Saint John’s (1854 et seq.) being one of the 
most useful. Consult King, ‘The Life of John 
Locke?.. (1829) ; .Fox; Bourne,,.‘The. Life . of 
John Locke? (1876); Fowler, ‘John Locke? 
(1880) ; Frazer, ‘Locke? (1890); Russell, ‘The 
Philosophy of Locke? (1891); and Ueberweg- 
Heinze, ‘Grundriss der Geschichte der Philos- 
ophie? (8th ed., 1896), where a more extended 
bibliography is to be found. 

LOCKE, William John, English novelist: 
b. 20 March 1863. He was educated at Queen’s 
Royal College, Trinidad, and Cambridge Uni- 
versity, and was secretary of the Royal Insti- 
tute of British Architects, 1897-1907. His fic- 
tions include ‘At the Gate of Samaria? (1895); 
‘The Demagogue and Lady Phayre? (1896) ; 
‘A Study in Shadows? (1896); ‘Derelicts? 
(1897); ‘Idols? (1898); ‘The White Dove? 
(1900); ‘The Glory of Clementina? (1911); 
‘The Joyless Adventures of Aristide Pujol? 
(1912) ; ‘Stella Maris? (1913) ; ‘The Fortunate 
Youth? (1914); ‘Jaffery? (1915); ‘The Red 
Planet? (1917); ‘Drowned Gold? (1919). He 
has also written several plays. 

LOCKER-LAMPSON, Frederick, English 
lyric poet: b. Greenwich, 29 May 1821; d. Row- 
faul, England, 30 May 1895. He wrote a vol- 
ume of “society verses,» ‘London Lyrics? 
(1857), greatly admired for their grace and 
finish; edited an anthology, “Lyra Elegantia- 
rum? (1867); and arranged a collection of mis- 
cellanies entitled ‘Patchwork? (1879). In 
1874 he married for his second wife the daugh- 
ter of Sir Curtis Lampson and took her name 
in addition to his own. Consult “My Confi- 
dences,? his autobiography (1896). 


_ LOCKHART, 16k’art, John Gibson, Scot- 
tish editor and biographer: b. Cambtsnethan, 
Lanarkshire, 14 July 1794; d. Abbotsford, 25 
Nov. 1854. He was graduated at Glasgow and 
Balliol College, Oxford, and became a member 
of the Scottish bar in 1817. He never practised 
as an advocate, but devoted his time to literary 
pursuits. In 1817, with Professor Wilson, he 
established Blackwood’s Magazine, a Tory 
organ, which at the outset created an immense 
sensation by the ability and keen satire dis- 
played in many of its articles. In 1819 he pub- 
lished ‘Peter’s Letters to his Kinsfolk,> in 
which Edinburgh society was keenly satirized. 
In 1820 Lockhart, who had previously become 


LOCKE — LOCKPORT - 


a favorite with Sir Walter Scott, married his 
eldest daughter, and much of his future life 
took its color from this connection. In 1825 he 
became editor of the Quarterly Review, which 
he conducted with marked ability, and continued 
in the position till 1853. His translations of 
‘Spanish Ballads,’ originally contributed to 
Blackwood, were collected in 1823. He also 
published the novel ‘Valerius? (1821); ‘Regi- 
nald Dalton? (1823); ‘Adam Blair? (1822) ; 
and ‘Matthew Wald (1824); ‘Life of Robert 
Burns? (1828); ‘Life of Sir Walter Scott? 
1836-38. This last is the most celebrated of 
his works, and takes its place as perhaps, after 
Boswell’s ‘Life of Johnson,’ the most perfect 
of English biographies. His earnings from this 
work he surrendered to Scott’s creditors. 
Lockhart, for his steady attachment and im- 
poriant services to the Conservative party, was 
rewarded in 1843, with the appointment of 
auditor of the duchy of Lancaster: His. later 
life was clouded by domestic bereavement. 
His little invalid son was the. Hugh Little John 
of Scott’s ‘Tales of a Grandfather.» He was 
buried in Dryburgh Abbey, close by Sir Walter 
Scott. (See Lire or Str WALTER Scotr). Con- — 
sult Lang, ‘Life of John Gibson Lockhart? 
(2 vols., New York 1897). 


LOCKHART,  lok’hart, Texas, town, 
county-seat of Caldwell County; on the Mis- 
souri, Kansas and Texas, and the San Antonio 
and Arkansas Pass railroads, about 28 miles 
south of Austin and 140 miles west of Houston. 
It is situated in a fertile agricultural. section 
in which cotton and live-stock are raised ex- 
tensively. Some of its industrial establishments 
are a soap-factory, cotton-gins, cottonseed-oil 
mill, wagon and carriage factory, cotton-com- 
press, stock-yards, grain-elevators, and lumber- 
yard. Pop. (1920) 3,731. 


LOCKJAW. See TETANUS.: . 

LOCKLAND, Ohio, village of Hamilton 
County, on the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Day- 
ton, the Cincinnati Northern and the Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis rail- 
roads, 11 miles north of Cincinnati. Its indus- 
trial establishments include cotton factories, 
paper mills and a roofing establishment Pop. 
(1920) 4,007. . 

LOCKOUT, the discharge and keeping 
out of employment of artisans and laborers by 
their employers. It is a retaliatory measure 
adopted by capitalists to resist the demands for 
shorter hours, more pay, etc., made by their 
workmen. The workmen may themselves be 
responsible for a lockout, just as an employer 
may be responsible for a strike upon the part 
of his workmen. (See also STRIKES AND LOCK- 
outs), with authorities quoted thereunder. 


LOCKPORT, IIl., city in Will County, on 
the Des Plaines River, the Illinois-and Michi- 
gan Canal, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé 
and the Chicago and Alton railroads; 30 miles 
southwest of Chicago. The city contains Dell- 
wood Park, one of the finest in the State, also 
oil mills, breakfast food works, a lock factory 
and great quarries. The water-supply system is | 
municipally owned. Pop. 2,550. 


LOCKPORT, N. Y., city, county-seat of 
Niagara County; on the New York Barge 
Canal, and on the Erie, the International and 
the New York Central railroads, 12 miles from 


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LOCKROY — LOCKWOOD 


Lake Ontario, 20 miles east of Niagara Falls, 


and about 25 miles north by east of Buffalo. It. 


was settled in 1823 by workmen who were em- 
ployed on the Erie Canal. On 26 March 1829 
it was incorporated as a village and became a 
city 11 April 1865. It is situated in a fertile 
agricultural region, one of the richest fruit 
producing sections of the United States; but 
the extensive water power obtained from the 
canal has made it an important manufacturing 
city. The 10 large locks of the canal (now re- 
placed by a tier of two locks operated by elec- 
tricity), gave its name to the city. The canal 
passes through a deep cut, an excavation in 
the solid rock, several miles in length. The 
New York Central Railroad bridge, 500 feet 
long, crosses the canal here, at a height of 60 
feet above water. There are large sandstone 
and limestone quarries in the vicinity. 

The chief manufactures are pulp and paper, 
Holly waterworks machinery, wood-work ma- 
chinery, machinery for flour mills, glass,. roll- 
ing-mill products, cotton-batting, wagons and 
carriages, brooms, flour, indurated fibre, crucible 
steel, aluminum, cotton and woolen goods and 
creamery products. The products of the manu- 
facturing plants amount annually to over $11,- 
000,000. In addition to the trade in manufac- 
tured articles, the city has an extensive trade in 
the quarry products, and in grain and fruits. 
Some of the prominent buildings are the Odd 
Fellows Home, the high school, the new govern- 
ment building and the courthouse. It has several 
churches and good public and parish schools 
and two business colleges. It is the seat of 
Saint Joseph’s Academy. There are about 18 
miles of paved streets and the total assessed 
valuation is nearly $14,000,000. The city owns 
and operates the waterworks. The government 
is vested in a mayor, elected for two years, and 
a council of 10 members. Pop. 21,308. Con- 
sult Pool, ‘Landmarks of Niagara County? 
(Syracuse 1897). 


LOCKROY, lo’krwa’, Etienne Auguste 
Edouard, French statesman: b. 1838; d. 22 
Nov. 1913. He was a Republican journalist 
under the Second Empire, he fought with 
Garibaldi in 18600 and acted as secretary to 
Ernest Renan in Syria. During the siege of 
Paris he commanded a battalion and was later 
one of the signatories to the proclamation for 
the election of the Commune. He sat in the 
French Chamber from 1872 to 1906, was 
minister of commerce and industry 1886-87, of 
education 1888 and minister of marine 1895-99. 


LOCKS, Canal. See CANALS. 


LOCKSLEY HALL. Tennyson’s ‘Locks- 
ley Hall? is perhaps not only the best known 
among his shorter poems but is also one of the 
most widely read poems in the language. It 
is a lyrical monologue, 194 lines in length, in 
eight-stress trochaic couplets. Published in 
1842, when the poet himself was only 33 years 
of age, it is pre-eminently the poem of youth 
with both its weakness and its strength. Its 
boy hero is passionate, both in his love and his 
disappointment; fretful, moody and _ unsure, 
unreasonable in his general attitude toward 
life, yet aglow with humanitarian enthusiasm, 
on fire with his own splendid vision of the 
future of the race. He is not an altogether 
likable and wholesome person, and rather un- 
pleasantly suggests the hectic hero of “Maud,” 


563 


but he has in him so much of essential and 
universal youth as to engage the unseen lis- 
tener of his tale of disappointed love, of pas- 
sionate upbraiding, of altruistic hopes and 
dreams. Though the coast setting is that of 
Lincolnshire, both hero and hall are entirely 
imaginary. The idea of the setting Tennyson 
gained from an Arabic poem of the 7th cen- 
tury, which shows a lover, traveling with com- 
panions, asking that he be left alone for a 
time as he stands before the tent of his be- 
loved; the Arabic poem even ends with the 
coming of a storm, as does ‘Locksley Hall 
But Tennyson’s. subject-matter, replete with 
allusions to the latest discoveries in electricity, 
astronomy and engineering, and the latest 
social movements, is “aggressively modern.” 
His hero, even in the midst of his complaint, 
is very much taken up with the events of his 
time. Yet with all this the poem is highly per- 
sonal and romantic. The structure is plain, 
when one notes that the monologue presents 
the thoughts that pass naturally, and discon- 
nectedly, through the hero’s mind as he recalls 
the past and newly resolves for the future. 
Remarkable in the light of later events are the 
famous couplets foretelling aerial commerce 
and warfare, and those prophesying universal 
peace by means of a league of nations. The 
poem is striking even among Tennyson’s in 
the beauty of its figures of speech. One. of 
these, “Love took up the harp of life,» the 
poet considered his best. Owing to its tropical 
quality, to the youth that beats through it, and 
to its spirited verse, “Locksley is one of the 
most quoted of English poems,» and some of 
its lines and phrases, such as “In the spring 
a young man’s fancy lightly turns to thoughts 
of love,» have passed into the common speech. 


Marion TUCKER. 
LOCKWOOD, bBelva Ann _ Bennett, 


American lawyer and reformer: b. Royalton, 
N. Y., 24 Oct. 1830; d. Washington, 19 May 
1917. She was graduated from Genesee Col- 
lege, Lima, N. Y., in. 1857, and taught school 
1857-68. She was married in 1848 to Uriah 
Hee MeNall Cd. "US53)" and’ in? 1868240. Dr. 
Ezekiel Lockwood. She studied law at Wash- 
ington, and was admitted to the bar in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia after a hard struggle in 1873. 
Before that time she had secured the passage 
of a bill giving women employees of the gov- 
ernment equal pay for equal work; in 1879 she 
obtained the passage of a bill permitting women 
to practise before the United States Supreme 
Court, and was admitted under this Jaw in the 
same year. She was engaged in many impor- 
tant law cases, some before the Supreme 
Court, and was one of the attorneys in the 
probate of the will of Myra Clarke Gaines. 
She was active in temperance, peace and women 
suffrage movements; was secretary of the 
American. branch of the International Peace 
Bureau; and in 1884 and 1888 was the nominee 
of the Equal Rights Party for President of the 
United States. In 1896 she was commissioned 
by the Secretary of State to represent the 
United States at the Congress of Charities and 
Corrections in Geneva, Switzerland; in 1901 
she was elected president of the Women’s 
National Press Association. She was for sev- 
eral years interested in the claims of the North 
Carolina Cherokee Indians, and in 1900 had a 


564 « 


bill before Congress to prevent encroachment 
upon their territory. She was an attorney of 


record in their case against the government, ~ 


when they obtained a $5,000,000 judgment. She 
also prepared an amendment to the Statehood 
Bill before Congress in 1903, granting suffrage 
to women in Oklahoma, Arizona and New 
Mexico. 


LOCKWOOD, Henry Hayes, American 
military officer: b. Kent County, Del., 17 Aug. 
1814; d. Washington, D; C., 7 Dec. 1899. In 
1836 he was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy; served with the 2d cavalry 
in the Seminole War and in 1838 resigned from 
the army and undertook agriculture in Dela- 
ware. We became professor of mathematics 
in the United States navy in 1841; in 1845 pro- 
fessor of natural philosophy at the Naval 
Academy, where he was professor of artillery 
and infantry tactics in 1845-61, and of astron- 
omy and gunnery in 1851-61. He entered the 
Civil War as colonel of the lst Delaware in- 
fantry, became brigadier-general of volunteers 
in August 1861. At Gettysburg he commanded 
a brigade of the 12th corps and in 1863-64 was 
commander of the middle department. Sub- 


sequent to the war he was professor of natural . 


philosophy at the Naval Academy, and in 1871- 
76 was connected with the Naval Observatory. 
He published ‘A Manual for Naval Batteries? 
(1852) and ‘Exercises in Small Arms and 
Field Artillery, arranged for naval service 
(1852). 


: LOCKWOOD, James Booth, American 
soldier and Arctic explorer: b. Annapolis, Md., 
9 Oct. 1852; d. Cape Sabine, 9 April 1884. He 
entered the army as 2d lieutenant in 1873, and 
served till 1880 in the West. He volunteered 
to accompany the Lady Franklin Bay expedi- 
tion to the Arctic regions in 1881 and was 
made second in command to Gen. A. W. Greely 
(q.v.). His fame rests on the discovery of 
Lockwood Island, in 1882, in lat. 83° 24’ N., 
the farthest northern point of land or sea up 
to that time. He was one of the victims in 
the Cape Sabine tragedy in the winter of 1883- 
84. His body was brought to the United 
States and interred in the grounds of the Naval 
Academy. Consult Lanman, ‘Farthest North? 
(1885). 
LOCKWOOD, Wilton, American painter: 
b. Wilton, Conn., 12 Sept. 1861; d. 21 March 
1914. In New York he studied under La 
Farge and subsequently spent 10 years in Paris. 
In 1904 his works attracted general attention 
in Europe and the following year an exhibition 
of his work in Boston was a great success. 
His best known works are his portrait of La 
Farge, in the Boston Art Museum; ‘The Vio- 
linist? in Mr. Carnegie’s residence at Skibo; 
‘Frank Seabury’; ‘A. J. Cassatt?; ‘Grover 
Cleveland? ; ‘Jerome Wheelock in the Worces- 
ter Museum?; ‘Justice Holmes.? Outside the 
field of portraiture Mr. Lockwood was con- 
spicuously successful as a flower painter. Nu- 
merous samples of his work in the latter field 
are preserved in the Art Museum, Boston, the 
Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, and the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In 
1912 he was elected to the National Academy. 
LOCKYER, 16k’yér, Str Joseph Norman, 
English astronomer: b. Rugby, 17 May 
1836; d. 16 Aug. 1920, He entered the War 


LOCKWOOD — LOCOFOCO 


Office in 1857, and in 1870 was appointed 


‘secretary of the royal commission on the ad- 


vancement of science. Five years later he be- 


‘came astronomical lecturer at South Kensing- 


ton; was director of the Solar Physics Observ- 
atory, South Kensington, 1885-1913, and- in 
1913 director of the Hill Observatory, Sal- 
combe Regis, Sidmouth.: He directed. eight 
eclipse expeditions on behalf of the British 
government. He was created K.C.B. in 1897. 
He initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observa- 
tion of sunspots; invented in 1868 a spectro- 
scopic method of observing the solar promi- 
nences in daylight; and from 1872 successfully 
engaged in investigations of the chemistry of 
the sun. He published ‘Elementary Les- 
sons in Astronomy? (1870); ©Contributions to 
Solar Physics? (1873); ‘The Spectroscope 
(1873); ‘Primer of Astrofiomy>? § (1874); 
‘Studies in Spectrum Analysis? (1878) ; “Star- 
Gazing? (1878); ‘Chemistry of the Sum 
(1887); ‘The Movements of the Earth? 
(1887); ‘The Meteoritic Hypothesis? (1890) ; 
“The Dawn of Astronomy? (1894) ; “The Sun’s 
Place in Nature? (1897); ‘Recent and Com- 
ing Eclipses» (1897); ‘Inorganic Evolution? 
(1900) ; ‘Surveying for Archzologists? (1909). 


LOCLE, 16’kl’, Le, Switzerland, town of 
the Canton of Neuchatel, on the French fron- 
tier. The chief industry is watch-making, for 
which the place is famed. A fire destroyed the 
greater part of the town in 1833, since when 
it has been substantially rebuilt. It has a 
watch-making institute, mechanic school, col- 
lege, several museums, and a public library. 
It has an electric-lighting plant. Pop. 12,750. 


LOCO DISEASE, a disease found in sheep 
and horses and occasionally in cattle. It is 
caused by eating certain species of Astralagus, 
a genus of the natural order Leguminose, com- 
monly known in the Rocky Mountain region as. 
loco or crazy weeds. The first effects of the 
weed are stimulating, but continued eating pro- 
duces vertigo, champing of the jaws, partial 
or perhaps total deafness or blindness, and if 
the disease be acute, death may occur within 
three days. In the chronic form death may 
be averted for months and sometimes’ years, 
but the animal develops nervous symptoms and 
muscular incodrdination, and becomes unable 
to walk, finally dying of exhaustion or starva- 
tion, or both. The disease is a habit acquired 
usually by healthy animals through association 
with infected animals that search for and feed 
almost exclusively on loco weeds. As no medic- 
inal treatment is effective, locoed animals 
should be separated from a healthy herd. Seg- 
regation of infected animals is absolutely nec- 
essary to prevent the spread of the disease. 
Consult Marsh, C. D., ‘The Loco-Weed_ Dis- 
ease? (in ‘Farmers’ Bulletin No. 380,> Départ- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington 1909). 


LOCOFOCO, formerly a familiar name for 
a member of the Democratic party; applied 
especially to the radical or equal rights section 
of that party, because at a meeting in Tam- 
many Hall, New York, on 29 Oct. 1835, in 
which there was great diversity of sentiment, | 
the chairman left his seat, and the lights were 
extinguished, with a view to. dissolving the 
meeting; when those in favor of extreme 
measures produced Joco-foco matches — then 
a comparatively recent invention, rekindled the 


. 


LOCO-WEED — 


lights, continued the meeting, and accomplished 
their object. (See Democratic Party). Con- 
sult Byrdsall, F., ‘History of the Loco-Foco 
Party? (New York: 1842); Alexander, De 
A. S., ‘Political History of the State of New 
York? (Vol. II, New York 1906) ; Woodburn, 
J. A., ‘Political Parties and Party Problems in 
the United States? (2d ed., ib., 1914). 


LOCO-WEED, or LOCO-VETCH. 
See Crazy WEED. 


LOCOMOTION, in plants falls naturally 
into the following divisions: independent loco- 
motion, or free spontaneous movement, occur- 
ring in lower forms; extension through 
growth; projection by elastic machinery, waf- 
tage by winds, flotage by water, and carriage 
by animals. With all of these modes, except 
the first, this article does not deal. These 
modes are dealt with under PLANts, DistRIBU- 
TION OF; POLLINATION, etc. In regard to inde- 
pendent motion, however, it must be stated that 
none of the higher plants possess this power, 


although it is well developed in the lower 


———— st 


LOCOMOTIVE 565 


flagella depend on the power of contractility in 
protoplasm. Vibration is used by the blue- 
green algz to secure motion. The diatoms and 
others push out protoplasmic threads which 
work against the bottom. It would appear that 
the resemblance to animals in all these modes 
of locomotion is not accidental, but a persist- 
ence from an ancient condition in which the 
two kingdoms were one. 


LOCOMOTIVE, a self-propelling vehicle, 
usually a vehicle consisting of a steam engine 
and boiler, mounted on wheels and so con- 
nected as to be capable of self-propulsion along 
a,track. 

Historical. The steam locomotive has been 
in commercial use since the early part of 
the 19th century. It was about the year 1825 
that manufacturers in Europe and in America 
began earnestly the construction of locomotives. 
Prior to this time what locomotives had been 
built were the results of individual inventors. 
A Frenchman, Mr. Nicholas Cagnot, exhibited 
the first mode! of a steam locomotive, or steam 


| 


Hh 


i 


It} 
| 


hee 
Ni) 
4 
ya 

Bial 


= 


forms which lack the firm cellulose skeleton. 
The method of locomotion: is similar to that 
of the simpler animals. Thus some. kinds 
creep; for example, the slime-molds (myxomy- 
cetes) get about by directing their protoplasmic 
streaming in one constant direction, as do 
some of the Amoeba among animals. Other 
plants, or their reproductive spores, swim 
freely in water in a manner so similar to that 
of animals that they are called zodspores, and 
these are very characteristic in the Alge or 


Seaweeds. The motion is effected either by 
the action of innumerable cilia, tiny hairs 
which all in- unison beat the water more 


strongly in one direction than another, or else 
by flagella, resembling tails, except that instead 
of pushing the spore, they pull it behind them 
by an action the reverse of that of the tail of 
a fish. The. movements of both cilia. and 


V eg 


Raiiwa, § Locomotive Engineering 


Fia. 1. William Hedley’s ‘** Puffing Billy” (1813), now in South Kensington Museum. 


carriage as it is more often described. The 
exhibition took place in 1763 and is the first of 
which we have any record. In 1769.Mr. Cag- 
not built a locomotive, that might be better 
described as a self-moving steam engine, which 
was to run on common roads. It had a speed 
of less than four miles per hour with stops 
every 15 minutes to build up the steam pressure. 
Cagnot’s second engine was more successful 
and created considerable attention. While run- 
ning the engine at a speed of three miles 
per hour it overturned. The public authorities, 
who considered it dangerous and a menace to 
public safety, ordered it locked up. William 
Murdock of England built a steam carriage in 
1784. It had a copper boiler, ran on three 
wheels and used high pressure steam. Among 
the earliest and probably the first engine built 
to run on the public highway in the United 


566 


States was that designed and built by Salem 
Reed of Salem, Mass., in 1790. 

We of to-day are inclined to think of these 
inventions as the forerunners of our steam 
automobiles and think of the locomotive as 
operating on rails. In 1802 Richard Trevethick 
patented the application of the non-condensing 
engine to the propulsion of carriages on rail- 
roads. On 1 Feb. 1804 his engine bearing his 
name was run on the Merthyr Tydvil Railway 
in South Wales. The boiler of this locomo- 
tive was of the cylindrical type with internal 
furnace and flue. The steam cylinder which 
was eight inches in diameter had the relatively 
long stroke of four feet and six inches. The 
driving wheels were plain and were driven by 
means of a connecting rod and crank through 
a train of gears. The locomotive drew its 
load of 10 tons, besides the wagons at the rate 
of 5 miles per hour. It is interesting to note 
that Trevethick’s locomotive was the first to be 
used for drawing wagons and the Merthyr 
Tydvil Railway can justly claim the honor of 
being the first railway company in the world. 
An act of Parliament established it in 1803. 
The Tom Thumb built in 1829 by Peter Cooper 
was the first locomotive used on rails in 
America. During the same year an English 
locomotive, The Stourbridge Lion, was im- 
ported. Many types of locomotives combining 
ingenious ideas besides those referred to were 


built and experimented with in these early 
years. 

The names of Stephenson, Baldwin and 
Brooks appear in the following list of early 
locomotives. Their work is known to all in- 
terested in locomotive equipment and their 
work is largely responsible for the magnificent 
locomotives we see running to-day. 


Blenkinsop’s rack locomotive............-. England, 1811 
Chapman’s chain locomotion.............. England, 1812 
Brumton:s, locomotive, | ait. a eee eee England, 1813 
Hedley’s “ Puffing Billy "= 2 Sl ee England, 1813 
Stephenson’s locomotive..........0..0...+ England, 1815 
Stephenson’s ‘‘ The Locomotion”........... England, 1825 
Hackworth’s ‘“*The Royal Gorge”’.......... England, 1826 
Stephenson’s ‘* The Rocket”....... Aen, Wee England, 1829 
Miller's! The Friend? cion ee ee America, 1830 
Stephenson’s ‘* Robert Fulton”: . i 0... of... America, 1831 
Baldwan's “Old Tronsides™). 22. aan ee America, 1832 
Brook's: locomotive: 27-23. 22) ee ae merica, 1837 


LOCOMOTIVE 


The first successful locomotive was built 
up of a strong rectangular frame upon which 
the boiler and engine were supported. Axles 
were fastened to the frame and the two pairs 
of wheels kept in parallel motion. The first 
radical change was to extend the base by sup- 
porting the front end on a four-wheeled truck, 
or “bogie” and the back end upon a pair of 
drivers. Later two pairs of drivers were 
coupled up and considerable improvement re- 
sulted. Subsequently more drivers were added 
and in some cases a small pair of wheels were 
placed under the rear end of the boiler. 

After the locomotive had been in active 
service about 20 years there was a demand for 


Railway § Locomotive Engineering 


Fic. 2. Stephenson’s ‘‘ Rocket’’ (1829), 


higher speed. Heretofore the speed was very 
moderate. To secure the higher speed the 
drivers were increased to seven feet in 
diameter, but they were soon discarded as the 
locomotive was slow in getting up speed. The 
time had not arrived, however, for high speed 
in railroad travel. As yet there were no fixed 
signals, no air brakes nor reliable systems for 
regulating single track operation. The appli- 
cation of the air brake in 1873 paved the way 
for our modern freight and passenger service. 
For a time the early builders of locomotives 
believed that there was not sufficient adhesion 
between the wheels and the track to climb an 
incline or draw loads. The tractive effort of 
any locomotive is reached when the driving 
wheels begin to slip. To increase this limit a 
definite part of the total weight was carried on 


LOCOMOTIVE 


the desired adhesion. 
Another method was to drive separately the 
individual pairs of drivers. The load on one 
pair of drivers was limited, however, to the 
load the right of way would bear with safety. 
This fact brought into use leading trucks or 
“bogies” and trailing trucks which received a 


the drivers to give 


pall 


567 


Since 1904 the Walschaert valve gear in- 
vented in 1844 by a: Swiss named Egide Wal- 
schaert and used quite extensively in’ con- 
tinental Europe has increased in favor among 
locomotive builders and is now used to a 
greater extent in this country. In modern loco- 
motives the use of an outside valve gear such 


Railway § Locomative Lugineering 


Fic. 3. Early Type English Locomotive. 


portion of the weight of the locomotive. An 
arrangement of this kind increased the wheel 
base considerable and additional provisions had 
to be made to enable the locomotive to run 
around curves. Lateral play was allowed the 
axles, radial axles were used, axle trucks turn- 
ing about a pivot which receives a portion of 
the weight were also used. 

Many forms of valve gears were applied to 
the earlier locomotives. “Old Ironsides” is 
equipped with what is known as “the Hook 
Motion” This gear was the standard form 
used in this country for some time even after 
the invention of the shifting link. 

“The Hook Motion” was replaced by the 
Stephenson link mechanism invented in 1843 
by William Howe, an employee of the Robert 
Stephenson & Company of New Castle, Eng- 
land. Up to 1904 practically all the locomotives 


as the Walschaert is practically necessary, be- 
cause of the increase in size of our locomotives. 
In the large locomotive the parts of the 
Stephenson mechanism are very large, thus per- 
mitting rapid wear and the accumulation of 
a great amount of lost motion. The Wal- 
schaert valve gear has no eccentrics, only pins, 
links and bushings. It is easily accessible and 
maintained. Using a valve gear outside of the 
frame also permitted better frame bracing and 
thus reduced the chance of frame failure. 

During the last 25 years many improve- 
ments have been made. These have led to the 
superb locomotives now running in Europe and 
America. Many investigations have been made 
relative to increased boiler pressures, com- 
pounding, use of superheated steam and pre- 
vention of smoke, all of which have been of 
inestimable value. 


Railway § Locomotive Engineering 


Fig. 4. Early American Locomotive. 


in the United States were equipped with this 
gear. The gear is located between the drivers 
and provides a means of reversing the engine 
at will and also permits the volume of steam 


admitted to the cylinders to be varied by the © 


cperator while the engine is running. 


The Locomotive of To-day.— The loco- 
motive might be dealt with as a power plant 
complete in itself, consisting of boiler, fur- 
nace, stack, engine and auxiliaries. It will de- 
velop the same amount of power as a station- 
ary power plant occupying several times the 


568 


amount of space. Modern locomotives are built 
as high as 3,000 horse power, with a_ tractive 
effort of 105,000 pounds. Comparing the econ- 
omy of the modern locomotive with the loco- 
motive of 20 years ago it will be found that in 
many cases 50 per cent more work is obtained 
per pound of coal burned. 23 
The ever-increasing demands and distribu- 
tion factors presenting themselves have resulted 
_ along with other things in increased train loads 
and as a result greater capacity in tractive 
effort. This increase has been met by con- 
structing larger locomotives with greater steam- 
ing capacity. The average locomotive 1s in 
service something less than 20 per cent of the 
time with an average daily mileage of about 
80 miles. Considerable attention is being paid 
to the possibility of increasing the amount of 
time the locomotive is in active service. This 


LOCOMOTIVE 


of course means the changing of crews while 
the engine is doing useful work. 

For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1914, 
64,760 locomotives of all classes were in use 
in the United States as reported by the Inter- 
state Commerce Commission. The total mile- 
age was 1,755,972,325 miles, an average of 27,- 
115 miles per annum per locomotive. . 

Types.— There are between 30 and 40 
types of locomotives in use in the United States, 
divided between passenger, freight and switch- 
ing. They are as a rule known and designated 
according to the number of wheels and drivers. 
The first figure denotes the number of lead- 
ing wheels in the front truck or under the 
front; the second gives the number of drivers 
and the last the number of trailing wheels under 
the rear end. The following are some of the 
types now in use: 


WHEEL ARRANGEMENT 


SYMBOL TYPE SERVICE 
0-4-0 | 4-wheel switcher..... hm iS Sista industriel Se 
0-6-0 | 6-wheel switcher..... AZOO © Switching. 
0-6-6—-0 | Mallet articulated.... LAPOOO*OOOL Heavy freight. 
0-8-0 Switching. 
0-8-8-0 Heavy freight. 
2-4-9 Suitable for short runs, light service 
and moderate speed. 
2-6-0 Freight. 
2-8-0 | Consolidated......... General freight. 
I1O—-@ | Vecanod oi. 4... aoa Heavy freight. 
4-4-9 | American (8 wheeler). Passenger, freight and mixed service. 
4-6-0 | 10 wheeler........... Passenger and fast freight. ; 
0-4-2 | 4 coupled and trating, ethos gig = limited eadaty of 
0-6-2 | 6 coupled and trailing. Short runs. 
0—4—4 | Fordney, 4 coupled... Used as double enders. 
2A) Hao bias chee ae Light road service. 
2-6 2 RI caltie eee we Heavy passenger and fast freight. 
DO ONETANS So See Spode: freight service on sharp 
2-10-2 | Santa Fé.........0.. Heavy freight service on sharp curves. 
2-44 | 4 coupled, double For logging, industrial or light road 
CHaGI Si oe elie ee service. 
2-6-6-2 | Mallet articulated... Heavy freight. 
2-8-8-2 - - id i 
2-8-8-0 = y s ‘ 
2-10-10—2 % r a - 
2-8--8-8-2 | Mallet artic triplex... Heavy freight. 
4-4-2 | Atlantic............. High speed passenger service. 
BAGH E PACH . sa nen a cater Heavy fast passenger and fast freight. 
4-8-2'|\ Mountain. .....054'.. 


Heavy passenger. 


1 American Locomotive 


ESR 


o 
ieee 


SSoss 


of 1830 | 2 American Locomotive of 1840 
3 American Locomotive of 1900 


LOCOMOTIVES 


1 Pacific type for heavy passenger service 3 Heavy freight service type - 
2 Mountain type for passenger service 4 Freight type with three groups of driving wheels, one 
of the largest engines in the world 


LOCOMOTIVE 


The most common types in railroad service 
are the 44-0 (American); 442 (Atlantic) ; 
2-6-0 (Mogul); 46-0 (10 wheeler); 2-6-2 
(Prairie); 4-6-2 (Pacific); 2-8-0 (Consoli- 
dated) ; 2-8-2 (Mikado) ; and 0-6-0 (6 coupled 
switching). 

Each type is manufactured in different 
weights with various tractive efforts dependent 
to a certain extent upon the weight. The fol- 
lowing table indicates the average range in 
weight : 


TYPE Weight in pounds 
4-42-07 American .,0 SRL... Seo 30,000 to 136,000 
AeA TATE. ia ty ee oes 126,000 to 215,000 
Aaa NLOGAI «ive... eget atau checcushede «Mgrs 30,000 to 164,000 
4-6-0 Ten-wheeler..../.....00.5..%.. 51,000 to 205 ,000 
2-6-2 airiess ei 208 7 SSO. Oe 28,000 to 134,000 
Aas PRCIR CY ot N Gita etponioeh. eta 90,000 to 282,000 
2-8-0 Consolidated............. >... 42,000 to 234,000 
TS 2Mikadortst aia Poe Fee 86,000 to 320,000 
0-6-0 Six-coupled, switching......... 18,000 to 155,000 


Pree PES IANO Ec tai Poo atuke im Spake 204,000 to 520,000 


Types for Passenger Service— The 46-2, 
or Pacific type locomotive, is best suited for 
the present-day demands in fast passenger 
service. It is used to a considerable extent 
where a tractive effort of 40,000 to 45,000 
pounds is required. Where long heavy trains 
are operated or where extra heavy grades are 
prevalent, the Mountain type of locomotive, or 
482 is growing in favor. The Atlantic, 
4-4-2 and the Prairie, 2-6-2, are used exten- 
sively on the shorter runs or where local opera- 
tion prevails. 

Types for Freight Service—It was but a 
few years ago that the Consolidation, 2-8-0, 
locomotives comprised about 30 per cent of the 
locomotives in use. For heavy freight service 
and for fast trains it is being replaced by 
the heavier type of Mikado or 2-82. The 
Mikado is used mainly where the tractive ef- 
fort required is about 55,000 pounds. For 
heavier service and up to 83,000 pounds trac- 
tive effort, the Santa Fé, 2-10-2, is becoming 
popular. The Santa Fé appears to give better 
results for heavy slow service than either the 
Consolidated or Mikado. Where the service 
is exceptionally heavy the Mallet articulated 
types of locomotives are growing in favor. 
These engines are built with tractive efforts ex- 
ceeding 100,000 pounds. The Mallet articu- 
lated compound locomotive was used in some 
of the mountainous districts of Europe prior 
to such modifications as were necessary to 
adapt it to requirements set by the railroads 
of this country. Practically two locomotives, 
considering the drivers and cylinders, are com- 
bined. It has one boiler and one furnace an 
lends itself to a more advantageous application 
of the compounding principle. 

Types for Switching Service— The 0-6-0 
type is the most common type of switch engine. 
Occasionally the Mallet 0-8-8-0 is used with 
a tractive effort of 100,000 pounds. A type 
more commonly found, however, than the 
0-8-8-0 for heavy switching is the 0-8-0, espe- 
cially where the tractive effort required is about 
70,000 pounds. 

FUELS. 


As a general rule the major operating cost 
in the operation of steam locomotives is for 
fuel which to a considerable extent comprises 
different kinds of many grades. The kind of 
fuel used plays an important part in the pro- 
portioning of the boiler and furnace and should 


569 


always be given careful consideration. A thor- 
ough knowledge should be had relative to the 
various fuels, their composition, condition of 
operation when using same, quantities required, 
cost, availability and education of crews oper- 
ating the locomotive. 

Wood.— On logging railroads wood is al- 
most universally used as a fuel for locomo- 
tives. Approximately two and one-fourth 
pounds of dry wood are equivalent in heating 
value to one pound of soft or bituminous coal. 
The average composition of several kinds of 
dry wood by weight is as follows: 


Carbone: : daa ees. [hit 22 ie orroie Ss 49.75 per cent 
Hydrogernsc 2. qe eee PD Eo ete ee 6.05 per cent 
AV SEW oo ce eteme Nope ee eb sene ena te 5 iain vst ae! sy is 41.35 per cent 
Nitrogen’. ARO, See ene, Ue BI 1.05 per cent 
SH, : Sth. SAREE UII BERL LE” 1.80 per cent 


100.00 


Wood which has not been specially dried 
contains considerable moisture, generally be- 
tween 20 and 40 per cent. It is advisable, 
therefore, to dry the wood and keep the same 
protected as it will absorb about 15 per cent of 
water when exposed to the atmosphere. 

Comparative value of different kinds of 
wood for fuel are given in the following table: 


Relative Weight of 
value as one cord in 
KINDS OF WOOD a fuel pounds 

ReeMoale ra iinet rie Skee eo ds win rai een 1.00 3,254 
Shelf bark hickory3. . SRS ik Sa 1.45 4,469 
Chestnut white oaliies s..tset. oeienurl 1.25 3,955 
WihiteOak. po eat serio mark be oe tee 1347 3,821 
MWiinte: ashe manus Rew Ase) cS crkaaneet | k 1.12 3,480 
White béechei tere . Jee. dass .94 3,236 
Black wealth tien | precpigs, gn o eee ess 94 3,044 
Black Dineh! atccaece hacia clatter 6. ace 91 3,115 
Wellowioak: veeovery pea tte Swear) nee 87 2,919 
Hardtanap lex yeahs a ANB Bebe? Se .87 2,878 
WihttetelmbaisAenecs2.. ..a.adandaiue & . 84 2,592 
Vargennagnolia it shee >. aera. .81 2,704 
Softonapletaiw i. co Mages pic Ny os Ps. a .78 2,668 
DOLL GVELOMe DINE Beare. Foe sen Leon .78 2,463 
DYCAMOREAE clots bg Mais ose ccs Ree « ahs) 2,391 
Ghestnutea se aratioe cette Uae sie 275 2,333 
Waite birehs sia sah 2 ONS eas .70 2,369 
RO LSE VW: MITIG Math. fee te a egreen  eON _70 oF tz 
(Prtehs pire speed ees es eee ee yen OD 1,904 
1,868 


White! pme tia Sarit, cin A es .61 


Fuel Oil— Fuel oil has been used to a 
limited extent and more especially in the ter- 
ritory adjacent to oil wells. Where economic 
and commercial conditions permit it is the most 
desirable fuel. The absence of smoke and 
ashes, prompt kindling and extinguishing of 
fires, extreme rate of combustion and ease with 
which it can be handled and controlled are 
marked advantages in favor of fuel oil. The 
reduction in volume and weight over an equiva- 
lent quantity of coal for heating value and 
the increase in boiler efficiency are factors 
of no mean importance. 

Crude oil consists mainly of hydrocarbons 
together with small quantities of nitrogen, 
oxygen, sulphur and water. The average com- 
position by weight of typical American fuel 
oils is as follows: 


PICHON. PeT.CEHE. 4s nei oa ot eke ch ae ee a eee 82.0 to 86.0 
Tidrorent Per CONb na. «2-0 ca eae ee ok ee Ole 14.0 to 11.0 
OXveen: Per CONLS ys sina Fell oes eae gee ah 3.8 to 6 
Siilphius, per.cens apilnn fi oo) hag eden meas aden Oto 1.6 


One barrel of crude oil contains 42 gallons 
and weighs from 310 to 350 pounds. Com- 
pared with coal, oil occupies 50 per cent less 


570 


space and is 35 per cent less in weight for equal 
heat values. 


COMPARATIVE HEAT VALUES OF COAL AND OIL. 


Barrels of 
Pounds of ~ oil equal to 
coal equal to 2,000 lbs. of 


B. T. U. PER POUND OF COAL 1 barrel of oil coal 


10,000 sey) .,Bieiisys BES Ds oie ebean ob 620 3.2 
COU es ho dnonn nde cate hs 560 3.6 
WAR 0 Cena Ot 6 Sa Sool ou 520 3.9 
TSjOOO RSS SEL cea aieraha’s ees serene eee 480 4.2 
14; 000 siracirelpins pick « Ctae gears e 440 a 


15, O0Q ss, 2 ste oife yoo tev eameaye oa eto ae 410 


Coal.— The principal fuel used for loco- 


motives in America is coal. Coal may be 
divided into three principal kinds, anthracite, 
semi-bituminous and bituminous coal. 

Anthracite— Anthracite coal used in this 
country comes mostly from Pennsylvania and 
its use for locomotives is confined almost ex- 
clusively to a few railroads operating in the 
eastern part of the United States. This coal 
ignites very slowly and burns at a high tem- 
perture. It gives off almost no smoke and the 
flame is very short. 


HEATING VALUE OF ANTHRACITE COAL. 
Fixed Volatile - Heating value per 


LOCATION carbon matter Ash _ 1b. of combustible 
Lackawanna... 84.0% 5.0% 11.0% 13,900 B. T. U. 
Lykens Valley.. 81.0% 5.0% 14.0% 13,650B. T. U. 
Scranton..... 6.5% 9.0% 


. 84.4% 


Semi-Bituminous.— This is a softer coal 
than anthracite though in appearance it re- 
~sembles the hard coal. It is lighter than 
anthracite and burns more rapidly and is 
capable of maintaining a very intense heat. 


HEATING VALUE OF SEMI-BITUMINOUS COAL. 
Fixed Volatile Heating value per 


LOCATION carbon matter Ash _ 1b. of combustible 
Blassburg, Pa.. 73.0% 15.0% 11.0% 13,500 B. T. U. 
Cumberland, 

Md: 3 =e 80.8% 13.0% 5.0% 16,320 B. 2. U: 
Pocahontas, W. 
AA), eee 74.5% 18.1% 6.6% 


15,740 B. T. U. 


Bituminous Coal.— Coals that contain over 
20 per cent volatile matter are usually classed 
as bituminous coals, and are divided into three 


HEATING VALUE OF TYPICAL BITUMINOUS COALS. 


Hoping 
Fixed Volatile ae 
LOCATION Ash | Water | per lb. 
carbon | matter of cans 

bustible 

Per et. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| B. T. U 

Freeport, W. Va.} 61.55 | 28.58 8.39 1.48 14,069 

Hocking Valley, 

Ohio.. 49.54 | 34.14 9.67 6.65 13,053 

dive Marquette, 

eee ne 53.95 | 31.14 2e6On 12.15 14,160 
Brazil, Ind. se 50.30 | 34.49 6.33 8.98 12,417 
Eastern Field, : 

Kin 8G Sous 56.39 | 36.12 4,39 3.10 14,148 
Mana Creek, 

Alaan ..| 53,28 | 31.84 | 12.54 2.34 12,850 
Fleming, ‘Kan... .| 49.36 32 168 ic 12207 4.99 12,242 
Laddadale, Ia...} 45.02 | 30.74 | 16.00 8.24 11,027 
Rich Hill, Mo. .| 28.73 | 33.58 | 19.36 8.33 10,586 
Coffeen, Ill..... 42.81 | 29.48 | 13.28 | 14.43 10,064 
Cambria, Wyo..} 34.82 | 35.02 | 20.72 9.44 9,650 
Chariton, Ia....| 41.49 | 30.49 | 12.63 | 15.34 10,242 
classes: coking, non-coking and cannel coals. 
“Coking Coals” is a term applied to coals 


13,800 B. T. U. 


LOCOMOTIVE 


that fuse together and become pasty on being 
heated. They are rich in hydrocarbons and 
are used in gas manufacture. “Non-Coking 
Coals» do not fuse together during combus- 
tion and are free burning. “Cannel Coals” 
are rich in carbon, burn readily and with a 
bright flame. It is very homogeneous, breaks 
without any definite line of fracture and has 
a dull, resinous lustre. It is a valuable gas 
coal and is used but to a small extent for 
steaming purposes. 

The principle bituminous coals used are 
mined in Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania 
and Illinois. 

Powdered or Pulverized Coal— The value 
of powdered coal as a fuel for steaming pur- 
poses has long been known. Despite the many 
advantages of powdered fuel, little progress 
has been made toward its general adoption. 
Among the advantages obtained in burning 
powdered coal are: 

Complete combustion and total absence of 
smoke. 

A cheaper grade of bituminous coal can be 
burned, 

The locomotive boiler may be rapidly forced 
above its rated capacity. The labor of firing is 
reduced to a minimum. The constantly in- 
creasing demand for the better grades of coal 
and oil throughout the country has brought 
about a condition where it is difficult to obtain 
such fuel at reasonable prices. The yearly 
expenditure for fuel used in locomotives of 
the United States exceeds $300,000,000. The 
limited supply of oil should of necessity be con- 
served for other purposes. 

Investigations show that any fuel in a dry- 
powdered state 6624 per cent combustible is 
Suitable for generating steam. Anthracite, 
bituminous and semi-bituminous coals, lignite, 
peat, anthracite ,culm, dust and slush slack, 
screenings and dust may all be burned i ina pul- 
verized state. They should all be in about the 
same condition as dry Portland cement. 

The raw fuel is dried, pulverized and stored 
in fireproof containers. It is handled with 
the same care as fuel oil. For firing up a lo- 
comotive the usual steam-blower is turned on 
in the stack, a piece of lighted waste is put 
through the firebox door opening and placed 
on the furnace floor, just ahead of the pri- 
mary arch, after which the pressure blower 
and one of the feeders is started. Less than 
an hour is generally sufficient for getting a 
full head of steam. The powdered fuel, hav- 
ing been supplied to the enclosed tank on the 
tender, gravitates to a _ helicoidal conveyor 
which conveys it to the feeders where it is 
commingled with air under pressure which 
forces the mixture through the connecting 
hose to the nozzles leading into the fuel and 
air mixers. Additional air is supplied in the 
mixers and the mixture is then drawn into 
the furnace by the flue draft and combustion 
takes place. 

The maximum temperature is from 2500° 
to 2900° F. under the main arch. Liquid ash 
runs down the front and sides of the combus- 
tion zone and is precipitated into self-cleaning 
slag pans where it is cooled and solidifies. 

Many experiments are being conducted and 
various applications for burning powdered fuel 
are being tried out. Extensive developments 


LOCOMOTIVE 


may be expected within the next few years 
and the locomotive equipped for burning pul- 
verized fuel will not be uncommon. 

Coke.— Coke is used to a limited extent in 
certain portions of roads where smoke is ob- 
jectionable, such as in tunnels, cities, etc. It 
is not as a general rule desirable on account of 
its slow ignition and great bulk for a given 
weight. The best cokes are those from Penn- 
sylvania and Virginia. 


COMPOSITION OF COKE. 


Carbon 
LOCATION carbon Ash Sulphur 
Connellsville) Pasi yt ee: 89% 10% 1% 
PRoeahontash Vai assis eke. eet 93% 6% 1% 
Combustion.— Combustion takes place 


when the elements or the constituents of a 
fuel, which are mainly carbon and hydrogen, 
form a chemical combination with oxygen and 
produce oxides. Heat accompanies this chemi- 
cal action and it is this heat which is partially 
utilized in generating steam. 

Aw Required for Combustion.—Air is used 
to supply the necessary oxygen for maintaining 
and supporting the combustion. The composi- 
tion of air is approximately 23 per cent oxygen 
(O.) and 77 per cent nitrogen (N2) by weight, 
or 21 per cent O2 and 79 per cent N2 by vol- 
ume. To secure one pound of oxygen in the 
furnace it will therefore be necessary to sup- 
ply x or 4.35 pounds of air. Ordinarily in 
practice from 25 to 100 per cent more air is 
provided than is required for complete combus- 
tion. Naturally the less this excess, still main- 
taining complete combustion, the better the 
efficiency as this excess air leaves the boiler at 
a much higher temperature than when intro- 
ees into the furnace, thus carrying away 

eat. 

Let C, H and O denote respectively the 
parts by weight of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
gen in one pound of fuel. Carbon dioxide 
(CO:) is formed by the complete combustion 
of carbon and by the proportion of molecular 
weights 12 pounds of C combine with 32 
pounds of oxygen to form 44 pounds of COs. 
In other words one pound of carbon requires 
2.67 pounds of O2 or 11.6 pounds of air. By 
a similar method one pound of H: requires 
8 pounds of O2 or 34.8 pounds of air. 

There is often a small quantity of oxygen 
in the fuel itself and we consider that this will 
be united with the hydrogen as far as it is pos- 
sible. Then the minimum weight of air re- 
quired for complete combustion may be ob- 
tained by the following equation. 


11.6C+34.8(H— =) Pounds of air. 


The volume of air at 62° F. and atmospheric 
pressure theoretically required for complete 
combustion is arrived at by multiplying by the 
corresponding volume per pound of air which 
gives 


147C-+441 (HZ )=Cu. rplatnt pe Pes 


Example: Determine the pounds of air and 
cubic feet of air theoretically required for the 


571 


complete combustion of the wood with the 
composition as given above. 


11,6X 4975+34.8 (.0605— ==? )=05.077 Ibeyc of 
air. 
41352 ° 
147.4975+441 (.0605— ==°?)=77.0 cu. ft. of 
air. | 


One pound of fuel oil requires considerably 
more air than wood and more than any of the 
fuels mentioned heretofore. 


11.6X.824+34.8(.14— Oy =14.22 hee cess 


147. 82-441 (.14— 3) =178.19 bub festlof tain) 


The above figures indicate the importance 
of giving due consideration to the fuel used as 
space must be provided for admitting the 
proper quantity of air. At the same time the 
resistance offered to the passage of air through 
the fuel bed should be considered. 

Heating Value.—As mentioned before a 
chemical action is accompanied by the gener- 
ation of heat. The heat generated when one 
pound of combustible is completely burned is 
called the heating value. Heating values are 
determined as a rule by various calorimeters. 
The heating value of a fuel depends upon the 
quantities of carbon and hydrogen which it 
contains. Some fuels contain sulphur which 
generates some heat and requires a definite 
amount of oxygen for combustion. It is gen- 
erally disregarded however in making computa- 
tions. 

The heating value of a fuel may be approxi- 
mated by computing the quantities of heat 
which the combustible constituents contained 
in the fuel would produce if burned separately 
and taking the sum. 

The heat liberated in burning one pound of 
carbon completely is 14,650 B. T. U. One 
pound of hydrogen completely burned liberates 
OZ, TOO How Lasts 

Using the same symbols for the constituents 
as were used in arriving at the theoretical 
quantity of air necessary for combustion we 


can write. 
British thermal units (B. T. U.)=14,650 


C+62,100 (H— >): 


The above formula is known as Dulong’s 
equation and is used extensively in estimating 
the heating value of fuels when the ultimate 
analysis is known. To determine the heating 
value-of wood from the composition hereto- 
fore given, we write 

4135 


14,650 .4975-+62,100 (.0605— —-~)=8,835 


B. T. U. per Ib. 
Fuel oil according to the analysis given 
under fuel has the heating value of 


14,650 X 82+62,100 (.14— “ )=20,412 


Be, L.. Useper Ih. 


If it is desired to consider the heating value 
of the sulphur content, one pound of sulphur 
when completely burned will liberate 4,050 
B. T. U. The weight of sulphur in one pound 
of the fuel is therefore multiplied by~ 4,050 


572 


and added to the sum of the heat liberated by 
the other constituents in determining the heat- 
ing value of the fuel. 

Water.— For many years, the water sup- 
ply was considered. one of quantity only, re- 
gardless of the kind. Quantity of course is 
of prime importance, but considerable expense 
in maintenance and operation can be saved by 
scientific handling and treatment of the water 
used, In certain localities the waters, though 
unfit for drinking purposes, may not contain 
substances which make them undesirable for 
boiler use. Some waters though very good for 
drinking purposes contain material which either 
cause the formation of soft scale, hard scale, 
corroding or foaming. Soft and hard scale are 
poor conductors of heat, and upon collecting 
in the tubes and on the heating surfaces sur- 
rounding the firebox reduce the heat trans- 
mission besides clogging up the passages. As 
the heat transmission is retarded the boiler 
plates next to the hot gases and the tubes be- 
come overheated which causes leaks and 
trouble with the engine’s cylinder parts and 
steam passages. Relief is found by constant 
washouts, but this is an expensive method to 
pursue. It causes delays, layovers of consid- 
erable time and is hard on the life of the boiler 
in that cooling and heating up cause unequal 
expansion in the various parts which results 
in a loosening at the connections. 

Foaming is the most troublesome and most 
difficult to remedy. Broken cylinder parts, 
blowing out of packings, cutting of reciprocat- 
ing parts are quite frequently the result of 
foaming. Quite often foaming causes trouble 
with the fire-box sheets and tube sheets. Con- 
siderable waste of water and heat occurs in 
that water is carried along with the steam to 
the cylinders, especially when the boiler is be- 
ing forced as in climbing grades. 

Treatment of Water—In the case of soft 
scale due to the presence of lime carbonate 
and magnesia carbonate it is advisable to neu- 
tralize with slaked lime and give the boiler 
washouts frequently. Hard scale is due to the 
presence of lime and magnesia sulphates. 
Foaming is possible as an after trouble. Soda 
ash with slaked lime acts as a remedy and the 
boilers should be washed out frequently. 
Changing of the water and blowing out is also 
advisable whenever possible. 

_ Acids and chlorides in the water cause cor- 
rosion and foaming. The boiler should be 
closely inspected frequently, blown out and the 
water changed. Slaked lime or soda ash are 
helpful in relieving this trouble. . 

Foaming is frequently caused by the pres- 
ence of alkali and mud in the water fed to the 
boiler. Diluting the water with other waters 
quite often gives relief. Distillation alum acts 
as a neutralizer. The boiler should be blown 
out often and the water changed frequently. 
Where water of sufficient purity is not avail- 
able for the boilers many of the railroad com- 
panies are finding it necessary to render the 
available supply suitable by treatment and 
water-softening plants are being installed at the 
watering stations and terminals. Most of the 
companies employ chemical engineers to make 
a study of different waters used along the 
right of way and treat the waters, figuring the 
cost as against the interest and depreciation on 


the additional locomotives required for their 


LOCOMOTIVE 


service. Cost of cleaning the boilers, decrease 
in efficiency and capacity are also balanced up. 

The Locomotive Firebox and Combus- 
tion Chamber.— The locomotive boiler consists 
essentially of a rectangular firebox and a 
cylindrical shell through which numerous tubes 
pass from firebox to the smoke box, terminating 
in tube sheets. The products of combustion 
after passing the length of the tubes enter 
the smokebox and pass up the smoke stack 
with the exhaust steam from the steam 
cylinders. A forged steel ring joins the fire- 
box with the outer shell. Near this ring are 
several hand holes for cleaning out the space 
between the shell and the firebox. This space 
is commonly called the water leg: All plates 
of the boiler and firebox that are not of 
cylindrical shape require staying to keep them 
in place. For example, the cylindrical shell of 
a tubular boiler does not require staying or 
bracing as the internal pressure tends to keep 
it cylindrical. Flat surfaces tend to bulge 
and must be held in place. The placing of 
stays and the arrangement plays an important 
part in the design of a boiler and must be 
worked out for each special type. Many dif- 
ferent methods of staying will be found, and 
there are quite often several ways of staying 
the same kind of surface. The firebox and 
flat ends of the boiler require staying. How- 
ever, a portion of the tube sheets are suffi- 
ciently held in place by the tubes. The water 
leg is stayed by screwed stay bolts riveted at 
the ends. These stay bolts are likely to crack 
or break off on account of the expansion of- 
the firebox. In order to detect such a failure 
the stay bolts are often drilled from the outer 
end nearly through to the inner end. In case 
of failure steam will blow out the defective 
stay and thus give warning. The crown sheet 
of the firebox is exposed to intense heat while 
covered with but a few inches of water. The 
staying of the crown sheet is one of the most 
difficult problems met in locomotive boiler con- 
struction. To avoid the difficulties of staying 
the crown sheet, the firebox end of the boiler 
shell is sometimes made flat on top. Tubes for 
a locomotive boiler are as a rule made smaller 
than for stationary boilers and are spaced 
much more closely. Two-inch tubes are used 
generally, although in some cases smaller tubes 
have been used. The boiler is fastened rigidly 
to the frame of the locomotive at the smoke- 
box end. A small longitudinal motion on the 
frame at the firebox end is provided for by 
expansion pads. 

Firebox.— Two functions are performed by 
the firebox. Burning of the fuel and liberation 
of the heat contained is first and most import- 
ant. The second function is to permit the 
transmission of the heat through the firebox 
heating surfaces to the water. Under normal 
conditions only a part of the fuel burns on 
the grates. A considerable portion, approxi- 
mately one-half, of the heat is liberated by 
the burning of the gases above the fuel bed 
and in the tubes. Sufficient air supply, com- 
plete mixing of the gases and ample combus- 
tion space are necessary to prevent a large 
amount of combustible gases from passing out 
the smoke stack. 

Combustion Chamber The firebox fur- 
nishes seldom more than 10 per cent of the 
total heating surface, but is responsible for 


LOCOMOTIVE 


more than 25 per cent, and sometimes as high 
as 50 per cent of the total evaporation. It is 
very essential that sufficient combustion space 
be. provided in which the combustible gases 
given off by the fuel bed can burn and give off 
their heat. The carbon in the fuel next to the 
grates may be completely burned to. carbon 
dioxide, but in passing up through the fuel 
bed freshly placed will leave largely as carbon 
monoxide. If no place is provided for this 
gas to burn it will pass up the stack and 
lower efficiency will result. 

Mechanical Stokers— Mechanical _ stokers 
have been applied to a limited extent within 
recent years. On account of the increased size 
of the locomotive the ultimate capacity of the 
heating surface cannot be realized by hand 
firing and relief is sought in the application 
of mechanical firing. Many experiments are 
being conducted and the use of stokers is be- 
coming more general. 

Steam Action.— To understand the action of 
the steam in a modern locomotive let us take 
for example a locomotive about to start on its 
trip.; A good fire is burning on the grates, the 
steam pressure is up to maximum and a suffi- 
cient coal and water supply is on the tender. 
On opening the throttle, after setting the shift- 
ing lever, the steam enters the steam chest 
above» the engine cylinders, having passed 
through the superheater, if the locomotive is 
so equipped, and through the steam pipes con- 
necting the superheater or boiler with the 
steam chest. 

The steam then enters whichever end of 
cylinder is opened through the steam chest or 
valve chamber and due to its pressure causes 
the. piston to move. The piston being con- 
nected to the piston rod forces the crosshead 
and connecting rod and crank to perform their 
function of turning the axles upon which are 
mounted the driving wheels and valve mechan- 
ism. A movement of the valve mechanism 
causes a movement of the valve in the valve 
chest which admits the steam alternately to 
opposite ends of the cylinder and at the proper 
time permits the steam in the cylinder that has 
done its work to escape through the exhaust 
pipe and pass up the stack, thus producing a 
suction and creating a draft in the firebox. 

The valve and its movement are so designed 
that four events take place in each end of the 
cylinder as the. piston moves from one end to 
the other and back again, which requires one 
revolution of the drivers. One revolution of 
the drivers causes the valve to move from one 
end of its travel to the other and back again. 
When the valve is at one end of its stroke 
steam can enter the cylinder and when it is at 
the other end the steam can leave the cylinder. 
The opening and closing by the valve is a proc- 
ess continually. kept up and the opening varies 
from zero to its maximum. The valve starts 
to uncover the steam port slightly before the 
piston reaches the end of its stroke and we say 
admission takes place. Steam continues its 
flow into the cylinder and the piston starts on 
its working stroke. Before the stroke is com- 
plete the valve shuts off the steam and we have 
the cut off. The steam in the cylinder then ex- 
pands, doing work until the valve moving in 
the opposite direction opens the exhaust port 
and allows the steam to escape. This- last 


- has 


573 


event is called release, which as a rule occurs 
slightly before the piston reaches the end of its 
working stroke. The piston completes its 
working stroke and starts its return stroke, 
forcing the steam out of the cylinder. Before 
the piston completes its return stroke the valve 
started to close the exhaust port and 
upon closing we ‘have the fourth: event or com- 
pression. Some steam is caught in the cylin- 
der and compressed until admission occurs and 
a new cycle begins. 

A similar cycle is performed in the other 
end of the cylinder and so timed that when ex- 
haust and compression are taking place in one 
end admission and expansion are taking place 
in the other. The above-described events are 
changed at the will of the engineer by setting 
the shifting link for different cut-offs. When 
the shifting link is moved forward from mid- 
position the cut-off is increased and the loco- 
motive will run ahead. If he pulls the lever 
back of mid-position the locomotive will be re- 
versed. The nearer mid-position, the earlier 
the cut-off occurs and the less steam is ad- 
mitted. The events of the stroke are ex- 
pressed in per cent of the stroke completed in 
which they occur. For instance 25 per cent 
cut-off means the steam is cut off when the 
piston completes 25 per cent of its working 
stroke. 

Valve Gears.— The Stephenson link mo- 
tion and the Walschaert radial valve gear are 
the most common valve gears used in this 
country and have been briefly described under 
the caption Historical. More detailed descrip- 
tion will be found in texts on Valve Gears. 

Superheaters.— Few locomotives are now 
built without superheaters. The Schmidt fire- 
tube superheater was applied successfully as 
early as 1906, and the resulting economy in 
fuel and water together with its suitability to 
the requirements of American railroads has 
placed the superheater among the important 
elements of the modern locomotive. ‘To-day 
there are over 21,000 locomotives equipped with 
superheaters in the United States and Canada. 
Superheaters are applied to between 90 and 95 
per cent of all the standard gauge steam loco- 
motives built in the United States. The appli- 
cation of superheaters results in an increased 
boiler. capacity of about one-third, and a sav- 
ing in fuel of between 20 and 25 per cent. This 
increase in economy has made it possible for 
the average fireman to fire heavier locomotives. 
Superheated steam effects an economy by rea- 
son of its temperature being above the satura- 
tion temperature of steam at the same _ pres- 
sure and also by reason of its increased vol- 
ume. At high temperatures superheated steam 
behaves like a gas. Considerable heat may be 
abstracted without producing liquefaction, 
whereas the slightest absorption of heat from 
saturated steam results in condensation. If 
superheat is high enough to supply not only the 
heat absorbed by the cylinder walls but also 
the heat equivalent of the work done during ex- 
pansion, then the steam will be dry and satu- 
rated at release. Greater superheat than this 
will result in a loss of energy unless the steam 
is exhausted into another cylinder. In most 
cases superheat is only carried so far as to 
reduce initial condensation. To obtain dry 
steam at release the steam at cut off must be 


574 


superheated 100° to 300° F. above satura- 
tion temperature, depending upon the initial 
condition of the steam and the.number of ex- 
pansions. It is evident that the increased ef- 
ficiency obtained by any superheat in excess 
of that needed to prevent condensation must 


be due to increased volume of the steam per- 


unit weight. 

A moderate amount of superheat produces 
a considerable increase in volume, the pres- 
sure remaining constant, and reduces the weight 
of steam per stroke for a definite amount of 
work. 

The general trend of engineers is toward 
the use of higher superheats and steam tem- 
perature of 600° are not uncommon. 
There is no doubt that the limit of. su- 
perheat is reached when the exposed machine 
parts are unable to withstand the higher tem- 
peratures. 

Several types of superheaters have been ap- 
plied to locomotives but the design of the fire 
tube superheater fits so well the requirements 
of American railroads that it is the universal 
favorite. 

Feed-Water Heaters— The function of 
the feed-water heater as applied to the locomo- 
tive is that of heating the feed water, while 
that of the feed-water heater installed in a 
power plant is often to assist in purification of 
the feed water. Generally speaking there is a 
gain of 1 per cent in heat for every 10 de- 
grees that the feed water is heated when the 
heat which increases the feed water tempera- 
- ture would otherwise be wasted. Again, the 
smaller the difference in temperature between 
the feed water and the steam, the less would 
be the strain on the various parts subjected to 
changes of temperature. In European coun- 
tries the application of feed-water heaters is 
rapidly becoming general. Not a great amount 
of attention however has been given to the 
methods of heating feed water for locomotive 
boilers in this country, though many American 
railways are alive to the possibilities and the 
increased economy resulting therefrom. 

Waste heat from two different sources is 
available, namely, exhaust steam and gases 
from the combustion chamber. The thermal 
efficiency of the average locomotive operating 
under good condition is about 7 per cent. In 
other words, 7 per cent of the total heat in 
the coal fired represents useful work at- the 
draw bar. Losses in the gases from the com- 
bustion chamber total nearly 18 per cent and 
that lost in the discharged exhaust steam about 
65 per cent. Proportional and maintenance 
difficulties are greater in heaters designed to 
absorb heat from the furnace gases though the 
gases are at a higher temperature and greater 
transmission per unit of area might be ex- 
pected if sufficient quantities of the gases 
could be brought in contact with the heating 
surfaces. Attention should be first given to 
perfecting a feed-water heater to absorb all 
the heat possible from the exhaust steam and 
later attempt to use the heat in the hot gases 
as is done by the economizer in steam-power 
plants. The exhaust steam does some work in 
producing draft, and of course cannot be con- 
sidered as a dead loss. However, a small pro- 
portion of this heat could perform the work 
in producing a satisfactory draft. 

A feed-water heater based on the principle 


LOCOMOTIVE 


of the Lovekin film heater applied in marine 
practice has been designed and used on high- 
speed passenger locomotives capable of heating 
feed water from 45° to 225° F. A back pres- 
sure of 10 pounds existed in the cylinder. 
Two hundred and twenty-five degrees feed 
water is still about 160° below steam tempera- 
ture and any additional heating could be done 
by the exhaust gases which frequently have a 
temperature of 700° F. or more. 

From what work has been done it appears 
that a 10 per cent economy can be expected 
under reasonable conditions of operation. The 
logical location of a feed-water heater is on 
the front deck, close to the cylinders, and un- 
der the extension at the front. It is advisable 
in order to secure higher temperatures in the 
feed water to. use the closed type of heater 
with a pump to deliver the water to the boiler 
through the heater against the boiler pressure. 
The exhaust steam from the pump should be 
discharged into the heater. 

Locomotive Performance.— The indicated 
horse power, or horse power developed in the 
cylinders, of any locomotive may be computed 
as for any steam engine. The work done in 
the cylinder equals the product of the average 
force acting on the piston and the space 
traversed. Using the units in pounds and feet 
gives a result in foot pounds which if divided 
by 33,000 foot pounds considering one minute 
in time gives horse power. . 


Let A= Area of piston in square inches. 
d= diameter of cylinder in inches. 
L' length of stroke of piston in feet. 
N}§ revolutions: per minute. 
P=mean effective pressure on piston 
in pounds per square inch during 
one revolution. 
Then the horse power developed in one end 
of the cylinder will equal 
ry p— PLAN _ PXL'xnx@XN 
Te S¥TE33 M00 15 4X 33,000 
As work is done in each end of the cylinder 
and there are ordinarily two cylinders on each 
locomotive the total horse power of the loco- 
motive equals. 


4 PL'AN 4XPL’XtX@XN_ PL'@N 


4H P< 33,000 an v4 38,000 <0 aaMeSOe 
If L is expressed in inches 
PLa2N 
Pe Pi 726,050 


Let V = speed in miles per hour 
D+ diameter of drivers in inches. 
PLEV |) “RLY. 
Then DoH APS 31.25D = 375D : 


The maximum horse power is usually at- 
tained at speeds of from 25 to 35 miles per 
hour in freight locomotives, and at speeds of 
50 to 60 miles per hour in passenger locomo- 
tives. 

Efficiency (Mechanical).— Mechanical effi- 
ciency represents the ratio of the horse power 
at the tender drawbar to the indicated horse . 
power (I. H.P.) developed in the cylinder. 

The losses include (a) friction in all the 
mechanisms; (b) air resistance; (c) grade re- 
sistance, and (d) acceleration resistance. These 
losses vary from 10 to 30 per cent of the I. H. P. 


LOCOMOTIVE 


Tractive Force The. tractive force in 
pounds for simple locomotives considering drop 
in pressure due to expansion, friction and wire 
drawing is expressed by the formula 

8 Pa. 
P= ——_., 
D 


Some authorities use .85 instead of .8. 
The following formule for different types 
_ of locomotives are used by certain locomotive 
builders : 
Simple 2-cylinder locomotives working simple 
fe 85 PaL 
Do 


Compound 2-cylinder locomotives 
8 Pd3L 
D 
Compound 2-cylinder 
67 Pg 
compound F =- D 


Compound 4-cylinder 
1.6 PdpL 
D 
Compound 4-cylinder locomotives 
.67 Pd,L 25 Pa? LL 
spa es See 


working 


simple F = 


locomotives working 


locomotives working 


simple F = 
working 


compound FF = 


Mallet compound eee locomotives 


52 Pd iL 

D ; 

d7 = diameter of high pressure cylinder in 
inches. 

d\=diameter of low pressure cylinder in 
inches. 

Tractive force determined by the above 
formule holds when the locomotive is operat- 
ing on a level track at a uniform speed up to 
seven miles per hour. 

_ As the speed increases and the cut-off is re- 
duced or takes place earlier in the stroke the 
resulting tractive force is less. 

Drawbar Pull The drawbar pull or trac- 
tive force of a locomotive is indicated on a 
dynamometer. This force is dependent upon 
the weight of the locomotive on the driving- 
wheels and upon the power of the locomotive. 
The drawbar pull at that point where the driv- 
ing-wheels begin to slip: is known as the ad- 
hesion of the locomotive. The adhesion varies 
with the coefficient of friction between the 
driving-wheels and the track. Values of the 
ee of ae ie are given in the following 
table 


working compound F = 


Dry rail, good cuudiien ae, RNG Fe) t6825 
Maximum with sand...... BRE hoes ji arate) 
Moist Fae iPr Tad er BE ae, F==15 


Worst condition" Vaurgip oo, Bi 20: eS 
Drawbar pull weight on drivers in pounds 
times f. 


: 7 
Engineering News gives R=2+ 4 


Baldwin: Locomotive Works[{ gives R==3-+ y 


in which R= resistance in pounds per ton 
(2,000 pounds), on straight level track and V = 
velocity in miles per hour. 

Under good conditions the, drawbar pull 
necessary to haul one ton varies from 6 to 8 
pounds on straight level track, increasing with 
curves and grades.. The increased resistance 
due to grades is as follows: One mile con- 


575 


tains 5,280 feet, and the force necessary to 
move one ton up a grade of one foot per mile 
is 3788 pounds. When the grade is expressed 
in feet per mile the number of feet per mile 
multiplied by .3788 will give the resistance in 
pounds per ton. When the grade is expressed 
in feet per hundred, or per cent, the resistance 
for each per cent of grade will be 20 pounds 
per ton. The resistance due to curves is not 
easily determined. The construction of the 
roadbed, speed of train and various other con- 
ditions of service make it impossible to give an 
exact rule for computing the resistance due to 
curves of any given radius. This resistance 
has been estimated at from .6 to .7 pounds per 
ton per degree of: curve. By degree of curve 
is meant the number of degrees of central 
angle subtended by a chord of 100 feet. One 
degree of curvature equals a radius of 5,730 
feet. Therefore, the number of degrees di- 
vided into 5,730 gives the radius in feet to a 
very close approximation. 

A starting force of about 18 pounds per 
ton is necessary to overcome train resistance. 
However, considerable variation from this force 
is likely to be experienced. Values mentioned 
by numerous authorities range from 14 to 30 
pounds per ton. These figures are not in- 
tended to cover inertia but represent slow starts. 
The resistance reduces the instant the train 
moves. Slack in couplers or compression in 
draft springs aid the locomotive by permit- 
ting the train to start one car at a time. Engi- 
neers realize this and locomotives draw trains 


- with entire satisfaction which if all the cars 


in the train were rigidly coupled could not 
be started. The effect of wind resistance is of 
such importance that consideration should be 
given the same. Winds blowing with the train 
help the locomotive while head-on winds add 
to the resistance to be overcome by the loco- 
motive. Winds at right angles to the direc- 
tion’ of travel of Vthe train :are,.as ia. rule, 
considerably harder on the locomotive than 
head winds. The side wind causes high flange 
friction on the far side and it is not uncommon 
during heavy wind storms on the prairies to 
have trains delayed as the locomotives are 
unable to maintain their scheduled speed. 

Trains in starting will require, as stated 
above, about 18 pounds per ton and as the 
speed increases to five miles per hour will 
drop to four or five pounds per ton. The 
formule as hereinbefore given for determin- 
ing the value of R, or draw bar pull, are not 
general. We know that R does not increase 
at the same rate for heavy trains as for 
lighter trains. For a 100-ton train 30 pounds 
per ton will be the approximate tractive effort 
when the speed is 80 miles per hour and for 
a 600-ton train 15 pounds per ton at the same 
speed will be required. 

Inertia.— Inertia, the amount of which de- 
pends upon the weight and change in velocity, 
effects all bodies in motion. Locomotives move 
on the track at varying speeds, some. of the 
parts have various speeds with respect to each 
other and the motions of the parts are in 
different directions. The locomotive must be 
built to withstand these inertia forces safely. 
The inertia forces are small when the speed 
is low, but should nevertheless be given care- 
ful consideration. At high speeds many fail- 
ures have resulted due to improper size of the 


576 


parts. For instance, a locomotive running at 
60 miles per hour has its brakes applied as it 
approaches a curve. It is obvious that the 
locomotive must be built to withstand the iner- 
tia forces and be balanced to resist the tend- 
ency to overturn as curves are met. 

Economy of Modern Locomotives.— 
Tests reported (Bulletin No. 26, University of 
Illinois Experiment Station) show the follow- 
ing increase in economy with increase in boiler 
pressure: 


Boiler pressure, lbs. 
PELisG., i 1h he; Gee 
Steam per I. H. P. 
per hr. in lbs..... 
Coal per I. H. P. per 
Hritin lbs. ees 


120 140 160 180 200 220 240 
20 Ao 27.920. 0 -26..0::25..5..25. bk 24.4 
4.0  3.8713.6.0326°304 374 63.3 


In Engineering News, 8 March 1894, Mr. 
C. H. Quereau reports that the mean effective 
pressure decreases as the speed of the loco- 
motive increases: 

Miles per hour...... AG 251-253. fs 51 60:66 
eile ingeee per min- 
NEE Cocos ot Woke tee ren 


Mean effective pres- 
sure, lbs. per sq. in. 51.5 44.0 43.0 41.3 42.5 37.3 36.3 


2245+ 248 5258 263: 25277) 1:292 321 


Mr. Quereau also states the following rela- 
tive to the variation of steam consumption 
with speed: 


Soh seh SL SINGLE EXPANSION 


COMPOUND 
Steam 
: Steam - 
Revolu- ise per I. H.| Revolu- ied rp I. 
tions ed P. per tions Pp 4 PEt 
our hai hour hour 
1 Tbe! in lbs. 
100-150 21-31 18.33 151 31 21.7 
150—200 31-41 18.9 219 45 20.91 
200-250 41-51 19.7 253 52 20.52 
250-275 51-56 21.4 307 63 20.23 
Ath cP ed eR 3 SET 321 66 20.01 


The maximum indicated horse power per 
square foot of grate surface lies, for the 
freight locomotives, between 21.1 and 31.2, for 
passenger locomotives between 28.1 and 35.0. 

Cylinder Performance.— Cylinder  per- 
formance is affected by variation in both speed 
and cut-off. Run at a constant speed, the 
steam consumption per indicated horse power 
in simple locomotives is a minimum at from 


SPEED DRY SEE PER I.H.P. PER HOUR, 


LBS. 
: Per cent 
Miles 
R.P.M cut-off 20 40 30 
per hour 50 

40.. 2 30.0 28.8 28.0 27.4 
60.. 10 2725: 26.8 25.9 Aa | 
80.. 13% 26.0 25.5 24.6 24.0 
100... 162 Ppa) 24.9 24.0 23.6 
120.3% 20 2526 24.5 23.8 23.3 
140.. 234 26.0 24.5 24.0 23.3 
Hee 264) \fet on ae eae ge DR pea 2S 
a SO Sole. oe PAs peak hal ieapt i Wek Sh ee nn See 
200.. EXY ah pn iee eee 255 |se see tests ee 


30 to 40 per cent cut-off, increasing at either 
earlier or later cut-offs. When run at constant 
cut-off, the steam consumption decreases rap- 
idly with the speed until it reaches a minimum 


LOCOMOTIVE 


at a speed of approximately 150 revolutions 
per minute, and then increases as the speed 


increases beyond this point. 


The preceding table gives typical perform- 
ances for a simple freight locomotive operating 
at 200 pounds pressure. 

Boiler Performance.— The | evaporation 
per square foot of heating surface per hour 
varies from 5 to 15 pounds. Under ordinary 
conditions the evaporation is about 11 pounds 
per hour and the locomotive is seldom driven 
above this amount. Under the conditions of 
service prevailing it will average nearer 7.. 
Therefore each square foot on the average 
will be good for about .2 of a boiler horse 
power and when driven will supply around 
4 B.H.P. Slightly less than one-half of the 
evaporation takes place on the heating surface 
of the firebox although it constitutes between 
4 and 8 per cent of the total heating surface. 
Most of the heating surface is in the tubes. 

Evaporation results in ordinary practice will 
as a rule fall between the values given in the 
following table: 


Water Waters 
evaporated evaporated 
per lb. per sq. ft. 

of of heating 
dried coal surface 

as per hour 

fired in lbs 

om Oa Fos Up iitahs SEU gr ANI Le MRA rn) ey cA es te, a 
Tid toch, Vin Gere cee cuele ea cee Se eee 4 
7 .3.t0°105 7. 2 ee ee ae ee se 5 
712 to MO? 23re RR ee Say Aree Se 6 
TO 1029 £855 Saree cate eee ee 7 
658 to. 49.4. ee ee Net ape cd: eee 8 
G2 SOOO Cor ae eer Se er ie a ee a 9 
6.2405 SieSii.is: Mead a ee tk ee Oe 10 
620 to A8cLshy.. nck oa easel eee ; 11 
SU B10. 1 HL cn. ee a LO Sine ete ae 12 
5 Sto 255, oe een ee Be a ee 13 
502 tOjPOL8 ue eee Ba. te ded eee 14 
5.0 to- 6:4. 255 [Yee ee eee 15 


Compound Locomotives.—Any locomotive 
equipped with cylinders in which the expansion 
of steam is begun in one cylinder and con- 
tinued in another is called a compound loco- 
motive. When steam is expanded in two or 
more cylinders successively the number of ex- 
pansions per cylinder is less than when only 
one is used, and therefore the range of tem- 
perature in each cylinder is less. Reducing the 
range of temperature in each cylinder reduces 
the condensation losses. The main object of 
compounding is to reduce the amount of steam 
per horse power per hour. With compound en- 
gines as applied to locomotives the saving in 
steam consumption as compared with simple 
engines is a very uncertain quantity. Ten to 20 
per cent less steam is used per indicated horse 
power per hour in compound locomotives than 
in the simple engine when the cylinders, pis- 
tons and valves are all in good condition. 

Locomotives with more than two cylinders 
are as a rule made compound. In two-cylin- 
der compounds it is quite important that the 
work done in each cylinder be equal. The ex- 
haust or back pressure of the high pressure 
cylinder is the initial pressure of the low pres- 
sure cylinder. They are arranged, however, to 
start as simple engines and the general arrange- 
ment is to allow the high pressure cylinder 
to exhaust directly into the atmosphere, the 
steam from the boiler to the low pressure 
cylinder being reduced in pressure by passing 
through a reducing valve. 


TE8T JO SoUIN}SOd 9q} Ul passoip o1¥ Ulel) plo ey} UO SIasUessed OY “MOY Uv So[IUI GT 0} B WIOIJJ Jo poads v }¥ ULI puL 
AresIOATUUY YJONOUIU SII UO Po[pUryeI Soy SI PLY ‘Test ul ApvjeueyoS puv AuLqTy Usemjeq URI 4SIY YIYM ‘oulsUa JouING-poom pjo eyL “Iz6I AIN{ FI “A *N ‘UOWIERy 
38 ANOWOIO] ,, VOJUTTD HIME ,, WI0}sTY oy} Aq UMLIP UleN JeZuessed js1y s,AUedUIOD }vY} opIssuole pvopeY [e1jUID HIOX MON 94} Jo popu] AInjueDg qlonuemy 


1Z6L Vys4Adoy -ojoyg Aoarwyy 


we SR Te 


ty 


= 


LOCOMOTIVE 


Under ordinary conditions the cylinder per- 
formance of compound locomotives as com- 
pared with simple locomotives is as given in 


the following table: 
LBS. OF DRY STEAM PER 
I.H.P. PER HOUR 
rc OC  -  owmaooOo 


Simple Compound 

SPEED IN R. P. M. locomotives locomotives 

GOs: le ERIS 2. DOT 27.3 to 30.0 20.3 to 22.0 
CEH EE TE RESTLESS otek bata 26.0 to 27.9 20.1 to 21.7 
Og BOs To: IN SR ee) ge 24.9 to 26.3. 19.9 to 21.6 
TORE, ete I S28. ATS AS 24.0 to 25.3 19.8 to 21.4 
A20 ATA FAIS SAE SF 23.7 to 24.8 19.8 to 21:5 
PAGS Tae seis Sie ot. Sire othe aks 23.6 to 24.7 20.0 to 21.7 
1GQ Shae SE PER OF Pele. PREZ 23.7 to 24.8 20.2 to 22.0 
TSO cpt at A... ote te SES 24.0 to 25.2 20.6 to 22.3 
PUN RESO dae AS Sh OIE niet oes 24.5 to 25.9 21.0 to 23.0 
220 D3 Se. Sages BE Bes 25 Jotown. OF “2114 to 2578 
DAT ee MES, po OES San SH See ohes 3 26.7 to 28.2 22.0 to 24.6 
ZOOM 3G. EE Psa... Oee...t2.  F 27131 £O-297 2) 222 8ito 25.35 


Geared Locomotives.— Geared locomotives 
are especially designed for logging service, 
where steep grades, sharp curves and uneven 
tracks are encountered. They are carried on 
8 or 12 wheels, which are grouped in two 
or three trucks; each truck having four wheels: 
Power is applied to all the wheels, in order 
that the whole weight of the locomotive, in- 
cluding the fuel and water supply, is available 
for adhesion. As a general rule the engine 
drives a transverse shaft. The transverse 
shaft is bevel gear connected to longitudinal 
shafts which extend to the trucks. Universal 
joints are arranged as fitted to the longitud- 
inal shafts to compensate relatively changing 
positions of the trucks when the engine is 
traversing curves. 

‘The trucks are so arranged that the boxes 
can play in their respective pedestals without 
throwing the gears out of mesh. In case it is 
desired to transport the locomotive on its own 
wheels the gears can be thrown out of mesh 
so that the transmission mechanism does not 
act when the locomotive is moved. 

Bibliography.—American Locomotive Com- 
pany, ‘Locomotives? (New York 1902 to date) ; 
American Railway Association Proceedings 
(New York 1886 to date); American Railway 
Engineering and Maintenance of Way Asso- 
ciation Proceedings and Reports (Chicago 
1900 to date); American Railway Engineering 
Association Manual (Chicago 1915 to date); 
American Railway Master Mechanics Associa- 
tion, Locomotive Dictionary (Newark, N. J., 
1870 to date) ; American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers Transactions and Journal (New 
York 1880 to date); Baldwin Locomotive 
Works, ‘Locomotive Data? (Philadelphia 1909 
to date) ; Engineering News (New York 1875 
to date); Garbe, R., ‘Locomotives? (London 
1908) ; Goss, W. F. M., ‘Locomotive Perform- 
ances? (New York 1907); Henderson, G. R., 
‘Locomotive Operation? (Chicago 1904) ; Inter- 
national Railway Fuel Association Proceedings 
(Chicago 1914 to date); Master Car Builders 
Association Proceedings (Chicago 1875 to 
date) ; Pennsylvania Railroad Company, ‘Loco- 
motive Testing? (Altoona, Pa., 1904 to date); 
Pettigrew, W. F., ‘Locomotives» (London 
1909) ; Purdue University, ‘Locomotive Test- 
ing? (Lafayette, Ind., 1895 to date); Sinclair, 
A., ‘Locomotive History? (New York 1907) : 
United States Interstate Commerce Association, 
“Locomotive Boilers? (Washington, D. C., 1912 
to date); University of Illinois, ‘Engineering 

VOL. 17 — 37. 


577 


(Urbana, IIl., 


W. F. VERNER, 
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, 
University of Michigan. 


LOCOMOTIVE, Principal Parts of.— 
The following list embodies brief descriptions 
of the construction and operation of the vari- 
ous principal parts of the modern locomotive. 
For further information consult articles under 
the titles Locomotive; Locomotive INDUSTRY; 
ENGINE INDUSTRY in this Encyclopedia. 


Arr . BELL-RINGER.— Air-pressure connection for ringing 
the signal bell. 

AIR-BRAKE Hose.— The flexible hose connection by which 
the brake-pipe of the locomotive is attached to that of 
another locomotive. 

AIR-CYLINDER OF BRAKE-PUMP.— The lower cylinder of 
the air-pump which furnishes the compressed-air for 
setting the air-brakes. 

AIR-DRUM.— The main air-reservoir. See Main Reservoir. 

AIR-GAUGE.— A pressure gauge provided with two hands, 
one of which indicates the amount of air-pressure in 
the main reservoir, and the other one the pressure in the 
main brake-pipe or train-pipe. In the latter the pressure 
is usually maintained at 70 pounds as indicated by the 
gauge, and in the main reservoir somewhat in excess of 
this amount, so as to ensure the proper action of the 
valves of the air-pump. 

ArIR-PUMP.— An air-compressing pump which is worked 
by steam taken from the boiler. It supplies the com- 
pressed-air used for operating the air-brakes, and for 
signal purposes. 

AIR-PUMP EXHAUST-PIPE.— The pipe from the steam 
pases of the air-pump to the steam-pipes in the smoke- 

OX 

AIR-PUMP LUBRICATOR.— The cup or arrangement which 
contains the oil used in lubricating the air-pump. It 
is located in the cab. 

AIR SIGNAL-HOSE.— The flexible hose which connects the 
air signal-pipe in the cab with the air signal-pipe con- 
nections in the cars. 

APRON.— The. sheet-iron plate which covers the space 
between the locomotive and the tender. 

ARCH-PIPES.— The steam-pipes in the smoke bak which 
connect the branches of the T-pipe with the steam-chests. 

BELL-YOKE or BELL-STAND.— The cast-iron arch placed : 
upon the top of the boiler, in which the bell is swung. 

BISSEL-TRUCK.— A wheel arrangement or truck designed 
to relieve the lateral rigidity in locomotives, and facilitate 


Experiment Station Bulletins? 
1904 to date). 


their travel around curves. . 

BLow-orFr Cock.— A plug-cock at the bottom of the fire- 
box, by the opening of which the boiler is blown off or 
emptied. 

BLOWER-PIPE.— The pipe in the smoke-box connected 

'with the blower-cock in. the cab. By blowing steam 
through it, a draft is produced when the locomotive is at 
rest: 

BoILer.— The large sheet-iron cylindrical structure, con- 
stituting the main upper body of a locomotive, filled 
with tubes, in which the steam used for driving the 
locomotive and operating its various auxiliary appliances 
is generated. 

BoILER-JACKET.— See Jacket. 

BONNET.— The wire cap or netting placed over the smoke- 
stack to restrain the sparks and cinders. 

Boxes.— The bearings which rest upon the journals of 
the axles. 

BrRAKE.— The appliance by which a locomotive or a train 
is brought quickly to a standstill. Ordinarily, it consists 
of a flexible piece of strap-iron lined with woeden blocking 
which is applied to the tires of the wheels by means of 
rods and levers actuated by the pressure of compressed-air, 
or by hand. 

BRAKE-PIPE.— The pipe through which compressed-air is 
conducted from the various air-reservoirs connected 
with the air-pump, to the brake-cylinders of the loco- 
motive, the tender, and the cars composing the train. 
Each car has its own brake-pipe and brake-cylinder. 
When the cars are made up into a train, these pipes 
are connected with each other and with those of the 
tender and the locomotive, by means of flexible hose, 
and when thus connected, it is called the train-pipe. 


BRASSES.— The brass boxes on the cross-heads and the 


crank-pins. 

BUMPER BLocks.— Pieces of timber bolted to the bumpers 
for the purpose of reducing the shock of impact when the 
cars come together. 

BumpER SHEET.—A sheet of metal placed on the front 
end of the frame, to cover the space between the bumper 
and the cylinders. 

BuMPERS or BUFFERS.— Massive pieces of timber bolted to 
the front end of the engine frame, and to the rear end of 


578 


the tender to receive ‘‘ bumps’”’ without fracturing the 
metal behind. 

CAB.— The hood or house placed on the back end of the 
boiler, and over the foot-plate, for occupancy by the 
engineer and fireman. 

Cas HaNDLES.— Handles attached to the sides of the 
cab for the use of the engineer and fireman, in getting 
on or off the engine. 

CELLARS.— Recesses or chambers in the jaws of the boxes, 
which hold the oil for lubricating the journals. 

CENTRE-CASTING.— The cast-iron plate which connects 
the truck bolster to the front-end of the boiler. 

CHECK-CHAMBER.— A chamber attached to the waist of 
the boiler, through which the water passes from the 
connecting pipe to the boiler. ; 

CHECK-VALVE.— A wing-valve inserted in the feed-pipe 
between the feed-pump. and the boiler, to prevent the 
return of the water from the boiler to the pump. 

CONNECTING-RODS.— The rods or bars attached to the 
piston-rods, by means of which the power developed in 
the cylinders is transmitted to the driving-axles. They 
convert the rectilinear reciprocating motion of the pistons 
ae. be rotary motion of the crank-pins of the main driving 
wheels. 

COUNTER-BALANCES or COUNTER-WEIGHTS.— Large blocks 
of iron cast on or otherwise secured in place between 
two or more spokes of each driving-wheel, opposite the 
crank-pin, for the purpose of balancing the weight of the 
parallel and connecting rods, and to steady the motion 
of the engine by equalizing the forces or moments around 
the axle. 

CouPLER.— See Draw-bar. 

CouPLING-RODS.— The rods by which the crank-pins on 
adjoining driving-wheels are connected together, so as 
to cause the wheels to rotate in unison. 

Cow-CATCHER or PiLot.—A triangular structure of steel, 
or iron bars, or curved sheet-metal, attached to the front 
end of the locomotive. It is provided for the purpose 
of removing stray cattle and other obstructions from the 
track, and thus prevent them from getting under the wheels. 

CRANK-PIN.— A pin in the crank of a driving wheel uniting 
the connecting-rod with the driver. 

Cross-HEADS.— Blocks. which move in guides and unite the 
piston and connecting-rods, and slide-blocks together. 
CROWN-BARS.— Bars placed on the upper side of the crown- 
sheet in the water-space, with their ends resting on the 
edge of the furnace-sheet, to strengthen the crown-sheet. 

CROWN-SHEET.— The top sheet of the furnace, to which 
the crown-bars are attached. It is placed directly over 
the fire. 

Cut-orF.— The termination of the period of admission of 
steam into the cylinders. The point of cut-off is regulated 
by the amount of lap on the slide-valves. 

CYLINDERS.— Steam-tight, cylindrical, metal receivers at- 
tached to the front end of the boiler on each side of the 
lower part of the smoke-box. They contain the pistons, 
which are actuated by the steam obtained from the boiler. 
There may be two, four or eight of them, according to the 
type of locomotive — simple-engine, compound-engine and 
tandem-compound engine, respectively. They are called 
high-pressure or low-pressure cylinders, according to the 
manner in which the expansive energy of the steam is 
utilized therein, and are given the additional designations 
— outside or inside cylinders, according to their position 
relative to the engine frame. 

CYLINDER-COCKS.— Small cocks placed on the lower parts 
of cylinder-heads, to drain off water of condensation. 

CYLINDER-HEADS.— The front and back ends of the cylinders. 
The latter hold the stuffing-boxes through which the 
piston-rods move. ; 

DamperS.— The doors in the front and rear ends of the 
ash pan, by which the air admitted to the furnace is 
regulated. 

DASHERS.— The sheet-iron plates attached to the inside 
shell of the boiler, opposite the pump-check, to prevent the 
cold water from drenching the tubes. 

DEFLECTOR.— A bell-shaped or trumpet-mouthed ‘opening 
used in the furnace to effect a mixing of the air and gases 
so as to cause the latter to ignite and thus render the 
combustion of the fuel more perfect. 

DomeE-Bopies.— The sheet-iron jackets which envelop the 
dome outside of the wooden “ lagging.’ 

DomE-sTtays.— The braces attached to the crown-bars 
and the dome, to strengthen the dome and the crown-sheet. 

DoME or STEAM-DOME.— The elevated, dome-shaped 
chamber on the top of the boiler, from which the supply 
of steam for the cylinder is taken, because it is partially 
superheated. 


DRAW-BAR or COUPLER.— The bar attached to the front 
of the pilot, by means of which the locomotive may 
be attached to cars or to another locomotive. The 
name is also applied to the rod or bar by which the 
locomotive is coupled to its tender.. 


Drip-cock or Drip.— The receptacle placed under the 
gauge-cocks, to receive the water and steam discharged. 


DRIVING-AXLES.— The axles which communicate the motion 
of the connecting-rods directly to the driving-wheels. 


LOCOMOTIVE 


DRIVING-SADDLES.— The yokes which straddle the frame 
and support the driving-springs. 

DRIVING-WHEELS or Drivers.— The wheels which are 

; attached to the driving axles. The driving-wheel arrange- 
ment of a locomotive may consist of the 4-coupled, 
6-coupled, etc., wheel type. They form what is calied the 
““ wheelbase ’’ of the locomotive. The tractive power of a 
locomotive is derived from the adhesion of the driving- 
wheels to the rails, and depends upon the weight of the 
locomotive and the area of the wheelbase. 

EccENTRIC.— A device for operating the  slide-valves. 
This change in motion is effected by giving the eccentric 
a definite ‘‘throw’”’ or eccentricity equal in amount 
to one-half of the travel of the valve. A locomotive 
has two pairs of eccentrics and their attachments. One 
eccentric of each pair is set on the shaft in such a position 
that the operation of the valves will run the engine in one 
direction, and the other one is set soas to operate the valve 
to run the engine in the opposite direction. The ends of 
each pair of eccentrics are attached to a link by means of 
which either of the eccentric-rods is engaged with or dis- 
engaged from the rockers. 

ECCENTRIC-SHEAVE.— The body of the eccentric or the 
eccentric itself, which is forged or keyed directly on 
to the axle or crank-shaft. 


_ ENGINEER’S BRAKE-VALVE.— The air-valve arrangement 


located on the right side of the cab, by means of which the 
engineer operates the driving-wheel and other brakes on 
the locomotive, and also the several sets of air-brakes 
attached to the cars of the train. 

ENGINE-TRUCK.— See Truck. | 

EQUALIZING-LEVERS.— Bars suspended at their middle 
points underneath the engine-frame, and connected at 
their ends to the springs of the driving-wheels, for dis- 
tributing the force of the shocks. 

EQUALIZING-SPRINGS.— The spiral or elliptical springs on 
the reverse-shaft, provided for the purpose of equalizing 
the weight of the links. 

EXHAUST-PORT.— The middle opening in the seat of each 
slide-valve. ; 

EXPANSION-CLAMPS.— The clamps bolted over the main- 
frames and the furnace-pads, to allow for the expansion 
of the boiler under the influence of heat. Also, the 
clamps bolted to the fire-box under the main-frame to 
hold the latter against the liners. 

FEED-PIPE.— The pipe which conveys the feed water from 
the feed-pump to the boiler. See Injector. 

FEED-PUMP.— The force pump which supplies the boiler 
with feed-water. It forces the water into the boiler 
against the pressure in the boiler. See Injector. 

FEED-TANK.— The water tank provided for the purpose of 
oe the feed-water for the boiler. It is located in the 
tender. 

FEED-WATER.— The water used for the supply of the boiler. 

FirE-Box.— The furnace, or that part of the boiler, in which 
the fuel is burned. 

FirE-poor.— The door in the back end of the boiler, through 
wich the fuel and the firing irons are introduced into the ~ 

e-box. 

FLuES.— The pipes in the boiler which carry off the smoke 
and the waste-gases from the fire-box to the smoke-box, 
and thus produce the draft necessary for the combustion 
of the fuel. They are made of iron, the diameter of the 
tubes being kept as small as possible so as to subdivide the 
volume of the smoke and gases into a large number of 
small streams, thus exposing them to a large radiating ~ 
surface, through the medium of which the heat is trans- 
mitted to the water surrounding the tubes. 

FOLLOWER-PLATES.— The plates which cover the spring» 
packing on the front ends of the piston-heads. 

Foot-BoArp.— A platform on the back end of the boiler, 
on which the engineer stands. 

Foot-pPLaTE.— A cast-iron plate bolted to the back end of 
the frame opposite the fire-door. 

FRAME.— The strong metal skeleton which supports the 
boiler, machinery, and axles of the locomotive. 

FRAME-SPLICE.— The connecting arrangement between 
the front and main frames. ; 

FRONT-END.— That part of the locomotive which includes 
the extended outer-shell of the boiler, comprising the 
smoke-box and all of the appliances contained therein. 
such as steam and exhaust pipes, nettings, diaphragms, 
draft-pipes and the base of the smoke-stack. The 
function of the front-end is to draw atmospheric air into 
the ash-pan, and thence through the grate and the fire-box, 
and to draw the furnace gases through the flues, and thence 
under the diaphragm into the smoke-stack, and force 
them out into the atmosphere. 


FRONT-RAIL.— A  single-bar attachment which extends 
from the front of each of the main frames to the front 
bumper. 


Frosr-cocxs.— Cocks provided for the purpose of admitting 
steam from the boiler to the feed-pipes to prevent them 
from freezing in cold weather. . 

Frost-pLuGs.— Plugs screwed into the pump chambers 


and pump cages to allow the water to drain out and 
prevent them from freezing: 


LOCOMOTIVE 


FuRNACE-PADS.— The knees bolted on the shell of the 
fire-box, to place the weight of the boiler on the frame. 
FURNACE-RINGS.— The wrought-iron rings which connect 
the outside and inside sheets in the water space at the 

bottom of the furnace. 

Gis.— The fixed wedge employed to compensate the wear 
in the boxes, on the cross-heads, and of the crank-pins. 

GLanp.— A bush by means of which the packing in the 
stuffing boxes is secured in place, to receive the wear 
of the piston-rod, and to prevent the leakage of steam. 

GoosE-NECK.— A bent pipe of brass, or iron, employed to 
connect the front end of the feed-pipe with the lower 
chamber of the pump. 

GOVERNOR or PUMP-GOVERNOR.— A valve arrangement. con- 
nected with the steam pipe and the brake-pipe or train- 
pipe attached to the air-pump. It is employed to regulate 
the action of the pump in operating the air-brakes. It is 
usually set to maintain a pressure of 70 pounds as indicated 
by the air-gauge. 

GRATE.— The area made up of the grate bars in the fire-box, 
on which the fuel is burned. 

GRATE. SHAKING-RIG.— A bar attached to the movable 
grate-bars of shaking or rocking grates, by which they are 
moved back and forth with a rocking motion, thus dis- 
turbing the fire over the whole area of the grate, to effect 
proper combustion. It is operated by means of a suitable 
lever placed in the cab. 

GuImDE-BARsS.— The parallel bars between which the cross- 
heads move, thus giving a perfectly horizontal motion to 
the piston-rods.. They may consist of two parallel bars, 
double-guides or a single guide-bar, attached to the back 
head of the cylinder and to a support called the guide- 
yoke, a strong plate usually fastened to both the frame and 
the boiler, and placed across the frame at a point well 
forward of the front driving-wheels. 

GumwE-BLocks.— The blocks. on the back-head of the 
cylinders, and on the guide-yoke, to which the guide-bars 
are attached. 

HAND-HOLES.— Openings provided in the outside shell 
of the furnace near the ring, through which deposits of 
rust or dirt in the water-legs of the furnace are removed. 

Hanp-RAILS.— Brass or iron pipes attached by brackets 
or studs to the upper part of the boiler, and extending 
from the cab to the smoke-box. They are used by the 
engineer in getting on or off the running-board. 

HeapiicuT.— A large light placed on the front end of 
the locomotive to illuminate the track in front and thus 
disclose any obstructions that may exist thereon, and to 
signal the approach of the locomotive. 

HEATER-COCKS.— Cocks attached to the back end of the 
boiler, by which steam is blown through the feed-pipes, 
to prevent them from freezing in cold weather. 

Ho.itow-stays.— Hollow stay-bolts inserted through the 
inside and outside sheets of the furnace near the crown- 
sheet, through which air is admitted to the furnace to 
increase the combustion. 

HousE.— See Cab. 

INDUCTION-PORTS.— The passages in the valve-seats, through 
which steam is admitted to the cylinders. See Steam-ports. 

InJECTOR.— A mechanical device by means of which a 
continuous supply of feed-water is given to the boiler. 
Partial condensation of the steam is essential to efficient 
action. The injector will not feed water too hot to 
condense the steam. 

JACKET.— The outside coverings of the cylinders and the 
boiler. The boiler jacket is composed of layers of wood 
called ‘“‘lagging’’ about seven-eighths of an inch in 


thickness, felt, and iron, placed around the boiler to prevent . 


the loss of heat by raidation and convection. ; 

JamM-Nuts.— Lock-nuts used for setting-out the spring- 
packing in the piston-heads. 

Jaws.— The parts of the frame formed by the frame-legs, 
and which hold the axle-boxes. 

JouRNALS.— That part of the axle on which the weight 
of the locomotive rests. The journals are situated on 
the inner side of the wheels, and turn on brass “* journal- 
bearings’ which resists the friction of the axle. The 
bearings are held in cast-iron or steel boxes called ‘‘ journal- 
boxes ”’ or ‘‘ axle-boxes.”’ 

Kerys.— The wedges employed to tighten the “straps” 
Rach hold the ‘‘ brasses ’’ at the ends of the connecting- 
rods. 

KING-BOLT or CENTRE-PIN.— The bolt or pin which passes 
through the centre-casting and the centre of the truck, 
thus making a flexible connection between the engine and 
the truck, enabling the latter to turn about the king-bolt 
so as to allow the axles to assume positions approximating 
the radii of the curves of the track. 

KNUCKLE-JOINTS.— The joints on the valve-rods, -which 
allow the rods to vibrate freely with the radius of the 
rocker-arm. 

Link.—A_ variable-radius expansion-gear by means of 
which the slide-valves are operated. See Eccentric. 

LINK-BLocK.— A block which fits into the curved slot 
of the link, and moves freely from one end to the other 
thereof. 

LINK-HANGERS.— Rods or bars by which the links are 
suspended to the horizontal arms of the lifting-shaft. 


579 


LUBRICATOR.— The valve through which oil or tallow is 
admitted to the cylinders for the purpose of lubrication. 

Main RESERVOIR.— The main air-reservoir of the loco- 
motive. It is usually located on the front of the main 
frame, and immediately behind the cylinders. 

MAIN-RODS.— See Connecting-rods. 

Mup-pruM.— A cylinder attached to the under side of the 
‘‘ waist ’’ of the boiler, to receive the deposits from the 
feed-water. This material is discharged from the drum 
by means of a valve called the ‘‘ mud-cock.’’ 

Mupb-HOLES.— Openings provided in the back end of the 

 #fire-box, through which the accumulations of mud in the 
lower water-space. are removed. These openings are 

‘ usually closed by means of brass plugs. 

MupD-RING.— The wrought-iron ring which unites the inner 
and outer shells of the fire-box; completely surrounding 
the inner shell and closing the water space between the 
two shells. 

NETTING.— Wire netting placed in the front end of the 
smoke-box, and in the smoke-stack. This netting acts 
as a sieve, arresting the sparks and cinders, but allowing 
the smoke to escape. 

OIL-cups.— Cylindrical metal receptacles with glass linings, 
employed to contain oil, and to distribute it to moving 
contact surfaces, for the purpose of lubricating them. 

PACKING.— The hempen, metallic or other substance used in 
the stuffing-boxes, and in the steam and pump cylinders, 
to aes the moving parts of the pistons steam and water 
tight. 

PETTICOAT OR DRAFT PIPE.— The pipe through which the 
exhaust-steam is’ conducted to the exhaust-nozzles in 
the smoke-box, thus creating a partial vacuum in the 
smoke-box, which sucks the smoke and gases out of the 
flues with great power, and forces them out into the open 
air by the blast or the action of the exhaust steam. 

PiLotT.— See Cow-catcher. 

PISTON-HEAD.— The disc-like plunger in the cylinder which 
is moved with a reciprocating movement by the steam, 
converting the energy of the*steam into motion. 

PISTON-ROD.— The rod attached to the piston-head, and 
by means of which the motion of the piston-head is 
communicated to the connecting-rod or crank. 

PRIMER.— The valve by means of which the air in the 
water-space of the pump is expelled, and a partial vacuum 
produced so as to cause an inflow of water to start the 
action of the pump. 

QUADRANT.— A slotted curved bar which holds the reverse- 
lever in the proper position by means of a reverse-latch. 
Also, a toothed bar located in the cab, by means of which 
the variable exhaust is regulated. 

RADIUS-BAR.— The angle-bar attached to the back end of 
the truck frame and to the radius-bar cross-tie by means 
of a pin. 

REACH-ROD.— The rod which connects the reverse-lever 
with the reverse-arm of the reverse-shaft. 

REVERSE-LATCH.— The tongue which fits into the notch 
of the quadrant by which the reverse-lever is held in 
the right position. 

REVERSE-LEVER OR REVERSING-LEVER.— The lever by which 
the direction of motion of the locomotive can be changed, 
and the travel of the valves increased or decreased. It 
is located in the cab within easy reach of the engineer. 

Rockers.— The double-cranks connected with the link- 
blocks at one end and the valve-rods at the other, and 
through which the valves receive the motion of the eccen- 
trics and links. \ 

SADDLE-PIN.— A pin by which the link-hangers are attached 
to the saddle-plate, and by means of which the link is 
raised or lowered. 

SADDLE-PLATE.— The plate which fits into and slides in the 
slot of the link. 

SAFETY-HANGERS.— Chains fastened to the front-bumper 
and to the front end of the truck-frame, to prevent the 
truck from swinging around and breaking the links in 
case the locomotive happened to run off the track. 

SAFETY-VALVES.— Spring-valves attached to the dome-cover, 
by which the steam-pressure in the boiler is prevented 
from exceeding a certain limit. 

SAND-BOX.— The cylindrical or dome-shaped box attached 
to the top of the boiler to contain the sand used for the 
purpose of sanding the rails in order to increase the 
adhesion, and prevent the driving-wheels from slipping at 
starting, or when hauling a heavy load, or when running 
up a heavy grade. 

SAND-PIPES.— The pipes on each side of the locomotive 
through which the sand from the sand-box is conveyed 
to the rails in front of the driving-wheels. 

SIDE-RODS or PARALLEL-RODS.— See Coupling-rods. 

SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATOR.— See Lubricator. 

SIGNAL-PIPE.— The air-pressure pipe by means of which 
the engineer communicates with the trainmen. 

SIGNAL-WHISTLE.— A steam-whistle attached to the top 
of the dome. It consists of an inverted metal cup, usually 
made of brass, which is placed immediately over the 
annular opening of a hollow valve-stem screwed into the 
top of the dome. 

SLIDE-VALVES.— The valves which control the admission 
and exhaust of steam to and from the cylinders, 


580 


SMOKE-BOx.— A cylindrical chamber at the front end of 
the boiler, which is utilized to contain the arch-pipes, 
lifting-pipes, exhaust-pots, exhaust-nozzles, steam-pipes 
and exhaust-pipes. It also forms a convenient receptacle 
for the smoke before it escapes into the open air through 
the smoke-stack. 

SMOKE-STACK.— The chimney through which the smoke 
escapes: from the smoke-box. 

SpRINGS.— Bundles of steel plates placed one on top of 
the other and bound together at the middle by metal 
bands, and their end connécted to the equalizing beams, 
for the purpose of reducing the effects of the shocks 
delivered to the locomotive by inequalities in the smooth- 
ness of the track. In order to place the weight of the 
locomotive on the axle-boxes of the driving-wheels, the 
axle-boxes are arranged to slide up and down in the jaws 
formed by the legs of the frames, and the springs are 
placed on saddles which rest on top ofthe axle-boxes. 

SPRING-BALANCES.— The spring attachments in the cab 
which connect the safety-valve levers to the top-sheets 
of the boiler. 

STACK-BASE.— The lower part of the smoke-stack, by 
which the stack is attached to the top of the smoke-box. 
In some forms it is provided with a hand-hole through 
which the accumulation of sparks may be conveniently 
removed. 

STAND-PIPE.— See Steam-pipe. 

STAY-BOLTS.— The bolts screwed through the inner and 
outer shells of the fire-box at frequent intervals, usually 


about four and a half inches apart, to connect the shells - 


together and enable them to resist the full pressure of the 
steam. 

STEAM-CHESTS.— The boxes located on top of the cylinders, 
and which contain the slide-valves through which the 
steam is admitted to the cylinders. 

STEAM-GAUGE.— A gauge attached to the back end of the 
boiler, in the cab, to indicate the pressure of steam per 
square inch in the boiler. 

STEAM-PIPE.— Any pipe carrying steam, but especially the 
pipe through which steam’ is conducted from the boiler 
to the steam-chests, thence through the openings in the 
seats of the slide-valves to the cylinders. Starting at 
the dome, the pipe makes a bend called the throttle-pipe; 
then it extends vertically downwards until it clears the 
vertical walls of the dome, this vertical part is called the 
stand-pipe. The stand-pipe is connected to the dry-pipe 
which extends to the top of the smoke-box where it is 
connected to the T-pipe, the branches of which are con- 
nected to the arch-pipes or steam-pipes connecting with 
the steam-chests. . 

STEAM-PORT.— A port or passage in a slide-valve for admis- 
sion of steam. é 

STEAM-VALVE.— The valve inserted in the steam-pipe 
connecting the boiler with the injector. 

STUFFING-BOXES.— The chambers in the back-heads of the 
cylinders, through which the piston-rods move. 

SupPLy-PorTS.— The openings in the steam-chests through 
which the steam is admitted from the steam-pipes. 

SWING-BOLSTER.— A swinging bearing in the centre of the 
truck on which the forward end of the locomotive rests, 
and which enables it to make curves easily. 

T or NicGeR HEAp.— See Steam Pipe. 

TENDER.— The carriage coupled to the back end of the 
locomotive, and used for the purpose of carrying water 
and fuel. 

THROTILE.— The double poppet-valve or throttle-valve, 
placed in the throttle-pipe near the top of the dome. 
This valve is operated by the engineer by means of a 
lever called the throttle-lever located in the cab, and 
connected by a rod called the throttle-stem to the lower 
arm of a bell-crank called the throttle bell-crank, the 
ou arm of which is connected by a rod to the throttle- 
valve. 

Trres.— The steel bands which form the peripheries of the 
driving-wheels. : 

TRAILING-WHEELS.— The back pair of driving-wheels in a 
four-coupled wheel arrangement, or a small pair of wheels 
placed behind the main driving-wheels where only one 
pair of driving-wheels is employed. 

TRAIN-PIPE.— See Brake-pipe. 

TRUCK-BRAKE.— The air-brake equipment of the truck, as 
Sree agg from the air-brake equipment of the driving- 
wheels. 

TRUCK or ENGINE-TRUCK.— The frames, wheels, springs, 
swing-bolsters, etc., which support the weight of the 
front of the locomotive. 

TuBEs.— Pipes for the passage of water. Compare flues. 

TUBE-SHEETS.— The plates at the front and back ends 
of the boiler in which the tubes are inserted. 

TUMBLING SHAFT.— See Lifting Shaft. 

VALVE Ports.—.See Slide-valve. 

VALVE-YOKES.— The wrought-iron or steel bands placed 
around the slide-valves in the steam-chests, and to which 
the valve-stems are attached. 

Warst.— The cylindrical portion of the boiler. 

Waist SHEET.— A sheet of wrought-iron bolted to the waist 
by an angle-iron, to which the guide-braces, guide-bearers 
and cross-ties are attached. 


LOCOMOTIVE DEVICES — LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


WATER-PIPE.— The 
connected. 

WATER-TUBES.— Any tubes carrying water, as the iron 
tubes, about two inches in outside diameter, which are 
attached to the front and back ends of the fire-box at 
such an inclination as to allow a continual circulation 
of water through them to keep them cool and thus prevent 
them from being burned out by the intense heat. 

WATER-VALVE.— See Injector. 

WHISTLE-RIG.— See Signal Whistle. 


LOCOMOTIVE DEVICES. See Sarety 


DEVICES. 


LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, The. 
LocoMOTIVE, 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY, The. Un- 
like many of the great American industries 
the history of the inception and growth of loco- 
motive engineering in the United States may be 
clearly traced from the day when the first loco- 
motive was run upon the rails of the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad. Other lines of rails had 
previously been laid but they had been con- 
structed for special purposes, and it was not 
until 1828, when both the Baltimore and Ohio 
and the South Carolina railroads were started, 
that there was any system constructed with the 
definite object of conveying both passengers 
and freight. The first American built loco- 
motive was operated upon the Baltimore and 
Ohio tracks, and although it was nothing more 
than the mere working model which was con- 
structed by Peter Cooper in 1829, and was not 
intended for permanent service, it demonstrated - 
the practicability of the invention so conclu- 
sively as to prove to the world that railway 
lines might be operated by locomotive power. 
In fact, it was largely due to this successful 
demonstration that the road was finally com- 
pleted. If the experiment had failed, the proj- 
ect would have been abandoned. 

The Peter Cooper model was a little engine 
with a single cylinder three and a half inches 
in diameter, with a boiler that was scarcely 
larger than that of an ordinary kitchen range, 
and with tubes that were improvised from gun- 
barrels. In spite of all the crudities in its con- 
struction, however, its trial run was completed 
so successfully that Peter Cooper, who himself 
was the engineer, was able to drive his loco- 
motive, which hauled 41 persons, including him- 
self, at a speed of 18 miles an hour. Slight - 
as such speed would seem at the present time, 
it was a great achievement for those days, 
when the locomotive was so generally regarded 
as the dream of an impracticable visionary. 
Moreover, it meant the beginning of the great 
development of the American locomotive and 
engine industry. 

The first locomotive to be constructed.in the 
United States for actual work was made in 
1830. In 1829, however, Horatio Allen had im- 
ported a locomotive from Stourbridge, England, 
for the use of the Delaware and Hudson Canal 
Company. It was known as the “Stourbridge 
Lion,» and was the first “real” locomotive ever 
used in this country. The first distinctively 
American locomotive, the “Best Friend,” was 
manufactured to the order of the South Caro- 
lina Railroad by the West Point Foundry. 
Hoe of these machines were operated success- _ 

ully. 

It was in 1831 that Matthias W. Baldwin, a 
manufacturer of bookbinders’ tools in Philadel- 
phia, was employed by the proprietors of Peale’s 
Museum, in that city, to construct a model loco- 


pipe to which the feed-pipe hose is 


See 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


motive for exhibition purposes. This was the 
time when the public excitement over the Rain- 
hill contests that had been held in England was 
at its height, and Robert Stephenson’s victory 
with his “Rocket” had made the people very 
curious to witness the operations of such an 
engine. To gratify this craving for novelty 
the museum managers built a circular track, 
and, upon this, the Baldwin locomotive was 
operated. His model worked so well that the 
officials of the Philadelphia, Germantown and 
Norristown Railroad Company engaged him to 
construct a larger machine for use upon their 
lines. This locomotive, which was completed 
in November 1832, was named “Old Ironsides.” 
It was a four-wheeled engine, very similar in 
design to that of the English make, and 
weighed, when placed on the tracks, a little 
more than five tons. The rear, or driving 
wheels, which were 54 inches in diameter, were 
placed on a crank axle; while the cylinders, 
which were nine and a half inches in diameter, 
by 18 stroke, were attached horizontally to the 
smoke box. The frame was made of wood, 
while its wheels, which had wooden spokes and 
rims, were strengthened by the wrought-iron 
tires and heavy cast-iron hubs. There was no 
cab, and the tender, which also ran on four 
wheels, had wooden sides and back to hold the 
wood that was required for fuel, and an iron 
tank, used for carrying water. Roughly made 
as this locomotive would seem if compared to 
the engines of this day, the speed which it was 
able to attain, with its train of cars attached, 
was frequently over 30 miles an hour. In 
September 1832, the firm of Davis and Gart- 
ner of York, Pa., built three locomotives of 
the “grasshopper” type for the use of the Balti- 
more and Ohio Railroad. They were made 
-from designs prepared by Phineas Davis and 
Ross Winans, and were so serviceable that 
several of them were in use for fully 60 years. 
Thus, step by step, the locomotive industry was 
developed. By 1834, the building of such en- 
gines had extended to many works in several 
parts of the country, and such pioneers of 
railway mechanics as Cooper, Allen, Baldwin, 
Rogers, Norris, Winans, Campbell and others 
paved the way for the greater achievements 
of Mason, Cooke, Milholland, McQueen and 
Hudson, to say nothing of the countless geniuses 
whose accomplishments represent the modern 
development of the art of engine building. In 
the old days, of course, there was no guide that 
anybody could follow. There was no_ such 
teacher as experience. Moreover as there were 
few skilled workmen, and practically no shop 
facilities, the pioneer locomotive builders 
labored under difficulties which make their suc- 
cess remarkable as the extraordinary acnieve- 
ment of indomitable perseverance. 

The early American locomotives were so 
similar in every essential feature to the en- 
gines of English make that it seems quite 
probable that they were constructed as a close 
copy of that model. Later, however, the Amer- 
ican inventive genius came to the front, ex- 
hibiting itself in such radical departures from 
the imported machines that it was no longer 
necessary to bring locomotives from Europe. 
Taking these evidences of development the im- 
provements upon the locomotives of English 
type were reached in about the following order: 
The four-wheel swiveling truck, or bogie, was 


581 


substituted for the pair of fixed carrying wheels 
in 1832; the cross-head pump for supplying 
feed water to the boiler was invented in 1833; 
the half-crank driving axle took the place of 
the crank-axle in 1834; outside connection ‘to 
the driving wheels was introduced in 1835; 
the coupling of two pairs of driving-wheels 
was patented by H. R. Campbell in 1836; 
counterbalance weights for the revolving and 
reciprocating parts were first used in 1837; 
equalizing beams connecting the driving springs 
were first applied by Eastwick and Harrison 
in the same year; the use of lap-welded 
wrought-iron boiler tubes first took place in 
1838; and of bar-frames of forged iron with 
forged pedestals, in 1840; the wooden cabs with 
glass windows originated during the winter 
of 1840-41, having been invented in New Eng- 
land, where the excessively cold weather neces- 
sitated some such protection for the engine- 
men; the Baldwin flexible-beam truck was in- 
vented in 1842; the first “ten-wheel” locomotive, 
with six coupled wheels and a leading four- 
wheeled truck, was used in 1846; the Mogul 
locomotive, with six coupled wheels and a lead-' 
ing two-wheeled truck, came into use in 1861, 
while the Consolidation type, consisting of eight 
coupled wheels and a leading two-wheeled 
truck, an engine which was designed by Alex- 
ander Mitchell of the Lehigh Vallcy Railroad, 
was first built at the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works in 1866. Among the other features of 
the locomotive which have been added from 
time to time, and all of which appealed to the 
eye of the foreign manufacturer as peculiarly 
American inventions, are the pilot, or “cow- 
catcher,” the bell, the boiler covering of plan- 
ished or Russian iron, the large headlights 
and the directness and visibility of the pipes 
and other appurtenances. Up to within as 
recent a time as the early seventies the so-called 
“American” type of locomotive, with its four 
coupled wheels and its four-wheeled truck, was 
the class of engine most generally adopted by 
railroad men in the United States. In fact, 
ever since the day of its first construction hy 
Campbell, in 1836, it had been continuously used 
for almost every kind of general service — for 
the carrying of passengers as well as for freight 
and switching purposes, and it was not until the 
demand of the public upon the railways in- 
creased so greatly as to create the need of more 
powerful locomotives that special engines for 
freight service were constructed. It was to 
meet these requirements that the Mogul and 
ten-wheel types were adopted during the sixties, 
and that the Consolidation engines became the 
standard for the heaviest freight service be- 
tween 1870 and 1880. During the seventies, 
the maximum load per axle was limited by the 
strength of the track to approximately 12 tons. 
This period, however, witnessed the general 
introduction of steel rails and steel tires; and 
the way was thus paved for a great increase in 
the weight and capacity of locomotives.- Rail- 
way men became convinced of the superiority 
of the large locomotive, with its high tractive 
force and liberal heating surface; and the 
weight of the engines was increased to the 
limit permitted by the strength of tracks and 
bridges. If, in the beginning, the building of 
these excessively heavy engines was largely an 
experiment, it was not long before their 
practicability had become so well established 


582 


that their size and weight continued to increase 
until cars were made that were capable of 
carrying loads of 50 tons or even more, in 
special cases; and locomotives were constructed 
with over 30 tons weight per axle. Such power- 
ful locomotives were more costly and difficult 
of construction, but when the _ practicable 
economies in the matter of transportation which 
were made possible only by the use of cars of 
such great carrying capacity were taken into 
consideration, the balance was so strongly in 
favor of the big cars and the heavy, powerful 
locomotives, that railroad men found no reason 
to hesitate because of the question of first cost. 

Since the beginning of the art of locomotive 
construction in the United States, American en- 
gine designers have been actuated by one desire: 
To produce a machine with sufficient flexibility 
of wheel-base to enable it to pass sharp curva- 
ture and adapt itself to the unevenness of 
track surfaces resulting from the action of 
severe frosts, as well as to facilitate the matter 
of repairs by striving to make every part so 
accessible that it might be removed without 
affecting the other parts of the engine. 

Among the locomotive-builders whose ex- 
periments contributed to this result and who 
also played an important part in the work of 
increasing the capacity of the American engine 
were several establishments that either disap- 
peared altogether or that discontinued the 
manufacture of this kind of machine to enter 
lines of business in which the competition was 
-less intense. To speak of these firms recalls 
such names as the Norris Brothers of Philadel- 
phia, whose work, in the early days of the in- 
dustry, presented the most active competition 
to such builders as Baldwin and Rogers. After 
many business vicissitudes this firm ceased to 
exist in 1865; and in 1873 their plant was in- 
corporated in the Baldwin Locomotive Works. 
In Baltimore, in the old days, there were two 
works, those of Ross Winans and the. Den- 
meads. Boston had several plants, notably 
those of Seth Wilmarth, John Souther’s Globe 
Works, the McKay and Aldus Works at East 
Boston and the Hinckley Locomotive and Ma- 
chine Works, which was one of the representa- 
tive houses in the industry up to 1888 or 1889. 
In fact, New England has always been a sec- 
tion of the country most actively interested 
in the work of locomotive building, the prin- 
cipal plants, in addition to those already named, 
being the works of Ballard Vail, at Andover, 
Mass.; Corliss and Nightingale, of Providence, 
R. I. a firm which, although George H. Cor- 
liss, the great engine builder, was at its head, 
proved less successful in the building of loco- 
motives than in other branches of the trade; 
A. Latham and Company, of White River Junc- 
tion, Vt.; the Locks and Canal Works, at 
Lowell, Mass.; the Amoskeag Locomotive 
Works, at Manchester, N. H.; the Lawrence 
Locomotive Works, at Lawrence, Mass.; the 
Taunton Locomotive Works, and the Mason 
Machine Works, at Taunton, Mass.; and the 
Portland, Me., Locomotive and Car Company. 

Among other sections of the country New 
Jersey has been a special field for the manu- 
facture of locomotives. The plant of William 
Swinburne, at Paterson, afterward known as 
the New Jersey Locomotive Works, and later 
as the Grant Locomotive Works, was one of 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


the offshoots from the Rogers Works. For 
years it conducted business most successfully. 
Finally, in 1885, the Grant Locomotive Works 
found that it was impossible to meet the de- 
mands of modern. requirements with its 
antiquated shop and inadequate facilities. 
Hence the works at Paterson were closed and 
the company removed to Chicago, where, after 
they had reorganized with new capital and 
thoroughly, modern shops, they continued in 
operation until 1893. The financial depression 
of that year was too much for them, however, 
and the entire plant was sold to the Siemens 
and Halske Electric Company of Chicago. For 
a time it was operated both for the manufacture 
of electrical equipment and locomotives; but the 
business at last proved so unprofitable that the 
plant was closed. Among the other New Jer- 
sey manufacturers of locomotives were Breese, 
Kneeland and Company, who operated the Jer- 
sey City Locomotive Works, and Van Cleeve, 
McKean and Dripps, whose shops were located 
at Trenton. | . 

For several years the firm of Eastwick and 
Harrison built locomotives at Newcastle, Del., 
and, when they failed in 1840, they were suc- 
ceeded by the Newcastle Manufacturing Com- 
pany, a concern that gained both wealth and 
international fame by their railway operations 
in Russia. In the West there were several 
manufacturers of note, some important works 
being located at Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, 
Chicago and San Francisco. The Rome Loco- 
motive Works, at Rome, N. Y., started under 
favorable auspices, but, after several years of 
more or less disastrous operations, went out of 
business in 1891. 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Phila- 
delphia, has the distinction of being not only 
one of the pioneers in the business of locomo- 
tive manufacture but is still one of the repre- 
sentative establishments in the industry. Es- 
tablished in 1831, by Matthias W. Baldwin, its 
product has steadily -increased until it is now 
in excess of 200 locomotives a month. The 
works occupy an area of about 20 acres in 
the central part of the city, and when running 
at full capacity give employment to about 19,000 
men. An extensive plant has also been erected 
on a tract of 225 acres of Eddystone, Pa., about 
12 miles from Philadelphia; and a tract has 
been purchased at East Chicago, Ind.; where 
shops will be erected when business conditions 
warrant such expansion. 

Another important plant was that of the 
Rogers Locomotive Works at Paterson, N. J. 
Founded in 1836, by the firm of Rogers, Ket- 
chum and Grosvenor, the mechanical genius of 
the concern was Thomas Rogers. When he 
died, in 1856, the firm was incorporated under 
the title of the Rogers Locomotive and Ma- 
chine Works, with Jacob S. Rogers as. presi- 
dent, and business was transacted under this 
name until 1892, when the corporation. was 
again reorganized and assumed the name of 
The Rogers Locomotive Works. The Rogers 
Company then had an annual capacity of more 
than 300 locomotives, and gave employment to 
about 2,000 persons. 

Up to the time of the war with Spain the 
spirit of consolidation which had already shown 
its effect in other industries had been an un- 
knewn factor in the business of locomotive 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


making. Soon after 1898, however, several of 
the competing works began to talk of the 
organization of a larger corporation, or com- 
bination, and the movement finally became so 
popular that, in July 1901, eight of the large 
manufactories were consolidated under the 
name of the American Locomotive Company, 
with a capital of $50,000,000, half of which is 
in common stock, and half in 7 per cent cumu- 
lative preferred. The works acquired by the 
organization were as follows: 


Locomotives 

per annum. 

Schenectady Works, Schenectady, N. Y........... 450 
COOES LOT ks < IDtin citic me NE Gay ba sib. co hats ernasen rary ore 450 
Pittsburgh Works, Pittsburgh, Pa... 8. wl. ee 200 
Rhode Island Works, Providence, R. I............. 150 
Richmond Works, Richmond, Va.ii.c.i.f. 20008 150 
GeokerWorks~Paterson,.N.. Jean steesceins doers 125 
Manchester Works, Manchester, N. H............. 100 
Dickson Works! Seranton,Passs... 28.227. : 85 
Approximate total*capactt yi nr... Vcc tee shod s | 1,710 


In March 1904, the American Locomotive 
Company also acquired the stock of the Loco- 
‘motive and Machine Company of Montreal, 
Limited, with works in Montreal, Canada, en- 
gaged in the building of locomotive and struc- 
tural steel works. With. the addition of the 
Rogers and the Montreal works the American 
Locomotive Company operated 10 plants with a 
total annual capacity of 3,100 locomotives. 


583 


operation late in 1865. Originally intended as a 
small shop, its capacity being at first limited to 
30 locomotives per annum, they were so suc- 
cessful in placing orders for their product that 
the establishment now occupies an area of fully 
12 acres. In their work of extending their ca- 
pacity the best of fire-proof buildings have been 
erected, and the works are equipped with the 
latest and most improved electric, hydraulic and 
pneumatic appliances known to the art of loco- 
motive construction. 

The Rhode Island Locomotive Works, at 
Providence, R. I., commenced operations in 
1865, and continued to occupy one of the most 
prominent positions in the rank of locomotive 
manufacturers up to the time of their absorp- 
tion by the combination. 

The Brooks Locomotive Works, at Dunkirk, 
N. Y., was originally intended to serve exclu- 
sively as the locomotive building and repair 
shops of the Erie Railroad. In 1869, however, 
the railway company decided to abandon these 
shops. Newer works had already been con- 
structed in a more convenient location for the 


_railway company’s purposes and Jay Gould, who 


was then president of the road, saw no reason 
why the Dunkirk plant should not be closed. 
At that time, however, Horatio G. Brooks was 
the superintendent of motive power and machin- 
ery construction for the Erie road. As his 
home was at Dunkirk, and as all his interests 


Schenectady Works of the American Locomotive Company (1864). 


Of the 10 plants the Schenectady Locomo- 
tive Works was established by the Norris 
Brothers in 1848. In 1863 it passed into the 
hands of John Ellis, who was eventually suc- 
ceeded by his sons, John C., Charles G,, 
Edward, William D. Ellis and Walter McQueen. 

The Cooke Locomotive and Machine Com- 
pany of Paterson, N. J., was established about 
1800 but for nearly half a century they were 
employed almost exclusively in the manufacture 
of machinery. In 1852, however, they began to 
make locomotives, and as this branch of their 
business increased, the old shops were aban- 
doned and new and up-to-date works were 
constructed. 

The Pittsburgh Locomotive Works began 


centred about that place, he realized that the 
removal of these works would prove a severe 
blow to the prosperity of the town. As the re- 
sult, he offered to lease the shop and its ma- 
chinery for the purpose of undertaking the es- 
tablishment of an independent concern, and as 
Mr. Gould was nothing loath to make such a 
mutually advantageous agreement, the lease was 
signed in November. Before the close of the 
year 1869, two locomotives had been turned out, 
and from that time the works were extended 
until, in 1883, the entire plant, which then 
covered an area of more than 20 acres, was 
purchased from the New York, Lake Erie and 
Western Railroad Company by the Brooks 
Locomotive Works. 


584 
The Richmond Locomotive and Machine 
Company, of Richmond, Va. was the only 


‘locomotive manufacturing plant in the South. 
When it was established, in 1865, it was in- 
tended for the manufacture of plantation and 
saw-mill machinery, and it was not until many 
years later that it began to build street cars — 
horse cars at first, and, finally, motor cars. In 
1889 the company secured a contract from the 
government to build the machinery for the new 
battleship Texas, and, although this work was 
successfully completed, the concern has since 
devoted its attention almost exclusively to the 
making of locomotives. 

The Dickson Manufacturing Company, of 
Scranton, Pa., was establishc 1 in 1862, and, 
ever since that time, the concern has been suc- 
cessful manufacturers of locomotives and min- 
ing machinery, operating two separate estab- 
lishments in Scranton for these purposes. The 
locomotive works were acquired by the Ameri- 
can Locomotive Company in 1901. 

The Manchester Locomotive Works, of Man- 
chester, N. H., have been prominently identified 
with the locomotive building industry since 
they were established, in 1854, Ly Aretas Blood, 
one of the pioneers in engine construction. 

The works of the H. K. Porter Company at 
Pittsburgh, Pa., were established by the firm of 
Smith and Porter, in 1866. Later the concern 
was known as Porter, Bell and Company. AlI- 
though locomotive builders in the strict appli- 
cation of the term, their efforts have been de- 
voted exclusively to such lines as light loco- 
“motives for use in mines, manufacturing estab- 
lishments and for all kinds of contractors’ and 
construction work. 

A concern which has attained considerable 
prominence in locomotive building, especially 
during the past few years, is the Lima Locomo- 
tive Corporation of Lima, Ohio. This com- 
pany built its first locomotive in 1879, at which 
time it was known as The Lima Machine 
Works, and made a specialty of saw-mill ma- 
chinery. In 1880 a geared locomotive was con- 
structed in accordance with patents granted to 
Ephrarin Shay, a Michigan lumberman. This 
type proved especially suitable for work on 
heavy grades, sharp curves and uneven tracks: 
and large numbers of Shay geared locomotives 
have been built, the great majority of them 
for logging service. The company was sub- 
sequently réorganized as the Lima Locomofive 
Corporation and new shops were built and were 
equipped to handle the heaviest kind of locomo- 
tive work. With its present facilities, the com- 
pany is successfully building all sizes of both 
geared and direct connected locomotives, from 
light engines for -contractors’ or industrial 
service, up to the heaviest classes of motive 
power for trunk line railways. 

From the figures covering annual produc- 
tion which have already been given, it is not 
difficult to estimate that the aggregate capacity 
of the locomotive manufacturing establishments 
of the country, not including the railroad shops 
and the shops not regularly engaged in this 
business, is in excess of 5,000 locomotives. Of 
course, the demand for such machines varies 
from time to time, being dependent. upon two 
factors: (1) The general prosperity of the 
country, a condition upon which the volume of 
freight to be transported, which is the basis of 
railroad earnings, so largely depends, and (2) 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


the mileage of new lines under construction, the 
completion of which means new equipment. 


These two factors are really one, as new lines 
are scarcely ever built in 


those periods of 
financial stagnation when the people are hoard- 
ing their money and capitalists are too timid to 
venture to encroach upon their principal. As 
a result, business prosperity in the locomotive- 
manufacturing industry is intermittent. As the 
average life of a locomotive is about 20 years, 
it requires an annual production of some 2,500 
machines to supply the demand due to natural 
conditions; and as the locomotive shops of the 
country possess a capacity of about twice that 
number of engines, the difference between these 
2,500 and the total production of all the Ameri- 
can works must find an outlet through one of 
these three channels: They must be used in the 
equipment of new lines; in the improvement 
and extension of old lines, or they must be ex- 
ported to other countries. The following table 
shows the total production from 1898 to 1915 
as well as the number exported to other lands 
than Canada or Mexico. 


LocoMOoTIVES PRoDUCED AND NUMBER EXPORTED. 


Number 
exported 
Total omitting Remainder 
production Mexico and not 
YEAR reported Canada exported 
L808. yar se eee 1,875 ~ 468 1,407 
LS9O8 Teresa, vere ate 2,473 517 1,956 
1900 tae teen 34.153 525 2,628 
LOD Liste -eearr sess 3,284 423 2,861 
L9OQ2 2 Sere 4,070 365 3,705 
1903) 22S oy roe ee 5152 289 4,863 
1904. SSsjshape eae See 3,441 504 2,937 
TOOS see. creek eastece aces 5,491 583 4,908 
19007. aoe Ss ae 6,952 720 6,232 
LOO igre ic. ato Gee 7,362 798 6,564 
1908 ee eee ae 2,342 456 1,886 
1Q0O eS ee ne oe 2,887 291 2,596 
AOL Ope .. cpese cc clteee oihs 4,755 314 4,441 
LOLI eee, Pe has 3,530 387 3,143 
1012 i ape ae ae 4,915 512 4,403 
E91 Sie 2 Mase. eee cas , 085 835 1,250 
19 LO Re eas Lewes oe 3,251 “Ei. Sere ae ee ee 
192 Pe area 2 O31 oO Sseh) hee 


Beginning with 1905, the figures for total 
production include the Canadian output; and 
beginning with 1912, they also include locomo- 
tives built in railroad company’s shops. Sta- 
tistics published by the Interstate Commerce 
Commission show the number of locomotives 
in service on railroads in the United States to 
be as follows: 1908, 56,733: 1909, 57,212; 1910, 
58,947; 1911, 61,327; 1912, 62,262; 1913, 63,378; 
1919, 64,618. Recent statistics covering the 
number of men employed in the locomotive 
building industry are difficult to obtain. In 
1905, this number was approximately 40,000; 
and their wages amounted to fully $25,000,000 
per annum. At the present time the total value 
of the products of the locomotive building es- 
tablishments in the United States, when op- 
erating at full capacity, would annually be 
about $110,000,000. 

Although American locomotive builders at 
first depended upon English models in their 
work, they were soon able to produce ma- 
chines that attracted attention abroad. As far 
as is known, the first locomotives exported 
from this country were shipped to Cuba in 
1838, by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. . In 
1840, locomotives were built for the Birming- 
ham and Gloucester Railway, in England, by 
William Norris. In the following year, the 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


Baldwin Locomotive Works built a locomotive 
for Austria; and in 1845 they built three for 
the Royal Railway of Wurtemberg. Three 
years later the Rogers Locomotive Works 
shipped locomotives to Cuba, and the export 
business was well under way. Even England 
and Continental Europe, in spite of their fa- 
cilities for locomotive construction, have at 
times purchased American built locomotives. 
‘Unfortunately there are no figures that can 
tell authoritatively how many locomotives were 
exported by the United States builders during 
the early years of the industry, and, as even 
the later statistics are incomplete, in view of 
the fact that they do not cover the shipments to 
Canada and Mexico, it is very difficult to ob- 
tain anything like a comprehensive idea of the 
subject. According to the best figures obtain- 
able, during the 26 years that elapsed between 
1879 and 1904, inclusive, no less than 6,173 
were sent to foreign countries from ports in 
the United States, while their value was placed 
at $57,843,005. At the present time, American 
locomotives are in use in almost every inhab- 
ited portion of the globe. 

One excuse for England’s interest in Amer- 
ican locomotives may be found in the labor 
conditions that have existed from time to time 
in that country. Thus, in 1898, when the Mid- 
land, the Great Northern and the Great Cen- 
tral railroads together ordered no less than 80 
of our machines, 70 from the Baldwin works 
and 10 from the Schenectady works, they were 
somewhat compelled to resort to this method 
of relief. All through the year 1897 the engi- 
neering works of Great Britain had been af- 
fected by a strike, and, in 1898, when the men 
finally returned to their work, the several 
. plants were so overcrowded with orders that 
it was impossible for them to meet all the de- 
mands that were made upon them. Naturally, 
when the American locomotives appeared they 
were subjected to all sorts of adverse criti- 
cism by the British builders. Efforts were 
made to show that they could not be com- 
pared to the English machines, either in point 
of speed, or in matter of economy, but as the 
statements made were all biased and incon- 
clusive, the American manufacturers have not 
taken them greatly to heart, especially in view 
of the fact that they are constantly being called 
upon to furnish machines for use in various 
parts of Asia and Africa, where, coming into 
direct competition with the English product, 
the railroads have had an opportunity to test 
the truth of such charges. 

The European War, which broke out in 
1914, caused a considerable demand for Amer- 
ican locomotives for service abroad. Engines 
for military purposes were ordered by the 
British, French and Russian governments and 
were built in remarkably short time. For ex- 
ample the Baldwin Locomotive Works built 
20 light tank locomotives for the French gov- 
ernment in 16 working days from the time the 
order was received. 

In 1832, the Philadelphia, Germantown and 
Norristown Railroad Company paid Matthias 
W. Baldwin the sum of $3,500 for the locomo- 
tive “Old Ironsides.”» From that time the price 
charged for such machines slowly but steadily 
increased until, during the period of the Civil 
War, sums ranging from $30,000 to $35,000 


585 


were received for the heavy freight or passen- 
ger locomotives. Of course, locomotive build- 
ing was no exception to the other industries, 
and, after war times, the prices of its product 
declined to about $7,000 for a 35-ton passenger 
locomotive. This was the price that prevailed 
about 1879, During 1880 and 1881, prices rose 
rapidly until fully $15,000 was paid for a simi- 
lar machine; and they then declined gradually 
until 1896, when from $8,000 to $9,000 was paid 
for an average passenger locomotive and from 
$9,000 to $10,000 for an average freight loco- 
motive. In general, as the total weight of loco- 
motives has increased, there has been a de- 
crease in the price per pound. 

The introduction of the 50-ton steel car, in 
1897, brought about a marked advance both in 
the weight and power of locomotives. To 
meet this new demand the weight of the ordi- 
nary consolidation freight locomotive, which 
had ranged from 60 to 70 tons, was increased 
to 80 to 100 tons, while some of the machines 
that were constructed were as heavy as 115 
tons, exclusive of tender. As such an increase 
of weight and power had been inspired solely 
by business conditions, the railroads were 
quick to respond to such an evidence of pros- 
perity by ordering the kind of rolling stock 
that was necessary to. enable them to meet 
these new requirements and which would just 
as certainly increase their own earning power. 
In. 1897 materials were expensive and wages 
were high. Taking these facts into considera- 
tion, it is by no means surprising that the con- 
struction of such heavy locomotives should 
have brought the price to $15,000 or $16,000. 

During more recent years, the weight and 
power of locomotives has continued to advance. 
The Consolidation type has been superseded, to 
a considerable extent, by the Mikado, which 
provides increased steaming capacity in pro- 
portion to adhesion. Locomotives with five 
pairs of coupled driving-wheels have also been 
introduced, on a number of roads, for heavy 
freight service; while for the heaviest kind of 
work the Mallet articulated type, with driving- 
wheels arranged in two groups, is successfully 
employed. This type is the invention of Ana- 
tole Mallet, a French engineer, whose first ar- 
ticulated locomotives were built in Europe in 
1889. The American Locomotive Company 
built the first Mallet for service in the United 
States in 1904. This engine was constructed 
for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and 
proved a decided success. The largest Mallet 
locomotives built for service in thts country 
far exceed in weight and capacity any that are 
in use abroad. 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works has devel- 
oped the Mallet articulated design by placing 
driving-wheels under the tender, and thus uti- 
lizing the weight of the latter for tractive pur- 
poses. The first locomotive of this type was 
built in 1914, for the Erie Railroad. It runs on 
28 wheels, 24 of which are used as driving- 
wheels; develops a tractive force of 160,000 
pounds and weighs in working order 853,000 
pounds. At the time of its construction, it 
was the heaviest steam locomotive ever built. 

It was a similar demand for more powerful 
locomotives, for engines not only capable of 
hauling heavy trains at sustained high speed, 
but also of accelerating speed rapidly after 


586 


starting, that brought the new and heavier 
types of passenger locomotive into existence. 
The old American, or eight-wheel type, was 
wholly incapable of meeting such requirements. 
The ten-wheel engine, which had been used 
quité successfully on heavy grades, proved 
unsatisfactory in such an emergency, owing to 
its comparatively small driving wheels, its in- 
adequate firebox, an adhesion considerably in 
excess of the requirements, and excessive re- 
sistance within the machine itself. To over- 
come these difficulties the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works constructed the Atlantic type of engine. 
It was substantially a ten-wheel locomotive, 
in which the rear pair of driving wheels was 
replaced by a pair of trailing wheels of smaller 
diameter, permitting the introduction of a deep 
firebox with ample grate area and volume suff- 
cient to admit of thorough combustion. Great 
boiler capacity was available in proportion to 
the adhesion; the driving wheels were closely 
coupled, and the total wheel base was suff- 
ciently long to give smoothness of motion at 
high speed, and, at the same time, sufficient 
flexibility. 

A development of the Atlantic type is found 
in the Pacific type, which has three pairs of 
driving-wheels with a four-wheeled leading and 
a two-wheeled trailing truck. Since the intro- 
duction of steel passenger cars, which fre- 
quently weight 75 tons or more apiece, Pacific 
type locomotives have come into extensive use, 
because of their great starting power and their 
ability to run at sustained high speed when 
‘hauling heavy trains. 

The prices of these heavy locomotives are 
materially higher than those of the engines 
built in 1897; and large locomotives for road 
service now frequently cost $25,000 or more. 

The fuel cost is the largest single item of 
expense in the operation of locomotives, and 
various devices have been tried, from time to 
time, with a view to promoting fuel economy. 
Compound locomotives, which were first intro- 
duced in Europe, were built with this end in 
view; and were at one time extensively used 
in the United States. These locomotives were 
successful as fuel savers; but, under the 
methods of operation prevailing on American 
railways, they proved difficult to maintain; and 
they are no longer being built, except in the 
case of the Mallet articulated compound loco- 
motive, which is practically two single expan- 
sion engines placed under one boiler. The 
cylinders of the two engines are of different 
sizes, the larger, or low-pressure, receiving the 
exhaust from the smaller, or high-pressure; 
but the various features which proved unde- 
sirable in other types of compound locomotives 
are eliminated in the Mallet design. 

The most effective fuel saving device at 
present in use on locomotives is the super- 
heater. When saturated. steam is used in the 
cylinders of a locomotive, a considerable por- 
tion of it—-sometimes as much as 25 or 30 
per cent—4is condensed into water, and does 
no useful work. This loss can be avoided by 
heating the steam, before it enters the cylinders, 
to such an extent that its temperature will not 
be lowered to the point of- condensation. In 
a locomotive using superheated steam, a number 
of the small boiler tubes are replaced by con- 
siderably larger tubes, and in these are placed 
groups of pipes through which the steam cir- 


‘perature is 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


culates before it enters the cylinders. The 
steam absorbs heat from the furnace gases 
passing through the large tubes, and its tem- 
raised to such an extent that 
cylinder condensation is avoided. The increase 
in temperature depends upon-the design of the 
superheater and the conditions under which 
the engine is working. It frequently amounts 
to 200° F. or more, and the fuel saving effected 
per horse power developed, as compared with 
a similar locomotive using saturated steam, 
averages about 25 per cent. 

The economies resulting from the use of 
superheated steam have long been known, 
but it is only during comparatively recent years 
that superheaters fitted for use in locomotives 
have been devised. Much of the pioneer work 
along this line.has been done by two German 
engineers, Wilhelm Schmidt and Robert Garbe. 
The great majority of heavy locomotives built 
in the United States since 1912 have been 
equipped with superheaters, the Schmidt sys- 
tem being used to the practical exclusion of 
all others. Many railroads have ‘improved the 
efficiency of old locomotives, built to use satu- 
rated steam; and the results obtained have 
been highly satisfactory. 

Fuel economy has also been promoted by 
improved furnace design, and the use of such 
devices as brick arches and combustion cham- 
bers. The largest coal-burning locomotives are 
now fired with mechanical stokers, and are 
developing powers which would be unattainable 
with hand firing. 

As has been stated, Peter Cooper’s first 
model attained a speed of 18 miles per hour. 
According to statements that ought to be re- 
garded as reliable Baldwin’s “Old Ironsides” 
once attained a record speed of 60 miles an 
hour for a short distance, and other examples 
of high speed had several times been shown by ~ 
the old-time locomotives. In fact, the real 
progress in locomotive development in the 
United States had not been marked by an in- 
creased capacity for speed so much as by an 
increased hauling power. Instead of designing 
locomotives capable of breaking the speed 
record the American builders had been endeav- 
oring to construct locomotives that would draw 
heavy trains at a steady rate of speed, and in 
this effort their success had been phenomenal. 
In the early nineties, however, there was a 
marked tendency to increase the speed of trains, 
especially on the principal Eastern lines. The 
following are some of the speed records made 
by American-built locomotives: 

In November, 1892, locomotive No. 385—a 
Vauclain compound — running on the Philadel- 
phia and Reading and the Jersey Central rail- 
roads, between Philadelphia and Jersey City, 
with a train of four heavy cars attached, at- 
tained a speed equal to 97 miles per hour, by 
covering one mile in 37 seconds. On 19 July 
1893, locomotive No. 682, on the Philadelphia 
and Reading Railroad, accomplished the re- 
markable feat of hauling a train of nine heavily 
loaded passenger cars from Winslow Junction 
to Pleasantville, a distance of 26 miles, in 22 
minutes, which was equivalent to an average © 
speed of 70.9 miles an hour. On 27 August 
the same locomotive succeeded in hauling 17 
loaded passenger cars the same distance in 27 
minutes, or at an average speed of 57 miles per 
hour, a performance which was even more 


LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 


remarkable, considering the weight of the train 
attached. 

On 11 Sept. 1895, the Empire State 
Express, on the New York Central Railroad, 
with its four cars, ran from New York to East 
Buffalo, a distance of 436%4 miles, in 407% 
minutes, this being an average speed of 64.26 
miles per hour. In 1897, and for several years 
thereafter, the Philadelphia and Reading Rail- 
road operated during the summer months a 
service in which trains of five or six passenger 
cars were hauled between Camden and Atlantic 
City, a distance of 55%4 miles, in 48 minutes, 
and these runs were made with great regularity. 
The locomotives used for this purpose were of 
the Atlantic type, with Wootten boilers and 
84-inch driving wheels. 

On 9 July 1905, what is known as the Scott 
Special, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé 
Railway, left Los Angeles for a continuous 
trip to Chicago. The distance of 2,245 miles 
was covered in 43 hours and 55 minutes, making 
an average of 52 miles per hour for the entire 
distance, the highest speed officially recorded 
for a given distance being at the rate of 106.1 
miles per hour. 

During the past few years, the subject of 
electric traction has received considerable atten- 
tion from railway managers, and several instal- 
lations are in_ successful operation. Among 
these may be mentioned the New York Central, 
the New York, New Haven and Hartford and 
the Pennsylvania electrifications, in and about 
New York City; the electrification of the 
Pennsylvania’s suburban service between Phila- 
delphia and Paoli; and the electrification of 
the Hoosac Tunnel, on the Boston and Maine; 
of the Cascade Tunnel on the Great Northern 
Railway, and of the Saint Clair Tunnel at 
Detroit, on the Michigan Central Railroad. The 
tunnel electrification of the Baltimore and Ohio 
Railroad at Baltimore should also be mentioned, 
as the first undertaking of this kind to be tried 
on an extensive scale. Two examples of heavy 
grade electrification—those of the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railway in the 
Rocky Mountains, and of the Norfolk and West- 
ern Railway in the Elkhorn district —are 
notable as cases where through traffic is being 
moved over trunk line railways for consider- 
able distances, using electricity as a motive 
power. 

In all the cases mentioned above, the oper- 
ating results have proved satisfactory, and 
some remarkable records are made in regular 
service. On the Norfolk and Western, for ex- 
ample, the speed of freight trains up the heavy 
grades has been practically doubled, while two 
electric locomotives handle as much tonnage 
per train as three of the large Mallet steam 
locomotives formerly used. 

The general electrification of steam railways 
is highly improbable for some time to come, 
not so much because of the difficulty in design- 
ing suitable equipment as because of the enor- 
mous cost involved. The electrification of a 
steam railway requires, not merely the re- 
placing of steam locomotives by electric loco- 
motives, but also the installation of power 
house and transmission equipment, of new shop 
and terminal facilities and various other items. 
Thus, while material savings in operation may, 
under favorable conditions, be effected by the 
use of electric locomotives, the first cost in 


587 


the majority of cases is prohibitive. For some 
time to come, therefore, electrification will 
probably be confined to city terminals and large 
tunnels, to mountain grades and to congested 
districts where the amount of traffic moving 
is fairly constant during the greater part of 
the day. 

No uniform method of developing, trans- 
mitting and utilizing electric power in railway 
work has as yet been adopted. Direct and 
alternating current, the overhead wire and the 
third rail, and various different types of loco-= 
motives, are all in successful use. Each elec- 
trification problem must be studied by itself, 
and that system used which is best fitted for 
the special conditions to be met. 

The majority. of electric locomotives are 
built on a co-operative plan, one company sup- 
plying the mechanical parts and another the 
electrical equipment. The Baldwin Locomo- 
tive Works and the Westinghouse Electric and 
Manufacturing Company have worked together 
in this way, as have also the American Loco- 
motive Company and the General Electric Com- 
pany. Thus the locomotives, in both their 
mechanical and electrical features, represent 
the work of designers and builders who are 
experts tn their respective lines. 

Before closing this review, mention should 
be made of the use of internal ‘combustion 
motors in locomotive work. The extremely 
variable conditions as to speed and load, under 
which locomotives operate; the weight and 
space limitations which are necessarily imposed, 
and various other considerations, have hin- 
dered the introduction of this class of motor in 
general railway service. There is, however, a 
growing field for the internal combustion loco- 
motive in light switching, contractors’ and 
industrial service; and the success of these 
machines in such work points to their increas- 
ing use in the future. 

The fact that the internal combustion loco- 
motive consumes no fuel while standing idle 
makes it specially suitable for work in which 
the service requirements are intermittent. In 
plantation service, for example, when the mills 
are not grinding, it is desirable to have loco- 
motives ready for immediate use, even though 
they may only occasionally be needed. Gasoline 
locomotives meet these conditions admirably, 
as they are dependent upon no external source 
of power, consume fuel only when operating 
and can be placed in service without previous 
preparation. 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works has made 
a special study of the gasoline locometive, and 
has developed a series of four standard designs 
weighing three and one-half, five, seven and 
nine tons, respectively. In many respects these 
machines follow steam locomotive practice. The 
entire’ construction, including the motor and 
transmission, is spring supported. The motor 
drives a transverse jack-shaft, from witch 
power is transmitted to the wheels by means 
of side rods. No chains are used in the trans- 
mission system, and there is a positive drive 
from motor to wheels. The minor fittings and 
equipment are arranged, in each case, to suit 
the special conditions under which the loco- 
motives operate. The locomotives can be built 
for any practicable track gauge, and can, if 
desired, be arranged to use alcohol for fuel 
instead of gasoline. ; 


588 


The immediate future will probably witness 
a continued increase in the weight and capacity 
of steam locomotives, and a greater refinement 
in their design for the purpose of developing 
maximum power in proportion to the fuel and 
water consumed. Electrification will be ex- 
tended in districts where its advantages can be 
fully realized. The internal combustion motor 
possesses many advantages for railway work, 
and its extensive use in large locomotives may 
be expected as soon as a suitable design is 
produced. The difficulties here are by no means 
insurmountable, and there are prospects that a 
type of internal combustion motor will be de- 
veloped which will, in turn, revolutionize the 
present methods of railway operation. 


LOCOMOTIVES, Compound. See Lo- 
COMOTIVE. 

LOCOMOTIVES, Electric. See ELec- 
TRIC RAILWAYS. 

LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA, a _ popular 


name for a disease of the nervous system, 
which is caused exclusively by syphilis, al- 
though less than half of 1 per cent of those 
who have syphilis develop it, and usually occurs 
in adults from 40 to 50. It is characterized by 
pain, inability to walk and by progressive weak- 
ness which leads finally to death. The malady 
is long drawn out, becoming serious sometimes 
as many as 40 or 50 years after the first in- 
fection, and while not entailing, as a rule, a 
great amount of physical pain, causes extreme 
_ inconvenience to the patient. It is present in 
men more frequently than in women, because 
syphilis is more frequent in men. In the vast 
majority of patients it first shows itself by 
neuralgic pains of the lower extremities. Thus, 
there may be acute darting and lightning-like 
pains, lasting from half an hour to an hour or 
two, about the ankles, in the instep, shooting up 
the leg or in the thighs. Occasionally these 
pains are present in the arms and trunk. They 
are frequently diagnosed as neuralgia, and it is 
not until development of the symptoms of 
ataxia (q.v.), a word which means “inability to 
co-ordinate”— inability to walk in the dark and 
to place the foot or hand where the mind wishes 
it to be placed—that the true nature of the 
constant neuralgic pains is recognized. The 
patient finds himself insecure on uneven sur- 
faces. He stumbles and falls, and must keep 
his eyes glued to his legs or the surface on 
which he is walking if he is to be able to con- 
trol them. With the gradual development of 
the inability to walk there may be a number of 
other symptoms — acute, lightning-like pains in 
the stomach, intense, sometimes acute, pain in 
the bladder, sometimes loss of voice, etc. 
There may be patches of anesthesia over the 
body and there is usually progressive muscular 
weakness. Loss of knee-jerks is an important 
early sign. 

Associated with ataxia of the legs, which 
prevents the patient from walking readily in 
the dark, or up and down stairs, there may be 
some ataxia in the hands, whereby the finer 
movements of buttoning the clothing, of writ- 
ing, etc, may be interfered with, although 
there may be no loss in muscular strength un- 
til the last stages of the disease. A very con- 
stant and usually a very early sign of locomotor 
ataxia consists in certain changes in the reac- 
tions of the pupil of the eye to light. This 


LOCOMOTIVES — LOCUST 


symptom is technically known as the Argyll- 
Robertson pupil, and shows a fixed pupil when 
exposed to the influence of light, but a pupil 
that dilates or contracts normally when tested 
for its powers of accommodation. Thus in a 
patient who has this symptom the pupils con- 
tract on looking at a near object and dilate on 
looking at a far object; but if a candle or 
beam of light is thrown suddenly on the eye, 
normal quick contraction of the pupil is dimin- 
ished or absent. The Argyll-Robertson pupil 
is sometimes found as early as the neuralgias, 
and a diagnosis may often be made on that 
alone. 

The progress of the disease is usually very 
slow; remissions occur, which give great hope 
to the patient and afford ample opportunities 
for all forms’ of charlatanism; but the final 
outcome is usually hopeless. Many conditions 
of the spinal cord are known in which some 
of the symptoms of locomotor ataxia are 
present, chronic neuritis from alcoholism being 
one. As many of these are recoverable, the 
diagnosis of locomotor ataxia is an extremely 
difficult one, and can be made only by the com- 


petent specialist. Consult  Jelliffe, | White, 
‘Diseases of the Nervous System? (1917). 
See SypHILIs oF THE Nervous SySsTEM; 


TaBES DorSALIS. 


LOCRIS, the parts of ancient Greece in- 
habited and named after the Locrians, the old- 
est Grecian peoples. There were four branches 
— the Epicnemidian, the Opuntian, Ozolian and 
Epizephyrian Locrians, the last a colony from 
the Ozolian stock, living in Lower Italy. Their 
capital, Locri, was one of the most powerful, 
splendid and wealthy cities of Magna Grecia. 


LOCUS, in mathematics, a converging lo- 
cation; when the conditions of a problem are 
not sufficient to determine the absolute position 
of a point, but restrict it to a certain line (or 
lines), this line is called the locus of the point. 
Thus, if the base. and area of a triangle are 
given, the locus of the vertex is a straight line 
parallel to the. base; or if the distance of a 
point from another point is in a given ratio to 
its distance from a given fixed line, the locus 
of the point is a conic section. 


LOCUST. See GrAssHoppers; CICADA. 


LOCUST, a genus (Robinia) of legumi- 
nous trees and shrubs. The species have odd- 
pinnate leaves; pea-like flowers in drooping 
racemes, and pods containing several bean-like 
seeds. They are all useful for ornamental 
planting, and one species, R. pseudacacia, is 
highly valued for its timber. This species, 
which is the best known, and is also called 
false acacia and black locust, is the largest of 
its genus, attaining heights exceeding 75 feet 
and girths greater than eight feet in the rich al- 
luvial soils of Tennessee and Kentucky. Its 
hard, tough, close-grained yellow wood is espe- 
cially useful for ship-building, fence-posts and 
other purposes in which great durability is re- 
quired. It is also employed for making cog- 
wheels, tree-nails, for the interior finish of 
houses, for furniture and other uses where a 
highly polished wood is needed. It is the 
favorite material for policemen’s clubs, not 
only because of its weight and toughness, when 
well seasoned, but because of its unusual reso- 
nance, giving a ringing report when struck 


LOCUST BIRD — LODGE 


upon the pavement as a signal which can be 
obtained from no other wood. In various parts 
of Europe great attention has been paid to the 
propagation of this tree, for ornament as well 
as for its useful properties, and its cultivation 
is further encouraged by the absence of the de- 
stroying insects mentioned below. It forms a 
pleasing object along the borders of many 
of the railways on the Continent, its spines 
adding to its usefulness as a hedge. When in 
bloom the large pendulous racemes of fragrant 
white flowers, contrasting with the light-green 
foliage, produce a fine effect and give this tree 
a rank among the most ornamental. 

The chief objection to the tree is its liability 
to the attacks of insects, more than 40 species 
being known to feed upon its leaves and wood. 
The foliage destroyers, which include leaf-roll- 
ers, leaf-miners and several species that feed 
in exposed positions, are sometimes seriously 
destructive, the larve of one species, a saw-fly 
(Nematis similaris), sometimes destroying all 
the green parts. But they are less destructive 
than the borers, which tunnel through and 
weaken the wood. Sometimes these are so 
numerous that the trees become mere shells of 
bark with a honeycomb of wood. The more 
important of them are the locust borer (Cyllene 
robini@), a black and yellow striped, long- 
horned beetle in the adult stage, which is com- 
mon in the eastern United States; and the 
‘larve of a moth (Sciapteron robinie), trouble- 
some in the Pacific Coast region. These and 
some others have discouraged the commercial 
planting of this valuable tree. 

Other American “locust” trees are the two 
species of the genus Gleditsia of the senna 
family. These are the water or swamp locust 
(G. aquatica) of Florida, which has enormous 
spines and reddish flat oval pods; and the well- 
known and widely-planted honey locust or 
honey shucks (G. triacanthos). This large, 
graceful but exceedingly thorny tree bears 
especially fragrant flowers, and its pods are 
gathered by country people in the South and 
eaten for the sake of the sweet pulp between 
the seeds. The great pods measure 10 to 20 
inches long, are curved, and “in drying twist 
and retwist while they open, and skilfully scat- 
ter seeds in diverse directions.” 


LOCUST BIRD. See Pastor. 


LOCY, William Albert, American zoolo- 
gist: b. Troy, Mich. 14 Sept. 1857. In 1881 
he was graduated at the University of Michi- 
gan, and subsequently studied at Harvard, Ber- 
lin and Chicago. In 1887-89 he was professor 
of biology, in 1889-96 of animal morphology at 
Lake Forest University, Illinois. Since 1896 he 
has been professor of zoology at Northwest 
University. In 1902-03 he was employed as in- 
vestigator at the Naples Zoological Station. 
He has written numerous scientific papers and 
monographs in technological journals; was 
editor in charge of zoological articles, and au- 
thor of several in cyclopedias and author of 
‘Biology and Its Makers? (1908), and ‘The 
Main Currents of Zoology? (1918). 


LODDON, Australia, one of the most im- 
portant rivers of Victoria, rising on the north- 
ern slopes of the Dividing Range, in Talbot 
County, flowing northwest for 250 miles and 
joining the Murray at Swan Hill. It drains a 
basin of 4,800 miles and is subject to floods. 
Good cod and bream abound in it. 


589 


LODE, a metalliferous deposit, usually | 
having the character of an ore-producing vein; 
or often a parallel system of closely spaced 
veins. See VEINS. 


LODESTAR, LOADSTAR, POLARIS, 
or GUIDING STAR, various names given to 
the polar star which is the last star in the tail 
of the Little Bear. It is a star of the second 
magnitude, located 1° 20’ from the North Pole. 


LODEVE, 1o’dév’, France, town and capi- 
tal of an arrondissement in the department of 
Hérault, on the Lergue, 36 miles west-north- 
west of Montpellier. It has many interesting 
remains, including its ancient walls, a fortified 
cathedral dating from the 10th century, an 
ancient monastery and a communal college. 
The principal industry is the manufacture of 
army woolens. ‘Cloth, wine, brandy and wool 
are exported. Lodeéve, the ancient Luteva, ex- 
isted before the Roman period. By _ the 
Romans it was known for a time as Forum 
Neronis. In the 4th century (323) it became 
a Christian city under Saint Flour, its first 
bishop, and remained an episcopal see down to 
the Revolution of 1789. The town fell suc- 
cessively to the Visigoths, Franks, Ostrogoths, 
the Arabs and Carolingians, became a count- 
ship in the oth century and afterward became 
the domain of its bishops. It was sacked in 
1573 during the religious wars. Pop. 6,300. 


LODGE, Gonzalez, American classical 
scholar: b. Fort Littleton, Pa., 19 Dec. 1863. 
He was graduated from Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity in 1883, and in 1886 was professor of 
Greek in Davidson College, N. C., 1886-88, and 
of Latin at Bryn Mawr College, 1889-1900. 
Since 1900 he has been professor of Greek and 
Latin at Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity. He has published ‘Lexicon Plautinum? 
(1901-14), and with Gildersleeve, ‘Gilder- 
sleeve-Lodge Latin Grammar and Latin Com- 
position.» He has edited ‘The Gorgias of 
Plato? (1890), and supervised the ‘Gilder- 
sleeve-Lodge ‘Latin Series? (16 vols.). His 
studies in the essential vocabulary of Latin, 
‘The. Vocabulary _of ..High . School ..Latin? 
(1907) have formed the basis of all recent 
high-school textbooks. He was joint-founder 
ees of the Classical Weekly from 1907- 
1913. 


LODGE, Henry Cabot, American states- 
man and historian: b. Boston, 12 May 1850. 
He was graduated at Harvard in 1871 and 
from the Law School there in 1874. From 
1873 to 1876 he edited the North American 
Review. In the three years following he lec- 
tured on American history at Harvard and in 
1879-81 edited the International Review. He 
was a member of the Massachusetts House of 
Representatives in 1880-81, member of Con- 
gress 1886-93 and thereafter United States 
senator from Massachusetts, being re-elected 
in 1899, 1905, 1911 and 1917. He was perma- 
nent chairman of the Republican National 
Convention of 1900 at Philadelphia, chairman 
of the committee on resolutions of the Chicago 
Republican Convention of 1904 and permanent 
chairman of the Republican National Convention 
of 1908 at Chicago. He was a member of the 
Alaska Boundary Commission; was regent of 
the Smithsonian Institution, 1886-93, and again 
appointed regent in 1905. In politics he is a Re- 
publican of conservative tendency; was a 


590 


staunch supporter of the McKinley administra- 
tion during the war with Spain. He has fa- 
vored laws to safeguard the franchise and has 
advocated an educational test law for immi- 
grants. He is a member of the American 
Institute of Arts and Letters and many other 
societies and has received academic honors 
from several of the leading American universi- 
ties. His published works include ‘The Land 
Law of the Anglo-Saxons? (1877); ‘Life and 
Letters of George ‘Cabot? (1881) ; ‘Short His- 
tory of the English Colonies in America? 
(1882) ; ‘Life of Alexander Hamilton? (1883) ; 
‘Life of Daniel Webster? (1885); editor 
‘Works of Alexander Hamilton? (9 vols., 
1886) ; ‘Studies in History? (1889); ‘Life of 
Washington? (2 vols., 1891) ; ‘History of Bos- 
ton? (1892); ‘Historical and Political Essays? 
(1895) ; ‘Hero Tales from American History,” 
with Theodore Roosevelt (1897) ; “Certain Ac- 
cepted Heroes? (1898); ‘Story of the Revolu- 
tion? (2 vols., 1899); ‘Story of the Spanish 
War, ‘A Fighting Frigate? (1906); ‘A Fron- 
tier Town ‘and .QOther. Essays? (1910); 
“Speeches and Addresses 1884-1909? (1913) ; 
“Early Memories? (1915); ‘One Hundred 
Years of Peace? (1915); ‘The Democracy of 
the Constitution and Other Essays? (1915). 


LODGE, Sir Oliver Joseph, English 
physicist: b. Penkhull, Staffordshire, 12 June 
1851. He was educated at University College, 
London, became demonstrator in physics there 
in 1875, and professor of the same subject in 
1877. He was professor of physics at Univer- 
sity College, Liverpool, 1881-1900, and in the 
latter year was appointed principal of the Uni- 
versity of Birmingham. He was Rumford 
Medallist of the Royal Society in 1898; Ro- 
manes lecturer at Oxford 1903; president of 
the Physical Society of London 1899-1900 ; 
president of the Society for Psychical Research 
1901-04; and president of the British Associa- 
tion, 1913-14. He was knighted in 1902. He 
achieved eminence as a physicist in his work in 
connection with electricity, including the theo- 
ries of contact electricity and electrolysis, the 
oscillatory discharge of Leyden jars, the pro- 
duction of electro-magnetic waves in air, ex- 
periments in the mitigation of fogs through 
electrical dispersion, and in the invention of 
the “coherer» in wireless telegraphy. His 
work as an educational reformer has heen 
overshadowed in the public mind by his atti- 
tude on the vexed question of religion and 
science, and by his views on psychical research 
and spiritualism. He has expounded the view 
that communication between the living and the 
dead may be attained unhampered. In this 
connection his latest book, ‘Raymond; or Life 
and Death? (1916) has a pathetic interest. His 
son Raymond was killed in September 1915 in 
the Great War, and the book records com- 
munications begun soon after his death, made 
in the ordinary spiritualist way at séances held 
in presence of Sir Oliver and his family. His 
works include ‘Elementary Mechanics? (1877) ; 


“Modern Views of Electricity? (1889) ; ‘Light- 
ning Conductors and Lightning ‘Guards? 
(1892); ‘Pioneers of Science? (1893) ; ‘Mod- 


ern Views on Matter? (1903); SLife and Mat- 
ter? (4th ed., 1907); ‘The Substance of Faith 
(1907) ; ‘(Man and the Universe? (5th ed., 
1909) ; “The Immortality of the Soul? (1908) ; 
‘The Ether of Space? (1909); ‘Parent and 


LODGE — LODGINGS 


Child? (1910); ‘Modern Problems? (1912); 
‘Continuity? (1914); ‘Raymond, or Life and 
Death? (1915); ‘Christopher? (1919). 


LODGE, Thomas, English dramatist and 
poet: b. West Ham, near London, England, 
about 1556; d. London, September 1625. He 
entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but seems to have led 
a wild and rollicking life, and in 1589-91 varied 
his life by taking part in two sea expeditions 
against the Spaniards, in the neighborhood of 
the Azores and Canary Islands. On the earlier 
of these he wrote the famous pastoral ‘Rosa- 
lynde Euphyes’s Golden Legacie? (1590), which 
supplied Shakespeare with the basis of “As 
You Like It. Lodge himself wrote two 
dramas, ‘The Wounds of Civil War (1594; 
reprinted in Hazlitt’s Dodsley’s ‘Select Collec- 
tion of Old Plays,’ Vol. VII), and ‘A Looking- 
glass for London and England? (1594), in col- 
laboration with Robert Greene. Consult Jus- 
serand, ‘The English Novel in the Time of 
Shakespeare? (1890). 


LODGING-HOUSES. Shelters for home- 
less people. The modern trend of workers to 
the cities has greatly increased the floating 
population and many people of this class are 
without means of purchasing adequate accom- 
modations. Many systems for caring for this 
homeless population have been tried with more 
or less success and in all large cities there are 
now rescue missions and lodging-houses where 
a bed or room for the night may be had for a 
few cents. In New York conspicuous among 
such institutions are the Mills hotels with pri- 
vate rooms, free baths, etc., for a charge of 20 
to 40 cents.. The larger cities of America, such 
as Boston, Chicago, New York, have in recent 
years established municipal lodging-houses 
where lodging and breakfast are given in re- 
turn for a few hours’ labor, or free of all labor 
or compensation of any kind. There are strin- 
gent regulations, however, regarding the num- 
ber of times a homeless person may avail him- 
self of such accommodations. The Salvation 
Army and other charitable organizations also 
minister to the homeless. In Europe the mat- 
ter is similarly handled. Consult Riis, Jacob, 
‘The Children of the Poor? (New York 1902) ; 
Dawson, W. H., ‘The German Workman’ 
(London 1906); Robins, Raymond, ‘What 
Constitutes a Municipal Lodging House? (New 
York 1904). 


LODGINGS, furnished rooms or apart- 
ments let by the owner or sublet by a tenant in 
possession for occupancy for limited periods, 
usually by the week or month. An agreement 
to let furnished lodgings is an agreement to 
land under the Statute of Frauds, and, in the 
absence of part performance, cannot be en- 
forced, unless in writing signed by the de- 
fendant. In the letting of furnished apart- 
ments there is an implied warranty that the 
rooms are fit for occupation. Any person who 
lets lodgings without disinfecting them after 
infectious disease, or gives a false answer to 
any question as to the existence of any infec- 
tious disease, is liable to fine or imprisonment. | 
A lodging-house-keeper is not liable for the 
loss or destruction of the lodger’s goods with- 
out the former’s fault. The relation is not 
that of landlord and tenant, the lodger acquir- 
ing by his contract no right of property in the 
premises but only a license to use the same, 


LODI— LOEB 


subject to the terms of agreement. The above 
provisions are the features of the New York 
code which in general is followed in other State 
jurisdictions. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. 


LODI, 10’dé, Cal. city in San Joaquin 
County, situated on the Mokelumne, and on the 
Southern Pacific and Central California rail- 
roads, 35 miles south of Sacramento. It con- 
tains a city administration building, Carnegie 
library and a high school. It has extensive 
fruit-growing interests and has great packing 
sheds, fruit juice factories, etc. The city owns 
the water-supply system and the electric- light- 
ing system. Pop. (1920) 4,850. 


LODI, Italy, a town in the province of 
Milan, Lombardy, on the Adda, 18 miles south- 
east of Milan. The principal buildings are the 
duomo or cathedral, a Gothic structure of the 
12th century; the octagonal church of the In- 
coronata, built in the 15th century; the town- 
house; the episcopal palace; the Barni and 
Merlini palaces. Majolica and delftware, re- 
fined wax, saltpeter and chemical products are 
manufactured. Stracchino and Parmesan 
cheese, which, 
Parma, from which it was first exported, is 
almost wholly made in the district around 
Lodi, utilizing the milk of thousands of cows. 
The chief incident in Lodi’s history is the entry 
by Napoleon after the famous passage of the 
bridge of Lodi effected against the Austrians, 
10 May 1796. Four miles to the west are the 
famous ruins of an old Roman colony. Pop. 
of commune, 28,032. 

LODI, N. J., borough in Bergen County, 
adjoining Passaic on the northeast, on the New 
York, Susquehanna and Western Railroad. It 
contains several silk and cotton mills, bleaching 
works, rubber works, etc. The borough owns 
the water-supply system. Pop. (1920) 8,175. 


LODOMERIA, 16-d6-mé’ri-a, Poland, a 
former independent principality in “Volhynia, 
after the division of Poland in 1772 constituting 
an integral part of Galicia (q.v.). 

LODZ, 16dz, Poland, the capital of a dis- 
trict in the government of Piotrkow, 76 miles 
southwest of Warsaw, and an important manu- 
facturing centre, the terminus of a branch line 
from the Warsaw and Vienna Railway. It 
has made considerable modern progress, owing 
to the flourishing condition of its cotton, 
woolen and other manufactures. Silk goods 
‘are also manufactured, and there are dyeworks, 
breweries, machine-works, etc. The Roman 
Catholic Poles number about 40 per cent, Ger- 
man Protestants 33 per cent and Jews 27 per 
cent of the population, which from 50,000 in 
1872 had increased in 1912 to 450,000. Cap- 
tured by the Germans in the early days of the 
Great War which began in 1914, it was recap- 
tured by the Russians in 1916, ‘and again fell 
into the hands of the Central Powers in 1917. 


LOEB, léb, Jacques, German-American 
physiologist and biologist: b. Germany, 7 April 
1859. He studied at Berlin, Munich and 
pe epcciie e was assistant at both Wiirzburg 
(1886-88) and Strassburg (1888-90), studied at 
the Naples zoological station, and in 1891-92 
was associate professor of biology | at Bryn 
Mawr College. In 1892 he became assistant 
professor of physiology and experimental biol- 
ogy at the University of Chicago, and in 1895 


though it takes its name from > 


591 


associate professor. He was also professor of 
physiology at the Rush Medical College of Chi- 
cago from 1900. In 1902 he was appointed pro- 
fessor of physiology in the University of Cali- 
fornia. After 1910 he was a member of the 
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in 
New York. His experiments were in different 
fields of physiology and biology, all trying to 
show that complicated life phenomena can be 
reduced to simple physico-chemical laws. In 
his earlier work he showed that complicated 
animal instincts are identical with those reac- 
tions of plants which are known as _ tropisms, 
and he and his collaborators showed that the 
law of Bunsen and Roscoe which controls the 
chemical effects of light also expresses the in- 
fiuence of light upon those animal instincts 
which fall under the name of heliotropism. His 
experiments on artificial parthenogenesis have 
furnished the proof that the fertilizing effect 
of the living spermatozoon can be replaced by 
simple solutions. Other experiments dealt with 
the influence of salts upon life phenomena, with 
regeneration and heteromorphosis, with effects 
of temperature, etc. He published numerous 
papers in scientific journals and several books, 
including ‘Der Heliotropismus der Tiere und 
seine Ubereinstimmung mit dem Heliotropismus 
der Pflanzen? (1890); ‘Untersuchungen zur 
physiologischen Morphologie der Tiere? (1891- 
92): “Comparative Physiology of the Brain and 
Comparative Psychology? (1900) ‘Studies in 
General Physiology» (1905); ‘The Dynamics 
of Living Matter? (1906); ‘The Mechanistic 
Conception of Life? (1912); ‘Artificial Par- 
thenogenesis and. Fertilization? (1913); ‘The 
Organism as a Whole? (1916); etc. He died 
Bermuda, 11 Feb. 1924. 


LOEB, James, American banker and Hel- 
lenist: b. New Work, NEYE'6 Aug 1607, Ble 
was graduated at Harvard University in 1888 
and from that year until 1901 was a member of 
the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb and Company, 
New York. He is a member of the English 
Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies; 
in 1911 he turned over his collection of Aretine 
pottery to the Fogg Museum at Harvard, and 
in the same year perfected plans for the publi- 
cation of a library of Greek and Latin authors 
—text and translation. The volumes, known 
as the Loeb Classical Library, began to appear 


. in 1912 and were continued in the following 


years. Mr. Loeb has published translations 
of Paul Delcharme’s ‘Euripides and the Spirit 
of His Dreams,? and of Maurice -Croiset’s 
‘Aristophanes and the Political Parties at 
Athens.? 


LOEB, Leo, American holes b. Ger- 
many, 21 Sept. 1869. He received his education 
at the universities of Heidelberg, Berlin, 
Zurich and Freiburg (1889-96) and in 1903 
was research Fellow at McGill University, 
Montreal. In 1900-01 he was adjunct profes- 
sor of pathology at the University of Illinois; 
in 1902 experimental pathologist of the New 
York State Pathological Laboratory at Buffalo; 
in 1904-10 assistant professor of experimental 
pathology at the University of Pennsylvania; 
in 1910-15 director of the department of pa- 
thology of the Barnard Skin and Cancer Hospi- 
tal, Saint Louis, and since 1915 professor of 
comparative pathology at Washington Univer- 
sity. Professor Loeb is fellow or member of. 


592 


many scientific societies and is a contribator, 
chiefly on tissue and tumor growth, physiology 
of generative organs, pathology of circulation, 
venom of Heloderma, etc. to professional 
journals. 


LOEB, Louis, American artist: b. Cleve- 
land, Ohio, 1866; d.-1909. He completed his 
studies in art under Gérome in Paris, winning 
honorable mention at the Salon in 1895, and a 
third medal in 1897. As artist, illustrator and 
teacher he secured a notable place. As an il- 
lustrator of books and magazines he showed 
both strength and inventive ability. In 1903 
his exhibition of oils at the new rooms of the 
Co-operative Society in New York aroused in- 
terest in his later work, which shows a steady 
progress in his artistic achievements. His best- 
known works are ‘Temple of the Winds? 
(1898), in the Metropolitan Museum, New 
York; ‘The Breeze? (1900); ‘The Dawrm 
(1903) ; “The Siren? (1905); portrait of Elea- 
nor Robson (1905); ‘Miranda? (1906), in the 
Metropolitan Museum, New York; ‘The Sum- 
mit? (1907); ‘Princess Zomona? (1908). He 
was awarded two silver medals at the Saint 
Louis Exposition 1904. 


LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY. 
LorEs, JAMES. 


LOEFFLER, léf’lér, Charles Martin Tor- 
nov, American musician and composer: b. 
Miuhlhausen, Alsace, 30 Jan. 1861. He was 
educated in Switzerland, Germany and France, 
came to America in 1881 and for over 20 years 
“was violinist with the Boston Symphony Or- 
chestra. Since 1909 he has been director of the 
Boston Opera Company. His compositions are 
remarkable for ittheir technique although lack- 
ing in originality. They include ‘Les veillées 
de l’Ukraine,» suite for orchestra and violin 
(1891) ; ‘Fantastic Concerto” (1894); ‘Diverti- 
mento in A minor,? for violin and orchestra 
(1895) ; the symphonic poem, ‘The Death of 
Fintagiles,’ for orchestra and viola d’amore 
(1897); ‘Divertissement Espagnol, for or- 
chestra and saxophone (1901); ‘La bonne 
chanson,” a symphonic poem; ‘La Villanelle du 
diable,> symphonic poem; quartet in A minor, 
chamber music; ‘Deux Rapsodies,» for oboe, 
viola and piano (1901); ‘By the Waters of 
Babylon,» Psalm 137, for female chorus 


See 


(1902) ; “For One Who Fell in Battle,» chorus | 


for eight parts (1906); ‘Pagan Poem, for 
orchestra and piano, also many songs, tran- 
scriptions, etc. 


LOEFFLER, Friedrich, German bacteri- 
ologist: b. Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1852; d. 
1915. He was educated at Wurzburg and Ber- 
lin, in 1879 was made assistant in the Imperial 
Health Office and in 1884 staff physician at the 
Friedrich Wilhelm Institute, Berlin. Four 
years later he was appointed to a chair at the 
University of Greifswald. ‘Loeffler rendered 
important and lasting services to bacteriology 
by his original methods of staining, by the dis- 
covery of the bacillus of glanders in 1882, and 
by the discovery of the bacillus of diphtheria. 
He also investigated the foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease. In 1887 Professor Loeffler founded the 
Zentralblatt fiir Bakteriologie und Parasitik. 
To it he contributed several articles on profes- 
sional topics, also articles on malaria in Leyden 


and Klemperer ‘Deutsche Klinik? (1903). He 


. been active in its formation. 


LOEB — LOEWE 


published ‘Vorlesungen tiber die geschichtliche 
Entwicklung der Lehre von den Bakterien? 
(1887) and ‘Die Schutzimpfung gegen die 


~Maul und Klauensenche? (1903). 


LOESS, lés or ld’es, a loamy deposit of 
Pleistocene Age, abundantly developed in the 
valleys of the Rhine, the Danube, the Rhone 
and many of their tributaries. It is a pulveru- 
lent yellowish-gray or brownish loam, homo- 
geneous and non-plastic, and consists principally 
of clay with small angular grains of quartz, and 
extremely minute scales of mica, together with 
a larger or smaller admixture of carbonate of 
lime and some iron oxide. It has a tendency to 
cleave in vertical planes, and thus forms cliffs 
where streams intersect it. The organic re- 
mains of the loess consist principally of land- 
shells of existing species, but now and again 
fresh-water shells are met with. Occasionally, 
also, the remains of man and the Pleistocene 
mammals are encountered. The deposit varies 
from a small thickness up to nearly 300 feet, 
and occurs at greatly differing levels, so that 
more than one agency would seem to have 
Escaping flood- 
waters from glaciers are believed to have made 
some of the deposit; some of it may have been 
the result of weathering and rain-washings. 
The European loess is undoubtedly associated 
with the glacial deposits of the Continent, and 
in North America the same relationship ob- 
tains. Many geologists of the United States 
Geological Survey maintain that the accumula- 
tions which cover enormous areas in the great 
basin traversed by the Mississippi and _ its 
affluents are essentially fluviatile. Richthofen 
believes the Chinese accumulation, the largest 
in the world, to have been of Aolian origin, and 
this theory of wind-blown material has also 
been advanced with respect to deposits in the 
United States. There is no unanimity of opinion 
as to its origin, but loess is probably in part 
fluviatile and in part wind-blown. Consult 
Sixth Annual Report of the United States 
Geological Survey (1888) ; Chamberlin and Sal- 
isbury, ‘The Driftless Area of the Upper 
Mississippi Valley?; McGee, ‘The Pleistocene 
History of Northeastern Iowa, in the United 
States Geological Survey, Eleventh Annual Re- 


port (1891); Geikie, ‘Prehistoric Europe? 
(1881). 

LOEWE, leé’vé, Wilhelm (also called 
LoEWwE-KALBE), German politician: b. Olven- 


stedt, near Magdeburg 1814: d. 1886. He was 
educated at Halle, and adopted the medical pro- 
fession. Elected in 1848 to the Frankfort 
Parliament, he acted with the extreme party of 
democracy; became first vice-president of the 
Parliament; and later, at Stuttgart, was its 
president. Charged with sedition in this, which 
was considered a revolutionary procedure, and 
once acquitted, he was nevertheless sentenced 
to life imprisonment for contumacy. After 
some years in Switzerland, France and Eng- 
land, he came to this country, and for eight 
years practised medicine in New York. Avail- 
ing himself of the amnesty in 1861, he returned 
to Germany, and in 1863 was elected to the 
Prussian House of Deputies. Four years later 
he was a Progressist member of the North 
German Reichstag. Disagreeing with his party 
in 1874 on the military law, he attempted to 
form a new Liberal party. He favored the 


LOEWY — LOG 


policy of high protection adopted in 1879. In 
the elections of 1881 he lost his seat. 


LOEWY, lé-vé’, Maurice, French astrono- 
mer: b. Vienna, 1833; d. Paris, 16 Oct. 1907. 
He was given a position in the observatory at 
Paris by Leverrier, and after the latter’s 
death assisted Mouchez in the observatory of 
Montsouris, becoming director in 1896. He was 
noted for his invention of the equatorial-coudé, 
or Elbow-equatorial, in which the observer re- 
mains seated at the upper end of. the polar 
axis of the telescope, as if working with a 
microscope on a table, with the means of di- 
recting his view to any part of the heavens 
under his control. He also devised improved 
methods of determining the constants of as- 
tronomical refraction and aberration. He was 
joint author (with Puiseux) of ‘Atlas photo- 
graphie de la lune? in six volumes (1896-1908). 

LOFFTZ, léftz, Ludwig, German painter: 
b. Darmstadt, 1845: d. 1910. He studied at 
Nuremberg under Kreling and Raupp and at 
Munich under Diez. In 1879 he became pro- 
fessor at the Academy of Munich, and from 
1891 to 1899 was director of this institution. His 
best-known paintings are ‘Cardinal Playing the 
Organ? (1876; exhibited in New York 1909); 
portrait of Liszt; ‘Avarice and Love? (1879, 
owned by W. H. Vanderbilt, New York) ; 
‘Erasmus, in the Stuttgart Museum; ‘Pieta,? 
and ‘Eurydice? (1898), both in the New 
Pinakothek, Munich, ‘Assumption of the Vir- 
gin? (1889), in Freising Cathedral. In his later 
years he painted several landscapes, but his 
greatest success lay in his work as a teacher. 


LOFOTEN, 16-fd’‘ten, or LOFODDEN, 
Norway, a group of islands off the northwest 
coast, stretching southwest to northeast about 
175 miles and including the Vesteraaelen 
islands to the north. The largest are Andoen, 
Langoen, Hindoen (the largest 860 square 
miles), East and West Vaagen and Flagstadoe. 
They have bold, precipitous, rugged and deeply 
indented coasts, ‘the channels between which are 
deep, narrow and tortuous, and an elevated, 
sterile interior, several containing mountains 
which, though not lofty, are covered with per- 
petual snow. The highest peak is Higrafstind 
(3,811 feet). Immense shoals of cod and 
herring frequent their shores, and extensive and 
valuable fisheries are carried on, The princi- 
pal cod-fishery beginning January-February 
ends in April, but the herring-fishery continues, 
and furnishes an important branch of national 
revenue. In ordinary years about 4,000 boats, 
each manned by five hands, are employed. The 
celebrated whirlpool, the Maelstrom, is situated 
at the southwest extremity of these islands. 
Permanent population of group, about 40,000. 


LOFTIE, William John, Irish-Anglican 
clergyman, writer on Tea ee b. Tandragee, 
County Armagh, 25 July 1839; d. 16 June 1911. 
He was educated at Trinity College Dublin, 
and after holding church appointments joined 
the staff of the Saturday Review, and in 
1894 that of the National Observer. As a 
writer on antiquarian subjects he combined 
learning and picturesque statement. He pub- 
lished ‘Round About London? (1877; 4th ed., 
1880); ‘Plea for Art in the House? (1877) ; 
“Memorials of the Savoy? (1879); ‘A Ride in 
Egypt? (1879); ‘A History of London? (1883) : 
‘Authorized Guide to the Tower of London? 

VOL, 17— 38 


593 


(1886) ; ‘London? (1887); ‘Windsor? (1887) ; 
‘Westminster Abbey? (1890); ‘The Cathedral 
Churches of England? (1892); ‘Inigo Jones 
and Wren? (1893); ‘Inns of Court and Chan- 
cery? (1894); ‘London Afternoons? (1901) ; 
‘Coronation Book of Edward VID; ‘Colour 
of London? (1907). 


LOFTUS, Lorp Augustus William Fred- 
erick Spencer, English diplomatist: b. 4 Oct. 
1817; d. 9 March 1904. He entered the diplo- 
matic service in 1837 as attaché at Berlin and 
was likewise attaché at Stuttgart in i644 “Ete 
was secretary to Stratford Canning in_ 1848, 
and after serving as secretary of legation at 
Stuttgart (1852), and Berlin (1853), was en- 
voy at Vienna (1858), Berlin (1860) and 
Munich (1862); became Ambassador at Berlin 
1865, to the North German Confederation 
(1868-71) and to Saint Petersburg (1871-79). 
He was governor of New South Wales (1879- 
ph He published his Reminiscences (1892— 


LOG, in nautical parlance, an apparatus 
used to measure the rate of a ship’s velocity 
through the water. For this purpose there are 
several inventions, but the one most generally 
used is the following, called the common log. 
It is a piece of thin board, forming the quad- 
rant of a circle of about six inches radius, an 
balanced by a small plate of lead, nailed on the 
circular part, so as to float vertically in the 
water, with the greater part immersed. The 
log-line is fastened to the log by means of 
three leads, two being knotted, through holes 
at one corner and the top while the other is 
attached to a pin fixed in a hole at the other 
corner, so as to draw out when a considerable 
force is exerted on it. The log-line is divided 
by means of knots of colored cloth into equal 
lengths, which are in the same proportion to an 
equal number of geographical or nautical miles, 
as a half or quarter minute is to_an hour of 
time. It is wound upon a reel. The whole is 
employed to measure the ship’s head-way in 
the following manner:— The reel being held 
by one man, and the half-minute glass by 
another, the mate of the watch fixes the pin and 
throws the log over the stern, which floating 
vertically offers immediate resistance through 
its area set at right angles to the direction of 
the ship, and is considered as stationary, the 
line being allowed to run freely over the stern 
to prevent the pin being pulled out. The knots 
are measured from a mark on the line at the 
distance of 12 or 15 fathoms from the log. The 
part of the line between the log and this mark 
is called the stray-line. The glass is turned at 
the instant that the mark passes over the stern, 
and as soon as the sand in the glass is run out 
the line is stopped. The resistance of the water 
then acting on the log dislodges the pin, so that 
the board, now presenting only its edge to the 


_ water, is easily drawn aboard. The number of 


knots which had run off at the expiration of 
the glass determines the ship’s velocity. Two 
types of sand-glasses are in common use among 
mariners, one emptying in 30 seconds, and the 
other in 28 seconds. In the first instance, in 
laying out the knots in a log line the proportion 
would read: 
1 hour (3,690 sec.): 30: : 1 mile (6,080 feet): I knot. 


making the length of ie “knot” — that is, the 
length between two knots on the line — 50 feet 


594 


7 inches. Where the 28-second sand glass is 
used the “knot” is 47 feet 3 inches in length. 
Where the speed of the vessel is greater than 
six knots that is, six natitical miles per hour — 
the line would run out an inconvenient distance 
in 28 or 30 seconds, so in faster ships a 14- 
second or 15-second glass is used, and the num- 
‘ber of knots passing in that period multiplied 
by two to give the speed per hour. 

The patent log or taffrail log is an alto- 
gether different instrument for the same pur- 
pose. Instead of a long line running out freely, 
the patent log has a fixed length of line, about 
three fathoms for each knot of the ship’s 
average speed, and is dragged after the ship. 
The drag is an arrangement similar to a screw, 
having a central shank, and fins running 
lengthwise around it in helical form. When it 
is dragged through the water the fins cause it 
to rotate, and the faster it is dragged the faster 
it rotates. The entire log line turns with 
it and the number of turns is recorded by 
nechanism fastened to the taffrail of the vessel, 
and is shown on a dial. 


LOG-BOOK, a book in which are offici- 
cially recorded the proceedings on board a ship, 
supplied in England by the Board of Trade. In 
it the contents of the log-board are daily trans- 
scribed at noon, together with every circum- 
stance deserving notice that may happen to the 
ship or within her cognizance, either at sea or 
in a harbor, etc. In addition to the weather, 
speed, astronomical observations, etc., the en- 
tries required to be made include convictions, 
offenses, punishments, conduct of crew, illnesses 
and injuries, deaths, births and marriages, quit- 
ting the ship, wages of men entering the navy, 
wages of deceased seamen, sale of deceased sea- 
men’s effects, collisions —ain short, every con- 


dition, occurrence and transaction which comes 


under official notice. The log-book must be 
signed by master and mate, and certain other 
persons in particular cases. Properly authenti- 
cated entries are admissible in a court of law. 
A log is also kept by the master for the bene- 
fit of the owners. On steamships the chief 
engineer is also responsible for the keeping of 
a log in which are recorded all details con- 
nected with his department while the ship is at 
sea. 


LOG CABIN AND HARD CIDER, a 
term used in American politics in the campaign 
of 1840. The Whig candidate for President, 
William Henry Harrison, was a military man 
of plain manners. One of the Democratic 
papers, scoffing at the Whigs for taking a can- 
didate not of the first calibre, advised that 
Harrison be given a log cabin and a barrel of 
hard cider, and he would stay contentedly in 
Ohio. ‘This was taken up by the Whigs, and 
really helped to make their candidate popular 
with the masses. Log cabins were erected in 
great numbers in the cities, and were carried in 
De eee accompanied with barrels of hard 
cider. 


LOG-CABIN HARRISON. 


CABIN AND Harp CIpER. 
LOG PERCH, a fish of the darter group, 


and its largest member. It is locally known as 
hogfish, hog molly, rockfish, etc., and is easily 
distinguished by its zebra stripes. It attains a 
length of eight inches and frequents clear cold 
streams, Consult Jordan and © Copeland, 


See Loc 


LOG-BOOK — LOGAN 


‘Johnny Darters? (in American Naturalist, 
Vol. X, Salem 1876). 


LOG-ROLLING, in American politics, a 
term used for manceuvers of. politicians, by 
which they seek to secure co-operation in carry- 
ing favorite measures through legislatures and 
other bodies. Generally log-rolling is employed 
by individuals who approach others in support 
of personal schemes and interests. The word 
was formerly very popular in the United States, 
but has become almost obsolete, being sup- 
planted by the term “button-holing.” 


LOGAN, 106’gan, English name of the 
American Indian chief Tah-gah-jute: b. about 
1725; d. 1780. He was the son of Shikellamy, 
a celebrated chief of the Cayugas, who lived 
at Shamokin .on the Susquehanna, and was 
called Logan from James Logan, the secretary 
of Pennsylvania and a firm friend of the 
Indians. In his early manhood he was known 
throughout the frontier of Virginia and Penn- 
sylvania for his fine personal appearance, en- 
gaging qualities and his friendship for the 
whites. About 1770 he removed with his family 
to the banks of the Ohio, where he gave way 
in a measure to intemperance. In the spring 
of 1774 his family were massacred, it was 
alleged, by a party of whites led by Captain 
Crésap, under the pretext of retaliation for 
Indian murders; but it is exceedingly doubtful 
whether Cresap had any connection with the 
transaction. Logan at once instigated a war 
against the scattered settlers of the Far West, 
and for several months fearful barbarities were 
perpetrated upon men, women and_ children. 
He disdained to appear among the chiefs who 
subsequently sued for peace, but sent by an 
interpreter to Lord Dunmore, the governor of 
Virginia, the noted speech explaining his con- 
duct, which was first published in Jefferson’s 
‘Notes on Virginia.» Its authenticity is open 
to much doubt, however. While intoxicated 
he attacked a party of friendly Indians and 
was killed by his relative Tod-hah-dohs in self- 
defense. 


LOGAN, Benjamin, American pioneer: b. 
Augusta County, Va., about 1752; d. Shelby 
County, Ky., 11 Dec. 1802. He early crossed 
the Alleghanies ‘and became a settler in Ken- 
tucky. He was an associate of Simon Kenton 
and Daniel Boone in the Indian fighting then 
constantly in progress on the frontier. During 
the Revolutionary War he was also active in 
the contests between the colonial frontiersmen 
and the British and their Indian allies. In 
1776 he built one mile east of Stanford, Ky., 
on the site now called Saint Asaph’s Spring, 
the stockade known as “Logan’s fort.” When 
this fort had for weeks in 1777 been besieged 
by Indians, Logan made his way through the 
enemy’s lines and traveled 150 miles to Holston 
where he obtained supplies and reinforcements. 
He participated as second in command in Col. 
John Bowman’s expedition against the Shaw- 
nees at Chillicothe, and led the force sent 
against the Indians under Simon Girty. His 
advance guard, through over-haste, was de- 
feated at Blue Licks, and Logan himself did 
not reach the scene of battle until the succeed- 
ing day. In 1788 he commanded a force of 
600 against the northwestern Indians. -He was 
for many years a member of the Kentucky 
legislature; and sat also in the State constitt- 


LOGAN 


tional conventions of 1792 and 1799. His 
prowess was celebrated on the frontier. 


LOGAN, George, American statesman and 
philanthropist; grandson of James Logan 
(q.v.): b. Stenton, now a part of Philadelphia, 
9 Sept. 1753; d. there, 9 April 1821. He was 
educated in England, subsequently ‘studied 
medicine in Edinburgh, where he took the de- 
gree of M.D., and afterward returned in 1779 
to America. For many years he devoted him- 
self to agricultural pursuits, which he was one 
of the first in America to prosecute successfully 
in a scientific manner. He also served several 
terms in the Pennsylvania legislature. At the 
outbreak of the French Revolution he embraced 
with enthusiasm its democratic doctrines, and 
joined Jefferson and the Republican party in 
opposition to the Federalists. In 1798, the 
United States being then’ on the brink of a 
‘rupture with the French republic, he departed 
cor France, under the idea that he might con- 
tribute to the preservation of peace. He was 
well received by Talleyrand and Merlin, then 
chief of the Directory, and returned to 
ica with the assurance of the desire of the 
French government to renew amicable relations 
with the United States. But as he had taken 
- with him letters of introduction from Jefferson 
and Governor McKean instead of passports 
from the State Department, he was denounced 
by the Federalists on his return as the treason- 
able envoy of a faction who had undertaken to 
institute a correspondence with a foreign and 
hostile power. He was coldly received by 
Washington and President Adams, and in the 
latter part of 1798 an act, known as the “Logan 
act,” was passed by Congress, making it a high 
misdemeanor for a private citizen to interfere 
in a controversy between the United States and 
a foreign country as he had done. He was 
subsequently elected to the United States 
Senate, of which body he remained a member 
1801-07; and in 1810, urged by the same philan- 
thropic motives which had induced him to visit 
France 12 years before, he went to England in 
the hope of preserving peace. In 1797 he pub- 
lished ‘Experiments on Gypsum? and ‘Rota- 
tion of Crops. 


LOGAN, James, American colonial states- 
man and author: b. Lurgan, Ireland, 20 Oct. 


1674; d. Stenton, near Philadelphia, Pa., 31 - 


Oct. 1751. By his own efforts he acquired a 
knowledge of the chief ancient and modern 
languages, and in 1699, being then established 
in trade in Bristol, England, accepted an invi- 
tation from William Penn to accompany him to 
America in the capacity of secretary. In 1701, 
upon the return of Penn. to England, he was 
appointed provincial secretary, and  subse- 
quently filled the offices of commissioner of 
property, chief justice and president of the 
council, discharging in the last capacity the 
duties of governor of the province for two 
years after the demise of Governor Gordon in 
1736. The latter years of his life were passed 
at his country-seat called Stenton, in the pur- 
suit of literature and science. His chief work, 
‘Experimenta et Meletemata de Plantarum 
Generatione? (Leyden 1739; London, trans- 
lated from the Latin by Fothergill, 1747), an 
- expansion of a paper on the growth of maize 
published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions? 
for 1735, was considered an important contribu- 


Amer- 


595 


tion to the science of botany. He was the au- 
thor of two other Latin treatises of a scientific 
character published in Holland, of an English 
translation of Cicero’s ‘De Senectute,? pub- 
lished in 1744 by Benjamin Franklin, and of 
Cato’s ‘Distichs,? the latter in verse; and he 
left a variety of papers on ethics and philology. 
The translation of Cicero was the first original 
one of a classical author printed in America. 
His library, numbering about 2,000 volumes, 
was, in conformity with his desire, presented to 
the city of Philadelphia, and is deposited ina 
separate department of the Philadelphia library 
under the name of the Loganian library. He 
was one of the founders of the University of 
Pennsylvania. He was a member of the Soci- 
ety of Friends. 


LOGAN, John, Scottish poet and Presby- 
terian clergyman: b. Soutra, Midlothian, Scot- 
land, 1748; d. London, 25 Dec. 1788. In 1773 
he was licensed as a preacher, was in the same 
year ordained to the second charge of South 
Leith, and because of his eloquence and fervor 
in the pulpit soon became popular. In 1783 his 
tragedy of ‘Runnamede? was acted at the Edin- 
burgh Theatre. His association with the stage 
gave offense to his flock, and owing to this, 
and to intemperate habits which he had inher- 
ited from his father, he was in 1786 constrained 
to leave the ministry and going to London 
there engaged in literary work. His name is 
now best known in connection with that of 
Michael Bruce and the controverted authorship 
of the ‘Ode to the Cuckoo.» That Logan is 
entitled to a place among the minor poets of 
Scotland is sufficiently attested by his exquisite 
lyrics, ‘The Braes of Yarrow.? - Consult Ander- 
son, R., ‘British Poets? (vol. xi, 1795); and 
separate edition (1805). 


LOGAN, John Alexander, American sol- 
dier and politician: b. Jackson County, Ill, 9 
Feb. 1826; d. Washington, D. C., 26 Dec. 1886. 
He studied at Shiloh College,. volunteered as a 
private in the Mexican War, became a lieuten- 
ant in the First Illinois Infantry, after the war 
studied law, was graduated from Louisville 
University in 1851, was admitted to the bar, 
and was elected to the Illinois legislature in 
1852 and 1856. In 1858 he was elected a repre- 
sentative in Congress as a Douglas Democrat, 
in 1860 was re-elected, but resigned his seat in 
1861, and on 13 September was appointed colonel 
of the 31st Illinois Infantry. He led this regi- 
ment in the attacks on Fort Henry and Fort 
Donelson, and was wounded at the latter. On 5 
March 1862, he was made a brigadier-general 
of volunteers, and after commanding the 3d 
division of McPherson’s corps (the 17th) in 
the northern Mississippi campaign, became 
major-general on 26 Nov. 1862. He fought at 
Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson and Champion 
Hill, commanded the centre at Vicksburg and 
was appointed military governor of the town 
upon its capture. In November 1863 he was 
made commander of the Fifteenth corps, which 
he led until the fall of Atlanta, save for a short 
period when in command of the Army of the 
Tennessee. He then returned to take part in 
the Lincoln presidential campaign, but rejoined 
his corps, continued with it till Johnston’s sur- 
render, 26 April 1865, and afterward for a time 
commanded the Army of the Tennessee. In 
1866-69 he sat in the 40th and 41st congresses 


596 


as a Republican. He was one of the managers 
of the impeachment proceedings against Presi- 
dent Andrew Johnson. He was also re-elected 
to the 42d Congress, but before taking his seat 
was chosen by the: Illinois legislature to the 
Senate, where he served from 1871 to 1877. 
He began legal practice in Chicago, but on 18 
March 1879 again entered the Senate. While 
in Congress he distinguished himself by his elo- 
quence. He was consistently opposed to the 
restoration of Fitz-John Porter to the army, 
and in June 1880 made a four days’ speech on 
the Porter bill. At the Republican National 
Convention in Chicago in June 1884, he was a 
candidate for nomination to the Presidency, 
and after Blaine’s nomination was nominated 
Vice-President by acclamation. Shortly after 
the defeat of this ticket, Logan was again 
chosen Republican senator from Illinois. Blaine 
said of him: “While there have been more 
illustrious. military leaders in the United 
States and more illustrious leaders in legisla- 
tive halls, there has, I think, been no man in 
this country who has combined the two careers 
in so eminent a degree as General Logan.” 
Major-General Logan published a volume on 
the Civil War entitled ‘The Great Conspiracy: 
Its Origin and History? (1886) and ‘The Vol- 
unteer Soldier of America? (1888). Consult 
Andrews, G. F. Byron, ‘Biography of General 
John A. Logan, with an Account of his Public 
Services in Peace and in War? (New York 
1884), and Dawson, ‘Life and Services of 
General John A. Logan? (Chicago 1887). 


LOGAN, Olive, American actress, lec- 
turer and author: b. Elmira, N. Y., 16 April 
1839; d. Bunstead, England, 27 April 1909. She 
was educated in Paris and London and fitted 
for a stage career, which began in Philadelphia 
in 1854. She appeared at Wallack’s Theatre, 
New York, in 1864, in her own play, ‘Eveleen,? 
retired from the stage in 1868 and became a 
lecturer on social topics and a contributor to 
various periodicals. She published ‘Chateau 
Frissac? (1865); ‘Photographs of Paris Life? 
(1861) ; “Women and Theatres? ; ; and ‘Before 
the Footlights and Behind the Scenes: a Book 
about the Show Business? (1870); a metrical 
translation of Coppée’s ‘Le Passant? and a 
dramatization of Collin’s ‘Armadale.’ 


LOGAN, Stephen Trigg, American ju- 
tist: b. in Franklin County, Ky. in 2lsogsed. 
1880. After studying law and for a while prac- 
tising in Kentucky he removed (1832) to 
Springfield, Ill., and there continued in the 
work of his profession. He became a circuit 
judge in 1835; was. three times (1842, 1844, 
1846) elected to the Illinois legislature; and 
was associated as law partner with Abraham 
Lincoln, from 1841 to 1844. He was one of 
those who in 1847 framed the new constitution 
of Illinois; was again elected to the legislature 
in 1854; joined the Republican party at its for- 
mation, and was a delegate to its national con- 
vention in Chicago in 1860, at which Lincoln 
was nominated. In 1861 he attended the Peace 
Conference at Washington and then retired 
from public life. He was regarded as the lead- 
ing member of the Illinois bar. 


LOGAN, Sir William Edmond,: Canadian 
geologist: b. Montreal, 20 April 1798; d. Castle 
Malgwin, Cardiganshire, Wales, 22 June 1875. 


LOGAN — LOGANBERRY 


He was educated chiefly in Edinburgh; was 
for a time a clerk in London, and afterward be- 
came manager of a copper-smelting works in 
Swansea, While there he devoted himself to 
the study of geology. In 1840 he went to Can- 
ada, and he was the chief of the Geological 
Survey of that country 1842-70. His writings 
appeared in the annual reports of the Canadian 
Survey; in the Proceedings of the British 
Association, the Geological Society, etc. He 
published ‘Geology of Canada? (1863). 


LOGAN, Ohio, village, county-seat of 
Hocking County, on the Hocking River, and 
on the Hocking Valley Railroad, about 45 miles 
southeast of Columbus. It is situated in the 
natural gas and oil belt, and in the vicinity of 
some good farm lands. Nearby is found clay 
suitable for pottery and bricks. Its chief man- 
ufactures are flour, furniture, brick for pav- 
ing and. building, pottery, foundry products, 
sewer pipe, shoes and machinery. The village 
owns and operates the waterworks. The pub- 
lic library has nearly 3,000 volumes. Note- 
worthy features are the Cherrington Hospital, 
Rock House, Rock Bridge and Ash Cave. The 
village is named after John Logan, the famous 
Cayuga chief. It was first settled in 1802. 
Pop. (1920) 5,493. 


LOGAN, Utah, city, county-seat of Cache 
County, on Logan River, and on the Oregon 
Short Line Railroad and Ogden, Logan and 
Idaho Interurban Railroad, about 70 miles north 
of Salt Lake City, by rail, 105 miles. Jt was. 
settled in 1859 and incorporated in 1866. It is 
located in an agricultural region with valuable 
mineral deposits in the vicinity and is sur- 
rounded by 30 towns of Cache Valley. The 
chief industrial establishments are sugar fac- 
tory, condensed milk factory, knitting mills, 
flour mills and lumber mills. Some of the 
educational institutions are the Utah Agricul-. 
tural College, the Brigham Young College, 
opened in 1878 under the auspices of the Latter 
Day Saints, New Jersey Academy, under the 
auspices of the Presbyterians. The water- 
works and electric-light plant are owned and 
operated by the city. The city government is 
conducted on the commission plan. Pop. 
(1920) 9,439. 


LOGAN, Mount, the second highest peak 
in North America, Mount McKinley (q.v.) 
being first, in the southwestern part of Yukon 
Territory, Canada. Its height is 19,500 feet. 
It was long considered the highest peak in the 
continent, but in 1898 the United States Geo- 
logical Survey found that it was exceeded by 
Mount McKinley. 


LOGANBERRY, a fruit related to the 
raspberry and blackberry. It was, originated 
in 1881 by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa Cruz, 
Cal, and is believed to be the result of 
a cross between a wild blackberry (Rubus 
vitifolius) of California anda red raspberry, 
probably the Red Antwerp. The fruit is pur- 
plish red and very large, and is: similar in 
form to the blackberry, while its flavor is in- 
termediate between those of the parents. 
Loganberries are cultivated extensively from 
British Columbia to southern California. They 
are used fresh as a dessert fruit, and in addi- . 
tion are canned and dried in large quantities, 
The juice has become a popular beverage, 


LOGANIACEA — LOGAG:DIC VERSE 


LOGANIACEZ, a natural order of corol- 
lifloral exogens, consisting of trees, shrubs 
and herbaceous plants, with opposite entire 
leaves, and usually with stipules, which 
adhere to the footstalks to form sheaths. 
Tt includes about 30 genera and 400 species and 
is common in the tropics and in the warmer 
regions of the temperate zones. The calyx is 
4-5 partite; the corolla hypogenous, regular 
or irregular, 4-5 or 10-cleft. The stamens 
arise from the corolla. The ovary is generally 
two-celled; there is one style. The fruit is a 
capsule, a drupe or a bérry. No natural order 
of plants is more strongly characterized by 
poisonous properties, especially by strychnine. 
It includes the strychnos, from which is ob- 
tained nux vomica and the woorali poison. 


* LOGANSPORT, Ind., city, county-seat of 
Cass County, locally known as the “City of 
Bridges,» 77 miles north by west of Indian- 
apolis, where the Eel River flows into the 
Wabash. The city is an important railroad 
centre, being entered by the Chicago, Rich- 
mond, Bradford and Effner divisions of the 
Pittsburgh, ‘Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis 
’ Railroad; the Michigan division of the Van- 
dalia, and its 94-mile branch northeast of But- 
ler, and by the Wabash. 
ern terminal of the interurban line operated 
by the Fort Wayne and Wabash Valley Trac- 
tion Company and the northern terminal of 
the line operated by the Indiana Union Trac- 
tion Company. The business of the city is de- 
rived largely from its railroad shops, from its 
manufactories and from the surrounding agri- 
cultural region, and the chief products being 
wheat, corn, oats and small fruits. There are 
manufactories of automobiles, radiators, lum- 
ber, carriages, plows, flour, baskets, lime, 
brooms, window shades, soaps and foundry 
products. Kenneth quarries, two miles west of 
the city limits on the north bank of. the 
Wabash, furnish large quantities of crushed 


limestone. The city has several churches. Its 
educational facilities are embraced in the 
Logansport Business College, Holy Angels’ 
Academy (R. C.), a high school, the building 


being of Lake Superior red sandstone, and 
ward schools, in addition to the Catholic and 
Lutheran parish schools. The most important 
public institution is the Northern Indiana Hos- 
pital for the Insane, popularly known as “Long- 
cliff,» comprising over 34 buildings, and several 
hundred acres of land. Saint Joseph’s Hos- 
pital (R. C.), the Home for the Friendless, the 
Orphans’ Home, the Carnegie library, the Fed- 
eral building, completed in 1905 and costing 
$75,000, and the Masonic Temple, are among 
the more prominent institutions. The city also 
has about 15 acres of parks. The soldiers’ 
monument in Mount Hope Cemetery, costing 
$10,000, was dedicated 14 July 1887. Logans- 
port was named after Captain Logan, a Shaw- 
“nee chief, killed by the Indians in November 
1812, near the Maumee River, and was first 
written Logan’s Port. The first. permanent 
settlement was made in August 1826 by Alex- 
ander Chamberlain, who erected a log cabin on 
the south bank of the Wabash, directly op- 
posite the mouth of the Fel River. It was in- 
corporated as a town 5 Sept: 1831; as a city, 
3 April 1838. Its elective officers consist of a 
mayor, judge, clerk and treasurer, each for 
four years, ineligible for two consecutive 


It is also the west- 


597 


terms; and seven councilmen, one from each 
of the five wards, and two at large. The 
business of the city is largely delegated to its 
board of public works, which consists of three 
members, appointed by the mayor, and not 
more than two of which can belong to the 
same political party. The police commissioners 
are appointed by the governor. The city also 
owns and operates its own electric light and 
water plant. Pop. (1920) 21,626. 


- LOGACEDIC, (lég’a-é’dik), VERSE. The 


derivation of the adjective, logacedic, from 
Gr. Adyog (pr. logos = speech, discourse, 
prose) and ody (pr. a-oi-dé = song), the 


combination giving the sense of prose-song, 
prose-poetry, shows sufficiently the basic mean- 
ing of the phrase. In other words, logacedic 
verse is so called because, to some extent at 
least, its rhythmic effect is supposed to re- 
semble that of prose. Logacedic verse, as used 
in Greek and Latin prosody, may be defined as 
a rhythm, in three-eighths time, based on the 
trochee (— wv); but admitt ng with considerable 
freedom the use of other feet instead of the 
trochee. The substitute feet thus generally 
used are the cyclic dactyl (*W VU), that is, a 
dactyl in three-eighths instead of four-eighths 
time; the irrational trochee (—>), which gets 
its name from the fact that its parts are not, 
or at least seem not to be, related to each other 
in the regular ratio of two to one; the triseme 
(_); the tribrach (UU UY); and occasion- 
ally, but only in the first foot, or base, of the 
line, the iambus (VY —), the pyrrhic (oy \), or 
the anapaest (Y Y—). Anacrusis, that is, a 
short or unaccented initial syllable, occasion- 
ally occurs; double anacrusis not so frequently. 
Throughout this article the sign A indicates a 
pause or rest. 

The principal logacedic forms are: 

I, Dipody (two feet); II, Tripody (three 
feet) ; III,, Tetrapody (four feet).; and IV, 
Composite : (a) Pentapody (five feet) and (b) 
verse containing more than five feet. 

Examples are: 


J, Drropy.: 
; sy zo 
1. Adonic= ovdév er iket 
ocior aura 


(This may also be scanned 4+,|4y|WA) 


II, Tripopy. 
Pherecratics. These are known as First or 
Second Pherecratic according as the cyclic 
dactyl is the first or second foot. 


2. (a) First Pherecratic (acatalectic) or 
Aristophanic: 
ene doe hued | 4u 
é¢ yapi TOV méev bfee 
temperat ora frenis 


This may also be scanned: *tUw | +vwU | 
wl|wWA 

(b) First Pherecratic catalectic (not known 
in Latin, except in composite verse): 


Suiw AY | L. 
Webdeot Tol Aotc 
3. (a) Second Pherecratic (acatalectic) : 
Le pee ae 
déte Tat Tent [L000 
cras do naberis haedo 


598 


This may also be scanned « > a nis || 
i | «4A, that is, as a syncopated tetrapody 
catalectic. 

(b) Second Pherecratic. catalectic (not 
known in Latin, except in composite verse) : 

Kaitep ayvipe VOC , 
III. TerrApopy. 

Glyconics. These are called First, Second, 

or Third, according to the position of the 


cyclic dactyl. 
4. First Glyconic (not known in Latin): 


45uU 2wv Si MUNG eh oP a 
kal Kvay éuBo Aot G0 | ai 
5. Second Glyconic: 
LS 4M 4 af 
TOVTOV verpept @ v6 | TW) 
Sic te diva po tens Cy |, pri 


6. Third Glycomic. (not known in Latin, ex- 
cept in composite verse) : 


BAH) ND | AY aT 
geta| PavTa Tavoayt @ 

7. Nine-syllable Alcaic (with anacrusis) : 
ae as rb ee Le) LtV 
TO: OévOev: Gp ec 0 av TO péooov 
Dilys: arvaeca, boran tes ge luque 

8. Lesser Alcaic (decasyllabic) : 

olvoy év elkapé VOLE Me Gvodev 
flumina constite rint a cuto 


IV. Composite: (a) Pentapody. 


9. Lesser Sapphic (two trochaic dipodies, 
separated by a cyclic dactyl) : 


RAG I w Aad One) Dy ya ee A 
TOLKL Adbpov’, | aOdvar’ | ’Adpo | dita 
iam sa | tis ter | risnivis | atque ! dirae 
_10. Greater Alcaic (hendecasyllabic; begins 
with anacrusis) : 
> By | ED SU oe TEN 
ov : vp Kal] Koscoe | OVMOY E| wiTpé | TED 
per : mitte | divis | cetera | qui sil mul 
11. Phalecean (hendecasyllabic) : 
Bee see ee wet wy XS) sy 
| év pip | rov xAadt | ro §t | do¢ do phow 
cui do no lepi | dumno ! vumli | bellum 
ComposiTE: (b) more than five feet: . 


12. Greater Sapphic 


(third Glyconic and 
first Pherecratic) : 


a, on SS ET ee 
filiium dilcunt Theti sub lacrilmosa|Troiae 

oe £9|/4>|t0u/ 4: || tw peu 
“LI|~A | 


13. Lesser Asclepiadic 
Pherecratic catalectic) : 


(second and first 


£5 PAVE WY l|4tulZn 
nAgbec | &k mepa yac éAe | davti | vac 
Maece ! nas ata | vis ||. edite regi | bus 


14. Greater Asclepiadic (this is the Lesser 
Asclepiadic with a syncopated or catalectic 
dipody (||[,U|) inserted between the two 


tripodies) : 

| A. ie 

pndév aAdodv | teb | onc mpdre | pov 

Nullam | Vare sa !cral vite pri | us 
on) Coy aad Abed Y A 
dévd plov aprél|Aw 
severis | arbo|rem 


LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL 


Most of Horace’s ‘Odes? are in logacedic 
verse. He adopted his measures from the 
Greek poets, but in his practice he generally 
shows greater strictness than his models. 
Thus, for instance, he always has a spondee 
(— me or irrational trochee (—>), instead 
of a trochee proper (—w), before the first 
occurring cyclic dactyl (UO uw). When he 
uses anacrusis, its quantity is usually long, and 
in the fourth book of the ‘Odes? always so. 
Catullus, Horace’s predecessor, as a rule uses 
the trochee as the basis of his Glyconic and 
Pherecratic verse, more rarely the spondee or 
the iambus. In his Asclepiadic lines he uses 
the spondee as the basis. Great variety of 
Glyconic verse is found in Greek poetry. The 
tragedians use as the basis not only the trochee 
and the spondee, but also the iambus (V—), 
the pyrrhic (UW), and the tribrach (UY Y), 
and Euripides even admits the anapaest 
(4YW—). Sophocles, and more _ frequently 
Euripides, secured still greater variety by the © 
displacement of the dactyl and other licenses. 
Such verses are known as Glyconei polysche- 
matistt. 

On account of the frequent occurrence of 
an apparent Choriambus (—ww—), as, for 
example, in the Adonic and the Greater Sap- 
phic, logacedic verses were formerly, and some- 
times still are, called Choriambic, and it is 
possible to scan them so; but it is doubtful if 
they are truly Choriambic, and it 1s in conform- 
ity with the practice of modern scholarship to 
name and scan them as logacedic. 

Logacedic verse is found in English but 
rarely, and then generally in imitation of a 
classic form. ‘Thus Tennyson has the follow- 
ing reproduction of the Alcaic strophe: 

O mighty-mouth’d inventor of harmonies, 

O skill’d to sing of Time or Eternity, 

God-gifted organ-voice of England, 

Milton, a name to resound for ages. 
And Swinburne has this imitation of the Sap- 
phic strophe: 
Clothed about with flame and with tears, and singing 
Songs, that move the heart of the shaken heaven, 
Songs, that break the heart of the earth with pity, 

Hearing, to hear them. 

See VERSIFICATION. 

Bibliography.— Schmidt, J. H. H., ‘Intro- 
duction to the Rhythmic and Metric of the 
Classical (ei neraoes (tr. by J. W. White, 
Boston 1878; new ed., 1902); Hadley, J., and 
Allen, F. De F., ‘Greek Grammar? (New York 
1887) ; Miller, L., “Greek and Roman Versifi- 
cation” (tr. by S. B. Planter, Boston 1892) ; 
Moore, C. H. (ed.), ‘Horace: The Odes, etc. 
(New York 1892); Greenough, J. B., and 
Allen, J.; Hy ‘Latin Grammar? (revised ed., 
Boston 1895); Goodell, T. D., ‘Chapters on 
Greek Metric? (New York 1901) ; White, J. 
W., ‘Verse of Greek Comedy? (London 1912) ; 
Journal of Classical Philology (Vol. VIII, Chi- 
cago 1913); Shorey, P., and Laing, G. J. (ed Dy 
‘Horace: Odes and Epodes? (ChueaKo 1916}. 

. LENNOX. 


LOGARITHMIC Anacapa SPI- 
RAL, the curve described by a point which 
moves along a uniformly revolving straight line 
with a velocity proportional to its distance from 
the fixed point of the line. Its equation in polar 
co-ordinates is r= Greg. It cuts all the 
radii through the origin at a constant angle, 
whose tangent is 1/a. When a0 the spiral 


LOGARITHMS — LOGIC 


becomes a circle. The evolute of the spiral is 
an equal spiral. Descartes and Bernoulli 
studied the properties of this curve and New- 
ton showed that if the force of gravity had 
varied inversely as the cube of the distance 
the paths of the planets would have been loga- 
rithmic spirals. Consult Bernoulli,. J., ‘Acta 
Eruditorum? (1691); Brocard, ‘Notes. de 
bibliographie des courbes géométriques’? (Bar- 
le-Duc 1897) ; id., ‘Partie complémentaire? (ib. 
1899). 


LOGARITHMS. The common logarithm 
of a number is the index of the power to which 
10 must be raised to be equal to the number. 
Thus 10° 1,000, so that the logarithm of 1,000 
(usually written log. 1,000) is 3. Now 10°10, 
10 100, 10*= 1,000, 10° 1,000,000, and it is 
well known that 10°=1, 10-*—0.1, 10-*— 0.01, 
etc., thus: 


Log. 0.001 = —3 Log. 10=—1 
Log. 0:01 *== —2 Log. 100 — 2 
Log. -0ns: «== —11 Log. 1,000 = 3 
Log. 1 ==!) 0 Log. 10,000 = 4 


It is evident that the logarithm of any num- 
ber greater than 1 and less than 10 is frac- 
tional;* the logarithm of any number greater 
than 10 and léss than 100 is greater than 1 and 
less than 2. Again, the logarithm of any num- 
ber less than 1 is negative. The logarithms of 
numbers have been calculated by Napier, 
Briggs, Mercator, Newton, Leibnitz, Halley, 
Euler, L’Houillier, Vlacq, Sherwin, Gardner, 
Hutton, Taylor, Callet, Schrén, Huntington, 
Moore and others. Of works giving tables of 
logarithms we may mention those to which the 
names of Hutton, Callet and Vega are respec- 
tively attached. Chambers’ Mathematical 
Tables is a useful little treatise; it gives loga- 
rithms of numbers to seven places of decimals. 
Suppose we wish to know the logarithm of the 
number 18.1. In a book of tables we only find 
the fractional part of the logarithm, it is .257679. 
Now 18.1 is greater than 10 and less than 100, 
so that its logarithm is greater than 1 and less 
than 2; hence log. 18.1=1.257679. To give 
examples: 


Log. 18100 = 4.257679 | Log. 1.81 == 0.257679 
Log. 1810 == 3.257679 | Log. 0.181 = 1.257679 
Log. 181 = 2.257679 Log. 0.0181 == 2.257679 
bogs 18.4 == 12257679 Log. 0.00181 == 3.257679 


3.257679 means — 3 + 0.257679. (For a full ex- 
planation of the finding of logarithms and nat- 
ural’ numbers by tables consult treatises on 
trigonometry, etc.). The integral part of a loga- 
rithm is called its characteristic, the fractional 
parts its mantissa. Logarithms make arith- 
metical computations more easy, for -by means 
of a table of them the operations of multiplica- 
tion, division, involution or the finding of 
powers, and evolution or the finding of roots, 
are changed to those of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication and division, respectively. For 
instance, if + and y are the logarithms of any 
two numbers, the 10% and 10¥; now the product 
of these numbers is 10 4 + y, so that the loga- 
rithm of the product of two numbers is the 
sum of the logarithms of the numbers. Again, 
the quotient of the numbers is 107%; so that 
the logarithm of the quotient of two numbers 
is the difference of the logarithms of the num- 
bers. Again, 10% raised to the nth power is 
10"2; so that the logarithms of the nth power 


599 


of a number is times the logarithm of the 
number. Again, the nth root of 107 is 10; 
so that the logarithm of the nth root of a num- 
ber is “th of the logarithm of the number. 


Hitherto we have spoken of common loga- 
rithms, which were invented by Briggs; their 
base, as it is called, is 10. Now logaritlms 
were first used by Napier of Merchiston (see 
NAPIER, JOHN), and he employed a base which 
is smaller than 10, it is) the number 
2.7182818...., or the sum of the infinite series 
2+4+5!5+5.44+, etc. This base is denoted 
by € in mathematical treatises, and the Napier- 
ian logarithm of any number, say 7, is log. € 7, 
to distinguish it from log. 7, which is the com- 
mon logarithm, whose base is 10. The com- 
mon logarithm of a number is found from the 
Napierian by multiplying by  0.43429448. 
Napierian logarithms are of. great importance 
in mathematics. 


_ LOGCOCK, a local name for either of two 
birds: (1) the pileated woodpecker (see Woop- 
PECKER) ; (2) the woodcock (q.v.). 


LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. See Turrte. 


LOGGERHEAD TURTLE. See Hawks- 
BILL. 


LOGGIA, 16j’a, a word used in Italian 
architecture with several significations. It was 
applied to a hall open on two or more sides, 
where there were pillars to support the roof. 
Such are the Loggia de’ Banchi in Genoa and 
the Loggia de’ Lanzi in Florence. It is also 
applied to an open colonnade along the side of 
a building. The name loggia is also given to 
the large ornamental window consisting of sev- 
eral parts, which is often seen in old Venetian 
palaces; and lastly, it is used to designate a 
small airy hall, usually open on all sides, con- 
structed on the roof of an edifice. See also 
ARCHITECTURE. 


LOGGING, a name given by iumbermen 
to the practice of rolling logs from whence they 
are cut, or drawing them on sleds or wagons, 
to the stream by which they are transported 
to the mill. In some places logs are thus moved 
from one point to another by means of flumes 
and waterways. 


LOGIC. Logic is that philosophical science 
which deals with the principles and methods 
of all thinking. The processes of thought, 
although varied in fotm and content, have 
always a single end; to interpret the past and 
the present, and by means of such interpre- 
tation to forecast the future. It is by think- 
ing that we are able the better to understand 
the experiences of to-day and the more wisely 
to prepare for the events of to-morrow. Any 
object of thought —a thing, a person, an event 
—if it is to be really grasped by the thinking 
mind and to become a part of our body of 
knowledge, must be correctly interpreted by us. 
And by interpretation is meant the revelation 
of its essential significance in the light of the 
universal principle or the universal nature 
which the particular object under investigation 
illustrates. The primary function of logic is 
this: the interpretation of the particular by 
means of the universal which underlies it. The 
development of all logical theory is merely the 


600 


elaboration of this fundamental principle. To 
refer any object of consciousness to a universal 
is the sole method of describing its character- 
istics, or expressing its significance. If, for 
instance, I declare a certain plant to be poison- 
ous, I have characterized it by an adjective 
which admits an indefinite variety of applica- 
tions but preserves always one and the same 
essential significance, and this is the meaning 
and the function of the universal. Any noun 
which stands for a class or group of objects, 
or any adjective which may be variously ap- 
plied, is a universal; or as it is technically 
known in logic—a concept. Moreover, the 
reference of any particular object of thought 
to a universal, ie, to a concept which serves 
to interpret it, is a judgment. 

Inasmuch as the reference is always con- 
fronted with the possibility of error, it is of the 
very nature of a judgment to raise the question 
of its truth or falsity, according as the knowl- 
edge upon which it is based is accurate or in- 
accurate, adequate. .or, inadequate..».In the 
manifold conflict of opinion there is an obvious 
need of some definite and fundamental cri- 
terion to discriminate between the true and the 
false. The final court of appeal as to the 
truth or the falsity of knowledge must be to the 
main body of knowledge as a whole. This is 
the test: does the new experience square with 
our accumulated experience or not? Truth as 
regards its logical significance must measure up 
to the supreme standard, namely, of consistency 
with all that constitutes the world of knowledge 
as we understand it. As the judgment is the 
logical vehicle of expressing truth, it is natural 
that it should take the form of a reference of 
the immediate object of consciousness to the 
general body of knowledge which has been 
already received, tested and assimilated by the 
mind. Thus, every new experience is to be 
illuminated and interpreted by the old. This is 
the program of thought and the way of all 
logical procedure and progress. However, there 
can be no essential progress in thought when 
the judgment is merely the recognition of the 
appropriate place of a new thought in our 
general body of knowledge. Progress is mani- 
fest when the object of thought, in the light 
of our knowledge as a whole, gives rise to some 
new idea which is not expressed in the given 
object of thought alone, nor yet in our general 
body of knowledge alone, but which is néver- 
theless necessitated and revealed by the com- 
bination of the two sources taken together. 
Our general body of Knowledge contributes a 
part, and the given object of thought con- 
tributes the other part. When brought together 
the two parts fuse into one, forming a complete 
whole. Thought in this sense is creative. The 
given elements at hand may be old, but thought 
constructs them into new forms, ever adding 
to the store of knowledge from the very ele- 
ments which knowledge itself furnishes. This 
process is the consummation of all the various 
logical functions and is known as the process 
of inference. Inference is possible because our 
judgments contain more knowledge than they 
ever express upon the surface. There is a de- 
posit of knowledge which is implicit in every 
judgment, and this is due to the fact that all 
of our judgments are interrelated and inter- 
dependent. The complete significance of a 
judgment is revealed only in the light of all 


LOGIC 


its relevant and cognate judgments. The im- 
plicit becomes explicit only when a given judg- 
ment is brought into relation to some other 
judgment which has already been tested and 
found place in our body of general knowledge; 
this is what occurs in the process of inference. 
For instance, if it is asserted that a bar of 
soft iron will become a magnet if an electric 
current is allowed to pass through a coil of 
wire bound about it, such an assertion is based 
upon our general knowledge which is con- 
tained in the judgment that a current of elec- 
tricity passing through a coil of wire always 
transforms an iron bar within the coil into a 
magnet. Without this general knowledge the 
mere fact of having a coil of wire wound 
around a piece of iron would be meaningless. 
To have any significance such a fact must have 
the light of our general knowledge brought to 
bear upon it. Then only does the given fact 
become suggestive and fertile in the increase 
of knowledge. Or again, if in any triangle 
there are given the two angles and the included 
side, one can infer by means of the knowledge 
of trigonometrical principles the other angle 
and the remaining two sides. Such a process 
of inference consists in the combination of 
what is given with certain general principles 
which constitute a part of our body of knowl- 
edge. That which is given without the general 
principles to interpret and develop it in all of 
its implied bearings and relations would remain 
devoid of significance and with no value as 
knowledge whatsoever. 

In inference, therefore, there is always the 
extension of our knowledge, for the given 
judgment contains something which is not ap- 
parent when observed in its own light simply, 
but which is revealed only in the light which 
plays upon it from our general body of knowl- 


edge as a central source of illumination. 


The ground of inference, indeed, that which 
makes the inferential process a possibility at 
all, is the supposition which we are constrained 
to make and upon which we are constantly rest- 
ing, in the exercise of our reasoning faculty, 
namely, that the various elements which con- 
stitute our body of knowledge as a whole must 
be related to each other in such a way as to 
form a system of interconnected and interde- 
pendent parts. When we have given a single 
part, other parts of the whole to which the part 
belongs can be inferred, because of our knowl- 
edge of the general system which binds them 
together through the inner connections of 
necessity. That which is implicit in any judg- 
ment and which forms the germ of inference 
can be revealed only when one thoroughly un- 
derstands the complete system of relations and 
connections which underlies the judgment in 
question. If our knowledge were not system- 
atized, and the various parts duly related and 
properly co-ordinated and subordinated each to 
each, then there could be no basis for any 
inference, and no possibility of constancy and 
consistency in our thinking. As aids to sys- 
temization there are the processes of definition, 
division and classification which are treated at 
length in textbooks on the formal logic and can 
only receive passing mention here. 

While inference depends upon organized 
knowledge it is also instrumental in producing 
the very organization of our knowledge itself. 
It draws from it and at the same time it con- 


LOGIC 


tributes to it. This twofold function gives rise 
to the two kinds of inference, known as de- 
ductive and inductive. In deductive inference 
we proceed from our general knowledge to the 
characterization of the special case which de- 
pends upon it; or inasmuch as our general 
knowledge is expressed in the form of uni- 
versal concepts we can put it simply — that de- 
duction is from the universal to the particular. 
Induction, on the other hand, is from the par- 
ticular case, or rather particular cases, to the 
universal. It is essentially a process of general- 
ization, by which we rise in thoughf from the 
investigation of special cases to the universal 
principle or law which embraces them and 
underlies their nature. Inference. is always 
either the interpretation or else the elaboration 
of knowledge. When that which is given is 
illuminated by some universal principle or law 
so that its. implicit significance is thereby made 
explicit, we have the process of deduction. 
But when there is no recognized universal, and 
such must evidently be sought, we turn naturally 
to the relevant instances before us so as to 
discover in them some suggestion of the desired 
law or principle. Such a procedure is induc- 
tion. For example, when the physicist sees 
certain dark lines in the solar spectrum, he in- 
fers that they indicate the presence of iron 
vapor in the sun. This is deductive inference 
because it is a process of thought which rests 
upon the universal and well-known connection 
between certain definitely positioned lines in 
the solar spectrum and the presence of iron. 
On the other hand, however, suppose the in- 
vestigator is ignorant of the meaning of these 
dark lines. In his knowledge they possess no 
significance whatever and suggest nothing to 
his mind. It is obvious that he must experi- 
ment in various ways with the phenomena of 
these lines until he is able to discover their 
general relations and significance. Then he will 
be able to formulate the results of his investi- 
gation in a universal law which not only shall 
embody the special cases coming under his 
observation but all others also of a similar 
nature. It will be readily seen that deduction 
and induction are complementary phases of one 
and the same process. With every special case 
which comes before consciousness one of two 
methods of procedure is possible, that is, if it 
is to be the subject of inference at all; if it 
evidently falls under some universal law or 
principle to which we do not hesitate to refer 
it, then it becomes invested with the full pur- 
port and significance. of such a universal; if, 
however, there is no recognized universal to 
which we can refer it, the special case presents 
a problem for us to solve by experiment and 
observation, namely, what is the universal 
which we are constrained to believe must 
underlie it, and which the special case in some 
way not yet revealed necessarily illustrates. 
Whenever, therefore, we face a new experi- 
ence, a new fact or event we must treat it by 
one or the other of these two methods accord- 
ing as our knowledge is adequate to its inter- 
pretation or not. In the one case we are rea- 
soning deductively; in the other, inductively. 
Where the limitations of knowledge obstruct 
progress in one direction, it is possible to pro- 
ceed in the other direction so as to remove 
eventually these very limitations themselves. 
If we do not possess sufficient knowledge to 


601 


suggest the appropriate universal from which 
to reason deductively, we can proceed in an 
inductive manner to search for the universal 
which invites our investigation. 

In our thinking these two processes cannot 
be separated, for some elements in the phe- 
nomena under observation appear immediately 
illuminated by our knowledge, others again are 
not so illuminated, but when properly tested 
are found to emit the light which is in them; 
these various elements are so closely joined 
together that the two processes must ever run 
parallel. 

The form of inference which best illustrates 
the deductive reasoning, although by no means 
exclusively, is that of the Syllogism (q.v.). 
The syllogism is that method of reasoning 
which combines two judgments so as to pro- 
duce a third; as for example: 

Whatever turns blue litmus paper red is an 
acid. This compound turns blue litmus paper 
red. Therefore, it is an acid. 

It will be observed that the two judgments 
which combine to produce the third have a 
term in common; this is called the middle term 
of the syllogism. Moreover, the third judg- 
ment or conclusion is proved by the process of 
eliminating the middle term, and taking as the 
subject and predicate of the conclusion the 
remaining terms of the given judgments. The 
subject of the conclusion is called the minor 
term; the predicate, the major term, and of 
the two given judgments, the one containing 
the major term is called the major premise, 
and the one containing the minor term, the 
minor premise. It is the peculiar function of 
the major premise to exhibit some aspect of 
our general knowledge, and of the minor prem- 
ise to exhibit a more particular phase of our 
general knowledge, or as it more frequently 
occurs some special case embodied in a con- 
crete experience. It is the combined function 
of the two together to apply some portion of 
our general knowledge to a special case so as 
to yield its true interpretation. It is impos- 
sible to discuss here at length the various 
rules by which the validity of the syllogism 
may be tested. It may be said, however, that 
the rules of the syllogism depend upon the 
fundamental principle that if a special case 
can be proved to fall within the area of a uni- 
versal, then the inference follows that the spe- 
cial case becomes invested with the essential 
characteristics of the universal itself. But if 
the special case falls outside the scope of the 
universal, either wholly or in part, then the 
inference does not follow. For instance, in all 
cases at law the special case is referred to 
some law principle, that is, to a universal 
which completely covers its essential signifi- 
cance and thereby determines the issues of the 
trial with the attending damages. or punishment. 
Whenever a judicial decision is reversed by a 
superior court it is because the special case 
under investigation did not properly come 
under the law principle to which it was re- 
ferred. It is obvious that the  syllogistic 
method of reasoning admits of abuse by con- 
necting premises in a merely formal manner 
which have no real-connection. Such an arti- 
ficial and mechanical treatment of the syllogism 
leads naturally to empty subtleties and weak 
sophistries. It was this exclusive emphasis 
upon the formal and technical side of the syllo- 


602 


gism that brought the writings of the school- 
men to such ill repute, so that the term scholas- 
tic has become suggestive of a complete divorce 
of thought from reality. Aristotle, to whom 
we owe the formulation of the syllogistic 
method of reasoning, placed supreme stress 
upon the real connection which must underlie 
all formal relationship in the structure of the 
syllogism. Thus he states that “the middle 
term must express the real cause,” TO pév yap 
aittov To péoov. Anal. Post. ii. 2, 90A 6. 

The force of Aristotle’s observation will be 
appreciated if we trace the usual process of 
thought whenever any judgment of ours is 
questioned. Suppose that one asserts that there 
is going to be a storm within a few hours, and 
he is asked concerning the ground of his 
opinion. The reply would be that there is a 
rapidly falling barometer, and also that a 
rapidly falling barometer indicates an ap- 
proaching storm. Here the middle term, “rap- 
idly falling barometer,” serves to unite the uni- 
versal judgment to the special case as observed 
and at the same time to connect the two parts 
of the reasoning process by a real tie repre- 
senting the underlying cause upon which they 
are based. Inference, indeed, is often defined 
as the process by which the ground of a judg- 
ment is explicitly disclosed. 

The ordinary categorical syllogism, that is, 
one which is formed of judgments in the sim- 
ple form, x is y, although it is essentially 
grounded in the causal relation, nevertheless 
in a large measure conceals it. On the other 
hand, in the hypothetical syllogism, whose 
major premise is a hypothetical judgment, that 
is, of the form, if x is y, z is w, and whose 
minor premise affirms or denies one of these 
two clauses categorically, the causal relation is 
brought into the foreground, inasmuch as it 
states explicitly a consequence as dependent 
upon its ground. There is still another kind of 
syllogism known as the disjunctive syllogism 
in which the major premise is a disjunctive 
judgment that is of the form, 4 is either 2 or 
w, and the minor premise is an affirmation or 
denial of one of these alternatives while the 
conclusion is the corresponding denial or affir- 
mation of the other. This affords a method of 
reasoning by elimination, and is most useful 
in deciding between possibilities. In this form 
of the syllogism the causal relation is not ex- 
pressed on the surface at all, but is essen- 
tially implied; for in order to state possibilities 
one must know all the underlying causal rela- 
tions of the system in which these possibilities 
emerge. For instance, one cannot state that 
the contents of a stomach which have been 
chemically examined indicate the presence of 
arsenic or antimony unless there is known also 
the exact causal connection between these two 
poisons and the partially digested food; the 
disjunctive judgment standing as the major 
premise of the disjunctive syllogism always 
presupposes some definite knowledge of deter- 
mining causal relations which exist in the sys- 
tem under consideration. 

The validity of the syllogism turns, as will 
be readily seen, upon the possibility of re- 
ferring a special case to its appropriate univer- 
sal. But there are often situations and cir- 
cumstances when this method of reference is 
not at all possible and yet nevertheless a valid 
inference can be drawn. In other words, the 


"Zn Ce. 


LOGIC 


syllogistic procedure by no means exhausts the 
possibility of deductive inference. There may 
be other relations which grow out of a system 
of interconnected parts and which are of such 
a nature as to warrant an inference from 
them. For instance, we may have the follow- 
ing inference: 

The two angles of a triangle, A and B, 
equal 95 degrees. Therefore, the third angle 
must equal 85 degrees. 

This is ‘not a syllogism proper and yet is a 
perfectly. valid course of reasoning. While 
there is no middle term there is an identical 
point of reference, namely, the given triangle; 
and there is also the universal upon-which the 
inference ‘depends, namely, the relations which 
underlie the very nature of the triangle itself 
and are rendered constant by it. Thus, all of 
the essentials of inference are found to be 
present in such a form of reasoning. Various 
kinds of inference may thus arise according to 
the different relations which may obtain in the 
system wherein they occur. To have a valid 
inference in any such case we must establish 
some identity of relation between the parts 
which we are comparing; otherwise we can- 
not logically pass from one to the other. And 
identity of relationship can be established only 
in systems of such simplicity that no unknown 
elements which might enter to disturb the exist- 
ing relations can be conceived. Our thought 
in other words must command the system com- 
pletely; otherwise we are never justified in 
using our knowledge as the basis of reasoning, 

In the inductive process as we have seen, the 
procedure is from particular instances to the 
universal which underlies them and which they 
illustrate; there is here, however, an evident 
break in the continuity of the logical process. 
The conclusion contains more than the prem-. 
ises; for in the universal reached by induction 
our knowledge goes beyond our actual experi- 
This is the so-called “nductive leap” or 
“Inductive hazard.” It is not, however, a leap 
in the dark. Such it would be, were we com- 
pelled to use the mere data of experience as the 
sole ground of our inferences. But it is pos- 
sible to formulate as a postulate some univer- 
sal truth which the mind is constrained to 
assume and which serves to bridge the gap 
between the particular and the wniversal. This 
postulate has been variously expressed by dif- 
ferent authors, yet with substantially the same 
underlying significance in all. In the older 
logic -this is put in the convenient formula of 
“the uniformity of nature,” that is — beyond the 
sphere of experience phenomena are supposed 
to behave under like conditions in the same 
manner as in the sphere of immediate obser- 
vation and experiment. In the modern logic, 
the phrase “uniformity of consciousness” takes 
the place of “uniformity of nature,” the latter © 
being regarded as somewhat indefinite and as 
implying a view exclusively objective. By “uni- 
formity of consciousness” is meant, that our 
knowledge must be consistent throughout with 
itself, part to part, and parts to the whole, and 
that the world for us is the world as it is con- 
structed and interpreted by our knowledge. 
Whenever a concrete instance is present in 
consciousness it is to be regarded as having its 
appropriate place in a system of universal and 
necessary relations, so that a correct interpre- 


LOGIC 


tation of the concrete case must reveal the uni- 
versal element which underlies it and gives it 
a place and meaning in our world of knowl- 
edge. Nature after all is only another word 
for the world as we know it —a world of uni- 
versal and necessary relations; otherwise it 
could not be a world of order and uniformity. 

The one relation above all others which 
enables us to discover the universal significance 
of concrete instances is the relation of cause 
and effect. When in the phenomena of nature 
or the events of life, a simple causal relation 
can be discovered, even though it is illustrated 
only in a certain case, there is sufficient ground 
for the generalization of the connection thus 
discovered. The method of inductive investi- 
gation, therefore, consists in various tests for 
the exhibition of true causal relations of such 
a simple nature as to furnish evidence that 
these relations are both definite and constant. 
A complex relation is too indefinite and vari- 
able to warrant any generalization which is 
based upon it. But however complex the phe- 
nomenon may be, it may be always subjected 
to some process of analysis which will reveal 
a more simple causal relation underlying it. 
Moreover, it is necessary by proper inductive 
tests to discriminate between a causal con- 
nection and a mere coincidence. All of this is 
provided for in the so-called inductive methods 
—the method of agreement, of difference, of 
agreement and difference, of concomitant vari- 
ation and of residues. These are essentially 
the methods of scientific procedure, the methods 
of research and experimentation. The func- 
tion of hypothesis in inductive investigation 
must not be overlooked. An hypothesis is a 
supposition which is made concerning the prob- 
able cause of a phenomenon either as prelim- 
inary to an experiment which may prove or 
disprove the supposition or in the place of an 
experiment or systematic observation when such 
are impossible owing to the peculiar conditions 
of the phenomenon itself. In the first instance 
the function of hypothesis determines the line 
of experiment in a definite manner and does 
not leave the phenomenon in question to inde- 
terminate and haphazard investigation. This 
may be illustrated by a quotation concerning 
Charles Darwin, taken from the ‘Reminis- 
cences? of his son, Francis Darwin: “He 
often said that no one could be a good ob- 
server unless he was an active theorizer. It 
was as though he were charged with theoriz- 
ing power ready to flow into any channel on 
the slightest disturbance, so that no fact how- 
ever small could avoid releasing a stream of 
theory and then the fact became magnified into 
importance. In this way it naturally happened 
that many untenable theories occurred to him; 
but fortunately his richness of imagination was 
equalled by his power of judging and con- 
demning the thoughts that occurred to him. 
He was just to his theories and did not con- 
demn them unheard; and so it happened that 
he was willing to test what would seem to most 
people not at all worth testing.» (‘Life and 
Letters of Charles Darwin,’ Vol. I, p. 126). 
But there is a second function of hypothesis — 
where an explanation is needed to account for 
phenomena which it is impossible to repro- 
duce in the form of an experiment. We are 
not always able to perceive the relations be- 
tween facts and yet we are constrained to 


603 


think of them as related; but in order to syste- 
matize them we must supply the lacune which 
appear in the phenomena as perceived. A sup- 
position of this nature which is necessary in 
order to construct a body of facts into a sys- 
tem is an hypothesis—as for instance the 
nebular hypothesis of Laplace. No course of 
reasoning, however, can be carried on to any 
extent or to any effect which does not combine 
the two processes of deduction and induction 
in a manner provided for by the complementary 
relation which they sustain one to the other. 
The combination of the deductive and inductive 
processes has been called by John Stuart Mill 
the deductive method simply. A more dis- 
tinctive name, however, would be — the induc- 
todeductive method. This combined method 
consists of three stages: 

1. A preliminary process of induction whose 
results may be expressed tentatively at least in 
the form of a universal law or principle. 

2. A process of deduction based upon this 
universal principle or law as its major premise, 
and thus extending our knowledge to the de- 
termination of new cases which have not as 
yet gained a place in our body of knowledge. 

3. A process of verification, by which the 
results of the process of deduction are com- 
pared with the facts as actually observed. 
When there is not an exact correspondence be- 
tween the theoretically deduced results and the 
observed facts, and we are able to assure our- 
selves that there has been ‘no flaw in the proc- 
esses of deduction, then the original induction 
stands as so far forth discredited and must be 
revised so as to square it with fact. This com- 
bined method of deduction and induction serves 
as a check on the one hand upon all tendency 
to hasty generalization, and on the other it is 
most valuable as a means of extending our 
knowledge into unknown regions beyond the 
sphere of immediate observation. We are con- 
stantly using our inductive results as a basis 
for a deductive inference concerning the things 
not yet seen; and then when seen, at once com- 
paring the former inference with present fact 
we are either confirmed in the result which we 
had reached by the processes of reasoning, or 
else compelled to discard the earlier inference 
as false or inadequate as may be. The-.unseen 
which we are determining in our minds by 
what we think the seen necessitates we are, 
however, from time to time compelled to alter. 
Bacon has insisted that “anticipations of na- 
ture” are a source of innumerable errors and 
that the truly scientific method consists in the 
interpretation of nature by means of direct ob- 
servation and experiment simply. It must be 
remembered, however, that it is largely through 
these anticipations of nature that progress in 
science has been attained. A distinction must 
be drawn between anticipations of nature which 
are subjected to careful verification and those 
which are in themselves regarded as final. 

Bibliography.—Aikins, ‘The Principles of 
Logic?; Aristotle’s various writings, sp. ‘Or- 
ganon? (Eng. trans. by O. F. Owen, 2 vols., 
London 1908-10) ; Bacon, Francis, ‘Novum Or- 
ganum?; Baldwin, J. M., ‘Thought and 
Things» (New York 1906-11); Bain, Alexan- 
der, ‘Logic, Inductive and Deductive? (2 vols., 
London 1895); Bentham, ‘Essay on Logic’ 
(Vol. VIII of his Works); Bergmann, Julius, 
‘Die Grindprobleme der Logik? (Berlin 1895) ; 


604 


Bosanquet, Bernard, ‘The Essentials of Logic? 
(New York 1895) ; id., “Logic? (2d ed., 2 vols., 
Oxford 1911); Bradley, F. H., ‘The Princi- 
ples of Logic? (New York 1905); Bode, B. H., 
‘Outline of Logic? (ib. 1910) ; Clarke, ‘Logic? 
(London 1889); Couturat, Louis, ‘L’Algebre 
de la logique? (Paris 1905; Eng. trans., Chi- 
cago 1914); Creighton, J. E., ‘Introductory 
Logic? (3d ed., New York 1909) ; Croce, Bene- 
detto, ‘Logica como scienza del concetto puro? 
(2d ed., 1909); De Morgan, ‘Formal Logic? ; 
Descartes, ‘Discourse on Method’; Dewey, 
John, ‘Studies in Logical Theory? (Chicago 
1903); Dinwiddie, William, ‘Essentials of 
Logic? (New York 1914); Erdman, J. E, 
‘Logik? (Halle 1892); Fischer, Kuno, ‘Sys- 
tem der Logik und Metaphysik, oder Wissen- 
schaft?; Fowler, Thomas, ‘The Elements of 
Deductive Logic? and ‘Elements of Inductive 
Logic? (10th ed. Oxford 1892); Gibson, 
W. R. B., ‘Problem of Logic? (London 1908) ; 
Gilbart, J. W., ‘Hope for the Million? (Lon- 
don 1913); Hamilton, Sir William, ‘Lectures 
on Logic? (London 1859); Harms, Friedrich, 
“Geschichte der Logik? (Berlin 1881) ; id., ‘Die 
Philosophie in ihrer Geschichte?; Hegel, 
G. W. F., ‘Wissenschaft der Logik? (Berlin 
1831); id. ‘Encyklopadie der philosophischen 
Wissenschaften im Grundrisse; Erster Theil, 
Die Logik? (Heidelberg 1817; Eng. trans., 
1894) ; Hermont and Van di Waile, ‘Les prin- 
cipales théories de la logique contemporaries? 
(Paris 1909); Hibben, J. G., ‘Inductive and 
Deductive Logic? (New York 1905); Hob- 
house, L. T., ‘Theory of Knowledge? (London 
1896) ; Hyslop, J. H., ‘Elements of Logic? 
(New York 1892); Husserl, E., ‘Logische Un- 
tersuchungen) (2 vols., Halle 1901); Jevons, 
W. S., ‘Substitution on Similars? (London 
1869) ; id., “Pure Logic? (New York 1890) ; id., 
‘Elementary Lessons in Logic? (London 1895) ; 
‘Studies in Deductive Logic? (3d ed., New 
York 1896); id., ‘Principles of Science? (ib. 
1900) ; Joseph, H. W. B., ‘Introduction to 
Logic? (Oxford 1906); Jones, A. L., ‘Logic, 
Inductive and Deductive? (New York 1909) ; 
Kant, Immanuel, ‘Logik? (Konigsberg 1800) ; 
Lange, ‘Logische Studien”; Laird, ‘Les logi- 
ciens anglais contemporains? (Paris 1878); 
Leibniz, ‘Nouveaux Essais sur l’entendement 
humain?; Lotze, R. H., ‘System der Philoso- 
phie: Logik? (Leipzig 1880; Eng. trans., Ox- 
ford 1881); Locke, ‘Essay Concerning Human 
Understanding’ ; McColl, H., ‘Symbolic Logic 
and its Applications? (New York 1906); Mc- 
Cosh, ‘The Laws of Discursive Thought? ; 
Mansel, H. L. ed. ‘Aldrich’s Artis Logi- 
ce Rudimenta>? (London 1851); id., ‘Prole- 
gomena Logica? (Oxford 1851); Mellone, ‘In- 
troductory Textbook of Logic?; Mill, John 
Stuart, ‘System of Logic, Ratiocinative and In- 
ductive? (8th ed., New York 1900) ; Minto, Wil- 
liam, ‘Logic, Inductive and Deductive? (ib. 
1894) ; Newman, ‘Grammar of Assent?; Pear- 
son, ‘Grammar of Science?; Prantl, Karl von, 
“Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande? (4 vols., 
Leipzig 1855-70); Russell, L. J., ‘Introduction 
to Logic from the Standpoint of Education? 
(New York 1914); Schiller, F. C. S., ‘Formal 
Logic: A Scientific and Social Problem? (Lon- 
don 1912); Schopenhauer, ‘Ueber die Vier- 
fache Wurzel des Saltzes vom zureichenden 
Grundes?; Schiippe, Wilhelm, ‘Erkenntniss- 
theoretische Logik? (Bonn 1878); Sidgwick, 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


Alfred, ‘The Process of Argument? (London 


1893) ; id. ‘The Application of Logic? (New 
York 1911); id. ‘Elementary Logic? (ib. 
1914); Sigwart, Christoph von, ‘Logik? (3d 


ed., Tubingen 1904; trans. by Denby, London 
1895) ; Shearman, A. T., ‘Development of Sym- 
bolic Logic? (London 1906); id. ‘Scope of 
Formal Logic? (ib. 1911); id., ‘Formal Logie 
(ib. 1912) ; Stoeckl, ‘Geschichte der Philosophie 
des Mittelalters>; Stock, George, ‘Logic; 
Thomson, William, ‘Outline of the Necessary 
Laws of Thought? (4th ed., New York 1863) ; 
Trendelenburg, ‘Logische Untersuchungen? (3d 
ed., Leipzig 1870); Turner, ‘Lessons in Logic? 
(Washington 1910); Ueberweg, ‘Friedrich, 
“System der Logik? (5th ed. Bonn 1882); Ul- 
rici, H., ‘System der Logik?; Venn, John, 
‘Symbolic Logic? (London 1881); ‘Empirical 
Logic? (ib. 1889); Welton, J.. ‘Manual of 
Logic? (ib. 1896); Whately, Richard, ‘Ele- 
ments of Logic? (New York 1855) ; Whewell, 
‘History of the Inductive Sciencés? ; Wundt, 
Wilhelm, ‘Logik? (2d ed., Stuttgart 1895). 
JoHN Grier HIBBEN, 
President of Princeton University. 


LOGIC, Symbolic. Symbolic Logic, or 
Mathematical Logic, or the Calculus of Logic, 
—called also the Algebra of Logic (Peirce), 
Exact Logic (Schroder), and | Algorithmic 
Logic or Logistic (Couturat),— covers exactly 
the same field as Formal Logit in general, 
but differs from Formal Logic (in the ordinary 
acceptation of that term) in the fact that 
greater use is made of a compact symbolism — 
the device to which mathematics owes so largely 
its immense development. 

Formal Logic may be defined as that science 
which has for its object the complete analysis 
and systematic presentation of the principles 
and methods of deductive reasoning, or the 
type of reasoning in which conclusions are 
drawn from given premises. It is not con- 
cerned with the truth of the premises or of the 
conclusions, but simply takes care that if the 
premise is true the conclusion shall be; it is 
the study of the forms of valid inference with- 
out regard to the content or subject matter 
of the propositions which are inferred or of 
those from which the inference is drawn. 
Symbolic Logic is then that treatment of For- 
mal Logic which employs, instead of many of 
the words of ordinary language, a system of 
special symbols which secure not only greater 
precision and compactness, but also greater 
generality in its discussions. These symbols, 
like the symbols of mathematics, form, in real- 
ity, a new symbolic language; and it may be 
said that the choice of a convenient and accu- 
rate symbolism has been, in logic as in mathe- 
matics, an indispensable condition for the prog- 
ress of the science. 

A partial use of symbolism in Formal Logic 
is as old as the time of Aristotle; for example, 
“Tf both A and B include the whole of C, it 
follows that some A is B.” What is called 
Symbolic Logic simply carries this device 
farther; it would express the whole of the 
above statement in symbols, as, for example, 
thus: A >» C.B > C.< AyYyB. The immense 
advantage that accrues from the full carrying 
out of this idea of Aristotle’s can only be 
realized by those who have given some atten- 
tion to mastering the details of the method, 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


The thorough-going application to Formal 
Logic of the symbolic method, with the accom- 
panying extension of the field of logical inquiry, 
is a development of the latter half of the 19th 
century. The essential features of the modern 
theory, to be sure, were known to Leibnitz as 
early as 1700, and some valuable contributions 
were made by Lambert in 1781; but the first 
work which brought the possibilities of the 
symbolic method forcibly to the attention of 
logicians was ‘An Investigation of the Laws of 
Thought? by George Boole, in 1854; and Boole 
is commonly regarded as the founder of the 
modern science. The new ideas did not at 
first meet with favor; the logicians, wedded 
to the classical methods, in which reasoning is 
carried on by means of living words, refused to 
admit what they called a mathematical intru- 
sion into their science; while the mathemati- 
cians on their side regarded the whole move- 
ment as of no possible interest except to logi- 
cians. The field remained for some decades 
a no-man’s land between mathematics and 


® logic; the few who cultivated it worked largely 


without knowledge of previous or contem- 
porary workers in the same field; and the 
difficulty of defining the relation of logical 
symbolism to mathematical form, and the limits 
of the analogy between them, led to many 
errors. By the end of the century, however, 
owing to the labors of Peirce and Schréder, the 
new methods had established themselves on a 
sound footing, and had proved their value in 
logical investigations. To mention only -the 
illustration of their power, the Syllogism, and 
the so-called “laws of thought (namely, the 
principle of identity, the principle of contra- 
diction and the principle of excluded middle). 
have now been completely analyzed by the 
symbolic method, with results for which most 
logicians were not prepared: in the first place, 
it is now known that the three “aws of thought” 
are entirely independent of one another, in the 
sense that no one is a necessary consequence 
of the other two; secondly, that the principle 
of the syllogism, in its primitive form, is not 
a consequence of the other three laws, but 
must be assumed as a separate principle; and 
finally that all four of the laws taken together 
are not sufficient for some of the most ele- 
mentary processes of mathematical reasoning — 
that for these an entirely different discipline 
is required, namely, the Logic of Relations 
(see below). This example alone is sufficient 
to justify the assertion that the study of Sym- 
bolic Logic has put a wholly new spirit into 
the Logic of Aristotelian traditions, and has 
transformed a discipline which had remained 
nearly stationary since the Middle Ages into 
one of the most progressive of the modern 
sciences. 

While this development was taking place in 
logic, an equally important movement in a 
similar direction was being carried forward in 
the field of Pure Mathematics, and a brief ac- 
count of this movement must be given before 
we can understand the present position of 
Symbolic Logic. Up to the middle of the 19th 
century, mathematics had been so busily en- 
gaged in testing the power of the newly ac- 
quired calculus of Newton and Leibnitz, and 
cbtaining results by its aid, that few inquiries 
had been made into the logical foundation of 
the theory. Since that epoch, however, increas- 


605 


ing attention has been paid to these funda- 
mental questions, among the early leaders being 
such men as Bolyai, Lobatchevsky, Cauchy, 
Weierstrass, Reimann, De Morgan and Robert 
Grassmann, all of whom, except the first two, 
were contemporaries of Boole’s. The first re- 
sult of these inquiries was the recognition, more 
clearly than ever before, that every mathemat- 
ical theory is based on a small number of 
fundamental hypotheses, or postulates, from 
which all the other propositions of the theory 
can be deduced, and careful lists of postulates 
are now being worked out for most of the im- 
portant mathematical branches. Secondly, it 
became increasingly evident that the real in- 
terest of the mathematician lies not so much 
in the material content of the hypotheses which 
he assumes, as in the logical processes by which 
further propositions are deduced from those 
hypotheses. The natural outcome of this con- 
viction was an immediate and very great ex- 
tension of the field of mathematical inquiry. 
No longer confined to the study of number, 
quantity and space, mathematicians invented for 
themselves new systems of hypotheses, and de- 
duced from them new theories. Any set of 
postulates would serve, provided they involved 
no internal contradiction, and in the exuberance 
of new freedom the subject matter was some- 
times chosen with an almost playful disregard 
of practical utility. Perhaps the most striking 
example of the new tendency was the accept- 
ance of the non-Euclidean geometries of Lo- 
batchevsky and Bolyai as legitimate branches 
of mathematics. These theories had at first 
been regarded as heretical, or at least as non- 
mathematical; but now, when it became clear 
that their assumptions, though unusual, were 
still not self-contradictory, they were assigned 
their proper places as hypothetical-deductive 
theories; they therefore became as much a 
part of mathematics as the older theory of 
Euclid, that theory being itself now recognized 
as a hypothetical-deductive theory; and the 
mathematical interest of either theory was seen 
to be quite independent of the question whether 
an illustration of it could or could not be found 
in the world of space-perceptions. Another 
example is that of Hamilton’s quaternions, 
which is a new algebra in which the funda- 
mental assumptions differ in several respects 
from the laws which hold in the more familiar 
algebra of quantity. Similarly, all the host of 
artificial algebras, the invention of which was 
promoted especially by Hankel (1867) and 
Benjamin Peirce (1870), are hypothetical- 
deductive theories exhibiting varying degrees 
of divergence from the ordinary algebra of 
quantity; perhaps the simplest of all these alge- 
bras is that invented by Boole himself for 
the purposes of symbolic logic. In arithmetic 
and geometry the work of Peano, Padoa and 
Pieri in Italy, and of Pasch, Frege and Hil- 
bert in Germany, should be especially mentioned. 
Finally, the theory of abstract groups, and the 
whole operational calculus, are outgrowths of 
the same tendency. In short, pure mathema- 
tics came to be regarded, at the end of the 
century, as a collection of hypothetical-deduc- 
tive theories, distinguished from one another 
by the nature of the assumptions adopted as 
the basis of each theory, but depending for 
their mathematical interest not so much on 
the material content of those assumptions as 


606 


on the logical relations between the resulting 
propositions. 
As the outcome of these two movements, 


therefore, the sciences of logic and mathematics | 


found themselves in a wholly unexpected posi- 
tion at the beginning of the 20th century. 
Instead of being separate, almost antagonistic, 
disciplines, they suddenly discovered that they 
were both working in the same direction — 
that their problems and aims were identical. 
The field of symbolic logic, which had hitherto 
occupied a rather uncomfortable position be- 
tween the two opposing forces, now became the 
common meeting-ground where mathematicians 
and logicians can work together to mutual 
advantage. The researches of Peirce and his 
pupils in America, and of Schroder in Germany, 
became more widely known. Peano and his 
school in Italy began the publication of the 
‘Formulaire de Mathématiques,? which is in- 
tended to become a complete cyclopedia of 
mathematical knowledge, expressed in the lan- 
guage of symbolic logic. Russell and White- 
head in England, and Couturat in France, be- 
came active exponents of the new mathemat- 
ical-logical theory. Even the strictly mathe- 
matical researches of Georg Cantor began to 
arouse lively interest among the logicians. 
Finally, it remained for Russell (1903) to 
announce the surprising thesis that logic and 
mathematics are in reality. the same science; 
that pure mathematics requires no material be- 
yond that which is furnished by the necessary 
presuppositions of any logical thought; and 
_ that formal logic, if it is to be distinguished 
as a separate science at all, is simply the ele- 
mentary, or earlier, part of mathematics. 

It is too early to predict what the final out- 
come to this new movement will be; the limits 
of the inquiry are not yet well defined; the 
terminology and notation are still in an ex- 
perimental stage; many important matters of 
detail are likely to remain for some time in 
debate;.but at any rate this much is clear: a 
new program has been proposed for mathe- 
matics and logic, and the true nature and scope 
of what is now called symbolic logic cannot be 
finally determined until this broader question 
of the relation between logic and mathematics 
is decided. It may be that, in the merging of 
these two sciences, no place will be left for 
symbolic logic as a distinctive science; it may 
be that the studies now pursued under that 
name will be supplied with a more appropriate 
title; or it may be that some new form of 
symbolic logic will absorb the whole of logic 
and mathematics. 

In view of these considerations it is clear 
that any account of the subject which can be 
given at the present time must be regarded as 
tentative and transitional—a snap-shot at a 
rapidly moving phenomenon — certain to be- 
come obsolete with the change of perspective 
which is taking place in all our mathematical- 
logical notions. The sketch which now follows, 
after this long introduction, must therefore be 
understood as containing not a body of uni- 
versally accepted facts, but merely the writer’s 
individual selection of some of the results 
which, in their view, seem.most likely to be- 
come of recognized value. 

The main results which Symbolic Logic 
claims to have secured are briefly the following: 

1. A thorough-going investigation into the 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


foundations of logic,—an enumeration of ap- 
propriate groups of first principles (axioms 
and postulates) and the deduction from them 
of the whole structure. 

2. The furnishing of a wonderfully concise 
and compact method of expressing premises 
and deductions from premises. It is impos- 
sible to overestimate the mastery which this 
gives over trains of thought. 

3. A method for putting any number of 
premises, of any degree of complexitv, into 
the intellectual mill, and extracting all the in- 
formation which they convey about any term 
or any combination of terms, without the 
fatigue of conscious reasoning. ‘Machines have 
been devised, like Jevons’ “Logical Piano,” by 
which these conclusions can be reached (not, 
however, in interesting forms) without even 
the aid of paper and pencil. The only diff- 
culty is to find any real problems that are hard 
enough for this branch of the subject to attack: 

These results have been due to: 

(a) The generalization of the relation 7s, 
implies (made possible by the convention that 
“all a is b» does not involve the existence of a; 
this generalization is due to Leibnitz). 

(b) The introduction of the logic of and and 
or (there is no reason why logic should not 
discuss, e.g., equivalences — perfectly common 
in real life—such as “The undevout astron- 
mer is mad=Any astronomer is either mad 
or else devout”). 

(c) The introduction of the Special Terms, 
o and © (nothing and everything, or the non- 
existent and the existent). 

(d) The excision of the non-valid syllo- 
gisms, and hence the reduction of valid syl- 
logisms to a perfectly symmetrical collection, 
all (universal and particular) tested by one 
simple and easy rule. 

(e) The introduction of an appropriate sym- 
bolism. | 

As has already been intimated, much of the 
new matter of modern logic has no necessary 
connection with its symbolism. The first four 
of the above improvements could perfectly 
well have been attained without its use; that 
they were not is the greater proof of the 
utility and power of the symbolic method. 

For the purposes of more detailed exposi- 
tion, the subject may be divided into three 
parts: 

(1) The Logic of Classes or Concepts; 

(2) The Logic of Propositions; and 

(3) The Logic of Relations; 
although this can hardly be called a scientific 
division. (The use to which the term “Algebra 
of Logic” is now commonly ot will be 
explained below). 

1. The Logic of Classes or Concepts.— In 
conducting any scientific inquiry, we usually, 
whether consciously or unconsciously, confine 
our attention to a particular realm of thought, 
which may be called the universe of discourse, 
or simply the universe, for that particular in- 
quiry; any object outside the universe is irrel- 
evant to the discussion. For example, astron- 
omy deals with the universe of material objects 
on a large scale; anthropology deals with the 
universe of human beings; botany deals with 
the universe of flowers and plants; etc., ete. 
This universe, in any particular discussion, is 
: preted gst by the symbol oo, or by the sym- 
ol 1 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


Within any given universe, we have to speak 
of classes, a class being a group of objects of 
thought which are distinguished in any way 
from the rest of the universe. The objects 
belonging to a class are usually characterized 
by the possession of certain common characters 
in which we are interested; and of these charac- 
ters we then may form a “concept” But in 
Symbolic Logic we view a class merely as (in 
any: way whatever) distinguished from the 
other classes of the universe. 

Any class is represented in symbolic logic 
by a letter of the alphabet, and the comple- 
mentary class, comprising all the rest of the 
universe, by the same letter with a dash or 
accent. "Thus, in the universe of men, we may 
let a= the class of Americans, b=the class of 
bankers and c= the class of Californians: then 
a’ will represent the class of all foreigners, 
b’ the class of all non-bankers, and c’ the class 
of all men who do not live in California. Of 
course it is possible at any time to enlarge the 
borders of our universe, so that, for example, 
b’ may come to mean not only all men who 
are not bankers, but also all things of any 
kind which are not bankers, as microbes, 
demonstrations, virtues. In any case, two 
classes x and x’ together exhaust. the universe 
considered, and have no part in common; 
either of two such classes is called the negative 
of the other. When a criterion, or means of 
distinguishing the objects of a class + from the 
rest of the universe, is so defined that no 
object in the universe will satisfy this crite- 
rion, it is convenient to speak of x as an 
“empty or “nulP class. Any null class is rep- 
resented by the symbol 0. Thus, the class of 
all plane figures which are at the same time 
round and square, and the class of all prime 
numbers which end in the digit 4, are exam- 
ples of null classes. 

The common part of two classes x and y is 

represented by ry, and is called their logical 
product. Thus, in our example, ab=the class 
of American bankers, a’b =the class of foreign 
bankers, a’c= the class of foreign Californians 
(this last being of course a null class). 

The class composed of two classes x and y 
together (whether or not these classes Beertaps 
is represented by x + y, and is called the logical 
sum of x and y. Thus; a+ b= the class con- 
taining all Americans and all bankers; a+ a’b, 
or the class containing all Americans and all 
foreign bankers, is of course the same class. 

When two classes x and y are given, it may 
happen that every element of x is also an element 
of y; this relation is represented by x <y, and is 
the fundamental relation which may exist between 
two classes. Thus, in our example, c<a, since 
every Californian is also an American. If it 
happens that ¥<y, and at the same time y<x, 
we write xy; that is, the symbol = in logic 
is merely an abbreviation for two reciprocal 
relations < between the terms which it connects. 

Obviously «<0, whatever x may be; if it 
happens also that oo <x, then and then only it 
will follow that x==©. Similarly the equation, 
x==0 is equivalent to the two relations 0<x 
and x <0, the first of which, like x<o,is tau- 
tologous, ‘being true for every value of x. 

We give next, without proof, a list of the 
principal theorems which have been discovered 
concerning the fundamental notions represented 
by ©, 0, x’ xy, x+y, andx<y. (The names 


607 


attached to some of the theorems are the out- 
growth of a varied and uncertain history, and 
do not always suggest very clearly the meaning 
of the theorem). 

1. a<a. (Principle of identity). 

2. If and only if a <b and b <a, then a= b. 

3. If a<b and bc, then a<c. (Principle 
of the syllogism; see also theorems 22 and 23, 
below). 

4.a+a=—aand aa=—da. (Tautology). 

5. a + ab=—aanda(a+b)=a. (Absorption). 

6.a+b—=b+a and ab=—bda. (Commuta-- 
tive laws). 

7. (a + 6) +¢—a+(6 + c) and (ab)c—=a(be). 
(Associative laws). 

8. a+ (bc) =(a+))(a+c) and a(b+c)= 
ae + (ac). (Distributive laws). 

9. a<a+band ab<a. (Simplification). 

10. If a<y and b<y thena+) <y; and if 
x<aand «x < dD, then x <ab. 

11. If a <bc, then a < 6b and a <« c; and if 
b +c¢<a, then b<aandc <a. 

12. Ifa <b, then a + b—bD and ab—=a. 

13. If a<b and x <y, then a+x«Ka+y 
and ax <ay. 

14. 0 <a anda<o. 

15.2a+0—aandaw —a, 

16. a+ 0 =o anda0=—0. 

17. aa’=0 and a+a’—o. (Principle of 
contradiction, or exclusion; and principle of 
excluded middle, or exhaustion). 


18. If x <a and x<a’, then x0; and if 
a<yanda’<y, then y=, 

19. (a’)’=a. (Double negation). 

20. If a<b, then b’<a’. (Contraposition). 


21x (a-b)’= a’b’ 
Morgan’s Theorems). 

22... 1f aatbx' =0,..then =0. 

23. If (a+x) (b + x')=—=00, then. a-+ bo. 
(Theorems 22 and 23 are other forms of the 
principle of the syllogism). 

24. © =0Q. (Postulate of existence). 

25. © =a+a’ 

=(a+a’) (b+ 0’). 

=ab+ab’+a’b+ Sa gb 

= abe 7. a’be + able +. 
and 0—aa’—aa’ + bb’=—aa’ + bb! bcc! +. 
(Formule for the complete development of 
co and 0). 

26. (pab + qa’b + rab’ + sa’b’)’ = 
p'ab + q’a’b. + rab’ + s’a’b’. 

(Formula for obtaining the negative of a well- 
developed expression,—of great utility in the 
solution of problems). 

In verifying the truth of these theorems, 
the familiar Eulerian circles may render some 
service by exhibiting to the eye the relations 
of the several terms; but lEuler’s diagrams 
become inadequate and even misleading in 
any really fundamental discussion, because they 
fail to represent satisfactorily the negative term, 
the complete introduction of which into modern 
logic is one of the most important enlargements 
of the subject. A better method of diagrammatic 
representation has been proposed by Venn (Joc. cit.). 

2. The Logic of Propositions We now 
turn to the second division of our subject, which 
will prove to be not a separate branch of the 
theory, but merely another aspect of the branch 
already considered. 

In this branch of the subject, letters are used 
to represent not classes, but propositions, and the 
notation x < y is used to express the relation: “the 
proposition x implies the proposition y” or “the 


and (ab)’—a’+0’. (De 


608 


truth of x entails the truth of y.”. For example, 
if p == the proposition that John Smith endorsed 
this protested note, and g = the proposition that 
he is liable for its payment, then p <q. 
in the logic of classes, the notation p = q is used to 
express the double relation p<q and q <p. 
When ? is any proposition, then p’, or p with a 
dash above it, represents the proposition contra- 
dictory to p, which is called the negative of p. 

The notation pq, called the logical product of 
p and q, represents a proposition the assertion of 
which is equivalent to the simultaneous assertion 
of the propositions p and g; and p+4q, called the 
logical sum of p and q, represents a proposition the 
assertion of which is equivalent to the alternative 
assertion of the propositions pandg. For example, 
if p= “the testator was of sound mind,” qg= “he 
acted freely,” and r= “his will is admitted» then 
pq <r, since the simultaneous assertion of p and 
q is sufficient to prove the truth of r (or, in the con- 
trapositive form of the statement, r’<p’ + q’); 
it happens that in this particular case we have also 
pb’ +q'<r (or its equivalent, r<pq), since if 
either p or q is false, the will is disallowed. Hence 
we may embody the complete statement of the 
situation in the equations pg =, (or p’+q’ =—r1’); 
but it must be constantly borne in mind that every 
such equation stands for the simultaneous assertion 
of two statements, the one a sufficient and the 
other a necessary condition. 

Finally, the symbol © is used in this theory 
to represent any typical true proposition, such 
as 2+2 = 4; and the symbol 0 is used to represent 
‘any typical false proposition, such as 2+2=5. 
These symbols enable us to express the assertion 
of the truth or falsity of any proposition as follows: 
co <p is equivalent to the assertion “p is true”, 
and p <0 is equivalent to the assertion “p is false.» 
Obviously 0<x and x< co whatever the value 
of x; so that the relations «0 <p and p<0 may 
be replaced by p=o and p=O, respectively. 
Two propositions, p and p’, will be contradictory 
when and only when p + p’ = © and pp’ = 0. 

If now we proceed to give the theorems 
which hold concerning the notions we have 
just represented by 0, 0, x’, xy, x + y, and 
x<y, we shall find that all the theorems 
1-26 given in the previous section for the 
theory of classes hold also here, if the symbols 
are interpreted according to the theory of 
propositions. For example, the theorem: “If 
a class a lies within the common part of two 
classes b and c, then it lies within b and also 
within c,» and the theorem: “If’a proposition 
a implies the simultaneous assertion of the 
propositions b and c, then it implies a and also 
implies bY are each expressed by the same 
symbolic form, namely, (11): “If a “be then 
a<b and a<c.” And so for each of the other 
theorems. This remarkable similarity between 
the theory of classes and the theory of propo- 
sitions was stated by Leibniz, but was first 
fully developed by Boole. 

As a most interesting example of the way 
in which compound propositions can be handled 
by the Logic of Propositions, we mention Mrs. 
Ladd-Franklin’s “inconsistent triad” : 

(ab=0) (b’c=0) (ac=-0) <0; 
since this is the form to which all the 8,192- 
valid syllogisms (both universal and particular) 
can be reduced. By transposing the third 
factor, we have the universal syllogism: 
(ab=0) (b’c=0) <(ac=0); and by transposing 


Here, as’ 


LOGIC, SYMBOLIC 


the second factor we have the particular syllo- 
gism: (ab—=0) (ac4=0) <(b’c=-0); the “incon- 
sistent triad? thus furnishes a perfectly general 
rule for testing the validity of any syllogism. 

The Logic of Classes and the Logic of 
Propositions are included together in the 
‘Algebra of Logic? of Peirce and Schréder; in’ 
recent years, however, the term “Algebra of 
Logic” has come to be used in a more mathemat- 
ical sense, which will be explained in the fol- 
lowing section. 

The Algebra of Logic, Strictly so Called. 
—If we define terms in general to be any ob- 
jects of thought which can be elements of an 
asserted relation — whether simple terms, like 
classes or concepts, or compound terms, like 
propositions, relations between propositions, 
etc.— we may say that the logic of classes and 
the logic of propositions have, formally, the 
same fundamental notions to deal with, namely: 
(1) terms, represented by letters of the al- 
phabet; (2) two special terms, 0 and o; (3) 
three functions of terms: negations (%'), sums. 
(x+y), and products (ry, or rXy); and (4) 
the primitive relation between terms, expressed 
by x<y, which may itself (in its non-assertive 
form) be a term of a compound proposition; 
moreover, the theorems 1-26 are true formule 
in the one theory as well as in the other. 

The theorems 1-26 are therefore capable of 
at least two interpretations: first, in the 
theory of classes, and secondly, in the theory 
of propositions; and there are doubtless many 
other theories also in which these formal state- 
ments can be given a concrete significance. 
It, therefore, becomes a natural inquiry to in- 
vestigate this body of theorems in their ab- 
stract form (that is, without specifying any 
interpretation for the symbols), to study the 
logical relations that exist among them, and 
to select certain of them as fundamental, from 
which all the others can be deduced as formal . 


consequences. The body of theorems so con- 
sidered, with their consequences, forms a 
mathematical algebra, called (in distinction 


from the algebra of quantity, the algebra of 
complex numbers, the algebra of abstract 
groups, etc.) the algebra of logic. The algebra 
of logic bears the same relation to the or- 
dinary algebra of quantity that the -non- 
Euclidean geometries bear to the ordinary 
geometry of space; and it has been the analogy 
between the algebra of logic and the algebra 
of quantity that has led to the importation 
of several mathematical terms into the study © 
of symbolic logic (as “zero,” “sum,” “prod-) 
uct,” etc.). The study of the algebra in this 
abstract form has brought out relations be- 
tween the propositions of logic which might - 
perhaps otherwise have remained unnoticed. 
As an example, it has been shown that the six 
fundamental notions: ©, 0, x’, xy, x+y, x<y 
are not independent of one another, but that 
all may be defined in terms of any one of the 
last three; thus, theorems 15, 16, 17 and 12 
may be used as definitions of ©, 0, x’, and<in 
terms of + and X; while theorems 9 and 10 
show how ab and a+b can be defined in terms 
of <. Indeed it is hard to see how questions 
of the independence of the fundamental notions 
could have been discussed at all without the 
aid of the abstract algebraic’ method.— The 
most readable expositions of the algebra: of 


LOGIER 


logic from its mathematical side are given by 
Whitehead and Couturat (see Bibliography). 
A searching inquiry into the nature of the 
algebra, and its relation to other ‘branches of 
mathematics, was ‘begun by Kempe in 1890, 
and has recently been carried farther by 
Royce (1905). 

The Logic of Relations.— The Logic of 
Relations, or the Logic of Relatives, was 
founded, as regards first principles, by De Mor- 
gan (‘Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.,? Vol. X, 1864), 
developed by Peirce, carried further by 
Schroder, and has now met with what is pos- 
sibly a farther important development in the 
hands of Russell (1903). We can give, in this 
space, only a cursory account of the principal 
terms which are employed. 

In many inquiries we are concerned with the 
relation in which some term stands to some 
other term: for example, a number x may be 
less than a number y; a person A may be a 
debtor of a person B; a circle M may lie within 
another circle N: the notions “less. than,” 
“debtor of,” “within,” are relations. Every 
relation has a converse relation. For example, 
if « is less than y, then y is greater than +; 
if A is a debtor of B, then B is a creditor of 
A; if M lies within N, then N includes M. 
It is customary to represent a relation by a 
capital letter, as R, and the inverse relation 
by the same letter with a curved dash above 


it, asR. Thus if R stands for “ess than,» 
and x«—3 and y=5, we have: xRy and yRx. 


Again, if R stands for “parent of,” R will 
stand for “child of” 

If +Ry and ySz, then 4 stands in a certain 
relation to g, called the relative product of the 
relations R and S and denoted by RS. Thus 
if xRy stands for “rx is brother of y,” and ySz 
for “y is father of z» then +RSz will signify 
“¢ is uncle of 2; or again, xRSz may mean 
“x is an agent of a landlord of 2,” etc. 

If a relation R is such that xRy always im- 
plies yRx, then FR is called a symmetrical rela- 
tion. For example, the relations “equal to,” 
“different from,” “spouse of,” are symmet- 
rical relations. If R is such ‘that ye is false 
whenever xy is true, then R is called an 
asymmetrical relation; as “less than,” “father 
of» etc, Relations like “sister of which are 
neither symmetrical nor asymmetrical, are 
called simply not-symmetrical. 

A relation R which is such that *Rx for 
every value of + is called a reflexive relation, 
like the relation of equality, or the relation 
which we have devoted by <in the preceding 
part of this article (see theorems 1 and 2). 

Again, if a relation R is such that zRy and 
yRz together always imply +Rz, then F is 
called a_ transitive relation. For example, 
“ess than,” “ess than or equal to,» “ancestor 
of,» etc, are transitive relations. The asym- 
metrical transitive relations are more import- 
ant than any other relations in the exact 
sciences; for example, “less than,” “below,” 
“before,” “prior to,” are relations of this type. 
The recent paper by Royce, however, shows 
how the theory of these asymmetrical relations 
can be made to depend on the theory of a 
certain more fundamental symmetrical relation. 

In conclusion, we may notice that the whole 
theory of arithmetical operations, like addition 
and multiplication, may be regarded as a part 

vot. 17 —39 


609 


of the theory of relations; for, as M. Bocher 
has pointed out, instead of saying: “two num- 
bers a and b determine a third number c, called 
their sum,” we may say: “the three numbers 
d, od, and c satisfy a certain relation, say 
R(a, b, c). Relations of this type are more 
complicated than those described above, since 
they hold not between two terms, but between 
three or more terms. 

Bibliography.—The most extensive treatise 
on this subject is E. Schréder’s ‘Algebra der 
Logik,» in four volumes, begun in 1890; the 
last volume is being published posthumously 
by E. Miller. J. Venn’s ‘Symbolic Logic? 
(1881, 2d ed. 1894) is especially valuable 
for its historical references. The ‘Manuel de 
Logistique, by L. Couturat, contains the clear- 
est exposition of the whole subject, with an 
account of the most recent progress. A. N. 
Whitehead’s ‘Universal Algebra» (1898) and 
L. Couturat’s ‘L’Algébre de la logique’? (1905) 
treat the algebra of logic from the mathemati- 
cal point of view. J. N. Keynes, in his ‘Studies 
and Exercises in Formal Logic? (1894), has 
developed the subject without mathematical 
formulation, but in a very useful way for one 
who approaches it from the point of view of the 
logician. Other references are the following: 
‘Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leibniz,” 
ed. L. Couturat (1905) ; Lambert, J. H., “Neues 
Organon? (1764); De Morgan, A., Formal 
Logic? (1847) ; Boole, G., ‘Laws of. Thought? 
(1854; see above) ; Macfarlane, A., ‘Algebra of 
Logic? (1879) ; Johnson, W. E., (Mind (new 
series, Vol. I, 1892) : McColl, eh “Proceedings 
London Mathematical Society? (Vol. PA Le/ pe 
and later papers; Peirce, C. S., American Jour- 
nal of Mathematics (Vols. LIL TV. MLT). SP ro- 
ceedings American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
ence? (Vols. VII, X, XIII), ‘Memoirs? of the 
same (Vol. IX), “Studies in Logic by Members 
of the Johns Hopkins University” (1883) ; 
Ladd, Christine (Mrs. F. Franklin), ‘Studies in 
Logic, etc. (1883), and later papers; Mitchell, 


O. H., ‘Studies in Logic, etc. (1883) ; Frege, 
ie. ‘Begriffsschrift? (1879) ; Miiller, E., Ueber 
die Algebra der Logik? (1900-01) Peano, 


G., ‘Formulaire de Mathématiques? (1895, and 
later editions) ; Huntington, E. V., ‘Transac- 
tions American Mathematical Society? (Vol. V, 
1904); Kempe, A. B., ‘Proceedings London 
Mathematical Society? (Vol. XXI, 1890); 
Royce, J., “Transactions American Mathemati- 
cal. society. (Vol, VI... 1905) - Russell :V., 
“Revue de Mathematique? (Vol. VII, 1901); 
‘Principles of Mathematics? (Vol. I, 1903). 


Epwarp V. HUNTINGTON, 
Associate Professor of Mathematics, Harvard 
University; with the co-operation of 
CHRISTINE LADD-FRANKLIN, 
Lecturer at Columbia Umiversity. 


LOGIER, 16’zhya, Johann Bernhard, Ger- 
man-English inventor and musician: b. Cassel, 
Germany, 1777; d. Dublin, 1846.. In 1787 he was 
taken to England, where he learned to play the 
flute and piano. For some time he was mem- 
ber of the band of an Irish regiment, subse- 
quently becoming organist of a church at West- 
port (Cathair-na-Mart), Ireland. He wrote 
several pieces for the piarto, but camé into gen- 
eral notice through his invention of the chiro- 
plast, an apparatus designed to assist beginners 
in piano-playing. He also evolved a simplified 


610 


method of instruction for this and other instru- 
ments. His inventions and method divided 
music teachers into two groups and Logier 
took advantage of this publicity to further the 
sale of his inventions and amassed a large for- 
tune within a short time. From 1821 to 1824 
he taught his system in Berlin at the request 
of the government. He retired to his home 
near Dublin in 1826. His most popular work 
was ‘Practical Thoroughbass? (1818). 


LOGISTICS, the name given by the Greeks 
to the art of computation which they distin- 
guished from theis arithmetic, the latter term 
being applied by them to the theory of numbers; 
in military science, logistics means the art of 
moving troops, in "which is comprised the de- 
tails of marches and the fixing of places for 
encampments and cantonments together with 
estimates for ammunition and other supplies. 


LOGOGRAM, an abbreviation or sign for 
a word, especially in phonography or short- 
hand, as $=dollar; .)=establish. It is also 
a form of anagram in which the maker seeks 
to find all the words that may be made from 
all or some of the letters of a word. The 
whole is interspersed in a series of verses 
which contain synonyms of these words. To 
resolve the puzzle the concealed words must be 
named and also the primary word from the 
letters of which they have been formed. 


LOGOGRAPHERS, or LOGOGRAPHI, 
among the ancient Greeks the designation of 
writers of prose histories prior to Herodotus. 
_In Thucydides, however, the term is applied by 
this author to all his predecessors. Almost all 
of these writers were lIonians who wrote in 
their native dialect. Their works were merely 
crude attempts to reproduce in prose the cur- 
rent legends and traditions, genealogies, man- 
ners and customs, etc., treated in the great ep- 
ics. There was no criticism, scientific or oth- 
erwise, in these narratives and they appear to 
be intended rather to amuse their readers than 
to impart accurate historical knowledge. The 
principal logographers were Cadmus of Mile- 
tus, Pherecydes of Leros, Hecatzus of Miletus, 
Acusilaus of Argos, Charon of Lampsacus, Xan- 
thus of Sardis in Lydia, Hellanicus of Myti- 
lene, Stesimbrotus of Thasos, Hippys and 
Glaucus, both of Rhegium, Damastes of Si- 
geum. Logographers also were called those 
orators who composed pleadings and sold them 
to those who required them in the law courts 
and who were forbidden to employ advocates, 
The extant fragments of the logographers, with 
Latin notes, translation, prolegomena and co- 
pious indices, are contained in Miller, C. W., 
‘Fragmenta historicorum Grecorum? (1841- 
70). Consult Bury, J. B., ‘The Ancient Greek 
Historians? (New York 1909). 


LOGOGRAPHI. See LococrapHers. 


LOGOS (Greek Aéyoc, from <Aéyetv, to 
speak), word, language, speech in general. 
Language being peculiar to man as a reason- 
able being, and speech presupposing thought, 
logos signifies reason, the faculty of thinking 
in general. Thus Jogos has the meaning both 
of thought and utterance. In Christian theol- 
ogy this term, as used in certain passages of 
the Scriptures, has been the source of continual 
disputes ever since the 3d century of our era. 
The passage in the Bible which gives rise to 


LOGISTICS — LOGOS 


this discussion is the opening of the Gospel of 
Saint John: “In the beginning was the Word, 
and the Word was with God, and the Word 


was God. The same was in the beginning with 
God. All things were made by Him, and with- 


out Him was not anything made that was made,” 
etc. In the Greek text the expression here 
translated “Word” -is logos. What is here to 
be understood by logos, what is its essential 
character, whether it is a person of the Deity 
or not, the creative intellect of God, or the 
Son, through whom He created, or the divine 
truth which was to be revealed, etc., this is not 
the proper place to examine, nor will our limits 
permit us even to enumerate the different opin- 
ions which have been euitertained on this inter- 
esting point of Christian metaphysics. We can 
refer the reader to no better source of informa- 
tion than Neander’s ‘General History of Chris- 
tianity and the Church. 

The generally received doctrine of the logos 
makes it a person and not a mere name, and 
maintains that the Word is called God, not by 
catachresis but in the strict and rigorous mean- 
ing of the term; that the most ancient Fathers 
of the Church ‘always taught the divinity of 
the Word and that they derived the idea from 
the Holy Scriptures alone and not from the 
Platonic philosophy as many have asserted. 
On the contrary, it is held that the Hebrew con- 
ception of the logos is of independent origin, 
though it was natural that in the New Testa- 
ment the Greek word should be adopted to ex- 
press it. 

Some of the opinions of modern théolot 
gians on the meaning of the logos are as fol- 
lows: It is necessary, some say, in order to 
understand the true meaning of logos, to begin 
with the examination of Wisdom (sophia), 
which was prevously used to express the same 


notion. (Consult the hook of Proverbs, viii, 
1, seq., and the book of Wisdom, vii, 22, 
seq.). The poetical author of the Proverbs 


does ‘not imagine a person separaté from God, 
but only an interior power of God, because in 
his time there could be no idea of a being pro- 
ceeding from God, the Jews having borrowed 
this notion at a later period from the Oriental 
doctrine of emanations. The author of the 
book of Sirach (xxiv, 3) first uses “The 
Word (logos) of God as equivalent to “Wis- 
dom” (sophia), to signify the almighty power 
of God. The Word being an act of wisdom 
gave rise to the symbol. John speaks of the 
logos in the beginning of his Gospel only, and 
afterward uses the expression pneuma tou 
theou. From his representation, the following 
positions have been deduced: the Jogos was 
(a) from the beginning of all things (comp. 
Proverbs viii, 22; Sirach xxiv, 9); (b) from 
the beginning with God (comp. Sir. i, 1; Wisd. 
Sok oxi 16; 11) 14; 5Sire xxiv; 125% Saint John, 
therefore says, those who thus interpret him 
had the same idea of the logos as the apoc- 
ryphal writers; for the circumstance that the 
latter ascribe to the logos the creation of all 
things, while Saint John leaves this point unde- 
cided in his en arché én (in the beginning was), 
does not amount to a contradiction. Others, 
particularly the earlier commentators, under- 
stand by logos the Deity himself, that is, the 
second person of the Deity (according to Saint 
John viii, 58). But those who adhere to the 


LOGRONO — 


former opinion maimtain that this is in contra- 
diction to John xiv, 28; x1i, 49, 50;.v, 19, 20; 
and that he understood by logos only a power 
of God, which was communicated to Jesus, on 
account of which he could claim divine attrib- 
utes and yet call the Father, as the source of 
this power, greater than himself. Others, as 
Herder, Paulus, Eckermann, understand by 
logos the Word of God, which in the Old Tes- 
tament, as the expression of the will of God, 
is the symbol of his creative power (Gen. i, et 
seq.). The later Jews represented the divine 
omnipotence by the Word of God. But it is 
maintained, on the other hand, from the man- 
ner in which John speaks of the logos, that he 
understood by it not merely omnipotence, but 
the Omnipotent. Others following the Fathers 
of the Church, particularly Eusebius, under- 
stand by logos an independent substance, ex- 
ternal from God, like the nous (intellect) of 
Plato. But this again, it is said, involves an 
error, because Plato means by nous only a 
power of God. Still others, as Mosheim and 
Schlegel, declare with Irenzus the logos of 
Saint John to be identical with the logos of 
the Gnostics; but it is objected that John did 
not conceive of a plurality like that in the doc- 
trine of zons. Lange considered logos equiva- 
lent to the sophia of the Old Testament, and 
that to the logos of Philo, and as a distinct per- 
son from God; but, say the others, sophia is 
not something distinct from God. Paulus, in 
his Commentary, also identifies the logos of 
Philo with that of Saint John. But it is said, 
on the other hand, that John cannot be sup- 
posed to have been acquainted with Philo’s 
notion, as it was not an opinion current at the 
time, ‘and that the view of the apocryphal 
writers is more in harmony with his; moreover, 
that if Saint John means anything more than 
an original, external power in God, his “was 
God” (Saint John i, 1) would imply dualism. 
Doderlein and Storr translated the word logos 
by doctrina, the abstract being put for the con- 
crete, doctrine for teacher, as in Gen. xlii, 38; 
2 Sam. xxii, 23; Luke iv, 36. According to 
others, ho logos means ho legomenos (the prom- 
ised). The ancient philosophers often dis- 
tinguish two Jogot an interior in God or man 
which merely thinks (logos endiathetos), and 
an exterior or uttered (logos prophorikos), 
Consult Aall, “Der Logos? (Leipzig 1896) ; 
Allen, A. V. G, ‘Continuity of Christian 
Thought? (London 1907); Harnack, ‘History 
of Dogma? (ib. 1894-99); Inge, W. R., in 
‘Dictionary of Religion and Ethics?; and 
“Personal Idealism and Mysticism? (ib. 1907) ; 
Mackintosh, ‘The Doctrine of the Person of 
Christ? (London 1912). 


LOGRONO, 16-gr6’ny6, Spain, capital of 
the province of Logrofio, on the Ebro, 30 miles 
southeast of Vittoria. It is surrounded by 
ancient walls and ramparts, has a 12-arch bridge 
over the Ebro, erected in 1138, an arcaded 
street, an immense bull-ring seating 11,000 
persons, and a very ancient church of Santa 
Maria de Palacio, dating according to tradition 
from the time of Constantinus Magnus. Lo- 
grofio has a large wine trade. In pre-Roman 
times the district belonged to the Berones. 
From the Romans it received in succession the 
names of Juliobriga and Lucronius. In the 8th 
century it fell to the Moors, but they were soon 


LOGWOOD 611 


driven out. In 1521 the city was besieged by 
the French unsuccessfully and from 1808 to 
1813 French forces occupied it. The dumb 
painter, Juan Fernandez Navarrete, was born 
here in 1526. Pop. 23,900. 

LOGROSCINO, 16’gréshé‘nd, Nicolo, 
Italian composer: b. Naples, 1700; d. 1763. 
He wrote several operas in which he developed 
the opera-buffa style and concluded several in 
ensemble, an innovation which has since become 
the custom. His operas are ‘Inganno per In- 
ganno? (1738); ‘La violante? (1741); ‘Il gov- 
ernatore? (1747); ‘Giunio Bruto? (1750) ; 
‘Tanto bene, tanto male? ; ‘Il vecchio marito? ; 
‘La furba burlata> (1760). Consult Kretzsch- 
mar, H., ‘Zwei Opera Nicolo Logroscinos? 
(in Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters, Leip- 
zig 1908). 

LOGUE, lég’, Michael, CarpiNnaL, priest 
of the Roman Church and primate of all Ire- 
land: b. Raphoe, 1 Oct. 1840. Before he was 
yet a priest he filled the chairs of theology and 
belles-lettres in the Irish College, Paris, where 
he was ordained in 1866. Returning to his 
native diocese of Raphoe in 1874, he was con- 
secrated its bishop five years later. The chair of 
Saint Eunan in the early ’80’s was no mere seat 

of “learned leisure” for its occupant and for his 
flock in famine times he in one year collected 
close on £30,000 ($150,000). The parish priests 
of Armagh chose him as coadjutor to Primate 
McGettigan in 1887, their choice was approved 
by Rome and he became within a few months 
archbishop and primate of all Ireland. His 
elevation to the cardinalate in 1893 was a dig- 
nity never before attained in the line of 108 
primates from Saint Patrick. Like his English 
compeer, Cardinal Vaughan, who received the 
red hat at the same consistory, he has labored 
strenuously for his own cathedral, the memorable 
consecration of which took place in the presence 
of the papal legate in July 1904. Cardinal 
Logue visited the United States and Canada in 
1908, and was present at the ceremonies in cele- 
bration of the centenary of the archdiocese of 
New York. A second visit was made to Amer- 
ica two years later. An omnivorous reader and 
a close student and follower of public affairs, he 
is an admirable though not a prodigal speaker; 
and is a keen student of nature, a lover of the 
sea and an expert yachtsman. Cardinal Logue 
is a representative of the old school of con- 
servative Irish churchmen, whose policies and 
ideas differ widely from those of the younger 
clergy of the Ireland of to-day. 


LOGWOOD, the heart-wood of- Hema- 
toxylon campechianum, a leguminous tree which 
grows wild, in most places, along the eastern 
shores of. Mexico and Central America. From 
its abundance in some parts near the Bay of 
Campeachy it is sometimes called Campeachy- 
wood. The leaves are pinnate; the flowers 
small, yellowish and. disposed in auxiliary 
racemes at the extremity of the usually spinous 
branches. The wood is red, tinged with orange 
and black, so heavy as to sink in water, and 
susceptible of receiving a good polish; and it 
yields an extract much used in dyeing. (See 
Dyes). Though cultivated to some extent in 
Jamaica, the logwood of commerce is chiefly 
obtained from Honduras, where the cutting of 
it forms an extensive but unhealthy branch of 
business. Haiti and Santo Domingo also pro- 


612 


duce much. The finest kind comes from Cam- 
peachy, the inferior qualities from Honduras 
and trom Jamaica, to which island it is not 


indigenous although it grows abundantly since 


its introduction. In the preparation of this 
wood for use, the trees, which are 20 to 50 feet 
high, are cut down, the bark and alburnum re- 
moved and the hard centre parts cut up into 
three-foot logs. It is afterward hewn into 
much smaller pieces, and ground or rasped to 
small chips. The aqueous extract is muddy 
and of a reddish-brown color. By acids the red 
color is made paler; by alkalis it is converted 
to purple. Salts of iron, aluminum and lead 
give precipitates of a blue, violet or purple 
color. Logwood is chiefly consumed in dyeing 
cotton cloth, silk, wool and leather; by mor- 
danting the fabric with iron, black is produced; 
with alumina, violet and lilac; with copper, 
blue; and with chromium, a black or green — 
the exact tint depending on the composition of 
the mordants and logwood liquors, and the 
mode of application. The coloring power of 
logwood depends chiefly on a crystalline in- 
gredient called hematoxylin (q.v.). In: medi- 
cine both the extract and the decoction of 
logwood are used to some extent. The former 
is prepared by exhausting the wood with boil- 
ing water, filtering and evaporating to a thick- 
ish syrup; the latter is the water extract of 
the wood along with some cinnamon. Both are 
used as astringents in diarrhoea and dysentery. 


LOHE, 1é’8, Johann Konrad Wilhelm, 
German divine and philanthropist: b. Furth, 
near Nuremberg, 21 Feb. 1808; d. Nuremberg, 
2 Jan. 1872. He received his education at the 
universities of Erlangen and Berlin and in 1831 
was appointed vicar at Kirchenlamitz. Here 
his fervent evangelical preaching won him gen- 
eral attention and also caused his removal by 
the authorities on a charge of mysticism. A 
similar experience awaited him at Saint Egidia, 
Nuremberg; in 1837 he became pastor at Neu- 
endettelsau, where his work transformed the 
community and made his name and fame inter- 
national. Fearing spiritual dangers for the 
Germans emigrating to the United States he 
founded two missionary training houses- for 
them. He founded the Lutheran Society of 
Home Missions in 1849 and an institution of 
deaconesses in 1853. He also founded a lunatic 
asylum, a Magdalen refuge and hospitals. He 
was a forceful preacher, being gifted with a 
fine physical presence and a powerful voice. 
He wrote ‘Sieben Predigten? (1836); ‘Sieben 
Vortrage uber die Worte Jesu am Kreuze? 
(1859) and other volumes of sermons; also 
‘Samenk6rner des Gebets? (36th ed., 1899); 
‘Drei Biicher von der Kirche? (1845; 4th ed., 
1904) ; “Von der weiblichen Einfalt? (13th ed., 
1903). Consult Deinzer, J., ‘Wilhelm Lohes 
Leben” (3 vols., Giitersloh 1873; 3d ed., Nurem- 
berg 1901). 


LOHENGRIN, 16’én-grén, a romantic opera 
in three acts, both music and words by Richard 
Wagner ; first performed at Weimar, Germany, 
on 28 Aug. 1850; first production in America, 
3 April 1871, at the Stadt Theatre, New York; 
in London, 1875. In this, perhaps the most 
popular of all his operas, Wagner draws his 
material from the old 13th century legend of 
the Holy Grail. The scene is laid near Antwerp, 


LOHE — LOIGNY 


early in the 10th century. The German suze- 
rarn, King Henry (the Fowler) has arrived 
to levy troops, and finds a general commotion. 
Count Frederick of Telramund accuses the fair 
Elsa of Brabant of having killed her young 
brother, Godfrey, heir to the late Duke of 
Brabant, who had left the two children in 
Telramund’s charge. The latter has married 
Ortrud of Friesland and lays claim to the 
duchy of. Brabant. Elsa is innocent of the 
crime imputed to her and declares that her 
brother was taken away. The king resolves 
to decide the case by a tourney or ordeal by 
combat, in which Telramtnd must fight any 
champion who may take up the gauntlet on 
behalf of Elsa. The latter has no champion; in 
strong faith she tells of a heavenly knight she 
had dreamed of who would come to her aid, 
and publicly declares she will bestow her hand 
and crown upon her defender. In answer to 
her prayer a boat drawn by a swan appears on 
the water, bearing a gallant knight in silver 
armor. He agrees to fight for her on two 
conditions — that she -shall marry him, and 
never ask his name, to both of which Elsa 
pledges herself. Telramund is quickly thrown 
in the contest, but the knight spares his life. 
Telramund and his wife are both outlawed; it is 
she in fact who has stolen the boy and then told 
her husband that she had witnessed his murder 
by Elsa. Seeking revenge, Ortrud appeals to 
Elsa's sympathy and fills the girl’s mind with 
suspicions about her lover. The knight and 
Elsa are married, in which scene occurs the 
famous wedding march. In the third act the 
couple are alone when Elsa, prompted by the 
incitements of Ortrud, asks her husband the 
fatal question. Telramund bursts into the 
room, sword in hand, but is stricken down dead 
by the knight, who now leads his wife before 
the king and announces that she has broken her 
pledge; he must now divulge his name and 
leave her forever. He proclaims himself to be 
Lohengrin, the son of Percival, and a knight 
of the Holy Grail. The swan reappears with 
the boat; when Ortrud declares that she had 
changed young Godfrey into a swan by sorcery. 
Lohengrin utters a prayer — the swan changes 
again into the missing boy; Lohengrin glides 
away in the boat— drawn by a dove, and Elsa 
falls broken-hearted in her brother’s arms. 


LOHSE, 106’zé, Otto, German orchestral 
leader: b. Dresden, 1859. He received his 
artistic training under Draeseke, Willner, 


Griitsmacher and Richter at the Dresden Con- 
servatory of Music. In 1877-79 he was cellist 
in the Court Orchestra at Dresden and in 1880- 
82 was piano teacher at the Vilna Imperial 
Music School. Subsequently he was conductor 
of the Wagner Society of Riga where in 1889. 
he was made conductor of the new Municipal 
Theatre. Four years later he was made first 
conductor of the Hamburg opera. In 1895-97 
he made a tour of the United States as con- 
ductor of Damrosch’s German Opera Company. 
In 1897-1904 he was general musical director 
at Strassburg and in the latter year removed 
to a similar post at Cologne. 


LOIGNY, lwa’nyé’, France, village in the 
department bf Eure-et- ‘Loir, 43 miles south by 
west of Paris. It was the scene of a battle 
during the Franco-Prussian War, on 2 Dec. 


LOIR — 


1870. The Grand Duke of Mecklenburg gained 
a great victory over the French under Chanzy. 
The French lost 15,000 in killed, wounded and 
prisoners and the "Germans 4,200. The Ger- 
mans as a result of the victory at Loigny were 
enabled to move on Orleans, which soon after- 
ward fell into their hands. 


LOIR, lIwar, France, a river which rises 
in Eure-et-Loir, flows southwest for a distance 
of 186 miles and debouches into the Sarthe. 
It has been rendered navigable for a total dis- 
tance of about 70 miles. 


LOIRE, Iwar’ (anc. Liger), France, the 
largest river of the country, dividing it into two 
nearly equal portions. It rises on the western 
slope of the Cévennes, in the department of 
Ardéche, and flows generally northwest and 
west to its outlet in the Bay of Biscay below 
Nantes. Its principal affluents on the right are 
the Arroux, Niévre, Maine, etc.; on the left 
the Allier, Vienne, Cher, Indre, etc. Below 
Nantes, it is more a tidal estuary than a river, 
and is studded with islets. Above Nantes navi- 
gation is much impeded by shallows. Its whole 
course is about 645 miles, of which about 450 
miles are navigable. The river is subject to 
disastrous inundations, and dikes (levées) 
have been constructed along its course. It is 
connected by canals with the Saone, Seine and 
Vilaine. 


LOISY, lwa-sé’, Alfred Firmin, French 
ecclesiastic and exegete: b. Ambriéres 
(Marne), 28 Feb. 1857. Of peasant extraction, 
he attended the school of his native village. 
Two prizes, one in history and one in orthog- 
-raphy, which he received in his last year at 
school (1868), drew attention to him and led 
to his being sent to the college at Vitry. The 
Franco-Prussian War interrupted his studies 
and returned him to his family; but in October 
of the following year we find him back at col- 
lege, this time, however; at Saint Dizier. Dur- 
ing a religious retreat he conceived the desire 
of becoming a priest and, rather against the 
wishes of his family, entered the Grand_Sémi- 
naire of Chalons-sur-Marne, without taking his 
degree. Among his instructors was Abbé 
Ludot, who fell under the suspicion of insinu- 
ating into his students the ideas of Montalem- 
bert and Lacordaire. In November 1878, after 
he had been ordained subdeacon, Loisy was 
designated by his bishop, Monsignor Meignan 
of Chalons, later cardinal-archbishop of. Tours, 
to continue his studies in the newly organized 
Institut Catholique in Paris. He did not, how- 
ever, enter into the spirit of the new founda- 
tion, and in less than two months returned to 
his seminary at Chalons, where in June of the 
next year (1879) he was ordained by special 
papal dispensation a priest in the 23d year of 
his age, and at once appointed curé of Broussy- 
le-Grand and later of Landricourt, the latter 
quite near his native Ambriéres. Academic 
studies being more to his liking, however, than 
parochial duties in a small curacy, Loisy ob- 
tained the permission of his diocesan to resume 
his interrupted course at the Institut Catho- 
lique. Here he threw himself with such ardor 
into the study of Hebrew and Biblical exegesis 
that in little more than a year he was given a 
lectureship in Hebrew, to which was added in 
1883 a course in Old Testament exegesis based 
directly on the Hebrew text, and in 1886 still 


LOISY 613 


another in Assyriology. All the while he was 
engaged on his own dissertation for the doc- 
torate (‘Histoire du Canon de |’Ancien Tes- 
tament?), which was published in 1890, AI- 
ready therein he exhibits a bias toward the new 
Scriptural criticism which later on was defined 
by papal encyclicals as “Modernism.” The 
tendency was so marked in his next work, “Les 
mythes Chaldéens de la création et du déluge” 
(1892), that the seminarians of Saint Sulpice 
were forbidden to attend his lectures. His dis- 
missal from the Institut followed the appear- 
ance of a number of articles of adjudged 
modernistic trend in the L’Enseirgnement bib- 
lique, a bi-monthly, written throughout and 
published by himself. This publication he 
voluntarily suppressed shortly thereafter on the 
issuance of the encyclical “Providentissimus 
Deus” of Pope Leo XIII, which condemned 
the very critical views championed by Loisy. 
A retirement for the next five years to the 
chaplaincy of a girls’ school at Neuilly-sur- 
Seine, under; the direction of a convent of 
Dominican nuns, afforded Loisy the necessary 
leisure to perfect his apologetic method and 
prepare for his weighty articles in the Revue 
@histoire et de littérature religieuse and the 
Revue du clergé francas under various pseu- 
donyms, until, after the appearance in the 
latter of the first of a series of articles on “La 
religion @Israel (October 1900), Cardinal 
Richard forbade their acceptance. Separated 
from the Institut and denied the clerical jour- 
nals, Loisy asked and obtained leave from the 
Minister of Instruction to give courses in the 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, which he continued 
until 1904. The works of Loisy which brought 
him most sharply in conflict with the Church 
were ‘La Religion d’Israel? (1901); ‘Etudes 
évangéliques? (1902); ‘L’Evangile et l’Eglise> 
(1902, Eng. trans. 1903) : ‘Autour d’un petit 
livre? (1903), an elaboration of the views ex- 
pressed in the preceding work; and ‘Le quat- 
rieme Evangile? (1903). All these books were 
condemned by the Congregation of the Index 
on 4 Dec. 1903.. Five: years later he was ex- 
communicated. on the publication of ‘Les 
Evangiles. synoptiques.? ‘He thereupon ceased 
the attempts he had previously made at recon- 
ciliation with the Church, discarded the clerical 
garb and accepted the chair of history of reli- 
gions in the Collége de France. Among the 
modernistic, French clergy in the last decade of 
the 19th century and the first of the 20th Loisy 
was the: very, storm.centre of the movement, 
carrying its critical exegesis to the logical con- 
clusion of denying to, the Church all vestige of 
dogmatic magisterium in the traditional sense. 
Yet. throughout:the whole period of his most 
active participation in the movement, at least 
up to the moment of his formal excommunica- 
tion, he stoutly maintained his devotion to the 
See of. Peter and the Church for which it 
stands, ‘Catholique _jétats, catholique — je 
reste, he wrote to Bailey Saunders in 1904 
(“Quelques Lettres). D:> Zl).yo@ut me.adds; 
“Critique jétais, critique je reste.” His friends 
and foes alike, both within his communion and 
without it, expressed surprise at this attitude. 
Yet it was not that he was merely straddling 
the fence. His anomalous position is perhaps 
understandable from the nature of his reply in 
“L’Evangile et lEglise? to Harnack’s ‘Wesen 
des Christentums.? Against the ultra-Protest- 


614 


antism of Harnack that the essence of Chris- 
tianity, being the interior and individual reali- 
zation of God in the human soul, does at the 
present time not only not need an organized 
church, which, at all events has deteriorated 
from its pristine purity, but is perhaps better 
off without it, Loisy strenuously maintained 
the necessity of the church’s being a genuine 
organization, with all hierarchic and governing 
machinery, with sacraments and means of 
grace, ordained by God and directed by Him, 
whose specific function it is to mediate God 
to the inward man, of course, but to mediate 
Him through externalities and symbols, and 
whose function thus to mediate God ever be- 
comes more perfect. Harnack conceives the 
transformations through which the Church has 
past under the metaphor of a stream issuing 
from a pure fountain, but becoming polluted 
by the soils through which it flows and discol- 
ored and vitiated by the tributaries that pour 
into it; Loisy, who claimed to regard the de- 
velopment of the Church in the same light as 
Newman did, looks upon these transformations 
as necessary and inevitable, as much so as those 
of a tree from the seed. But he leaves Rome 
when he refuses to admit that this Church was 
really founded by Christ in the form it later 
assumed. Rather he regards it as the eschat- 
ological “kingdom,” which in the designs of 
God was to become the repository of faith by 
a process of development, but which the his- 
torical Jesus of the Gospels, when that narra- 
tive is stripped of later Christian accretions, 
knew naught of, nor could know aught of, be- 
cause He was unconscious of divine consub- 
stantiality with the Father and assumed the 
Messianic role only in the sense in which it 
was understood by the Jews of His time. It 
was only with the Council of Nicea that Jesus 
was recognized to be, in the words of its 
Creed, “true ‘God of true God; begotten not 
made: consubstantial with the Father.» With 
this explanation of the development of the 
Gospel, Loisy was prepared to accept the whole 
authoritative teaching of the Roman Catholic 
Church. The objection usually brought against 
Loisy’s method of apologetics, by Catholic as 
well as Protestant opponents, is that, whereas 
he professes to be a historical critic, he is 
rather a rationalistic philosopher; that instead 
of reasoning from critically authenticated facts 
of history, he puts reason above history, 
whence too readily that which is thought to 
be counter to reason is necessarily assumed to 
be unhistorical and fictitious. 

Bibliography.— A sympathetic biographical 
sketch is furnished by Alfred Détrez, ‘“L’Abbé 
Loisy: Biographie critique, etc.» (1909) con- 
taining a bibliography of Loisy’s books and 
principal articles, and some critical references. 
Fair but adverse criticisms of Loisy’s views 
may be found in Sterrett, J. M., ‘The Freedom 
of Authority? (1905) and Lepin, M., ‘Les Thé- 
ories de M. Loisy: Exposé et Critique? (1909). 
Consult also Pesch, C., ‘Theologische Zeit- 
fragen? (4 Folge, 1908); Lilley, A. L., ‘“Mod- 
ernism? (1908); Bampton, J. M., ‘Modernism 
and Modern Thought? (1914); Gisler, A., 
“Modernismus? (2d ed., 1912). 


Francis J. HEMELT, 


Associate Professor of English Language and 
Literature, Catholic University of America. 


LOJA— LOKMAN 


LOJA, lo’ha, or LOXA, Ecuador, capital 
of the province of the same name, situated 
near the southern frontier of the republic, in a 
beautiful valley and at an elevation of nearly 
7,000 feet. The climate is moderate, due to the 
great elevation. The city has a cathedral and 
a college. Its industrial establishments are 
limited to woolen mills. Gold, silver and cop- 
per are mined in the vicinity; stock raising is 
carried on with success and cereals, sugar, 
cotton and tobacco are grown in the surround- 
ing district, giving the city a large trade in 
these articles and their products. Alonzo de 
ae founded Loja in 1546. Pop. about 


LOJA, or LOXA, Spain, town in the 
province of Granada, situated 30 miles west of 
the city of that name, on the Genil, and on the 
Granada-Algeciras Railway. The town is built 
on the slope of a hill atop which is a Moorish 
citadel. It contains two ancient churches and 
a modern ducal palace. Coarse woolens, 
leather, paper and silk are manufactured. 
Loja was a place of great military importance 
during the struggle with the Moors and was 
strongly fortified by the latter, being one of the 
two keys to Granada. Loja is first mentioned 
in Arab chronicles of 890 a.p. It was taken 
by Ferdinand III in 1226; was afterward 
abandoned, fell to the Moors, who lost it to 
Ferdinand and Isabella after a siege on 28 
May 1486. A fine Moorish bridge and many 
ancient dwellings were destroyed by the earth- 
quake of December 1884. Pop. 18,900, 


LOKEREN, 10’kér-én, Belgium, town in 
the province of East Flanders, situated at the 
southern end of the district called Pays de 
Waes, on the Durme, 20 miles south of Ant- 
werp. It contains a fine church dedicated to 
Saint Laurent, is well built and has manufac- 
tures of cottons, damasks, chemicals, linen. and 
tobacco. The neighboring region until 1830 or 
thereabouts was merely a sandy moorland, but 
has been rendered one of the most fertile re- 
gions of Belgium, producing grain, hemp and 
flax, in which articles the town has a large 
trade. Lokeren, like other towns of Belgium, 
suffered severely from the German invasion 
and occupation (1914-18). The machinery of 
its factories was either destroyed or trans- 
ported to Germany, its industries being thus de- 
stroyed. Pop. 22,600. 


LOKI, 10’ké, in mythology, the god of 
strife and spirit of evil. He artfully contrived 
the death of Balder, when Odin had forbidden 
everything that springs “from fire, air, earth 
and water” to injure him. The mistletoe, not 
being included, was made into an arrow, given 
to the blind Hoder, and shot at random; but 
it struck the beautiful Balder and killed him. 
This evil being was. subsequently chained with 
10 chains, and will so continue till the twilight 
of the gods appears, when he will break his 
bonds; then will the heavens disappear, the 
earth be swallowed up by the sea, fire shall con- 
sume the elements, and even Odin, with all 
his kindred deities, shall perish. 


LOKMAN, 16k-man’; a name that figures 
in the proverbs and traditions of the Arabians. 
According to tradition Lokman was a scion 
from the stock of Ad, and was once sent with 
a caravan from Ethiopia to Mecca to pray for 


LOLA MONTEZ —LOLOS 


rain in a time of great drought. But God’s 
anger destroyed the whole family of Ad except 
Lokman, the only righteous one, whereupon 
the Creator of the world gave him his choice 
to live as long as the dung of seven gazelles, 
which lay in an inaccessible hole in a mountain, 
should last, or for a period equal to the lives 
of seven successive vultures. Lokman chose 
the last, and lived for an almost incalculable 
length of time. The fables bearing the name 
of Lokman were for the first time made known 
to Europe through the press in 1615. They 
were first published in Arabic, with a Latin 
translation, were afterward appended to an 
Arabic grammar, published by Erpenius at 
Leyden, and have since gone through many 
editions. The most complete manuscript of the 
fables of \Lokman is in the library of the Vati- 
can, in Persian. 


LOLA MONTEZ. See Montez, Lota. 
LOLACH. See LeEpmposiren. 


LOLIEE, 1d'lya’, Frédéric Auguste, French 
essayist and critic: b. 1856. Always devoted 
to literature he has written a great number of 
works the majority of which deal with com- 
parative literature. He has been the recipient 
of several prizes from the French Academy. 
Among his principal works are “Nos gens de 
lettres? (1887); “Le paradoxe? (1888); ‘Les 
immoraux? (1891); ‘Dictionnaire des écrivains 
et des littératures» (1897); ‘Histoire des lit- 
tératures comparées? (1905; Spanish and 
English translations) ; ‘Les femmes du Second 
Empire? (1906; English: and German transla- 
tions); ‘La comédie francaise, histoire de la 
maison de Moliére? (1906); “La féte impé- 
riale’ (1907; English and German _transla- 
tions); ‘La vie d’une impératrice? (1908; Eng- 
lish and German translations); ‘La comtesse 
de Castiglione? (1912). 


LOLLARDISM, lo6l’ar-dizm, in Great 
Britain, the tenets of the followers of John 
Wyclif. The views of Wyclif underwent a 
process of development as his researches and 
experience extended, and were by no means 
the same at all periods of his life. In so far 
as they departed from Roman Catholicism, 
they approached and, in some cases, went be- 
yond what subsequently became the doctrine 
and discipline of Calvinism or Puritanism, 
commingled with an antagonistic element, 
Erastianism; in a large measure they reconciled 
the English people later to the establishment 
of the Reformation. Among the articles pro- 
nounced “heretical” by an assembly of ecclesi- 
astical notables, convened in London in 1382 
by William Courtnay, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, were these: 

““1. That the substance of material bread and wine doth 
remain in the Sacrament of the Altar after consecration. 

“3. That Christ is not in the Sacrament of the Altar 
truly and really in His proper corporeal person. 

That if a man be only contrite, all exterior confes- 
sion is to him superfluous and invalid. 

“7. That it hath no foundation in the Gospel that Christ 
did ordain the mass. 

‘8. That if the Pope be a reprobate and an evil man, 
and consequently a member of the devil, he hath no power 
over the faithful of Christ given to him by any, unless, per- 
adventure, it be given him by the emperor. 

“9. That after Urban VI. none other is to be received 
as Pope, but that Christendom ought to live after the man- 
ner of the Greeks under its own laws. 


‘10. That it is against the sacred Scriptures that eccle- 
siastical persons should have any temporal position.”’ 


615 


Among 14 articles adjudged to be “erro- 
neous” were the following: 


“13. That a prelate or bishop excommunicating a cleric 
who hath appealed to the king or the council of the realm, 
in doing so is a traitor to the king and the realm. 

“15. That it is lawful for any deacon or presbyter to 
preach the Word of God, without the authority or license 
of the Apostolic See, or of a Catholic bishop or of any other 
recognized authority. 

‘17. Also that temporal lords may at will take away 

their ioeg 7 Beda goods from churches habitually delinquent. 

That tithes are pure alms, and that parishioners 

may a the offenses of their curates detain them, and bestow 

them on others at pleasure, and that tenants may correct 
delinquent landlords at will. 

“24. That friars are bound to get their living by the labor 
of their hands, and not by begging. 


Consult Gairdner, J.,. ‘Lollardy and the 
Reformation in England? (3 vols., London 
1908-11) ; Powell and Trevelyan, ‘The Peas- 
ants’ Rising and the Lollards» (London 1899). 


LOLLARDS, 16l’ardz, a name which arose 
in the Netherlands in the 14th century, and 
which during that and the following century 
was applied. somewhat indiscriminately as a 
term of contempt to various sects or fraterni- 
ties deemed heretical by the Roman Catholic 
Church. Different accounts are given of the 
derivation of the name. According to one 
opinion the name was first applied to a frater- 
nity formed about the year 1300 at Antwerp, 
the. members of which devoted themselves to 
the care of the sick and the burial of the dead, 
and were called Lollards. from the Low German 
lollen or lullen, meaning to sing in a low tone, 
from. the subdued and plaintive dirges that they 
were in the practice of singing while accom- 
panying dead bodies to the grave. According 
to another opinion the name was first bestowed 
upon the followers of one Walter Lollard, who 
preached peculiar doctrines both in England 
and on the Continent between 1315 and 1322, 
till in the latter year he was burned as a here- 
tic. Whatever may have been the origin of 
the name, it became well known in England 
about the end of the 14th century, when it was 
applied to the followers of Wyclif. See Lot- 
LARDISM ; WYCLIF. 


LOLOS, 106’lés, an ancient people, so called 
by their neighbors, holding a large, mountain- 
ous territory in the western edge of Sze- 
Chouan, China, and hitherto almost unknown, 
by reason of their savage exclusiveness. They 
formerly occupied, with the Miao-tze (q.v.) 
and other primitive tribes, an extensive region 
in southwestern China conquered from the local 
autocthones; but they were themselves con- 
quered by the Chinese in Yunnan in the 14th 
century, and more completely subjugated about 
1727 by the Manchu power. A part of the Lolos 
then succumbed to circumstances and remained 
in Yunnan, where they still form a large but 
humble part of the population. Great num- 
bers of the tribe, however, migrated to the 
wild, elevated region in western Sze-Chouan 
between the Blue River (Yang-tze Kiang) and 
the Great Snowy Mountains along the border 
of Tibet, where they set up a community of 
independent clans with a feudal social system. 
Their hereditary chiefs, however, were orig- 
inally appointed by China, and acknowledge 
vassalage to China, although refusing admis- 
sion to their country, or any sort of obedience, 
to Chinese officials. They go boldly among the 
Chinese — are in fact great wanderers; but no 
stranger is oa to enter Lolo territory 


616 


except by arrangement with a native prince who 
will guarantee his good behavior and. final 
exit. It was only by accommodating himself 
tactfully to this custom that Vicomte D’Ollone, 
to whom we owe most of our knowledge of this 
secluded race, was enabled to travel in Lolo 
Land. 

The Lolos are in race allied to the eastern 

Tibetans. They are tall and powerfully built, 
most of the men exceeding six feet in height; 
have straight, vigorous forms, a complexion 
resembling that of a swarthy Greek or South 
Italian, with the eyes large and protected by 
well-arched eyebrows, the nose aquiline, the 
mouth shapely, and a self-assured expression 
and demeanor. Their country has a cold and 
stormy climate, and the dress of the men is 
much like that of the Chinese, but each man 
carries habitually a mantle of thick felt which 
is his wrapping by day and his bed by night. 
The women are tall, with regular, often hand- 
some features, and a frank and cheerful dis- 
position, and wear garments singularly like the 
ordinary dress of European women, often of 
rich materials procured from the Chinese. 
Their hair is tastefully arranged, and covered 
out of doors by a silken turban. The serving 
class is, of course, much more simply appareled. 
Soldiers wear a kind of armor, and carry 
swords, lances and bows, with a few in pos- 
session of poor guns. They travel and fight 
mainly on horseback, and are skilful riders on 
their small, tough horses. 
_. The social system is purely feudal. A 
powerful family has attached to it a group of 
hereditary serfs that attend to the simple farm- 
ing and care of livestock, of which a large 
amount is kept, including pigs and chickens. 
They are assisted by slaves. These slaves are 
the captives of war-raids, or their descendants; 
and after a few generations they become serfs; 
but nowadays few slaves can be captured. A 
group of the landholding “lords” are united in 
vassalage to some one of the several heredi- 
tary “princes” that exercise some sort of con- 
trol of certain large districts, and are fre- 
quently at war with each other. The feudal 
lords replenish their wealth by raids on their 
neighbors, by payments from Chinese for the 
privilege of going into the Lolo country to 
obtain timber, minerals, furs, the eggs of the 
wax-insect, etc. The country abounds in coal, 
copper and precious minerals, but mining 
ceased with the expulsion of the Chinese since 
about 1906. 

The Lolos, despite the fine personal fea- 
tures described, and a respectable body of laws, 
formalities and courtesies, are without much 
civilization. They have no roads or bridges or 
wheeled vehicles, and almost no industry or 
trade among themselves. Their best houses 
even are the rudest of plank-built huts, and 
contain no furniture except some chests and 
cupboards; in the centre is a stone fireplace, the 
smoke from which escapes where the rain 
comes in, for the roof is simply unmatched 
boards held in place by big stones. Around 
the lord’s house are clustered the even worse 
huts of his servants, and the whole is usually 
enclosed by a defensive wall, for robber-raids 
are frequent. The villages are walled. Rice 
is cultivated in the valleys where irrigation is 
possible, and elsewhere oats, barley, buckwheat 
and potatoes. The low degree of social cul- 


LOMAMI — LOMAX 


ture is a result of isolation and. hardships, 
rather than of stupidity, for in old times. the 


Lolos had the art of writing, which seems: to 


have been general among them, . using the 
equivalent of very ancient Chinese characters. 
Certain nobles and a class of learned. men 
among them still preserve and copy ancient 
manuscripts of a genealogical and religious 
nature; and many such documents are sacredly 
guarded in Lolo communities in Yunnan, where 
carved inscriptions in the Lolo language may be 
found. A collection of these literary relics 
was taken to France by the D’Ollone expedi- 
tion, and a French-Lolo dictionary has been 
compiled. French missionaries have reached 
the independent Lolos, and interested them in 
Western knowledge; and preparations are mak- 
ing, with the help of one of the most influential 
“princes,” to express their language in Roman 
letters, and to print books for these benighted 
but quick-witted people, to whose many ster- 
ling qualities every European who has become 
acquainted with them willingly testifies: A 
period of regeneration therefore seems to be at 
hand for the Lolo race. Consult Davies, R. 
H., ‘Yunnan, the Link between India and: the 
Yanktze? (London 1909); D’Ollone, Vicomte, 
‘In Forbidden China? (Eng. trans. by B. 
Miall, Boston 1913); Andrews, R. C. and Y. 
Se Bee and Trails in China? (New York 
1918). ; 


LOMAMI, 16-ma’mé, Kongo Free State, a 
navigable river of Central Africa which rises 
near Kazaidi (Msoa), and after flowing almost 
parallel with the upper course of the Kongo 
River enters the latter at Isangui several miles 
below Stanley Falls. 


LOMAX, John Avery, American folklor- 
ist: ‘b. Goodman, Miss., 23 Sept. 1870. In 1897 
he was graduated at the University of Texas 
and subsequently studied at the universities of — 
Harvard and Chicago. He was instructor 
and associate professor of English at the Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College of Texas from 
1903 to 1910 and became secretary of the Uni- 
versity of Texas in 1910. He is well known as 
a lecturer on American folklore and folk- 
songs; is member of the Modern Language As- 
sociation of America and was president of the 
American Folklore Society in 1912 and in 1913. 
He is one of the founders of the Texas Folk- 
lore Society. He has published ‘Cowboy 
Songs? (1911); ‘The Book of. Texas, with 
H. Y. Benedict (1916); ‘Plantation Songs of 
the Negro (1916). 


LOMAX, Lunsford Lindsay, American 
soldier: b. Newport, R. I., 1835; d. 1913. ° His 
father was an army officer of a Virginia 
family. Young Lomax was graduated at West 
Point (1856) and assigned to a cavalry regi- 
ment. He served on the frontier until Virginia 
seceded when he resigned and entered the 
Confederate army as captain. 'He served as a 
staff officer under Joseph E. Johnston in 1861, 
and in the West under McCulloch and Van 
Dorn (1862). While with the Western armies 
he was engaged in the battles of Pea Ridge, 
Shiloh and Baton Rouge. From 1863 to 1865 
Lomax held a cavalry command in Lee’s army 
and took part in all the great battles.. He 
reached the rank of major-general in 1864. 
When Lee surrendered, Lomax escaped to 
Johnston in North Carolina with whom he sur- 


LOMBARD — LOMBROSO 


redered. After the war he engaged in farm- 
ing in Caroline County, Va., until 1889, when he 
became president of the Virginia Polytechnic 
Institute. He was afterward engaged in com- 
piling the official war records at Washington 
and served as a member of the Gettysburg 
Battlefield Park Commission. 


LOMBARD, l6m’bard, Peter, also known 
under his Latinized name, Perrus LoMBARDUS, 
Italian theologian: b. Lugelogno, near Novara, 
Lombardy, about 1100; d. Paris, 20 July 1164. 
He was a scholar of Abélard, and traditionally 
the first doctor of the University of Paris. He 
then became a teacher of theology, and in 1159 
bishop of Paris. In his ‘Sententiarum Libri 
Quatuor,’? which became the subject of almost 
countless commentaries, and until the Reforma- 
tion had almost classical authority among theo- 
logians, he placed the opinions of the Fathers, 
particularly Augustine, in regard to doctrines 
under certain titles, and then stated the ob- 
jections made to them and the answers given by 
Church authorities, but without offering any 
judgment of his own. The name of his work 
has given him the surname of Master of Sen- 
tences. Consult ‘Life» by Protois (1881). 


LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


LOMBARD COLLEGE, a coeducational 
institution founded, in 1851, in Galesburg, IIL, 
under the auspices of the Universalists. In 
1917 there were connected with the school 27 
instructors and 234 students. The library con- 
tains about 8,000 volumes. It has a preparatory 
department and a classical department. The 
degree A.B. is conferred on those completing 
the classical course. 


LOMBARD STREET, a short street in 
London, which received its name from having 
been the residence of the Lombards, the first 
bankers of modern Europe, who’ began to flour- 
ish in the 12th and 13th centuries, and whose 
usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
It is now chiefly occupied by bankers, and is a 
place of much importance in the London com- 
mercial world. It is the English equivalent of 
Wall street. 


LOMBARDS, LONGOBARDI, or LAN- 
GOBARDI, a Germanic or Teutonic people 
who at the beginning of the Christian era were 
dwelling on the lower Elbe. They make little 
. appearance in history till the 6th century, when, 
under their king, Albion, they entered Italy in 
April 568, and, with the help of Saxons and 
others, conquered the northern portion, which 
hence received the name of Lombardy. From 
713 to 744 the Lombards had a powerful king 
in the person of Liutprant, who extended his 
sway, at least temporarily, over the whole of 
Italy. From that time the power of the Lom- 
bards gradually declined, and finally Char- 
lemagne captured Pavia after a six months’ 
siege, and put an end to the Lombard kingdom 
(773 or 774), the last monarch being Desiderius. 


LOMBARDY, 16m’bar-di, Italy, that part 
of upper Italy between the Alps and the Po, 
with Venice on the east and Piedmont on the 
west. it formed an ancient kingdom, now a 
northern compartimento embracing the eight 
provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, 
Mantua, Milan, Pavia and Sondrio, with an 


See 


617 


aggregate area of 9,299 square miles and a 
population in 1911 of 4,790,473. Lombardy took 
its name from the Longobardi or Lombards. 
(See LompaArns). Herding is a thriving indus- 
try on the mountains; on the lower slopes 
vines, fruit trees and silkworms are cultivated; 
on the plains rice and maize are among the 
principal crops. Linen and cotton are among 
the manufactures, also motor cars and accesso- 
ries. After the fall of the Lombard kingdom 
(774) this territory remained attached to the 
empire of Charlemagne and his successors till 
843, when an independent kingdom arose, though 
before its end (961) it had broken up into a 
number of independent duchies and civic repub- 
lics. They successfully resisted the attempts of 
the Emperors Frederick I and II to curtail their 
liberties, and defeated them in battle. Freed 
from external danger, they quarreled among 
themselves, and the country was for many 
years more or less an object of contention be- 
tween the king of France and the emperor. 
The last named having won, Lombardy passed 
through Chatles V to Spain (1535) which held 
possession until 1713, when Austria acquired 
the duchies of Mantua and Milan. The 
provinces were then called Austrian Lombardy, 
a name which they retained till Napoleon 
formed in 1797 out of them and other districts 
the Cisalpine, afterward the @lian, Republic, 
and at last, in 1805, the kingdom of Italy. By 
the Peace of Paris, 1814, and the act of the 
Congress of Vienna, 1815, Austria received 
back its old Lombard possessions; but in con- 
sequence of the war of 1859 was ‘compelled to 
cede them to Victor Emmanuel, king of Sar- 
dinia, by the Peace of Ztirich, and in 1861 they 
became part of the new kingdom of Italy. 


LOMBOK, Dutch East Indies, one of the 
Lesser Sunda Islands, east of Java, between 
Bali on the west and Sumbawa on the east. 
Area, 3,136 square miles. The island is moun- 
tainous and of volcanic origin. Between the 
two ranges which traverse the island, one of 
them rising to the height of 11,800 feet, there 
is a plain fertile in rice, cotton, maize, coffee 
and tobacco. The upper and former ruling 
class are Brahmans, and the mass of the peo- 
ple of Malay extraction are Mohammedans. 
The capital, Mataram, on the west coast, was 
bombarded in 1894 by a Dutch expedition, since 
when the island is administered by the Dutch 
resident on Baili, with which it is conjoined 
for administrative purposes. Pop. about 400,- 
000. 


LOMBROSO, 16m-br6-z6, Cesare, Italian 
criminologist, the founder of the’ science of 
criminology: b. (of Jewish parents) .Verona, 
1836; d. Turin, 19 Oct. 1909. He developed 
early, and was writing on learned subjects be- 
fore he was out of boyhood. He was educated 
at Paris, Padua, and in 1862 he was ap- 
pointed professor of psychiatry at Pavia. In 
1872 he made the important discovery that 
pellagra, a disease that affects the Italian 
peasantry, is caused by diseased maize. He 
became widely known through his investiga- 
tions of the abnormal human being, and spent 
much time in minute measurements of criminal 
types. His theories encountered great opposi- 
tion, and are not yet entirely accepted; but they 
formed in part the basis for the present crimi- 
nal anthropology. He looked on genius as a 


618 


form of degeneracy; and criminality as mark- 
ing a reversion to an earlier type and as 
largely the product of nervous disease. He 
was the author of numerous works including 
‘The Criminal? (1887-95); ‘The Man of 
Genius? (1890; Eng. trans. 1891); ‘The 
Anarchists? (1895); ‘The Causes of and Con- 
test against Crime? (1902); ‘After Death — 
What? (Eng. trans. 1909), and ‘The Female 
offender? (with Ferrero; Eng. trans., New 
York 1895). Consult the study by Kurella 
(1892) ; the biography by his daughter (Turin 
1906) ; and Ferrero, T. L., ‘Criminal Man ac- 
cording to the Classification of Cesare Lom- 
broso? (New York 1911). 


LOMENIE DE BRIENNE, 16'ma’né’dé 
bré’én, Etienne Charles de, French eccle- 
siastic and politician: b. Paris, 9 Oct. 1727; d. 
16° Feb. 1794. He entered the Church, in order 
to facilitate his personal advancement. He be- 
came a doctor of theology in 1751 and in the 
following year became grand vicar to the arch- 
bishop of Rouen. In 1760 he was consecrated 
bishop of Condom and three years later was 
translated to the archbishopric of Toulouse. 
He was intimate with Morellet, Turgot and 
Voltaire. He became prominent in the gen- 
eral assembly of the clergy.and took a deep 
interest in social questions. In 1770 he was 
elected to the™Academy and in 1787 became 
president of the Assembly of Notables... In the 
same year he succeeded Calonne as head of 
the Council of Finances. He was involved in 
several disputes with the Parliament, and 
finally was obliged to promise to summon the 
States-General in return for the abolition of 
Parliament. In 1788 he became archbishop of 
Sens and on 29 August of that year he was forced 
out of office. He was made cardinal 15 Dec. 
1788 and spent the following two years in Italy. 
After the outbreak of the Revolution he re- 
turned to France and subscribed to the civil 
constitution of the clergy. For this he was re- 
pudiated by the Pope. The leaders of the 
Revolution viewed his activity with suspicion in 
the light of his past political acts and had him 
arrested at Sens on 9 Nov. 1793. He died in 
prison either by poison or of an attack of apo- 
plexy. Cardinal Loménie of Brienne published 
‘Oraison funébre du Dauphin? (1766); 
“Compte-rendu au roi? (1788); ‘Le Concilia- 
teur,? with Turgot (1754): Consult Perrin, J., 
“Le Cardinal Loménie de Brienne épisodes de 
la Révolution® (Sens 1896). 


LOMOND, Loch, 16k 16-mond, Scotland, 
the largest and one of. the most beautiful of 
Scottish lakes in the counties of, Stirling and 
Dumbarton. Its length is about 24 miles; the 
breadth at the lower or southern end five miles, 
at the upper end less than half a mile. For 14 
miles from the head the breadth does not ex- 
ceed one and one-half miles. The lake is al- 
most entirely surrounded with ranges of hills; 
and its surface is studded with numerous 
islands. The principal hills are on the eastern 
side, where a branch of the Grampians culmi- 
nates in Ben Lomond, 3,192 feet high, on the 
very border of the lake. Through the glens 
intersecting the surrounding hills the drainage 
of the district flows into the lake by the Fal- 
loch, Endrick, Fruin, Luss and other streams; 
and the river Leven at the southwestern ex- 
tremity conveys the overflow to the Clyde. 


LOMENIE DE BRIENNE — LONDON 


The greatest depth is in the narrower part 
of the lake, where it reaches 623 feet. Rail- 
way steamboats ply on the loch. 


LOMONOSOV, 16-m6-no'sdf, Mikhail Vasi- 
lievich, Russian poet and man of science: b. 
Denisovka (now Lomonosov), near Archangel, 
1711; d. 1765. His father was a fisherman in 
poor circumstances and the youth’s schooling 
was confined to a few books which he almost 
committed to memory. At the age of 17 he 
decided to go to Moscow to obtain an educa- 
tion and in that city with the aid of friends 
secured admission to a school. There he lived 
in want but made rapid progress in his studies 
and in 1734 was sent to. Saint Petersburg. In 
the capital he made great progress in physical - 
science and was chosen one of the youths to be 
sent abroad to finish their education. At Mar- 
burg he studied metallurgy and subsequently 
spent two years at Freiberg. In 1739 he pub- 
lished his ‘Ode on the Taking of Khotin from 
the Turks,» which attracted great attention. 
He also wrote dramas, epigrams, etc., in the 
style of the period. In Germany Lomonosoy 
married a German girl and soon found himself 
unable to maintain his domestic establishment 
on the irregular remittances from his govern- 
ment. He left Germany secretly and in his 
native country soon rose to distinction. He 
was at first professor of chemistry in the Uni- 
versity of Saint Petersburg of which he was’ 
later made rector, and was appointed Secretary 
of State in 1764. His Russian grammar was 
long the standard work in its field and did 
much to stamp the form of the new Russian 
after its break with Church Slavonic. Per- 
haps Lomonosov’s greatest monument is the 
great University of Moscow, of which he was 
the founder and the early policy of which he 
planned. He was one of the most learned men 
in Europe. His Russian grammar is said “to 
have drawn out the plan, and his poetry to 
have built up the fabric of his native lan- 
guage” He is called “the father of Russian 
literature.” Consult the edition of his works 
issued by the Imperial Academy of Sciences (4 
vols., Saint Petersburg 1892-98); Pekarsky, 
‘History of the Academy of Sciences? (Vol. 
II, ib. 1873); the lives by P. Borzakovsky 
(Odessa 1911) and B. N. Menshutkin (Saint 
Petersburg 1911). 


LOMZA, 16m’zha, Poland, town on the 
Narew, 100 miles northeast of Warsaw. It 
contains an ancient church, a theatre, gymna- 
sium and government buildings. It formerly 
had a large trade with Prussia and Lithuania; 
was well fortified; had two citadels, but was 
several times taken by Germans, Tartars and 
Cossacks. It fell to Prussia in 1795, but in 
1807 came under the rule of Russia. In the 
Great War of 1914 a battle was fought here 
between the Germans and Russians, in which 
the latter were defeated and forced to fall 
back. In 1918 it became part of the newly 
erected Polish state. Pop. 28,000, mostly Poles 
and Jews. 


LONDON, Jack, American author: b. San 
Francisco, 12 Jan. 1876; d. Glen Ellen, Cal., 22 
Nov. 1916. He was the son of John London, 
a frontiersman, scout and trapper, who had 
come to San Francisco in 1873. His early life 


was spent on California ranches up to the age 


Building 


ion 


’s Christian Associat 


CANADA 


’ 


2 Young Men 


LONDON 


1 Normal School 


ever i - ‘a 
eden. 


yon) hg aes 


LONDON 


of nine years, when the family removed to 
Oakland, Cal. From his ninth year, with the 
exception of intermittent periods at school, his 
life was one of toil, which has been vividly 
presented to the readers of his work, for prac- 
tically all of his novels and short stories have 
a background taken from his own life. 

His experiences in youth as an oysterman 
and bayman, his long voyage on a sealing 
‘ schooner along the coast north of the Russian 
side of the Behring Sea, his many short voy- 
ages, his year of following the life of a tramp 


bent on acquiring experience and investigating - 


social and economic conditions, have all been 
brilliantly built into his many works of fiction. 
At 19 years London entered the University of 
California, but half way through his freshman 
year he had to quit for lack of money or means 
to support himself. He went to work in a 
laundry, writing in all his spare time. London 
gave up work in the laundry to go to the 
Klondike during the gold rush there in 1897. 
He was one of the few who made it in the win- 
ter of that year over Chilcoot Pass. After a 
year of unsuccessful gold seeking he fell a 
victim of the scurvy. Unable to get a home- 
bound steamer, he and two camp mates em- 
barked in an open boat for the Behring Sea. 
It was immediately upon his return to San 
Francisco that he began to turn out literature. 
More than once in his books London insisted 
that he gained his literary equipment through 
his hard life. His Alaskan experiences were 
reflected in his earlier works. He leaped into 
fame as one of the foremost young American 
authors with ‘The Call of the Wild? (1903). 
In 1904 and 1905, after the series of Alaskan 
stories had given him great fame and founded 
the school of writers who for some years after 
placed their stories in an Arctic setting, London 
went to Korea as a war. correspondent. After 
his return he settled down to produce fiction in 
amazing volume, interrupting this only for a 
number of picturesque cruises. In recent years 
he and Mrs. London had lived a large part of 
the time at Hawaii. London was the author 
of the following: ‘The Son of the Wolf? 
(1900) ; ‘The God of His Fathers? (1901); SA 
Daughter of the Snows? (1902); ‘The Chil- 
dren of the Frost? (1902); ‘The Cruise of the 
Dazzler? (1902); ‘The Faith of Men? (1904) ; 
‘The Sea Wolf? (1904); ‘The Game? (1905) ; 
“War of the Classes? (1905); ‘Tales of the 
Fish Patrol? (1905);-‘Moon Face? (1907); 
“White Fang? (1907); ‘Love of Life? (1907) ; 
“Before Adam? (1907); “Lost Face? (1909) ; 
“Martin Eden? (1909); ‘The Iron Heel? 
(1908); ‘The Road? (1908); ‘Revolution 
(1910); ‘Burning Daylight? (1910); ‘Theft? 
(1907) ; ‘When God Laughs? (1910); ‘Adven- 
ture? (1911) ; ‘The Cruise of the Snark? (1911) ; 
“Smoke Bellew (1912) ; “Night-Born? (1912) ; 
“The Abysmal Brute? (1913); ‘The Valley of 
the Moon? (1913); ‘Mutiny of the Elsinore? 
(1914); ‘The People of the Abyss (1903), 
his adventures in the East End of London; 
“The Kempton-Wace Letters? (1903) and 
“John Barleycorn, or Alcoholic Memoirs? 
(1913) ; ‘The Strength of the Strong (1914); 
‘The Scarlet Plague? (1915); ‘The Star 
Rover? (1915); ‘The Little Lady of the Big 
House? (1916); ‘Jerry? (1916); ‘The Turtles 
of Tasmar? (1916). 


619 


LONDON, Meyer, American lawyer and 
Socialist: b. Russia, 29 Dec. 1871. His early 
years were spent in southern Russia but in his 
20th year desiring to obtain a higher education, 
then impossible in Russia for a man of Jewish 
race, and being under the surveillance of the 
secret police because of his known sympathy 
with the radical elements in Russia, he emi- 
grated to the United States. He earned a pre- 
carious livelihood in New York as printer and 
cigarmaker for several years. At length he 
was engaged by the Educational Alliance and — 
there was afforded his long-sought opportunity 
of educational advancement. He studied law 
and was admitted to the bar in 1898. Estab- 
lishing his practice in New York’s great East 
Side Mr. London soon became prominent as 
counsel for labor unions, many of which he 
organized and helped to build up. In 1910 he 
helped in the settlement of the cloakmakers’ 
strike in New York by means of the industrial 
protocol. Two years later he was equally suc- 
cessful in bringing about a settlement between 
the garment workers and their employers. 
Meanwhile, Mr. London was very active on 
the East Side as a community worker and had 
become a prominent member of the Socialist 
party. He attended several of the national 
conventions of that party and in 1914 was ap- 
pointed delegate to the International Socialist 
Congress at Vienna, which, however, was not: 
held because of the outbreak of war that year. 
In November 1914, Mr. London was elected 
member of the 64th Congress from the 12th 
New York District, being the first member of 
his party in the East and the second in the 
country to be so honored. He was re-elected 
to the 65th Congress in 1916. Considerable 
criticism was directed toward his attitude to 
the many measures introduced in the House 
after the entry of the United States into the 
Great War. He voted against the declaration 
of war and against the selective service act and 
many other measures for the active participa- 
tion of the country in the war. In November 
1918 Mr. London was for the third time the 
Socialist candidate for Congress from the 12th 
District, but his defeat was brought about by 
a coalition of the Democrats and Republicans, 
who placed a fusion candidate in the field 
against him, and by a united vote were enabled 
to overcome the strong Socialist vote in the 
district. 


LONDON, Canada, city in the County of 
Middlesex, Ontario, at the junction of the 
north and south branches of the Thames River, 
midway between Niagara Falls and Windsor, 
about 23 miles north of Lake Erie, and on the 
Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Michi- 
gan Central and the Pére Marquette railroads. 
London was selected by Governor Simcoe 
in 1794 as the location of the future capital of 
Upper Canada, but this selection was set aside 
in favor of York (Toronto). The first clear- 
ings were made by the Talbot settlers here in 
1818. The principal manufactures are stoves, 
furniture, car works, lumber products, chew- 
ing gum, cigars, clothing, agricultural imple- 
ments, carriages, electrical machinery and sup- 
plies, shoes, iron rolling mills, flour mills, 
chemicals, breweries and cement products. 

The principal institutions are the Western 
University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, 


620 


the Provincial Asylum for the Insane, Victoria 
and Saint Joseph’s hospitals, two orphanages, 
Conservatory of Music and Harding Hall, a 


college for young ladies and a collegiate insti-' 


tute. London is the seat of Roman Catholic 
and Anglican bishoprics. Pop. (1921) 60,685. 


LONDON, England, the largest city in the 
world, the capital of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British 
Empire, situated on both banks of the Thames 
River, about 40 miles from its mouth, the 
latitude and longitude of Saint Paul’s Cathedral 
being respectively 51° 30’ 48” N, and 0° 5’ 48” 
W. Modern London consists of the city of 
London as the nucleus, and the occupied sur- 
rounding parts of about 120 square miles taken 
from the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and 
Kent. In 1855 the Metropolis Management Act 
was passed, defining for sanitary purposes, out- 
side the nucleate city of London with 675 acres, 
85 parishes, the whole, including the city, cover- 
ing an area of 75,379 acres, 31,422 acres being 
the county of Middlesex, 23,893 acres in Sur- 
rey and 20,064 acres in Kent. By the Local 
Government Act of 1888 this area was consti- 
tuted the administrative county of London. In 
1899, by the London Government Act of that 
year, the boundaries of the county were slightly 
altered, and the whole, with the exception of 
the city of London, was divided into 28 metro- 
politan boroughs, including the city of West- 
minster. The area of the administrative county 
is now 74,816 acres, including 31,652 acres 
formerly in Middlesex, 23,100 formerly in Sur- 
rey and 20,064 formerly in Kent. See Lonpon 
County CoUNCIL. 

Table of the metropolitan boroughs, with 
their acreage and population in 1901 and 1911: 


Area — Pop., Pop., 
ROROUEE acres 1911 1901 
North of the Thames 
City off Dend6n. -. 1547. 2 675 19,657 26,923 
City of Westminster...... 2,502 160,261 183,011 
Bethnal’ Green. 5: mde: 759 128,183 129,680 
Chels@na tink weet a ee 660 66,385 73,842 
Finsbtutys <2 i.e ihe co Os 586 87 ,923 101 , 463 
uthaim srs SH gee. octet 1,703 153 , 284 137,289 
Packie yao ce ee et fey 3,287 222 ,533 219,272 
iamiimersmitiece as. 2,286 121,521 112,239 
Hampstead 270..2.07. 291 2,265 85,495 81,942 
Hplborn steve. -tarinsscc . 40 49,357 59,405 
NSIC CONS ae acute ee 3,091 327 , 403 334,991 
Kensington... ves: AL 2,291 Li), S17 176,628 
PaGgdinetoti:c. dae spare 1,356 142 ;551 143,976 
Poplanest ee peeet tats ce eRe © Vas PMY) 162 ,442 168,822 
Saint Marylebone........ 1,473 118,160 133,301 
saint Panerasi|.) . O17 2.1.0. 2,694 | 218,387 235,317 
Shorediteh bo... efi. ., 658 111,390 118,637 
MLEDNEY get so vcr Eee The 2 1,766 279 , 804 298,600 
Stoke Newington......... 863 50,659 51,247 
South of the Thames 

Battersea 10. : wee 2,160 167, 743 168 ,907 
Bermondsey Fie. 1,500 125,903 130,760 
Camberwell: 2 i)0s...070..- 4,480 261,328 259 , 339 
Wentiard: aegis 1,563 109, 496 110,398 
Greenwich..... bectigs So poet ene 3,852 95 ,968 95,770 
Lambeth Ws 29 4. 6. Ae 4,080 298,058 301 , 895 
Lewishanes-2192. taries 7,014 160,834 127,495 
DOUGH WAT «cacy aan 11st 191,907 206,180 
WVieriaSwOnrtie + scares ak cere 9,107 311,360 232 ,034 
Wobdlwich! 2; 7O4q. TI 8,277 121,376 117,178 
SRGLON cece <P es 74,816 {4,521,685 | 4,536,541 


The name London is therefore legally and 
properly applicable to the entire area within the 
county boundaries. But outside the county 


LONDON 


limits the urban aggregation extends, with 
numerous large and connected towns, to 15 
miles around Charing Cross. These are em- 
braced in the boundaries of the metropolitan 
and city police districts and constitute Greater 
London, bringing the total area to 443,424 acres 
with a population (1901) 6,581,402, (1911) 7,- 
251,358; estimate of 1914, 7,419,704. 

Climate.— London is one of the healthiest 
of the large cities of Europe. The death rate 
per 1,000 living in 1841-50 was 248; 1851-60, 
23.7; 1861-70, 24.4; 1871-80, 22.5; 1881-90, 20.5; 
1891-1900, 19.1. The death rate for 1914 was 
15 per 1,000, and the birth rate 248 per 1,000. 
The mean annual temperature is about 50° and 
the general range of the thermometer is from 
20° to 81°; the highest and lowest markings 
being, for the most part, in August and Janu- 
ary respectively. The prevailing wind is the 
southwest, and there are few places in the 
kingdom where less rain falls. In the begin- 
ning of winter London is occasionally envel- 
oped in fogs, which are especially dense in the 
lower parts, and greatly aggravated by the per- 
petual pall of smoke-laden air overhanging the 
metropolis. This pall is occasioned by the 
general domestic and industrial use of bitumi- 
nous coal. Even when this smoke-cloud does 
not take the unpleasant form of fogs it keeps 
the sunshine away to quite a considerable ex- 
tent, in winter robbing London of fully half 
the sunshine it ought to enjoy, and giving to 
the metropolis that general gloom and begrimed 
aspect of buildings which are so depressing to 
visitors. 

General Aspect, River, Bridges, Main 
Thoroughfares, etc.— London stands on allu- 
vial deposits consisting of beds of clay and 
gravel, below which is the hard clay. stratum 
known to geologists by the name of the “Lon- 
don clay,” in the middle of the great chalk basin 
extending from Berkshire to the east coast. On 
the north bank of the Thames, where the prin- 
cipal part of London. stands, the site rises 
gradually. at the rate of 36 feet per mile, while 
on the opposite bank the houses cover a nearly 
uniform and extensive flat, lying in some places 
several feet below the highest tides. Within 
the limits of London the Thames varies con- 
siderably in width. At Putney it is 550 feet, 
at Battersea 960, at Vauxhall 630, at West- 
minster 275 feet, at Waterloo 1,140 feet, while at 
Blackfriars it narrows down to 830 feet. At 
London Bridge, it is 800. feet wide, and at Wool- 
wich 1,470 feet wide. The bridge farthest down 
the river is Tower Bridge, just below the Tower 
of London —a bascule bridge, which allows the 
passage of large vessels. London Bridge con- 
nects the city at King William street with 
Southwark at the junction of Wellington street 
and Tooley street. About 500 yards further 
up the river stands Southwark Bridge, connect- 
ing .the city. and Southwark. About half 
a mile farther west Blackfriars Bridge, con- 
necting the city at Bridge street with South- 
wark at Blackfriars road, was widened in 1908. 
Waterloo Bridge, nearly half a mile above the 
former, is a granite structure of 9 elliptical 
spans, and is 1,240 feet long between the abut- 
ments. It is perfectly level, and connects the 
Strand with the Waterloo road. Westminster 
Bridge crosses the river at the north end of 
the Houses of Parliament from Westminster to 


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LONDON 


Lambeth. Further up the river Westminster 
and Lambeth are again connected by Lambeth 
and Vauxhall bridges. The Chelsea Suspension 
bridge connects Chelsea and Pimlico on the 
north side with Battersea to the west of Batter- 
sea Park; and the Battersea Bridge unites 
Chelsea and. Battersea a littler further west. 
Putney Bridge, a magnificent structure of 
granite, connects Fulham and Putney; and 
Hammersmith Bridge, the last in London, con- 
nects Hammersmith with Barnes. There are 
also six railway bridges across the Thames. 
One of them, at Charing Cross, displaced the 
old Hungerford Suspension Bridge, but is 
provided with a footway on one side. The two 
railway bridges at Pimlico, which look like one, 
belong to the London, Brighton and South 
Coast Railway Company and the London, 
Chatham and Dover. The latter company owns 
a bridge close to Blackfriars _Bridge. The 
modern bridge at Vauxhall is said to be as 
notable a combination of art and utility as the 
famous Alexander III bridge in Paris. The 
once famous Thames tunnel, two miles below 
London Bridge, opened in 1843 as a roadway 
under the river, now serves as a railway tunnel. 
A subway under.the river, lined with iron hoops, 
connects Tower Hill and Tooley street, South- 
wark; and there is a great tunnel for foot- 
passengers and vehicles between Blackwell and 
East Greenwich and one for foot-passengers 
only between the Isle of Dogs and Green- 
wich. A tunnel for both vehicular and pedes- 
trian traffic between Shadwell and Rotherhithe 
was opened in 1908. Three underground elec- 
. tric railways pass under the river. There is a 
free steamboat ferry between North and South 
Woolwich. 

Since the passing of the Metropolis Manage- 
ment Act of 1855 great changes have been made 
in the condition of London. The gigantic 
operations connected with the sewerage of 
London and the embankment of the Thames, 
from Blackfriars to Chelsea on the north side, 
and from Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall on 
the south, have produced great changes, while 
important lines of streets have opened up dis- 
tricts formerly almost inaccessible. These 
operations have also absorbed the former little 
rivers and rills, leaving only a corner, an alley 
or a street — for example, Fleet street — with 
their name for a monument. In all the districts 
of London, and particularly in the city and 
west end, there has been great improvement 
in the quality of architectural decoration and in 
public buildings, and stone has to a considerable 
extent replaced brick and plaster, though not 
so far as to change the aspect of some localities. 
Though some of the leading streets are wide, 
others are narrow and irregular. The decora- 
tive character of the streets about Lombard 
street, and the Mansion House in the city, has 
been fostered by the growth of numerous bank- 
ing and insurance companies, while the new 
office and store buildings in various quarters, 
especially the one opposite Saint Mary-le- 
Strand, the hotels and apartment-houses on the 
American steel structure plan, have added an 
entirely new style of brick architecture. 

“The City” —the historic centre of London 
—is bounded south by the Thames; it extends 
north to Charterhouse Square, east to Middle- 
sex street and west to the New Law Courts. 
Till 1878 this last boundary was marked by 


621 _ 


Temple Bar, an old gateway crossing Fleet 
street near the Temple; but in that year this 
structure was removed, and a memorial was 
erected on the site. The portion of the city 
inside the area of the former medizval walls 
is known as “London within the walls”; and all 
the wards are bounded by the site of the old 
walls; the portion outside extends irregularly 
all.around and is known as “London without 
the walls.” 

Of the streets that run through modern 
London the most important from west to east is 
that which enters from Kew into Hammersmith, 
and passing through Kensington forms the 
finest of all the approaches to London. It 
stretches on through Brompton, Knightsbridge 
and Piccadilly, past fashionable Belgravia, with 
Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park and Padding- 
ton on the north, and with Apsley House and 
numerous other palatial edifices facing the 
Green Park, which constitutes its south bound- 
ary for about half the length of Piccadilly. 
This line is broken at the east end of Pic- 
cadilly, but passes by Regent street (or by the 
Haymarket) and Trafalgar square into the 
Strand, which continues it farther east and 
much nearer the river, and it stretches on past 
the Temple, along Fleet street, Ludgate Hill, 
Saint Paul’s Churchyard, where it runs into 
Cannon street, leading to the Tower on one 
side, and on the other into Cheapside, Poultney, 
Lombard street, Fenchurch street, Aldgate and 
by Whitechapel road and Mile-end road through 
the congested poorer districts to the county 
boundary at Bow. The next great artery be- 
tween the west and east extends along the 
Uxbridge road from Acton, entering: the 
county boundary at Shepherd’s Bush and pass- 
ing through Notting Hill, along Oxford street, 
through Holborn and Newgate street, where it 
joins the more south line above described, at 
the west end of Cheapside. Farther north is a 
third line, extending from near Kensington 
Gardens, through Oxford and Cambridge Ter- 
race along the Marylebone, Euston, Pentonville 
road, to Islington, and thence by the city road 
to Finsbury square. Among the leading 
thoroughfares running north and south the 
extreme west is Edgeware road, which enters 
the county at Kilburn, terminating at its south 
extremity in Oxford street, from which it runs 
northwest, but communicating through Park 
lane with Piccadilly, a little to the west of 
which, from Hyde Park Corner place, Gros- 
venor place leads down to Buckingham Palace 
road, from which Vauxhall road forms a con- 
necting line with the river. Park lane and 
Grosvenor place on this line contain many of 
the most select residences of the aristocracy. 
East of the Edgeware road, Regent street with 
Portland place, Tottenham Court road with 
Charing Cross road, and other connecting lines 
leading to Westminster, Pimlico and Chelsea, 
Gray’s Inn road, and the line of Chancery lane, 
Farringdon street, etc., leading to Fleet street 
and Blackfriars Bridge, form some of the most 
important communications in this direction. 
Piccadilly and Pall Mall, running east and west, 
Bond street, Regent street and Saint James’ 
street, north and south, are among the most 
fashionable streets in the West End, each with 
its own distinctive character. Bond street con- 
tains the shops most, patronized by the aristoc- 
racy; Regent street, according to some tastes 


622 


the handsomest street in London, is the fashion- 
able promenade and has some of the finest shops. 


It unites by Portland place in the north with | 


Regent’s Park and Primrose Hill Park, and 
intersects Oxford street and Piccadilly, and 
reaches south to Waterloo place, by which it 
communicates with Saint James’ Park. The 
greatest and most picturesque thoroughfare in 
London, not of an exclusively mercantile char- 
acter, is the line of the Strand and Fleet street. 
By the clearing away of congested streets, and 
the construction of Kingsway and Aldwich, the 
largest and most important improvement has 
been carried out since the construction of 
Regent street in 1820, and a connection given 
between North and South London at that part 
which needs it most. 

The Thames Embankments belong to the 
modern features of London. The Victoria Em- 
bankment on the north side consists of a wide 
roadway; with a granite retaining wall, sur- 
mounted by a parapet broken by pedestals for 
lamps. There are well-contrived landing-stages 
and recesses, these features of the Embank- 
ment being rendered highly ornamental by 
balustrades, pedestals for sculpture, etc. From 
the Temple to Charing Cross portions of land 
reclaimed from the Thames have been laid out 
in public gardens. The Chelsea Embankment 
extends from the Albert Suspension Bridge 
eastward past Chelsea Hospital. From the fine 
building of Saint Thomas’ Hospital next West- 
minster Bridge, on the south side of the river, 
- extends the Albert Embankment, continuous 
with the old quay at Lambeth. A very valuable 
improvement in the city was the Holborn Val- 
ley Viaduct, extending from Newgate street to 
the end of Hatton Garden. Broad roads also 
lead to the Central Meat Market, and to the 
lower level of Farringdon street, which is 
crossed by the viaduct obliquely, with three 
Gothic arches supported on 12 hexagonal 
columns of polished red granite. The estimated 
length of streets in London is considerably over 
2,000 miles. 

Public Buildings in the City— A number 
of the most important buildings are situated 
within the ancient city. The nucleus of the 
whole is formed by: the Bank of England, the 
Royal Exchange and the Mansion House, 
which all face toward an open area, the centre 
of bustle and business, near the middle of the 
city, adorned with the handsome offices of 
several assurance companies. The Bank of 
England, in Threadneedle. street, was built in 
1732-34 and now forms a low flat, insulated, 
irregular parallelogram covering four acres of 
ground. The Royal Exchange is an extensive 
and ornate building, having a portico sur- 
mounted by a pediment enriched by sculpture. 
It surrounds an open interior quadrangle, in 
the centre of which is a marble statue of Queen 
Victoria. In this court, which is surrounded by 
covered arcades, the meetings of the merchants 
on Change are held. An equestrian statue by 
Chantrey of the Duke of Wellington occupies 
the area in front of the building. The Royal 
Exchange, originally founded by Sir Thomas 
Gresham in 1566, was burned down in 1666, 
rebuilt, and again burned down in 1838, the 
present edifice being erected on its site. The 
exchanges for special purposes are: The Stock 
Exchange in Capel court; the Coal Exchange, 


LONDON 


Lower Thames street, a sumptuous though 
rather incongruous building, the great hall of 
which is circular, 60 feet in diameter, and 74 
feet to the apex of the glazed dome; the 
Corn Exchange, in Mark lane, opened in 1747, 
enlarged and partly rebuilt in 1827, and again 
almost entirely rebuilt. The Mansion House, 
the official residence of the lord-mayor, was 
built in 1739-53. The Guildhall, at the north 
end of King street, Cheapside, is where the 
principal business of the corporation of the 
city of London is conducted. The civic ban- 
quets are given here. A splendid new council 
chamber was completed in 1885. The hall itself 
is now covered with a decorative open timber 
roof of the Perpendicular Gothic style; the old 
front has been replaced by a new Gothic front. 
The hall is capable of seating 3,000 persons, 
and contains some monurhents of ordinary 
sculpture; and at the west end, raised on ped- 
estals, are colossal figures of Gog and Magog. 
In 1872 a handsome suite of rooms was added 
to the Guildhall for the Corporation Library 
and Museum. Of late years some of the city 
companies have remodeled or rebuilt their halls. 
Of these the Clothworkers’ Company have prd- 
duced the most elaborate street facade, but its 
confined situation in Mincing lane does not 
permit it to be seen to advantage. The Gold- 
smiths’ Hall behind the post’ office; the Fish- 
mongers’ Hall near London Bridge; and the 
Ironmongers’ Hall, in Fenchurch street, are the 
principal structures. In the city many old and 
familiar landmarks have been removed. The 
once famous East India House in Leadenhall 
street, and the Excise Office in Broad ‘street, 
have been replaced by immense piles of offices; 
Doctors’ Commons was cleared away for the 
new street to the Mansion House; Sir C. Wren’s 
College of Physicians is supplanted by meaner 
buildings; the site of the Steel-yard, memor- 
able in the history of old London, is absorbed 
by the city terminus of the South Eastern Rail- 
way; old churches have been leveled, and old 
inns, hostelries and streets, replete with great 
historic and literary associations,- have dis- 
appeared; while outside the city a whole 
region full of good and bad memories was 
cleared way for the new Law. Courts; the 
Statepaper Office is displaced by the Foreign 
Office; Tattersall’s is crossed by streets; cham- 
bers occupy the ground of the Old Thatched 
House; and a gymnasium has supplanted the 
British Institution. 

The Tower.— This. celebrated fortress, 
which formed the dominating feature of Nor- 
man London, stands on the north bank of the 
Thames, immediately adjoining the boundary of 
the city.. Besides its use as a fortress the Tower 
was the temporary residence of several kings 
and queens of England, but is now only used 
as a storage for armor and.as headquarters for 
certain military matters. It occupies an area 
of 12 acres, enclosed within a wall surrounded 
by a ditch, now dry, and laid out as a garden. 
On the south side is an archway called the 
“Traitors’ Gate,» through which state prisoners 
were brought from the river. The whole region 
of the Tower abounds with reminiscences of 
English history, conjured up by such names as 
Raleigh, Algernon Sidney, Anne Boleyn, 
Catherine Howard, etc. .The most ancient part 
is the keep, now. known as the White Tower, 


LONDON 


which was erected about 1078 for William the 
Conqueror by Fundolph, bishop of Rochester. 
It stands near the centre of the quadrangle, 
around which are placed several other towers, 
each having its distinctive name. The Tower 
contains the Wellington Barracks, erected on 
the site of the grand storehouse, burned down 
in 1841; the jewel room, a modern edifice, in 
which are preserved the regalia of Great Bri- 
tain; the horse armory, Queen Elizabeth’s 
armory and the church of Saint Peter-ad-Vin- 


cula. 

Church Buildings.— Saint Paul’s Cathedral 
stands on the summit of Ludgate Hill, on a site 
which was formerly used for pagan worship, 
and has been occupied by a church from early 
Saxon times. Old Saint Paul’s, a vast Gothic 
building, was destroyed by the great fire of 
1666 and only a few columns of the chapter 
house now remain to view. The present church, 
on the same site, the greatest and most conspicu- 
ous architectural ornament of London, planned 
and carried out by Sir Christopher Wren, was 
begun in 1675 and completed in 1710. It is 510 
feet in length from east to west, while the tran- 
sept is 250 feet long, exclusive of the semi- 
circular portico at each end; the breadth of the 
west front is 180 feet and the height of the 
walls 110 feet. The building is crowned with 
an immense dome, surmounted by a lantern with 
ball and cross, the height of the latter being 404 
feet from the ground. It is built of Portland 
stone and cost £747,954, which was paid by 
levying a tax on coal. The interior has been 
decorated at great cost by voluntary means, ac- 
cording to the original intentions of Wren. 
‘Among the monuments it contains are those of 
Wellington, Nelson, Sir Ralph Abercromby, Sir 
John Moore, Dr. Johnson, Howard, Sir Joshua 
Reynolds and eminent men of more modern 
times. Near together, under the centre of the 
dome, lie interred Lord Nelson and the Duke 
of Wellington. Westminster Abbey, one of the 
finest specimens of the Pointed style in Great 
Britain, dates from the reign of Henry III 
and Edward I, when it was erected on the site 
of the Saxon minster founded by Sebert. The 
beautiful chapel at the east end was added by 
Henry VII, and at the beginning of the 18th 
century the upper parts of the two towers at 
the west end were erected from designs of Sir 
Christopher Wren. It is 360 feet long and 195 
feet wide within the walls. Here kings and 
queens have been crowned, from Edward the 
Confessor to George V, and here many of them 
are buried, some with and others without monu- 
ments. In the south transept are the tombs 
and honorary monuments of great poets, from 
Chaucer down to Tennyson, whence it is called 
“Poets’ Corner,” and in other parts are numer- 
ous sculptured monuments to statesmen, war- 
riors, philosophers, divines, patriots and emi- 
nent individuals generally, many of whom are 
interred within its walls. Of other sacred 
edifices in London the most remarkable are 
Saint Bartholomew’s in West Smithfield, which 
consists of the chancel and lady-chapel only of 
the original church and contains some beauti- 
ful specimens of Norman, Early English and 
later styles of architecture; Saint Saviour’s in 
Southwark, now a cathedral, boasts of the best 
Early English architecture in London in its 
choir and lady-chapel, the principal portions 
of the old church which remain; Saint Giles’, 


623 


Cripplegate, a beautiful pre-Reformation 
church; Saint Stephen’s, Walbrook, the inte- 
rior of which is extremely fine and generally 
regarded as one of Wren’s best works; and 
the Temple Church, which is one of the very 
few round churches now remaining in Eng- 
land, and combines transition Norman archi- 
tecture with Early English, the latter in the 
choir, which was founded in 1240. Besides 
these there are very few of the older churches 
left, among the most interesting of which is 
Bow Church. Of the remainder, Wren’s 
churches are very beautiful, and perhaps Saint 
Bride’s in Fleet street and Saint Martin’s-in- 
the-Fields may also be specified. During the 
Georgian period hideous specimens of archi- 
tecture were erected, and these still predominate. 
Among Roman Catholic churches in London 
are Saint George’s Cathedral, in Southwark, 
finished in 1848, and the magnificent new cathe- 
dral of Byzantine architecture at Westmin- 
ster, with an imposing campanile 300: feet 
high. The largest arch over any known church 
doorway admits 10,000 worshippers to ample 
accommodation under a central dome 120 feet 
high. The plan dispenses with stained-glass 
windows —a_ wise arrangement in dark Lon- 
don. Twenty-nine marble columns support 
aisles, galleries and arches of transepts, with 
bases of Norwegian granite and capitals of 
white Carrara elaborately carved. Many of 
the Non-Conformist churches are handsome 
structures. Among the finest of them are the 
City Temple on the Viaduct, opened in 1874; 
Christ-church in Westminster Bridge road; the 
Apostolic (or Irvingite) Church in Gordon 
square; and the Tabernacle, Newington Butts; 
while the site of the former Royal Aquarium at 
Westminster is now occupied by a mammoth 
connectional building, built by the Wesleyan 
Methodists. 

The Houses of Parliament.—These consist 
of the House of Peers and the House of Com- 
mons, with the connected apartments and 
offices, the whole practically forming one struc- 
ture. It is a highly decorated structure in the 
Tudor Gothic style, after designs by Sir Charles 
Barry. It stands on the left bank of the 
Thames, between the river and Westminster 
Abbey, and extends over an area of about eight 
acres. The facade which overlooks the river is 
900 feet in length. The walls are of brick, faced 
externally with magnesian limestone, and the 
whole edifice is separated. from the river by a 
terrace of Aberdeen granite. It is paneled with 
rich tracery, and profusely decorated with 
statues and shields of arms of the kings and 
queens of England from the Conquest to the 
present time. In the southwest angle is the 
Victoria Tower, supported on four pointed 
arches 60 feet in height; it is 75 feet square and 
340 feet in height. There is also a tower in the 
centre, 300 feet high by 60 feet, surmounted by 
a lantern; and the clock tower, at the north end 
of the edifice, with its richly decorated spire, 
rises 320 feet. The House of Peers is an apart- 
ment 97 feet long, 54 feet wide and 45 feet 
high; magnificently decorated throughout with 
carved oak paneling, a profusion of gilding, 
paintings in fresco and richly stained glass win- 
dows. The House of Commons is a somewhat 
smaller apartment, fitted up in a much plainer 
style. Paintings in fresco and the water-glass 
medium and statues of great statesmen have 


624 


been added to the internal decorations; and a 
statue of the architect has been placed on the 
staircase leading up to the committee rooms. 
Westminster Hall, the most magnificent hall in 
the kingdom, 290 feet long, was built by Wil- 
liam Rufus and improved by Richard II. The 
hall is not now used except as a members’ en- 
trance to the House of Commons. 

Palaces.— Saint James’, erected by Henry 
VIII, from a design by Holbein, at the foot of 
Saint James’ street, is an irregular and pictur- 
esque brick building. It is well adapted in- 
ternally for royal levees and drawing-rooms, 
which are held here during the fashionable 
season. Buckingham Palace, facing the west 
end of Saint James’ Park, was built by George 
IV, and consists, since the erection of the east 
front, of a quadrangular range of buildings. 
In the gallery, which is 160 feet long, are some 
good pictures. The king resides here oc- 
casionally in the spring and summer. White- 
hall—the Banqueting House—designed by 
Inigo Jones in the Paladian style, is the only 
remnant of the ancient palace of Whitehall; 
the ceiling, painted by Rubens, is the most ex- 
tensive work of that artist existing in the coun- 
try. Kensington Palace, in Kensington Gar- 
dens, is a brick building of the Jacobean period, 
and was thrown open to the public by Queen 
Victoria shortly before her death. It was the 
birthplace of her majesty. Lambeth Palace on 
the Surrey side of the river, opposite the Houses 
of Parliament. has been for many centuries 
' the residence of the archbishops of Canterbury. 
It is a brick edifice, and comprises a great 
variety of styles in architecture, from Early 
English downward, and contains a magnificent 
library. Fulham Palace, the residence of the 
bishops of London, is a building of no archi- 
tectural pretension. It is pleasantly situated 
on the Thames, and at one time had extensive 
and well-timbered grounds. Greenwich Palace, 
once the home of the Tudor and Stuart sover- 
eigns, is a stone building of considerable beauty, 
now used as a training school for the navy. 
Eltham Palace, once a residence of Henry VIII, 
is now a picturesque and well-preserved ruin. 

Government Offices.— These are mostly 
situated in and near Whitehall. The Treasury, 
Home Office and Education Department occupy 
one range of buildings, which have been im- 
proved by a uniform and handsome facade. 
The India Office and the Local Government 
Board face Saint James’ Park. The Horse 
Guards, which are somewhat nearer Charing 
Cross, have little to admire in their external 
appearance, but opposite, and next to the ban- 
quet hall of the old Whitehall Palace, from the 
window of which Charles I stepped to his 


execution, rises the New War Office, and 
farther on the New Admiralty Office. An ex- 
tensive pile of government offices, for the 


Foreign Office and the Colonial Office, has been 
erected in Downing street. The style is Italian, 
and the building exhibits a large amount of 
decorative detail, part of it in red and other 
colored marbles and granites. Some of. the 
public offices are in Somerset House, once a 
royal palace of Charles II. It has a spacious 
and handsome quadrangle, finished in 1782, 
from designs by Sir W. Chambers; its north 
facade, 200 feet in length. faces the Strand; 
and its south front, 800 feet lonz, overlooks 


LONDON 


the river. The post office, near Saint Paul’s, 
is a spacious and handsome building. It is 
390 feet long, 130 feet wide and 64 feet high. 
Its facade, which is toward Saint Martin’s-le- 
Grand, has three Ionic porticoes. A. supple- 
mental building for telegraph and other busi- 
ness occupies the opposite side of Saint Mar- 
tin’s-le-Grand. The mint, a stone building of 
the ordinary Georgian architecture, finished in 
1810, stands on Tower Hill, and occupies about 
10,000 square yards. The royal arsenal and 
dockyard for military stores is at Woolwich. 
Courts of Law.— London is the seat of the 
supreme courts of the kingdom. Several of 
these were long accommodated at Westminster 
Hall, but in 1883 were removed to the New Law 
Courts at the junction of the Strand and Fleet 
street. This great building occupies an area of 
nearly four acres. It is of a somewhat heavy 
medizval character, a large western tower be- 
ing its chief feature. The Old Bailey, adjoin- 
ing the famous Newgate Prison, has, with the 
latter, been demolished to make way for the 
palatial Sessions House of the city of London. 
It is the central criminal court for the trial of 
prisoners who have committed serious offenses 
in the metropolitan district. One or more of 
the judges of the law courts sit here also in the 
old court, while the new court is presided over 
by the recorder and common sergeant of the. 
city of London. There are numerous County 
Courts within London for the trial of small 
debt cases. Besides the above there are also the 
Clerkenwell Session House; the city police 
courts, which are held at the Mansion House 
and Guildhall, and are presided over by the 
lord-mayor and one of the aldermen; and 
numerous police courts, each of which is pre- 
sided over by a barrister of at least seven ~ 
years’ standing. The Inns of Court, as they are - 
called, are four, the Inner Temple, Middle 
Temple, Lincoln’s Inn and Gray’s Inn. Every 
law student, before he can be called to the bar, 
has to be entered as a member of one of 
these inns, and’ to dine a certain number of 
times in the common hall. The Inner and 
Middle Temple are close to Temple Bar, be- 
tween Fleet street and the river. The roof of 
Middle Temple Hall, built in 1572, is considered 
the best specimen of Elizabethan architecture 
in London. Linceln’s Inn is situated between 
Chancery lane and the extensive square called 
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, now open as a _ public 
garden. A handsome hall and library in the 
Tudor style, from the designs of Hardwick, 
have been erected in the gardens. Gray’s Inn 
stands on the north side of Holborn. The 
other “Inns,” Staple Inn, New Inn, Sergeant's 
Inn, are now in private hands and not connected 
with the law. ae 
Clubs.— Many of these establishments, hay- 
ing most elaborate and ornate buildings, are 
among the principal architectural features of 
West London. They are situated chiefly in 
and near Pall Mall and vie with each other in 
elegance and luxury. The principal are the 
Atheneum, possessed of. a fine library, and 
having a great many artists and men of science 
and letters among its members; the Army and 
Navy, the United Service, the Guards’ and 
the Junior United Service; the Carlton, the 
great Tory Club, standing side by side with the 
Reform Ciub in Pall Mall, the former number- 


LONDON 


2 Houses of Parliament 


1 Trafalgar Square 


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oy 


WESTMINSTER ABBEY 


LONDON 


ing 2,000 and the latter 1,450 members; the 
Junior Carlton; the Oriental; the Travelers’; 
Brooks’, one of the oldest of the clubs; White’s, 
a still older club, much frequented by the Con- 
servative nobility: the Conservative; the Devon- 
shire; the Oxford and Cambridge; the Garrick, 
frequented by lovers of the drama; the Royal 
Automobile, and four political clubs, which 
have the largest numbers of members, the Con- 
stitutional having 6,500, the National Liberal 
5,000, the Junior Conservative 2,500, and the 
Junior Constitutional 5,000. Geo tk 

Hotels— The Grand Hotel, Trafalgar 
square, occupying part of the site of old North- 
umberland House; the Victoria Hotel and 
Hotel Metropole in Northumberland avenue; 
the Hotel Cecil in the Strand; the Savoy Hotel 
on the Embankment; the Carlton Hotel at the 
corner of the Haymarket; the Russell Hotel, 
occupying the greater part of the east side of 
-Russell square, recently built; the Piccadilly, 
occupying the site of Saint James’ Hall; and 
De Keyser’s immense hotel at Blackfriars, are 
the most important and attractive... There are 
large hotels at Charing Cross and’ Cannon 
street in connection with the South Eastern 
Railway, at Saint Pancras in connection with 
the Midland Railway, the last named being the 
largest and one of the handsomest in London; 
and at Marylebone in connection with the 
Great Central Railway. Also associated with 
railways are the Great Western Hotel at Pad- 
dington; the Great Northern Hotel in King’s 
Cross; the Grosvenor Hotel at Pimlico. Other 
large hotels are the Langham Hotel, Portland 
place; the Westminster Palace Hotel in Vic- 
toria street; the Salisbury Hotel, in Salisbury 
square, Fleet street; the First Avenue near 
Gray’s Inn; and the famous Ship Hotel at 
Greenwich. : 

Theatres, Public Halls, etc.— The principal 
theatres: are Covent Garden (the Royal Opera 
House), opened in 1858; His Majesty’s, the 
historic Drury Lane, the Haymarket, the 
Strand, the Adelphi, the Surrey, the Gaiety, 
the Vaudeville, Saint James’, the Savoy, the 
Avenue, the Comedy, Criterion, Terry’s, the 
Lyric, the Garrick, the Shaftesbury, the Duke 
of York, the Prince of Wales, Wyndham’s, the 
Court, Daly’s, the Kingsway and the London 
Opera House. There are also many new erec- 
tions, whose names are not so familiar as 
those “just named. Local theatres have been 
built in many of the outlying parts of London. 
Saint James’: Hall, remarkable almost entirely 
for its interior and chiefly devoted to musical 
entertainments of a high class, has recentiy 
been demolished.. The Queen’s Hall in Port- 
land place, and the Albert Hall at Kensington, 
are devoted to high-class music. Hanover 
Square Rooms were once famous as concert 
rooms. The Freemasons’ Hall in Great Queen 
street is» well known, and Olympia, at West 
Kensington, is a large and imposing hall in an 
extensive area. The Congregational Memorial 
Hall; and the Agricultural Hall, Islington, the 
largest. covered area in London, are also im- 
portant buildings of this kind. The Empire 
and the Alhambra in Leicester square and the 
Hippodrome in Charing Cross road are the 
chief of numerous music halls in London. 

Markets.— These are numerous, but have 
generally little to attract either in external 
beauty or in internal arrangement, The prin- 

- VOL. 17— 40 ; 


cipal ones are Billingsgate for fish; the 
Borough Market, Southwark, and the famous 
Covent Garden for vegetables, fruit, flowers 
and plants; Leadenhall for poultry, game, etc; 
Deptford for foreign cattle: Smithfield for 
fresh meat, poultry and fish; the Islington 
Cattle Market, in the Caledonian road. The 
Spitalfields Market and the Woolwich Market, 
for vegetable products, are included in the pub- 
lic markets. But London is inadequately pro- 
vided. The city corporation owns all the 
largest markets, and exercises charter rights to 
prevent others being erected. The result is 
that all retail markets are in the hands of 
costermongers, 

Museums, Galleries, Libraries.— The Brit- 
ish Museum (q.v.), founded in 1753, in Great 
Russell street, 1s a spacious and imposing edi-. 
fice, with a classical facade and sculpture in 
the pediment, built between 1823 and 1857. It 
contains an immense collection of books, manu- 
scripts, engravings, drawings, sculptures, coins, 
minerals, stuffed animals,. fossils, preserved 
plants, etc, and a magnificent collection o 
ethnographical. objects, Egyptian, Assyrian, 
Etruscan, Greek and other antiquities. An ex- 
tensive building (about 650 feet long) has been 
erected in the South Kensington quarter for the 
accommodation of the natural history collec- 
tions. The museum of the Royal College of 
Surgeons, on the south side of Lincoln’s Inn 
Fields, a rather handsome building, contains a 
magnificent collection of human skulls from all 
parts of the world, and many curious surgical 
preparations. The Soane Museum, on the north 
side of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, possesses many 
valuable objects, consisting of books, paint- 
ings, prints, manuscripts, drawings, maps, 
models, plans, etc. The Dulwich College Gal- 
lery contains many interésting pictures left by 
Alleyne, a contemporary actor of Shakespeare’s 
age. The great South Kensington or Victoria 
and Albert Museum contains most valuable 
collections, carefully arranged for purposes of 
instruction, in connection with which are the 
schools and headquarters of the Department of 
Science and /rt. The London Museum has, 
since 1914, through the munificence of Sir 
William Lever, been accommodated at Lancaster 
(formerly called Stafford) House, which he 
bought and presented to the nation. Museums 
have also been established at Bethnal Green 
and in South and North London, and Hertford 
House, acquired in 1900, with its priceless art 
treasures, the gift of Sir Richard Wallace, and 
the Horniman Museum at Forest Hill, the gift 
of the late Mr. F. J. Horniman, have been 
added to the London museums. The chief 
picture gallery in London is the National Gal- 
lery, on the north side of Trafalgar square. 
It contains upwards of 1,600 paintings, acquired 
partly from donations, partly by purchase. 
The National Portrait Gallery is a collection 
of over 1,600 portraits, busts and medallions, 
brought together since 1858. For this collec- 
tion a new building beside the National Gallery 
has been provided by private munificence; and 
the Tate Gallery of British Art, on the Thames 
Embankment, has been similarly acquired. The 
Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences, a 
memorial to the prince consort, is a huge 
building between the Horticultural Gardens and 
Kensington road. It was erected for the pur- 
poses of science and art, musical performances, 


626 


exhibitions, etc. It is chiefly used for concerts 
and is capable of accommodating an audience 
of 8,000, while the orchestra itself accommo- 
dates 1,000 performers. The building also con- 
tains a picture gallery. In Hyde Park, im- 
mediately opposite this building, is the Albert 
Memorial. The north wing of Burlington 
House, Piccadilly, has been granted to the 
Royal Academy and a suite of rooms built in 
the rear of it for exhibitions. The east and 
west wings of Burlington House are occupied 
by various learned societies, the Royal Society, 
the Society of Antiquaries and’ others. Near 
the South Kensington Museum and the Albert 
Hall is the splendid block of buildings of the 
Imperial Institute, with its various permanent 
collections and exhibitions and _ institutions. 
Besides the British Museum Library the chief 
libraries are Lambeth Palace Library, the Guild- 
hall Library, Sion College Library, the London 
Library (subscription), London Institute Li- 
brary, and in addition large circulating libraries 
and many free public libraries supported by 
rates. 

Educational Institutions.— At the head of 
these stands the London University (q.v.) 
which promises. to become the foremost scien- 
tific university in the kingdom. Other institu- 
tions are denominational colleges for theology 
(in some combined with general education), 
the Royal Naval College, Greenwich; the Royal 
Military Academy, Woolwich; the Royal Col- 
lege of Science; the medical schools attached to 
the hospitals; Royal Academy of Music; Royal 
College of Music; Trinity College, chiefly for 
music; several colleges for ladies, etc. Among 
the grammar and secondary schools are Saint 
Paul’s School, founded in 1509, which provides 
a free education for 153 boys, with scholarships 
to Oxford and Cambridge; the Merchant Tay- 
lor; Westminster School, founded by Queen 
Elizabeth in 1560; University College School, 
King’s College School, City of London School, 
Mercers’ School and schools of the several 
other city companies. Besides the above and 
numberless private schools, there are the city 
and guild institutions for technical education, 
many high schools for girls, many free schools, 
numerous schools of the National Society, and 
the numerous schools of the London county 
council. Several polytechnics and centres: of 
technical education have been equipped and sup- 
ported by the London county council, who have 
also established a system of county scholarships 
for students. The county council expends an- 
nually about $25,000,000 on elementary and 
$5,000,000 on higher education. Of this sum 
about $10,000,000 is furnished by the govern- 
ment, the remainder being raised through a 
special tax levied by the council. 

Scientific Associations, etc.— Associations 
for promoting science, art, learning, etc., are 
exceedingly numerous. The chief are the Royal 
Society, Burlington House, founded in 1660; 
the Society of Antiquaries, in the same build: 
ing, originally founded in 1572; the Royal 
Academy (of painting, etc.), in Trafalgar 
square, founded in 1768; the Royal College of 
Physicians, founded by Linacre, physician to 
Henry VIII, in 1518; the Royal College of 
Surgeons; the Royal Geographical Society, with 
a choice geographical library and large collec- 
tion of maps; the Institution of Civil Engi- 
neers; the Royal Institute of British Architects, 


LONDON 


possessing a good library of architectural 
works; the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 
established in 1799; the Royal Horticultural 
Society, which possesses the botanic gardens in 
Regent’s Park, as also at South Kensington 
and at Chiswick; the Royal Astronomical So- 
ciety; the Royal Asiatic Society; the British 
Association; the Zoological Society, with its 
collection of animals in Regent’s Park; the 
Geological Society and the Anthropological 
Institute. 

Hospitals and Charitable Institutions.— 
Besides the three great endowed hospitals, 
Saint Bartholomew’s, in West Smithfield, Guy’s, 
Southwark, and Saint Thomas, Lambeth, oc- 
cupying a large and splendid range of buildings 
on the Thames Embankment opposite the 
Houses of Parliament, there are the London 
Hospital, Saint George’s. Hospital, the Middle- 
sex Hospital, Westminster Hospital, Charing 
Cross Hospital, King’s College Hospital, Uni- 
versity College Hospital, Saint Mary’s Hospital 
and Royal Free Hospital, all with medical 
schools attached. Other general hospitals are 
the Great Northern Hospital, the West London 
Hospital and the Metropolitan Hospital; be- 
sides the German Hospital, Dalston; hospitals 
for special diseases, as consumption, fever, can- 
cer; hospitals for women, for children, etc. 
Bethlehem Hospital (Bedlam), in Saint George’s 
Fields, south of the river, is the chief hospital 
for lunatics ; Saint Luke’s Hospital is also for 
insane patients. The Foundling Hospital (see 
FOUNDLING) is rather an asylum for illegitimate 
children generally than a hospital for found- 
lings. Chelsea Hospital and Greenwich Hos- 
pital are institutions by themselves. 

Prisons.— There are altogether about a 
dozen criminal prisons. The most celebrated of 
these, Newgate, near Saint Sepulchre’s Church, 
a gloomy and massive structure, the scene of a 
great many executions, was pulled down in 
1903. Millbank penitentiary, or prison, an im- 
mense brick edifice with external walls enclos- 
ing upward of 16 acres, has been demolished, 
and the site utilized partly for workmen’s 
dwellings, and partly for the Tate Picture 
Gallery. The. chief existing prisons are the 
Wandsworth prison, Holloway prison (for 
females) ; the model prison, Pentonville, con- 
taining 1,000 cells, in which the inmates are 
taught useful trades; Wormwood Scrubs prison, 
a large building standing on the borders of 
London. 

Squares and Public Monuments.— The 
squares of London are characteristic; many of 
them are of great beauty and extent, and planted 
with shrubbery. Among them are Saint James’ 
square, north of Pall Mall; Eaton, Belgrave 
(10 acres), Grosvenor, Portman, Cavendish 
squares, all in the West End; Russell square 
(10 acres), Bedford, Bloomsbury, Tavistock 
and Euston squares, in the west central part of 
the town; Trafalgar square, at Charing Cross, 
fronting one of the principal thoroughfares, 
and adorned with public buildings, fountains, 
the Nelson Column and statues of Charles I, 
George IV and others. The most conspicuous 
public monuments are “the Monument” on Fish 
Street Hill, London Bridge, a fluted Doric 
column, 202 feet high, erected in 1677, in com- 
memoration of the great fire of London; the 
York Column, at the south end of Waterloo 
Place,.a plain Doric pillar of granite, 124 feet 


LONDON 


high, surmounted by a bronze statue of the 
Duke of York; a fluted Corinthian column in 
Trafalgar square, 176% feet high, raised in 
honor of Nelson, and surmounted with a colos- 
sal bronze statue of the hero, having the pedes- 
tal decorated with bronze sculptures in high 
relief, and four magnificent lions, by Sir E. 
Landseer, at the angles; the Albert Memorial, 
Hyde Park, the most splendid and costly monu- 
ment of recent times, being a Gothic structure, 
176 feet high, with a colossal seated statue of 
the prince under a magnificent canopy elabo- 
rately sculptured and adorned; and the magnifi- 
cent memorial to Queen Victoria (designed by 
Sir Thomas Brock and unveiled in 1911) with 
its beautiful surroundings in front of Bucking- 
ham Palace. There is a statue of the Duke of 
Wellington in front of the Exchange, and a 
statue of Sir Robert Peel at the top of Cheap- 
side. Statues of Sir Charles J. Napier, Sir 
Henry Havelock and General Gordon stand in 
Trafalgar square. On the Thames Embank- 
ment, not far from the Temple, now stands the 
Egyptian obelisk known as Cleopatra’s Needle; 
and west of it are statues of Robert Raikes, 
the founder of Sunday schools, General Out- 
ram, John Stuart Mill and others. In Water- 
loo ‘place is a memorial to the Guards who 
fell in the Crimea, and here is also a statue 
of Sir John Franklin. An equestrian statue of 
the Duke of Wellington at Hyde Park Corner 
was erected in 1888. A monument to Sir Hugh 
Middleton, who brought the New River water 
to London, has been erected on Islington Green. 
Among other memorials are the Westminster 
Crimean Memorial, in the open space at the 
west of the Abbey; the Peabody statue behind 
the Royal Exchange; an equestrian statue of 
Prince Albert in Holborn Circus, a statue of 
Carlyle on Chelsea Embankment and of Lord 
Beaconsfield in Westminster Palace Yard. 
The Parks.— Of these the finest and most 
fashionable is Hyde Park (q.v.), which lies 
between the Uxbridge and Kensington roads, 
and contains about 364 acres. Kensington Gar- 
dens (275 acres), with which Hyde Park com- 
municates at several points, are beautifully 
wooded and finely laid out. Here carriages are 
not admitted. Saint James’ Park (93 acres) 
extends from Buckingham Palace to the Horse 
Guards, and in its centre is an ornamental sheet 
of water, studded with islets covered with trees 
and shrubs, and around which swim a great 
variety of aquatic fowls. The Green Park, 53 
acres in extent, lies between Saint James’ Park 
on the south and Piccadilly on the north. Re- 
gent’s Park, on the north side of London, covers 
an area of 472 acres. Round the park is a drive 
nearly three miles long, and an inner circular 
drive encloses the Botanic Gardens. At the 
north end are the Zoological Gardens, to which 
a fine broad avenue leads along the centre of 
the park. Battersea Park (200 acres) is on the 
south bank of the Thames, opposite to Chelsea 
Hospital. Victoria Park (217 acres) is in the 
northeast of London, laid out and pianted as a 
place of recreation for the poorer inhabitants 
of this part of London. Southwark Park (63 
acres) is another artificially formed recreation 
ground. Greenwich Park (185 acres) is one of 
the most delightful features of South London, 
and has great natural beauties; the famous 
Greenwich Observatory is situated here. There 
are many other parks acquired for use of the 


627 


public during late years. Brockwell Park and 
Dulwich Park in the south; Avery Hill in the 
southeast; Finsbury Park and Clissold Park, 
on the north borders of London, are the most 
extensive. But even more typically a part of 
modern London are the numerous and beautiful 
heaths and commons preserved. for the public: 
Hampstead Heath on the north, Hackney Marsh 
on the northeast, Blackheath and Plumstead 
Common on the southeast and Tooting and 
Streatham commons on the south. 

Places of Popular Resort.—There are vari- 
ous places of popular resort in London. The 
Exhibition at Earl’s Court, a vast open-air en- 
tertainment accompanied by exhibits of special 
descriptions arranged in courts and_ buildings 
within the grounds, is the largest. Olympia at 
Kensington is of less magnitude. The Zoologi- 
cal Gardens and the Botanical Gardens, both in 
Regent’s Park, are very largely frequented. 
The People’s Palace, established by contribu- 
tions of the benevolent, in the East End of 
London (Mile-end road), and opened in 1887, 
provides a hall for concerts and other enter- 
tainments, a library and reading-rooms, swim- 
ming baths, gymnasiums, social meeting-rooms, 
winter garden, technical schools, etc. Outside 
London there are other places of this descrip- 
tion. The most important is the Crystal Palace 
(q.v.), at Sydenham, formed to a considerable 
extent of the materials of the exhibition build- 
ing of 1851, removed from Hyde Park. It was 
originally designed as a great educational mu- 
seum of art, natural history and ethnology; and 
its gardens and fountains were to rival or sur- 
pass those of Versailles. For years music has 
taken an important place in the arrangements of 
the palace. Entertainments of a merely amus- 
ing character have also been largely introduced. 
A somewhat similar building is the Alexandra 
Palace, occupying a conspicuous site on Mus- 
well Hill on the north. Both the Crystal Pal- 
ace and the Great White City at Shepherd’s 
Bush, also an amusement centre, were used for 
military purposes during the Great European 
War. Kew Gardens (q.v.) on the west and 
Hampton Court palace (q.v.) and grounds, 
built by Cardinal Wolsey and enlarged by 
William III, are situated further out toward 
the southwest. 

Lighting, Sewerage and Water.— London 
is supplied with gas by three separate com- 
panies. These companies include in their area 
of supply a considerable district outside Lon- 
don. Since 1886 a large number of electric 
lighting companies have come into existence: 
in 1916 13 companies and 16 local administra- 
tions possessing statutory powers to supply 
electricity. The county council has been given 
powers to buy out the electricity undertakings. 
The sewage works, with which the metro- 
politan board was charged, were formally 
opened in 1865. The system consists of lines 
of intercepting sewers on both sides of the 
Thames intersecting the old outlets, which are 
retained for service during heavy rainfalls. It 
consists of three main lines on the north of 
the river, at different levels, called, respectively, - 
the High Level, Low Level and Middle Level 
sewers; and of three on the south side, called 
the High, the Effra and Low Level sewers. 
The lines on the north side converge at Lee 
River, whence, after the Low Level sewage has 
been ’ pumped to the higher level, the whole 


628 


flows in five parallel brick culverts, built in 
an embankment upward of five miles in length, 
on to the Northern Outfall and reservoir, about 
14 miles below London Bridge. On the south 
side the Low Level sewage is pumped to the 
higher level at Deptford, whence the whole is 
conveyed to a point near the mouth of the river. 
Works have been established for precipitating 
the sewage; the deposit after precipitation is 
carried out to sea and deposited several miles 
from land. There were formerly eight water 
companies supplying London and an extensive 
area around, extending into Essex, Hertford- 
shire, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. In June 
and July 1904, the undertakings of these com- 
panies were transferred to the metropolitan 
water board. The total quantity of water sup- 
plied in 1914-15 amounted to nearly 243,000,000 
of gallons daily, an average per head of 36.08 
gallons. About 56 per cent of the supply is 
drawn from the Thames area, 24.7 from the 
Lee, and 19.3 from wells and springs. The 
reservoir now under construction at Chingford, 
with those to be built at Littleton and Stanwell, 
will enable the board to face its obligations for 
the next 20 years. By an act passed in 1852 
all the companies making use of the Thames 
are obliged to draw from above the limit of 
the tidal flow. Even above this point the water 
is not free from pollution by the sewage of 
numerous populous towns and by the drainage 
of richly-manured land. Means are adopted 
for storing the water, and it is all filtered 
through layers of gravel and sand before en- 
tering the mains; but the system of supply is 
liable to various “objections. 

Cemeteries.— The provision of cemeteries 
- for London is in the hands of the metropolitan 
borough councils and of private companies. 
Many of those provided by the borough councils 
and mosi of those under private management 
are situated outside the county. Amongst the 
latter may be mentioned Kensal Green Ceme- 
tery, in which several royal personages have 
been buried. It was opened in 1832, occupies 
about 70 acres of ground, and is tastefully 
planted and laid out. Kensal Green Roman 
Catholic Cemetery occupies 30 acres. The City 
of London Cemetery is at Ilford, in Essex. 

Communications.— The. London population 
commands two systems of locomotion, namely, 
internal. and external. The former has refer- 
ence to the purely London requirements, and is 
by means of omnibuses, tramways, steamboats 
and railways; the latter has reference to the 
connection .of London with the rest of the 
kingdom and the Continent, and are by canals, 
railways and the Thames. The internal traffic 
of London has become almost overwhelming. 
There are 626 railway stations in Greater Lon- 
don and 669 route miles of railways. In 1913 
there were 1,933 horse-drawn cabs, 6,308 elec- 
tric tramcars and motor omnibuses and only 
182 horse omnibuses and tramcars and 8,376 
motor cabs. There were also available the 
Metropolitan, the Metropolitan District and 
the electric railway systems on other lines. 

These are extending in all directions. The 
great English railways long ago reached the 
limit of their ability to cope with suburban 
traffic in and out of London. The old under- 
ground railway was designed to be complete in 
an inner and outer circle, but the outer circle 


LONDON 


was found to be insufficient before it was built, 
while the inner circle does not even touch what 
might be called suburbs. Yet so long as it was 
without competition the two companies owning 
this system drew great dividends and ignored 
the demands of their dependent patrons for 
better service. Not until competition arose in 
the shape of the ‘Central London Electric Tube 
Railway did the directors of the District and 
Metropolitan lines bestir themselves. Ameri- 
can enterprise in acquiring control of the Dis- 
trict .Underground brought a flood of* under- 
ground railway schemes forward, and Parlia- 
mentary committees were kept busy deciding 
between rival schemes. They have been care- 
ful to reserve all manner of rights to the goy- 
ernment, refusing, for instance, to grant any 
route unless the proposed company agreed to 
provide and maintain a subway for pipes and 
wires along its lines. This is an effort to un- 
ravel the tangle of such things which the least 
upturning of the streets shows. These lines 
are also refused complete independence of each 
other, and are compelled to arrange transfers 
and joint time tables. 

There are 157 miles of tramways in Lon- 
don, almost entirely under the county council, 
and Greater London has 353 miles. For 1913-14 
the county council tramways carried 522,952,640 
passengers, and the receipts were £2,202,489. 
Some idea of the immensity of the traffic may 
be obtained from the Greater London passen- 
ger statistics for 1913: Tramways, 811,397,317; 
omnibuses, 732,931,201 ; local railways, 462,- 
019,537; trunk railways from a 30-mile radius, 
250,000,000. The continuous battle between 
road and rail for public support, and the en- 
croachments of the latter on the former, may 
be illustrated by stating that whereas in 1909 
60 per cent of journeys were by road and 40 
by rail in 1913 the figures were 68 by road 
and 32 by rail. Motor power for passenger 
traffic has developed with enormous rapidity 
in London: in 1914 the fast horsed vehicles 
had dwindled down to 4 per cent of the fast 
vehicles on the street, and that within a period 
of 12 years. In 1911 they formed 13 per cent. 
This development as regards goods traffic has 
been comparatively slow: 85 per cent horse- 
drawn vehicles compared with 94 per cent in 
1911. The faster moving motor power has 
assisted materially in the migration of the pop- 
ulation from the inner to the outer ring; but 
the liability to accidents is greater, the number 
of fatal street accidents having increased from 
451 in 1911 to 658 in 1914. Previous.to 1905 
the Thames had almost been allowed to drop 
out of existence as a local traveler's route. In 
that year the county council inatigurated a 
steamboat service between Hammersmith and 
Greenwich, with calls at 25 intermediate points; 
but the venture did not prove a success, and 
the especially built fleet of 30. steamboats was 


sold. 

The principal railway stations are: The 
Great Eastern, Liverpool street, Fenchurch 
street; the London, Tilbury, and Southend, 
Fenchurch street; the London and North West- | 
ern, Euston; North London, Broad street; 
Great Western, Paddington; the Great North- 
ern, King’s Cross; Midland, Saint Pancras; 
Great Central, Marylebone; South Eastern, 
London Bridge, where there is a congeries of 


LONDON 


Charing Cross and Cannon street; 
London, Chatham and Dover, Ludgate Hill 
and Victoria; the London, Brighton and South 
Coast Railway, Victoria and London Bridge; 
the South Western, Waterloo. Many of these 
stations communicate by the Metropolitan and 
District railways, distinct systems, but both 
popularly known as the “underground,” afford- 
ing means of internal communication within 
the city. Many of the termini are elaborate 
piles of costly architecture, and have associated 
with them large and handsome hotels. The 
Thames affords communication by steam ves- 
sels with the most important points on the 
British and Continental coasts, as well as with 
all parts of the world. 

Manufactures.— It is impossible within the 
limits of this article to specify the different 
kinds of articles manufactured in London. It 
contains the largest breweries, distilleries and 
sugar refineries in the kingdom; was long the 
principal seat of silk weaving; has extensive 
manufactures in metal, including machinery of 
all kinds, plate jewelry, watches and brass 
works, and an enormous production of books 
and prints. Millinery, the making of clothes 
and: of boots and shoes are also extensive 
branches of industry. Besides these, there are 
cabinet making, coopering, coach building, rope 
making, leather working, hat making, ship- 
building, mast making, etc., all of which are 
departments of manufacture conducted on a 
large scale; and there are numerous extensive 
chemical works, soap manufactories and dye 
works. It is not generally known that London 
is a very large manufacturing centre. 

Commerce, Docks, etc.—For customs 
purposes the port of London may be said to 
extend from Teddington Lock to the sea, a 
distance of 70 miles. Up till within recent 
years the upper section was under the care of 
the corporation of the city for sanitary pur- 
poses, under *he Thames Conservancy for 
navigation and under all sorts of other au- 
thorities for various other purposes, London 
enjoying the unenviable distinction of being 
probably the worst-managed port in the world. 
In 1908 a drastic reform was effected, under 
which the various and conflicting division of 
powers was abolished, and the Port of London 
Authority created to administer everything 
concerning the port. It consists of a chair- 
man and vice-chairman and 10 nominated and 
18 elective members, who are chosen by various 
persons and bodies representative of the trade 
of the port. Under its enlightened manage- 
ment London is rapidly becoming one of the 
most up-to-date ports in the kingdom. 

Until the beginning of the 19th century there 
were no wet docks in the port of London, and 
ships were loaded or discharged in the river 
or at wharves. The West India docks, the 
first to be constructed, were opened in 1802. 
The docks, some of which are of great extent, 
are surrounded by wharves, sheds,  store- 
houses, vaults and warehouses of the most 
spacious kind. Saint Katherine’s docks, Lon- 
don docks, the West India docks, the East 
India docks and the Millwall docks (in the 
Isle of Dogs) extend along the north side of 
the river from the Tower to Blackwall; and on 
the south side, between Rotherhithe and Dept- 
ford, are the extensive Surrey Commercial 
docks (350 acres), forming one compact sys- 


stations, 


629 


tem of water basins, extending from the port 
to Limehouse Reach. The Blackwall tunnel 
blocks the channel tc the upper docks for large 
vessels, and steamers are compelled to dis- 
charge at from 10 to 20 miles below London 
Bridge. The dock accommodation of the port 
was greatly increased by the construction of 
the Victoria and Albert docks (opened re- 
spectively in 1855 and 1880), which follow next 
in order on the north side of the river (op- 
posite Woolwich), which, with extensions, will 
have a combined water area of 252 acres. Be- 
sides these, there are the splendid docks at 
Tilbury, on the Essex shore opposite Graves- 
end, 22 miles by river from the Tower, con- 
structed for the purpose of admitting the lar- 
gest vessels at any state of the tide. Here the 
docks have an area of 90 acres, with two large 
graving docks. The total water area of the 
London docks is 645 acres. From London 
Bridge to Blackwall Tunnel the channel is 
from 450 to 500 feet wide and 14 feet deep 
at low water; from Blackwall Tunnel to the 
Royal Albert dock it is from 500 to 600 feet 
wide and from 16 to 20 feet deep; from the 
Royal Albert dock to Crayfordness 600 feet 
wide and 30 feet deep, and from Crayfordness 
to the Nore it is 1,000 feet wide and 30 feet 
deep. The vessels registered at the port in 
1914 numbered 3,313, with an aggregate ton- 
nage of 2,513,588 tons. 

London is the greatest importing and dis- 
tributing centre in the kingdom, holding as 
regards imports a position analogous to that 
held by Liverpool in exports. For East and 
West India goods, London is the great port; 
tea, sugar, tobacco, wine, corn, timber, tallow, 
hides, wool and drugs form large items. Value 
of imports in 1913, £253,879,289; exports (of 
United Kingdom), £99, 104, 682 (of foreign and 
colonial goods), £58,808, 178. The revenue of 
the Port of London Authority for the year 
ending 31 March 1915 was £3,738,795, and ex- 
penditure £3,550,987. 

Administration.— Greater London has. a 
representation of 62 members in the House 
of Commons. London is governed by the 
county council with the city corporation 
and 28 metropolitan boroughs administering 
local matters. The most ancient civic officer of 
London is the lord-mayor of the city of Lon- 
don. He is annually elected from among the 
aldermen who have been sheriffs of the city, 
on 29 September, and installed in office on 9 
November, when a procession takes place, 
called the lord-mayor’s show. The court of 
aldermen consists of 26 members, including the 
lord-mayor. They are chosen for life by the 
taxpayers of the wards. There are 27 wards. 
One alderman is elected for each of 24 wards, 
one for 2 wards, and one serves (is not 
elected) for a nominal ward. They are prop- 
erly the subordinate governors of their re- 
spective wards, under the jurisdiction of the 
lord-mayor, and preside over the business in 
the courts of Wardmote. The civic sheriffs, 
two in number, are annually chosen by the 
livery or general assembly of the freemen of 
London. The common council is a court con- 
sisting of 206 representatives returned by 26 
of the wards in proportion to their relative 
extent; the 27th, or Bridge Ward Without, be- 
ing represented by an alderman. The general 
business of this court is to legislate for the 


630 


internal government of the city, its police, reve- 
nue, etc. The recorder is generally a barrister 
of eminence, appointed for life by the lord- 
mayor and aldermen as principal assistant and 
adviser to the civic magistracy and one of the 
justices of oyer and terminer. The “livery” 
of London is the aggregate of the members of 
the several city companies, of which there are 
75. Of these 12 are termed great companies, 
and from one or other of them the lord-mayor 
was formerly chosen. In order of precedence 
they are: The Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, 
Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, Skinners, Merchant 
Tailors, Haberdashers, Salters, Ironmongers, 
Vintners, Clothworkers. Many of the companies 
are very rich and possess large halls. 
the ancient city of London there are under the 
act of 1899 the 28 metropolitan boroughs, al- 
ready enumerated, each of which for local pur- 
poses is governed by a mayor, aldermen and 
council. The county council consists of the 
chairman of the council, 19 aldermen and 118 
councillors, the latter being elected by the tax- 
payers of the several divisions, which are, 
however, not coincident with the boroughs. 
Other London authorities are 31 boards of 
guardians, dealing principally with poor re- 
lief; four boards of school district managers 
and two boards of sick asylum district man- 
agers, appointed from among their own num- 
ber by the guardians of those unions which 
are combined into districts; the metropolitan 
asylum board, partly elected by the guardians 
and partly nominated by the local government 
board, and whose chief duty is provision for 
infectious sick and harmless insane; the cen- 
tral (unemployed) body and 29 distress com- 
mittees, for the provision for distress from 
lack of employment, the latter appointed by 
the city of London corporation and the metro- 
politan borough councils, the former (with the 
exception of eight members) appointed by the 
London county council, the distress com- 
mittees and the local government board; the 
metropolitan water board, appointed by the 
London county council and the local authori- 
ties in the area supplied by the board. The 
cost of administration of city and county is 
about £18,000,000 annually. Assessed valua- 
tion, 1915-16, £45,384,722. 

Including city, county and borough councils, 
district councils and boards of guardians, about 
170 authorities minister to the needs of Greater 
London — to what is really one community. 

The Police.— The city police, confined to 
the city proper, is administered by the city 
corporation as a municipal force, and num- 
bers about 1,161 men. The metropolitan police 
is not municipal. It is administered by a com- 
missioner appointed by the Home Office. It 
consists of nearly 22,500 men, whose central 
offices are New Scotland Yard, a massive build- 
ing on the Embankment near Westminster 
Bridge. Its area of jurisdiction extends for 
15 miles from Charing Cross. 

For postal purposes the authorities divide 
the major portion of Greater London into dis- 
tricts designated by their initial letters, E. C., 
W. C,, W., S. W., S. E., E., N., N. W., signify- 
ing East Central, West Central, etc. 

History.— Though, by the evidence of its 
name and by archeological remains, London 
was occupied by the Celtic Britons before the 
arrival of the Romans, it was not till the Ro- 


Besides. 


LONDON 


man era that it became a place of importance. 
There were probably two Roman Londons: the 
first destroyed by Boadicea and probably con- 


‘sisting of the area extending from near the 


Tower on the east by the course of the Lang- 
bourne (now preserved in Langbourne ward) ; 
on the north, by the course of the Walbrook 
on the west and the Thames on the south; the 
second probably coincident with the medizval 
walled city. The Roman walls were destroyed 
by the Danes and were restored by King AIl- 
fred. After the Romans left Britain, London 
assumed a certain amount of independence, and 
throughout the Anglo-Saxon period it appears 
to have supported the monarch who was ac- 
ceptable to the rest of the kingdom. Alfred 
was the first king of the Anglo-Saxons who 
thoroughly understood the importance of its 
military position. It suffered by fire in 764, 
798 and 801. It was sacked by the Danes, who 
obtained a considerable settlement in South- 
wark and on the western boundary of the city 
beyond the Ludgate. At the Conquest London 
treated with and finally submitted to William. 
William’s first act was to dominate the city by 
building his military stronghold, the beginning 
of the Tower of London. He then granted the 
city its ancient rights by a charter, which is 
still preserved; on the accession of Henry I 
a new charter was granted, and the charter 
grants increased considerably under the Plan- 
tagenets, while its municipal privileges were 
made the standard for governing many of the 
municipal. boroughs in the provinces. London 
sided with Stephen against Matilda, took part 
in the struggle against John for Magna Charta, 
was severely oppressed by Henry III, strongly 
supported Edward IV and the Yorkist party 
in the wars of the Roses, and was faithful to 
Richard III; it equipped and dispatched ships 
to the navy collected to fight the Spanish 
Armada, and its citizens, officered by the alder- © 
men of the city, fought for the Parliamentarian 
side against Charles I. Under the later Stuarts 
and the Georges it became more political than 
municipal and lost much of its ancient power. 
In the reign of Henry II the walls on both sides 
of the river are described in a contemporary 
account as supplied with numerous towers; 
London Bridge, erected instead of a wooden 
one, was begun in 1176 and finished in 1209. 
This was to a great extent the same that was 
taken down in 1832. In 1218 the forest of 
Middlesex was cleared, and that portion of 
London north of the city began to be built. In 
the year 1328 the village of Southwark was in- 
corporated with the city, as it had previously 
served as a place of refuge for malefactors. 
In 1349 and 1361 London was visited by the 
plague. In 1381 broke out the rebellion of 
Wat Tyler, who fell by the hands of the lord- 


mayor, hence the dagger on the city arms. In 


1416 street lamps were introduced; in the same 
century some of the principal streets were 
paved, and wooden houses began to be replaced 
by others of brick. In the next century im- 
provements were continued, and Westminster 
was connected with the city by a row of noble-— 
men’s mansions along the river, the last of 
which, Northumberland House, has made way 
for the road leading from Trafalgar square 
to the Embankment. In the 17th century 
Spitalfields was covered with houses, and the 
space north of the Strand as far as Holborn 


LONDON 


and from Temple Bar to Saint Martin’s lane 
was extensively built on, as well as the neigh- 
borhoods of Charing Cross and Pall Mall. The 
New River was completed and many houses 
were supplied with water; sewers were dug; 
smooth pavements were laid down for passen- 
gers and hackney coaches came into general 
use. But the streets were so narrow and dirty 
and the houses in so filthy a state that the city 
was scarcely ever exempt from the plague, 
which sometimes committed great ravages. In 
1666 the great fire broke out and spread over 
336 acres, destroying 13,200 houses, 90 churches 
and many public buildings. In rebuilding con- 
siderable improvements were introduced, and a 
fire in Southwark 10 years after gave a similar 
opportunity of improving that district. Popula- 
tion and trade now rapidly increased, partly 
from the immigration of French Protestants 
driven from their country by the revocation of 
the Edict of Nantes. In the 18th century Lon- 
don steadily advanced in extent, prosperity and 
splendor. In 1780 took place the Gordon Riots, 
when the mob was in possession of London 
for two days and committed frightful havoc. 
Since that disgraceful outbreak the peace of 
London has never been seriously endangered, 
and the troops stationed in and around the 
capital, together with the effective police force 
that now exists, seem quite adequate to insure 
it against any similar disturbance. The exten- 
sion and improvements which took place during 
the 19th century are greater than in any former 
period, and further changes of great import- 
ance are in operation. The most remarkable 
event of the century in the history of Lon- 
don was the carrying into effect in 1851 of 
the first great truly international industrial ex- 
hibition, which has since led to numerous ex- 
hibitions of a similar kind both there and 
abroad. In 1862 took place the second great 
international exhibition, and since that time 
various exhibitions of an international charac- 
ter and largely representing the colonies have 
been held in specially constructed buildings at 
South Kensington. . The history of London 
contains many episodes of vast importance to 
the nation as well as to London itself. As 
now united for government, it will have to 
face problems of vast moment. The largest, 
most populous and richest city that civilization 
has ever produced, the study of its history and 
its development must ever be of great import- 
ance and interest. 

For incidents in London during the Great 
War and the air raids on the city see War, 
EUROPEAN. 

Bibliography.— The earliest account of 
London is Stow’s Survey of London, published 
in 1598, which incorporates the account by 
Fitzstephen, a monk of the 12th century. 
Stow’s work was continued by other hands. 
_Consult edition published in Oxford in 1908. 
Among numerous publications the following 
are recommended: Adcock, St, J., ‘Booklover’s 
London? (New York 1913); Allen, ‘History 
and Antiquities of London, ‘Westminster and 
Southwark? (London 1827-29) ; Besant, Sir 
Walter, ‘Survey of London? (8 vols., London 
1902-10); ‘The Fascination of London? (11 
vols., London 1902-08) ; Bond, Francis, 
minster ‘Abbey? (Oxford 1909); Booth, 
Charles, ‘Life and Labours of the People of 
London? (4 vols., London 1892-1902); BEos- 


West- - 


631 


worth,;. G...F.,,. “East . London? 
1911); ‘West London? (‘Cambridge 1912) ; 
Bradley, E. T., ‘Annals of Westminster 
Abbey? (London 1895); Cecil, Evelyn, ‘Lon- 
don Parks and Gardens? (London 1907); 
Chancellor, E. B., ‘Walks Among London’s 
Pictures? (London 1910); ‘History of the 
Squares of London? (London. 1907); ‘The 
Private Palaces _of London? (Philadelphia 
1909) ; Cook, E. C., ‘Highways and Byways in 
London? (London 1902); Ditchfield,. P. H., 

‘London Survivals: Old Buildings and their As- 
sociations? (London 1914); ‘Memorials of 
Old London» (2 vols., London 1908) ; Dugdale, 
Sir William, ‘History of St. Paul’s Cathedral? 
(London 1818); Gomme, Sir Laurence, ‘Lon- 
don in the Reign of Victoria» (London 1898) ; 
“The Governance of London? (London 1907) ; 
Hare, Augustus J. G., ‘Walks Around London? 
(2° vols., London 1878); Hutton, Laurence, 
‘Literary Landmarks of London» (Boston 
1885); Knight, Charles, “London? (1841-44) ; 
Loftie, ‘W. J., ‘London City: Its History, 
Streets, Traffic, Buildings and People? (Lon- 
don 1891); Lucas, E. V., ‘A Wanderer in 
London? (London 1912); May, T. R., ‘Ancient 
Royal Palaces In or Near London? (New York 
1901); Stanley, A. H., ‘Historic Memorials of 
Westminster Abbey? (6 vols., London 1888) ; 

Timbs, John, ‘Clubs and Club Life in London? 
(New York 1899); Wheatley, H. B., ‘Ho- 
garth’s London» (New York 1907); ‘London, 
Past and Present? (3 vols., London 1891); 
‘The Story of London” (in the Medizeval 
Towns Series ‘London 1904). The guidetooks 
of Baedeker and Ward Locke and Murray’s 
‘Handbook for Travelers» contain, besides a 
wealth of information, valuable maps and 
plans. For statistical information the annual 
“London Statistics? and ‘Municipal Year 
Book» may be recommended. 

G. L. Gomng, F-.S.A., 
Clerk to the London County Council; Revised 
by D. S. Douctas, Toronto. 


LONDON, Ohio, village and county-seat 
of Madison County, on the Pittsburgh, Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis and 
the Ohio Electric railroads, about 25 miles 
southwest of Columbus and 65 miles northeast 
of ‘Cincinnati. It is situated in an agricultural 
and stock-raising region. The manufactures 
are agricultural implements,+tiles, flour, lum- 
ber, shoes and cigars. Meat- packing and corn- 
canning are also of importance. The village 
has a public library, courthouse, State peni- 
tentiary farm and a State fish hatchery. The 
village owns and operates the electric-light 
plant. Pop. (1920) 4,080. 

LONDON, Declaration of. See DEcLARA- 
TION OF LONDON. 

LONDON, Pact of. An agreement en- 
tered into and signed by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France and Russia on 5 Sept. 
1914, according to which 


The British, French and Russian governments mutually 
engaged not to conclude peace separately during the Great 


(Cambridge 


ar. 

The three governments agreed that when terms of peace 
came to be discussed no one of the allies would demand 
conditions of peace without the previous agreement of each 
of the other allies. 


The declaration was signed by Sir Edward 
(now Viscount) Grey, M. Paul Cambon, 


632 


French Ambassador in London, and the late 
Count Benckendorff, the Russian Ambassador. 
Japan became a party to the agreement on 


19 Oct. 1915, and Italy on 30 Nov. 1915. The: 


United States did not subscribe to the treaty, 
for, as Mr. A. T. Balfour declared in Wash- 
ington on 25 April 1917, “no treaty could in- 
crease the undoubted confidence with which 
we look to the United States, who, having come 
into the war, are going to see that war through. 
If there is any certainty in human affairs, that 
is certain.” 


LONDON, Treaties and Conventions of. 
The following are the most important of the 
treaties and conventions concluded in London 
in modern times. The Quadruple Alliance, 
formed 2 Aug. 1718. On 6 July 1827, a treaty 
was signed between England, France and Rus- 
sia for regulating the affairs of Turkey and 
Greece, which led to the establishment of the 
kingdom of Greece. On 22 sApril 1834, a 
quadruple alliance was formed between Eng- 
land, France, Spain and Portugal against the 
claims of Don Carlos and Don Miguel to the 
crowns of Spain and Portugal. On 15 July 
1840, a treaty was concluded between England, 
Russia, Austria and Prussia to compel Mehemet 
Ali to restore Candia and Syria to the Porte, 
and on 27 November, at the conclusion of a 
short campaign by an Anglo-Austrian army in 
Syria, Mehemet Ali agreed to the terms of the 
treaty. A convention to close the Dardanelles 
against ships of war was signed on 13 July 
1841; and a convention between France and 
England for suppression of the slave-trade, 29 
May 1845. Austria, France, England, Prussia, 
Russia and Sweden were parties to a treaty, 
signed 8 May 1852, for settling the succession 
to the Danish crown and guaranteeing the in- 
tegrity of its dominions in relation to the 
duchies of Schleswig-Holstein. The rights of 
the German Confederation were reserved and 
the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg on the 
duchies relinquished on satisfaction. On 13 
March 1871, at a conference of the great 
powers, the neutralization of the Black Sea, 
effected by the Treaty of 1856, was abrogated. 
The neutralization of Luxemburg was guaran- 
teed by the five powers at the conference of 
London, 11 May 1867. The Convention of Lon- 
don, which was concluded on 27 Feb. 1884, be- 
tween the Transyaal and Great Britain, abro- 
gated the Pretoria Convention of 3 Aug. 1881, 
and instead gave the Transvaal (thenceforward 
to be known as the South African Republic) 
independence in regard to its internal affairs, 
but reserved to the queen the right of veto 
over all treaties concluded “with any state or 
nation other than the Orange Free State,» or 
“any native tribe to the eastward or the west- 
ward of the Republic.” See DECLARATION OF 
Lonpon. » 4 

Following on a conference of the 10 leading 
maritime powers convened in London on 4 Dec. 
1908, a code of rules was drawn up in February 
1909, under the title of the Declaration of Lon- 
don, for the purpose of unifying international 
practice in the treatment of commerce on the 
high seas in time of war. This declaration 
bade fair to revolutionize the position of Great 
Britain, as the leading maritime power, in wars 
of the future. Great Britain’s traditional pol- 
icy has been to maintain the right of capturing 


LONDON 


and confiscating the goods of alien enemies 
found in enemy ships, and also contraband of 
war found in neutral vessels. Under the Dec- 
laration of Paris, 1856, the right to capture 
enemy goods in neutral ships was given up. 
Under the Declaration of London a further 
step was taken, and enemy property at sea was 
to be treated on practically the same footing as 
enemy property on land. Its advocates con- 
tended that it would save England from many 
of the difficulties she might otherwise experi- 
ence in time of war in securing supplies; and 
its opponents contended that it would mean a 
virtual abrogation by England of the advan- 
tages her sea power gave her, especially in the 
destruction of an enemy’s commerce. . The pro- 
posed adoption of the Declaration of London 
gave rise to a spirited controversy in England. 
At the instance of the British government, the 
Declaration passed the House of Commons, 
but was refused ratification by the House of 
Lords. Accordingly the Declaration of London 
failed to secure that unanimous consent of the 
subscribing powers necessary to put it into op- 
eration. At the outbreak of the Great Euro- 
pean War in August 1914 Great Britain an- 
nounced her intention to adhere to the terms 
of the Declaration of London, but this attitude 
was later abandoned and the constricting pres- 
sure of her sea power on the commerce of the 
Central Powers was exerted with increasing 
vigor by the application of her traditional policy. 
This action led to vigorous protests from neutral 


powers, headed by the United States. See WaAr, 
EUROPEAN. 

LONDON, Treaty of (1915). <A. secret 
agreement concluded between Italy, France, 


Great Britain and Russia on 26 April and finally 
signed on 9 May 1915, declaring the terms un- 
der which Italy agreed to enter the war on 
the side of the Entente Allies. “By the future 
treaty of peace” Italy was to receive the Tren- 
tino, the whole of Southern Tyrol, as far as 
its natural and geographical frontier, the Bren- 
ner Pass; the city of Trieste and its surround- 
ings, the county of Gorizia and Gradisca, the 
whole of Istria as far as the Quarnero, in- 
cluding Volosca and the Istrian Islands, Cherso 
and Lussin, as also the lesser islands of Plav- 
nik, Unia, Canidoli, Palazzuola, S: Pietro 
Nerovio, Asinello and Gruica, with their neigh- 
boring islets. The province of Dalmatia “in 
its present extent” was also stipulated to be- 
come Italian, as well as all the islands north 
and west of the Dalmatian coast. Two sections 
of the Montenegrin coast were to be neutral- 
ized, while certain districts on the Adriatic 
were to be included in the territory of Croatia, 
Serbia and Montenegro (Jugoslavia). The 
port of Durazzo was to be assigned to “the 
independent Mohammedan state of Albania,” 
of which Italy was to conduct the foreign re- 
lations. In Libya, Africa, Italy obtained recog- 
nition of all the rights and prerogatives re- 
served to the Sultan by the treaty of Lausanne. 
In the event of an extension of French arid 
British colonial possessions in Africa at the 
expense of Germany, the right of Italy would 
be recognized to demand certain compensa- 
tions in territories bordering on French and 
British colonies. The contracting parties 
agreed that the Mohammedan holy places were 
to be left in the possession of an independent 


LONDON BRIDGE — LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL 


Mohammedan state. The Holy See was not to 
be permitted to intervene by diplomatic action 
in regard to peace or questions arising from 
the war. Finally, Great Britain undertook to 
provide Italy with a loan of £50,000,000 ($250,- 
000,000) on favorable conditions, and Italy 
agreed. to enter the war within one month from 
the signing of this treaty, the terms of which 
were to be kept secret. 

The treaty was first made public by order 
of the Bolsheviki Foreign Minister Trotzky in 
Novemb@ 1917 as a protest against “secret 
diplomacy.” See War, EUROPEAN. 


LONDON BRIDGE. A celebrated bridge 
connecting the city of London with the Bor- 
ough. It was designed by John Rennie and 
built by his sons (1825-31). Its dimensions are 
as follows: Length, 928 feet; width, 54 feet; 
height above the river, 56 feet. An immense 
traffic passes over the bridge daily. The pres- 
ent structure took the place of a stone bridge 
(completed 1209), which was a short distance 
farther down the river. 


LONDON CLAY, in geology and paleon- 
tology, a formation of the Lower Eocene Age; 
so called from its existing at or near London, 
England. It consists of a tenacious brown and 
bluish-gray clay, with layers of concretions 


called septaria. It has a maximum thickness 
of 600 to 700 feet. 


LONDON COMPANY, a joint-stock 
comipany organized in London, in 1606, by gen- 
tlemen and merchants for the purpose of found- 
ing an English colony on the Atlantic coast of 
North America south of 41° north latitude. A 
council was established in England which con- 
trolled the company. On 23 May 1607 James- 
town was founded by the company. It was 
governed despotically until 1619 when a repre- 
sentative assembly was instituted. The charter 
was annulled by the king in 1624 and its pow- 
ers and interests were vested thereafter in the 
Crown. Consult Brown, A., ‘The First Repub- 
lic in America? (Boston 1898); Ellyson, J. T., 


‘The London Company of Virginia? (New 
York 1908); McDonald, W., ‘Select Charters 
and .Other Documents? (ib. 1899); Tyler, L., 


‘England in America? (1904). 
LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. The 


county of London, nearly 120 square miles in 
area, is split up into 29 districts for local ad- 
ministrative purposes. Of these, two are cities, 
those of London and Westminster : one is a 
royal borough — Kensington — and 26 are bor- 
oughs. Each is self-contained and _ self-gov- 
erning for all purely local matters and the dif- 
ferent districts are clearly defined and recog- 
nized. There are other areas for other pur- 
poses — for instance, the Poor Law is admin- 
istered by 31 duly elected boards of guardians, 
but the districts controlled by these boards do 
not exactly correspond with those governed by 
the borough or city councils. It is expected 
that future legislation may do away with this 
anomaly and make the Poor Law areas the 
same as those of the boroughs, possibly also 
abolishing the boards of guardians and trans- 
ferring their duties to the borough councils. 
On the other hand there are those who predict 
the abolition of the borough councils also and 
the unification of London under one central 
authority. The present system leaves much to 


633 


be desired, if only for the equalization of rates, 
each borough differing from the others in the 
amount annually required — the inhabitants of 
the poorer districts, with their smaller rateable 
value, having as a rule to pay much higher rates 
than their more fortunate fellow-citizens in dis- 
tricts where better conditions prevail. 

Up to 1855 there was no uniformity of any 
sort for local administration. The city of Lon- 
don, the “one square mile,» had from time im- 
memorable of course been a recognized unit, 
with well-defined duties and responsibilities, but’ 
round it had grown up a number of districts, 
north and south of the river, each with differ- 
ent forms of administration, obtained in most 
cases by special acts of Parliament. In 1855 
the Metropolis Management Act attempted to 
reduce chaos to cosmos. It created 23 admin- 
istrative vestries and 15 boards of works 
elected by the smaller vestries, in addition to 
the city corporation. These bodies again elected 
representatives to serve on the metropolitan 
board of works. The latter gave place to a 
directly elected) body—the London county 
council —in 1889. In 1899 the London Gov- 
ernment Act was passed and came into force on 
9 Nov. 1900. It has 118 elected members. This 
act left the London county council and city 
corporation wntouched, but abolished all the 
vestries and local boards of works (of which 
there were 29 and 12 respectively at the date 
of the act), setting up in their places 28 bor- 
ough councils, of various sizes, rateable values 
and population. The smallest one is Holborn, 
with 405 acres, and the largest Wandsworth, 
with 9,285. In point of view of population, 
Holborn is the smallest with 49,357, and Isling- 
ton the largest with 327,403. The death-rate 
varies from 11 to 18 per 1,000; the valuations 
between a maximum of £63 and a minimum 
of £4; the rating between 6/ in the £ and 
11/-. The heaviest rates are in the poorest and 
least healthy districts. 

Each borough is governed by a mayor, al- 
dermen and councillors, the numbers of the two 
latter being fixed by an order in council. The 
maximum number of members of the councils 
are 10 aldermen and 60 councillors in addition 
to the mayor, who need not previously have 
been a member of the council, but must be 
qualified to be one. The mayor may receive 
any remuneration the council may think rea- 
sonable. He is also, by virtue of his office, a 
justice of the peace for the county borough for 
the year of his mayoralty and the succeeding 
one. No one can be elected to any council un- 
less he is either a parochial elector, or has re- 
sided in the borough for 12 months preceding 
his election. It is noticeable that by a special 
provision in the act no woman is eligible to 
hold any of the above offices, although this was 
not the intention when the bill was introduced. 
Once elected the councils remain in office for 
three years. The first councils took office on 
9 Nov. 1900. 

For details of the constituent boroughs of 
the county of London see under BATTERSEA; 
BERMONDSEY; BETHNAL GREEN; CAMBERWELL; 
CHELSEA; DeEptTForD; FINSBURY; FULHAM; 
GREENWICH ; HACKNEY; HAMMERSMITH; 
HAMPSTEAD; HoLporn; ISLINGTON; KENSING- 


TON; LAMBETH ; LEWISHAM; PADDINGTON; Pop- 
LAR; SAINT MARYLEBONE; SAINT PANCRAS; 
SHOREDITCH; SOUTHWARK; STEPNEY; STOKE 


634 


NEWINGTON; WANDSWORTH; WESTMINSTER, 


City oF; WooLWwIcH. 


LONDON UNIVERSITY, England, es-: 


tablished as a joint-stock company in 1826, re- 
ceived in 1836 two charters, one for an associa- 
tion retaining the name of London University 
and having power to examine candidates and 
grant degrees, and the other for a_ teaching 
body —the University College — entitling it to 
prepare students for the degrees conferred by 
the university. The object was to render aca- 
demic honors accessible to all without distinc- 
tion of creed or class. The university became 
purely an examining body, granting degrees to 
all who passed the prescribed examinations but 
not undertaking any teaching functions. In 
1878 women were admitted to degrees. An in- 
fluential movement in favor of the establish- 
ment of a teaching university in the metropolis 
arose, however; from 1888 commissions had 
the matter in hand and in 1898 the London 
University Act was passed to give effect to their 
recommendations. A commission appointed to 
draw up statutes and regulations for the uni- 
versity in accordance with the act had its work 
formally ratified 29 June 1900, and the newly- 
constituted university was established, the gov- 
ernment granting the eastern and central por- 
tions of the Imperial Institute building to the 
university for its accommodation. The eight 
faculties comprise arts, science, law, medicine, 
theology, music, engineering and economics and 
political science and the degrees conferred are 
LED ALEnBs MIDi) MEBs ONES <2 BIS 2°). See 

BiSe; 'D.Lit., M.A. B.A., D.Mus., ’B.Mus. Can- 
didates for any degree must first pass the ma- 
triculation examination, for which the subjects 
are Latin, English, mathematics, general ele- 
mentary science and one other subject selected 
from a prescribed list, including Greek, French, 
German, Sanskrit, Arabic, elementary mechan- 
ics, chemistry, sound, heat and light, magnet- 
ism and electricity and botany. For the ordi- 
nary degrees of B.A. and B.Sc. two other ex- 
aminations must be taken. In the faculty of 
arts the highest degree is doctor of literature. 
Examinations are held at provincial centres as 
well as in London. The incorporated colleges 
and schools of the university are 36 in number 
and include University College and King’s 
College in all faculties; Hackney College, New 
College, Regent’s Park College, Wesleyan Col- 
lege (Richmond), London College of Divinity 
in theology; Royal Holloway and Bedford Col- 
leges in arts and science; -the Royal College of 
Science; the South-Eastern Agricultural Col- 
lege, Wye; the medical schools of Saint Bar- 
tholomew’s, the London, Saint Thomas’s, Saint 
George’s, the Middlesex, Saint Mary’s, Char- 
ing Cross and Westminster hospitals; the Lon- 
don School of Medicine for Women; the Cen- 
tral Technical College of the City and Guilds 
Institute; and the London School of Economics 
and Political Science. The supreme governing 
body is the senate, consisting of the chancellor, 
4 members appointed by the Crown, 17 mem- 
bers elected by convocation, 1 of them being 
the chairman of convocation, 2 each elected 
by the Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Sur- 
geons, 1 appointed by each of the four Inns of 
Court and 2 by the Incorporated Law Society, 
2 each chosen by University and King’s Col- 
leges, 1 representing the Corporation ef London, 


LONDON UNIVERSITY — LONDONDERRY 


2 appointed by the London. county council, 1 
representing the City and Guilds Institute and 
16 elected by the faculties. The senate is de- 
barred from imposing any religious test, or 
from imposing any disability on the ground of 
sex. There are three standing committees of 
the senate, namely, the academic council, the 
council for external students and a board to 
promote the extension of university teaching. 
The chaneellor, vice-chancellor and chairman 
of convocation are ex officio membegs of all 
three committees. Convocation consists of the 
chancellor, the vice-chancellor, the members of 
the three standing committees and the registered 
graduates of the university of prescribed stand- 
ing. The Parliamentary representative of the 
university is elected by the duly qualified male 
members of convocation. 

In 1909 a royal commission was appointed 
to enquire into the affairs of the university, 
under the chairmanship of Mr. (now Lord) 
Haldane. The commission’s report, issued in 
1913, expresses the view that the entire organ- 
ization of the university is radically defective; 
recommends certain limitations in the admis- 
sion of external students to its examinations; 
the creation of a small executive senate pre- 
dominatingly lay in character; organization by 
faculties; and effective control of the medical 


- schools by the university. Steps are now being 


taken to carry out these recommendations. 

The library of University College contains 
150,000 books and pamphlets. In 1913-14 the 
total ‘number of students who appeared for ex- 
amination at London University was 11,920, and 
the total of internal students was 4,888. There 
are 1,078 accredited teachers. 


LONDONDERRY, Charles William 
Stewart Vane, 3d Marouts or, British mili- 
tary officer and diplomat: b. Dublin, Ireland, 18 
May 1778; d. London, 6 March 1854. He 
served under Sir John Moore and (as adju- 
tant-general) Sir A. Wellesley, in the Penin- 
sula, distinguishing himself there at the bat- 
tles of Fuentes D’Onora and Ciudad Rodrigo, 
was present at Lutzen_and Leipzig and was 
English Ambassador to Berlin in 1813. He was 
Ambassador to Vienna the next year and Min- 
ister-Plenipotentiary at its congress in 1815. By 
his marriage with Miss Vane-Tempest he suc- 
ceeded to immense estates in the county of Dur- 
ham and devoted himself to their improvement 
and to the welfare of his tenantry. He suc- 
ceeded to the marquisate of Londonderry on 
the death of his brother. Under his original 
name of Stewart he wrote the ‘History of the 
Peninsular War? (1808-13); ‘Narrative of the 
War in Germany and France, 1813-14? (1830) ; 
and edited the ‘Correspondence? of Viscount 
Castlereagh, his brother (1850). 


LONDONDERRY, or DERRY, Ireland, 
city, seaport, county borough, Parliamentary 
borough and assize town in the county of the 
same name, province of Ulster, on the Foyle, 
23 miles from its mouth and 95 miles by rail 
north-northwest of Belfast. Waterside, a sub- 
urb on the opposite river bank, is twnited to the 
city by the iron Carlisle Bridge, 1,200 feet long. 
The houses of the town rise on the hill tier 
upon tier, while the summit is crowned by the 
cathedral. The ancient portion of the city is 
surrounded by a rampart 1,708 yards long. It 


LONE STAR STATE — LONG 


contains a small square, called the Diamond, 
from which four main streets diverge. The 
walls are pierced by seven gates, giving com- 
munication with other parts of the town, the 
greater part of which lies outside the walls. 
The most important public buildings are the 
guildhall, the county courthouse, the post office, 
the custom-house, the harbor offices, the jail, 
Gwyn’s Institution, the model school, Magee 
College, Foyle College, Saint Columb’s College, 
the school of science and art, the lunatic asy- 
lum and Ebrington Barracks. The harbor is 
commodious and vessels of large tonnage can 
discharge at the quay, which extends for nearly 
two miles along the river and is provided with 
a graving-dock. An extensive foreign, colonial 
and coasting trade is carried on with English 
and Scotch ports, while Glasgow transatlantic 
steamers call at the mouth of the river. The 
principal export is agricultural produce; the 
chief imports are timber, grain, iron, coal, flax- 
seed, flour and guano. Shirt factories employ 
thousands of workers and there are timber- 
mills, grain-mills, foundries, coach-factories, 
bread and biscuit factories, distilleries and a 
ship-building yard. Intermediate education is 
supplied by Foyle College, founded in 1617, and 
by Saint Columb’s Catholic College. Magee 
College, opened in 1865, besides teaching secu- 
lar subjects, has a theological course adapted 
to young men studying for the Presbyterian 
ministry. The Anglican cathedral dates from 
1633. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a mas- 
sive and magnificent structure, opened in 1873. 
The population is about equally divided into 
Roman Catholics and Protestants. Derry origi- 
nated in a monastic establishment founded by 
Saint Columba in the 6th century. It remained 
an ecclesiastical settlement until 1566, when it 
was occupied by the English in their wars with 
the O’Neills of Ulster. In 1608 the place was 
burned and the English governor slain by Sir 
Cahir O’Dogherty, one of the Irish chiefs of 
Donegal. During the 20 years that followed, 
the corporation of London, which obtained a 
grant of the place from James I, rebuilt the 
city, surrounded it with a wall, fortified it with 
cannon and gave it a new name. Henceforth 
it was known as Londonderry. Here the Prot- 
estants of Ulster took refuge at the Revolution 
of 1688 and held the fortress against the forces 
of James II, the siege lasting from 19 April 
till 30 July 1689 ; the defense by untrained men 
against superior ‘numbers being regarded as one 
of the most heroic and successful military ac- 
tions of modern times. Pop. 40,799. 


LONE STAR STATE, The, a name given 
to Texas from the device on its coat of arms: 
one star, or a “lone star” in the centre of a 
wreath. 


LONE WOLF (Gurpaco), a noted Indian 
chieftain of the Kiwoa tribe: d. 1879. He be- 
came head chieftain of his tribe in 1866 but re- 
fused to bring the tribe into a reservation, in 
accordance with the Medicine Lodge Treaty 
which he had refused to sign in 1867. Gen- 
-eral Custer after the battle of Washita had 
secured possession of Lone Wolf and Satanta 
and threatened to hang them both unless they 
consented to bring in their tribe, and this they 
finally consented to do in the spring of 1869. 
Lone Wolf, however, continued to maintain an 
attitude of defiance and in 1872 headed a dele- 


635 


gation of his tribesmen to Washington to ad- 
just their difference, but about this time his son 
and nephew were killed in Mexico while raid- 
ing and Lone Wolf immediately set out for 
Mexico at the head of a small party to secure 
their bodies and inflict vengeance on their slay- 
ers. Upon his return he headed the warlike 
portion of his tribe in the southern outbreak of 
1874, the first battle with the troops taking place 
at the agency at Anadarko on 22 August. The 
outbreak was finally quelled by General Mac- 
kenzie in the spring of 1875; Lone Wolf, with 
the other chiefs, one by one, surrendered and 
were held prisoners at Fort Marion, Fla., from 
1875 until May 1878, when those surviving were 
returned to their tribes, 


LONG, Charles Chaillé. 
Lonc, CHARLES. 


_ LONG, Crawford W., American physi- 
cian: b. Danielsonville, Madison County, Ga., 

1 Nov. 1815; d. Athens, Ga., 16 June 1878. He 
was graduated from Franklin College, Pa., in 

1835, and from the Medical School of the it 
versity of Pennsylvania in 1839, and after prac- 
tising a short time in Jefferson, Ga., removed 
to Athens, Ga., in 1851. He claimed to have 
performed on 30 March 1842 the first surgical 
operation ever made while the patient was un- 
conscious from inhaling ether. This appears to 
have been done in accordance with careful rea- 
soning upon the subject, but although he re- 
peated the experiment successfully in three 
other cases not far from that time the facts 
did not then become generally known. 7% De- 
cember 1844 Dr. Horace Wells in Boston dem- 
onstrated practically the principle of anesthesia 
by the use of nitrous-oxide gas, and in 1846 
W. T. G. Morton followed him in a similar dis- 
covery and publicly demonstrated the feasibil- 
ity of employing anesthetics in surgical opera- 
tions. In 1902 the Georgia Medical Association 
proposed to place a statue of Long in the Na- 
tional Capitol as the discoverer of anesthesia. 
See ANZ&STHESIA; Morton, W. T. G.; ; WELLS, 
HORACE. 


LONG, Ged de English classical scholar: 
b. Poulton, Lancashire, 4 Nov. 1800; d. 10 Aug. 
1879. He was educated at Macclesfield Gram- 
mar School and Trinity College, Cambridge, 
where he was Craven University scholar in 
1821. Three years later he was appointed to 
the chair of ancient languages at the Univer- 
sity of Virginia, but returned to England in 
1828 and became first Greek professor at the 
new University of London. He became pro- 
fessor of Latin at University College in 1842 
and from 1846 to 1849 was reader in jurispru- 
dence and civil law at the Middle Temple, and 
from 1849 to 1871 was classical lecturer at 
Brighton College. He was one of the founders 
of the Royal Geographical Society and mem- 
ber of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge, for which he edited the Journal 
of Education, also the ‘Penny Encyclopedia? 
and Knight’s ‘Political Dictionary.» He con- 
tributed the articles on law of Smith’s ‘Dic- 
tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.» His 
great claim to fame, however, is as editor of 
the ‘Bibliotheca Classica, » the first critical edi- 
tion of classical texts with commentaries in 
English. To it he contributed an edition of 
Cicero’s ‘Orations? (1851-62). He also pub- 
lished ‘Summary of Herodotus”? (1829); edi- 


See CHAILLE- 


636 


tions of ‘Herodotus? (1830-33), Xenophon’s 
‘Anabasis? (1831) and ‘Horace? (1869) ; trans- 
lations of ‘Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius? 
(1862), ‘Discourses of Epictetus’? (1877) and 
‘Decline of the Roman Republic? (5  vols., 
1864-74). Consult Matthews, H. J., ‘In Memo- 
riam? (in Brighton College Magazine, 1879) 
and. Sandys, J. E. ‘A History of Classical 
Scholarship? (Vol. III, New York 1908). 


LONG, John Davis, American lawyer and 
politician: b. Buckfield, Oxford County, Me., 
27 Oct. 1838; d. 28 Aug. 1915. He was gradu- 
uated from Harvard in 1857; taught in West- 
ford Academy for two years; and studied law 
at Harvard Law School and was admitted to 
the bar in 1861. He built up a large practice 
and became senior member of his firm, Long 
and Hemenway. He was an active member of 
the Republican party; served in the Massachu- 
setts legislature, 1875-78, being speaker of the 
house from 1876-78, and was elected lieuten- 
ant-governor of the State in 1879; the next 
year he was elected governor, and re-elected 
in 1881. He was. also for several years on 
the State house construction commission of 
the State. In 1883 he was elected to Congress, 
serving there till 1889; he was then a candidate 
for the Senate but was defeated, and did not 
hold public office till appointed Secretary of 
the Navy by President McKinley in 1897. He 
held this office through the Spanish War, con- 
ducting its affairs with marked ability, and 
resigned in March 1902. He encouraged an 
-agitation for a. larger naval armament. He 
published in 1879 a translation of the ‘/Zneid? 
of Virgil; edited ‘The Republican Party: Its 
History, Principles, and Policies? (1888); and 
was part-author of ‘The American Business 
Encyclopedia and Legal Adviser? (5  vols., 
1913). He wrote ‘The New American Navy? 
(2 vols., 1903). 


LONG, John Harper, American chemist: 
b. near Steubenville, Ohio, 1 Dec. 1856; d. 14 
June 1918. In 1877 he was graduated at the 
University of Kansas and in 1877-80 he studied 
at Tubingen, Wurzburg and Breslau. From 
1881 until, his death he was professor of chem- 
istry at the Medical School of Northwestern 
University. From 1913 to 1917 he served as 
dean of the Northwestern University School of 
Pharmacy, was a member of the referee board 
of consulting experts of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture; member of the revi- 
sion committee of the United States Pharma- 
copceia and member of the council on pharmacy 
and chemistry of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation. He was president of the American 
Chemical Society in 1903-04. His publications 
are ‘Elements of General Chemistry” (1898; 
4th ed., 1906); ‘Textbook of Analytical Chem- 
istry? (1898; 3d ed, 1906); ‘Textbook of 
Urine Analysis? (1900); ‘Laboratory Manual 
of Physiological Chemistry? (1894); ‘The Op- 
tical Rotating Power of Organic Substances” 
(translated from the German, 1902); ‘Text- 
book of Physiological Chemistry? (1905; 2d 
ed., 1909). 


LONG, John Luther, American novelist: 
b. Pennsylvania, 1861. He read law; was ad- 
mitted to the bar and engaged in practice at 
Philadelphia. Meanwhile he began his literary 
career with ‘Miss Cherry-Blossom of Tokyo? 
(1895). His other works are ‘Madame Butter- 


LONG— LONG BEACH 


fly> (1898), dramatized by Belasco, and the 
inspiration of Puccini’s great opera; ‘The Fox- 
Woman? (1900); ‘The Prince of Illusion? 
(1901); ‘Naughty Nan? (1902); ‘Little Miss 
Joyv-Sing?:, .¢1902),;.. “Sixty. Jane?,, «(190332 
‘Heimweh and Other Stories? (1905); ‘Billy 
Boy? (1906); ‘Felice? (1908); and the plays. 
‘Andrea? (1904); ‘The Dragon Fly, - with 
; Carpenter (1905); ‘Dolce? (1907); 
“Kassa? (1910); ‘Baby Grand? (1912); ‘War 
—or What Happens When One Loves One’s 
Enemy? (1913); ‘Lady Betty Martingale? 
(1914); ‘Billy Boy» (1915); cantatas, ‘Yo- 
Nennen,? with Mr. Leps (1903); ‘Gar-Anlaf,? 
with the same (1905); ‘The Song of Times,’ 
with Dr. Parker (1911); the operas, ‘Andon,’ 
with Leps (1904) ; and ‘Hosni-San,? with the 
same (1906). - ; 


LONG, Stephen Harriman, American en- 
gineer: b. Hopkinton, N. H., 30 Dec. 1784; d. 
Alton, Ill., 4 Sept. 1864. He was graduated at 
Dartmouth College in 1809, and after teaching 
school entered the United States engineer corps 
in 1814. He taught mathematics at West Point 
1814-16, and was subsequently engaged for sev- 
eral years in surveys of the country west of the 
Mississippi River, as well as of the Upper Mis- 
sissippi. Long’s Peak in the Rocky Mountains 
was named in his honor. When the construc- 
tion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was 
commenced in 1827 Long became chief engi- 
neer of surveys and introduced many improve- 
ments in wooden bridges, to adapt them for 
railroad purposes. In the construction of rail- 
roads he established a system of curves in 
locating roads. He served for some years on 
the board for the improvement of the Mis- 
sissippi, and in 1856 was placed in charge of 
that work. He was appointed colonel of engi- 
neers in 1863, retiring the same year. His 
‘Railroad Manual? (1829) was the first work 
of its kind published -in the United States. 
Consult Keating, W. H., ‘Narrative of an Ex- 
pedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, 
Lake Winnipeck, Lake of the Woods, etc., Per- 
es in the Year 1823? (2 vols., London 


LONG, William Joseph, American Con- 
gregational clergyman and author: b. North 
Attleboro, Mass., 3 April 1867. He was gradu- 
ated from Harvard in 1892 and from the 
Andover Theological Seminary in 1895. He 
held a pastorate at Stamford, Conn., 1899-1904, 
and is at present pastor at large. He has lec- 
tured on animal life, literature and nature and 
made a notable defense of ministerial liberty 
at the Cambridge Council of 1898. He is the 
author of ‘The Making of Zimri Bunker? 
(1898) ; ‘Ways of Wood Folk? (1899); ‘Wil- 
derness Ways? (1900); ‘Beasts of the Field? 
(1901); ‘Fowls of the Air? (1901); ‘Secrets 
of the Wood? (1901); ‘School of the Woods? 
(1902) ; ‘Following the Deer? (1903); ‘A Lit- 
tle Brother to the Bear? (1903); ‘Northern 
(1905); ‘Brier Patch Philosophy? 
- ©Whose Home is the Wilderness? 
(1907) ; ‘History of English Literature? (1909) ; 
‘American Literature? (1913), and contribu- 
tions to magazines. 


LONG BEACH, Cal., a city in Los An- 
geles County, situated on the beautiful San 
Pedro Harbor, directly south of Los Angeles, 
about 20 miles distant. It is on the Southern 


LONG BEACH — 


Pacific Railroad and is connected by steamers 
with Santa Catalina Island. It has an excellent 
commerce in fruit and produce, as well as lum- 
ber, and is also well known as a watering place, 
having many attractive scenic features and 
points of interest. Pop. (1920) 55,593. 


LONG BEACH, N. Y., a seaside resort, 
25 miles from New York City, situated on an 
island just off the coast of Long Island, beyond 
Rockaway. It has a winter population of 500 
and a summer population of 3,000. It is 
reached by the Long Island Railroad, and has 
several hotels, many cottages and a fine board 
walk built on concrete piles and girders. 


LONG BRANCH, N. J., city, in Mon- 
mouth County, on the Atlantic Ocean, and on 
the Pennsylvania, the New Jersey Southern 
-and the Central of New Jersey railroads, 
about 35 miles by water, 45 miles by rail and 
30 miles in direct line south of New York 
City. Long Branch extends four miles on the 
Atlantic Ocean, with about 5,000 acres of area. 
During the summer season steamers run regu- 
larly several times a day between New York 
and Long Branch and there are numerous elec- 
tric and railway lines. The city is governed 
by the commission plan, composed of five com- 
missioners who choose the mayor from their 
number. They are elected at large and serve 
for four years. Assessed property values ex- 
ceed $16,000,000. There are five banks with 
a combined capital of $400,000, with deposits of 
upward of $2,500,000. Long Branch is one of 
the oldest summer resorts in the United States, 
taking its name from a brook, a branch of 
the South Shrewsbury River, which runs in a 
direct line northward. The Indians had a fish- 
ing village here in 1734 and called the place 
Land’s End. Before the Revolution Long 
Branch was owned by Colonel White, a British 
officer of New York who had.a summer home 
here. After the war the property was con- 
fiscated by the government and in 1788 was 
taken by Elliston Perot of Philadelphia. Perot 
was a pioneer landlord on the New Jersey 
coast and his boarding-house was the fore- 
runner of the multitude of modern hotels. 
From the beginning Long Branch attracted fam- 
ilies from both New York and Philadelphia 
soon becoming noted as a resort of wealth 
and fashion. During the administration of 
President Grant, Long Branch was the summer 
capital of the United States and became not 
-only the gathering place of the leaders of so- 
ciety but the home as well of the President 
of the United States, members of the Cabinet 
and foreign ambassadors. President Garfield 
sought rest and recreation here and when felled 
by the assassin’s bullet was brought here think- 
ing the benefits of the wonderful atmosphere 
would restore his health. Its proximity to New 
York, Philadelphia and other large Eastern 
cities give it a large transient summer popu- 
lation. Pop. (1920) 13,521. 

LONG BRIDGE, a bridge connecting the 
city of Washington, D. C., with Virginia on the 
opposite bank of the Potomac. It was of su- 
preme importance as a line of communication 
during the Civil War, and was strongly held 
by the Union forces. 

LONG ISLAND, N. Y., an insular pro- 
jection which forms the southeasternmost por- 
tion of the State and is connected by five 


LONG ISLAND 637 


bridges and several ferries across East River 
with Manhattan Island, New York City. It is 
bounded on the north by Long Island Sound, 
separating it mainly from the south shore of 
Connecticut. The Atlantic Ocean bounds it on 
the east and south, while The Narrows, New 
York Bay and East River, already mentioned, 
connecting the ocean with the Sound, complete 
the boundaries on the west and _ northwest. 
Several small islands around the coasts are in- 
cluded in its political boundaries, the best known 
being Coney, Rikers, Berrian, South Brother, 
Fire, Barren, Shelter, Gardiner, Fisher and 
Plum. Long Island has a maximum length of 
about 118 miles, varies in width from 12 to 23 
miles and has an area of 1,682 square miles. It 
is divided into four counties, Nassau, Suffolk, 
sais and Kings, the last two, metropolitan 
oroughs of New York City, occupying a con- 
siderable portion of the western end of the 
island. Queens County embraces the populous 
centres of Long Island City (q.v.), Maspeth, 
Corona, Flushing, Jamaica, Woodhaven and 


_Far Rockaway, while the boundaries of Kings 


County are those also of the former city, now 
the metropolitan borough, of Brooklyn (q.v.). 
The 280 miles of coast line are indented 
with numerous bays and inlets. A deep bay, 
30 miles long, divided into Great and Little 
Peconic and Gardiner’s bays, splits the eastern 
end of the island into two long, narrow penin- 
sulas, the southern terminating at Montauk 
Point, and the northern at Orient Point, with 
Plum and Fisher’s islands extending beyond. 
Great South Bay, from two to five miles broad, 
extends along the southern coast for nearly 
half the length; it is separated from the Atlan- 
tic Ocean by Fire Island or Great South Beach, 
a sandy strip from a quarter of a mile to one 
mile wide, communicating with the ocean by 
several openings. Jamaica Bay is on the south 
coast also, New York Bay on the west, while 
along the north coast are Flushing, Little Neck, 


Manhasset, Hempstead, Oyster, Huntington 
and Smithtown bays. A government system of 
lighthouses, life-saving stations, fortifications 


and masked batteries extends around the coast. 

The level sea-coast of the south side, with its 
extended views of bay and the broad ocean, 
contrasts sharply with the hilly north side and 
its deep indentations looking out upon the land- 
locked Sound. The rolling stretches of Mon- 
tauk Point and Shelter Island afford another 
contrast to the many square miles of scrub oak 
and level sandy plains in the centre of the 
island. The island reaches a height of over 380 
feet in West Hill, Suffolk County, and in Har- 
bor Hill at Roslyn, the loftiest points in the 
range of glacial hills that extends along the 
northern coast. The island is well watered by 
several small streams, the Peconic, 15 miles 
long, flowing into Great Peconic Bay, being the 
largest. Natural ponds or lakes abound, and 
there are about 116 square miles of salt marsh 
throughout the island. The eastern portion 
especially is well wooded and noted for its pine 
forests well stocked with deer and other game. 
Like other insular positions the climate is 
milder than that of the adjacent continent, the 
average temperature being several degrees be- 
low that of the metropolis, while the hottest 
days are tempered by cool and_ refreshing 
breezes from ocean or Sound. The soil gen- 
erally is productive and under a high state of 


638 


cultivation. In the southern flat lands it is of a 


light, sandy nature, well calculated for raising ~ 


grain, especially Indian corn; in the hilly north 
the soil is strong and adapted to the culture of 
grain, hay and fruits. Market gardening for 
metropolitan demands constitutes the principal 
portion of the agricultural industry of Kings 
and Queens counties. Oyster, clam and other 
fisheries are important sources of food supply. 

The Long Island and other railroads give 
easy access from New York City to the remot- 
est parts, Montauk Point, the southeastern- 
most point, being only three hours away. Long 
Island is noted especially for exceptional op- 
portunities, embracing all sorts of summer 
recreation. The roadways are admirably 
adapted to all forms of locomotion, and riding, 
driving, automobiling and wheeling are equally 
desirable methods for enjoying the region. In 
the numerous villages and towns along Jamaica 
Bay, Great South Bay, Peconic Bay and the 
Sound, there are ample facilities for sailing, 
rowing, fishing and bathing, which are fully 
utilized. For golfing, lawn tennis and all other 
forms of outdoor sport and recreation, every 
possible facility is found, and the golf courses, 
especially at Garden City and Shinnecock, are 
notable. The chief seaside resorts along the 
south coast are Bath Beach, Bensonhurst, 
Coney Island, Brighton, Manhattan, Rockaway 
Beach, Far Rockaway, Long Beach, Fire Island, 
Patchogue and Montauk Point; along the 
north coast are Greenport, Port Jefferson, Cold- 
spring Harbor, Oyster Bay, Glen Cove, Seacliff, 
College Point and North Beach. The popula- 
tion of Long Island is over 2,000,000; of this 
number over 1,800,000 reside in Brooklyn 
borough. 

When discovered in 1609 by Hudson, Long 
Island was inhabited by 13 tribes of Algonquin 
Indians, by whom the island was variously 
called Panmancke, Wamponomon, Mautowacks 
and Sewanhacky. A few descendants mixed 
with negro blood, and retaining no knowledge 
of their ancient language, dwell near Montauk 
Point and Shinnecock Neck. French Protes- 
tants from near the river Waal, in the Nether- 
lands, made the first settlement in 1625 under 
Dutch protection, and immigrants from New 
England established themselves in different lo- 
calities shortly afterward. Lange Eylandt, the 
Dutch name, was changed by the colonial legis- 
lature to that of Nassau, a name which survives 
in one of the counties, but was never adopted 
by the people for the island. Long Island was 
a busy base of military movements during the 
Revolutionary’ War, and the battle of Long 
Island (q.v.) is the principal event in its history. 


LONG ISLAND, Battle of, one of the 
early American defeats in the Revolutionary 
War, was fought 27 Aug. 1776, in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., mainly within the present limits of Pros- 
pect Park, the column in Battle Pass to the 
memory of the 400 Maryland troops who fell in 
the battle, and the foundation remains of the 
redoubt on Lookout Hill, marking the central 
point of defense and attack. After the evacu- 
ation of Boston by the British, Washington 
made strenuous efforts to fortify New York 
and its approaches. General Greene, in com- 
mand of a considerable body of troops, mostly 
raw recruits, was entrusted with the defense 
of Long Island, and constructed a line of en- 


LONG ISLAND 


trenchments and redoubts from Wallabout Bay 
to Gowanus Cove. The main works at the 
Wallabout end were on the hill afterward 
known as Fort Greene, now marked by Wash- 
ington Park. At Gowanus Cove, a battery was 
erected at Red Hook and a fort on Governor’s 
Island, nearly opposite. About two anda half 
miles from the entrenchments, between them 
and the southwest side of the island, the range 
of low hills in this section was then densely 
wooded and crossed by three roads; one on the 
right of the works passing near the Narrows 
to Gravesend Bay, the central one through Flat- 
bush and the third far to the left through Bed- 
ford to Jamaica. In the midst of his prepara- 
tions, General Greene fell ill and the com- 
mand devolved upon General Sullivan, then just 
returned from Lake Champlain. Unacquainted 
with the ground and with Greene’s plans the’ 
change of command caused considerable con- 
fusion. Nine thousand British troops landed 
in Gravesend Bay on 22 August without resist- 
ance; they were commanded by Sir Henry 
Clinton, assisted by Lords Cornwallis and Percy, 
General Grant and Sir William Erskine. Lord 
Cornwallis, rapidly advancing to the central 
pass, found it occupied by the rifle regiment of 
Colonel Hand, and without risking an’ en- 
counter took up a position at Flatbush. Wash- 
ington inspected the American lines on the 24th 
and placed General Putnam in command. The 
following day the British were reinforced by 
two brigades of Hessian troops, under Gen- 
eral De Heister, and on the 26th began to carry 
out their plan of operations. The road through 
Bedford to Jamaica unfortunately had been 
comparatively neglected by the Americans, and 
eluding the patrol, the British contingent under 
General Clinton, accompanied by General Howe, 
the commander-in-chief, and by Lords Percy 
and Cornwallis, guided by a local Tory, gained 
possession of the road and neighboring heights 
undiscovered during the night of 26-27 August. 
In the morning General Grant, with the left 
wing of the British army, advanced along the 
road by Gravesend and the Narrows, and was 
resisted by Colonel Atlee with a guard of Penn- 
sylvania and New York militia, who retired 
fighting until he had fallen back upon Gen. 
William Alexander (Lord Stirling), whose two 
regiments had hastened to his assistance. Here 
active firing was kept up by both sides without 
an attempt at a general action. At the same 
time, as diversions, De Heister opened up a 
cannonade from Flatbush upon Colonel Hand 
and his riflemen, while the guns of the British 
war-vessels were trained upon the Red Hook 
battery. Meanwhile on the right Clinton opened 
his guns upon the Americans, and at this signal 
De Heister advanced to storm the central pass 
and the redoubt of which General Sullivan had 
taken command. The latter, who found his left . 
flank engaged and himself in danger of being 
surrounded, ordered a retreat, but not soon 
enough to escape the British light infantry, who 
drove him back upon De Heister and his Hes- 
sians. The Americans fought with desperate 
valor, a large body. cutting their way through 
the entrenchments, the rest who were not killed 
either escaping among the hills or surrendering 
as prisoners, among the latter being General 
Sullivan. On the left Colonel Atlee and Lord 
Stirling, who had maintained their position in 


LONG ISLAND CITY — 


front of General Grant, found themselves cut 
off by Cornwallis. They gallantly attacked the 
enemy with such determination that the British 
held their ground only by the assistance of re- 
inforcements, when Stirling seeing the useless- 
ness of further resistance surrendered. Having 
forced all the approaches the British proceeded 
to invest the American works. 

Washington arrived in the evening and took 
command, the following day bringing over ad- 
ditional troops. But with the formidable British 
force opposed to him, and indications that the 
British fleet intended moving up the river so as 
to cut the force in Brooklyn entirely off, Wash- 
ington, on the night of 29-30, favored by a 
thick mist, made a strategic and masterly retreat 
to Manhattan, greatly to the discomfiture of the 
British, who were unaware of the movement 
until some time after the last American had 
crossed in safety. The Americans lost over 
900 men in the battle, while the British loss in 
killed, wounded and missing was 400. Consult 
Carrington, H. B., ‘Battles of the American 
Revolution? (Brooklyn 1876); Dawson, H. B., 
‘Battles of the United States> (New York 
1858) ; Field, T. W., ‘Battle of Long Island? 
(Brooklyn 1869); Johnston, H. P., ‘Campaign 
of 1776 around New York and Brooklyn? (ib. 
1878) ; Rayé-Smith, E. M., ‘Battle of Brooklyn? 
(New York 1913); Mather, F..G., ‘The Ref- 
ugees of 1776 from Long Island to Connecticut? 
(Albany 1913), and Adams, C. F., ‘Battle of 
Long Island? (in American Historical Review, 
New York 1896). 


LONG ISLAND CITY, N. Y., formerly 
a city in Queens County, but now the first 
ward of the borough of Queens, city of New 
York. This section became a part of Greater 
New York by the Act of Consolidation of Janu- 
ary 1898. As early as 1640 Dutch settlers had 
taken possession of the land in this vicinity 


and gradually a number of Kittle villages were 


formed on the western end of the island, on 
the East River and the Sound. In 1870 a 
number of little villages, Astoria, Blissville, 
Dutch Kills, Hunters’ Point, Middletown, 
Ravenswood and Steinway, were united into 
one municipality and called Long Island City. 
Newtown Creek separates this section for a 
distance of four miles from the borough of 
Brooklyn. It is connected with the borough 
of Manhattan at 59th street via the Queens- 
boro Bridge, which was opened in 1909; and 
by the “Queensboro Subway,” opened June 
1915, to 42d street, Manhattan. The Second 
avenue elevated extension in New York and the 
new tunnel under the East River at 60th street 
will give additional rapid transit connections. 
The Long Island Railroad and the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad furnish excellent railroad com- 
munication, and the New York Connecting Rail- 
road, joining the New Haven and Pennsylvania 
systems across the bridge at Hell Gate, gives an 
all-rail route with the mainland. This section 
has*extensive manufacturing interests, excellent 
schools, several hospitals and churches of all 
denominations. Pop. (1920) 50,000. 


LONG ISLAND HISTORICAL SOCI- 
ETY, an association founded in 1863 at Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., and having for object the promotion 
of the study of the history and antiquities of 
Long Island. It maintains a library of 80,000 
yolumes, and museum rich in Americana. The 


LONG PARLIAMENT 639 


Society has published a number of volumes on 
early American history, including two volumes 
on the battle of Long Island, a volume of 
George Washington’s letters, town records of 
Jamaica, L. I., and ‘Dankers and Sluyters 
Voyage to New York in 1679-80 ~ 


LONG ISLAND SOUND, a body of 
water which separates Long Island, in New 
York State, from the mainland. It is an arm of 
the Atlantic Ocean, extending northeast and 
southwest, about 110 miles long and from 10 
to 25 miles wide. It is connected with the 
Atlantic on the east by The Race, a narrow 
passage south of Fisher’s Island; and on the 
west by a strait called the East River, which 
enters New York Bay and through the Narrows 
to the ocean. The coast on the north is irreg- 
ular, and has a number of small bays and capes. 
The south or Long Island coast is irregular 
from East River to near Port Jefferson; and 
from Port Jefferson to Orient Point the coast 
line has few indentations. The largest indenta- 
tions on the north side are New Haven Harbor 
and Pelham Bay. There are several good har- 
bors at the mouths of rivers and in places 
sheltered by small islands. On the south shore 
the principal indentations are Northport, Oyster, 
Manhasset, Little Neck and Flushing bays. The 
north coast is fringed by small rocky islands or 
reefs. In the western part of the Sound there 
are a number of small islands, which have been 
improved so as to be desirable resorts or resi- 
dential locations. Chief among these are Glen 
Island and City Island. At the entrance to 
East River there are a number of islands used 
chiefly by the health department of New York 
City. At the east entrance is a group of islands 
which extend diagonally from Long Island to 
the State of Rhode Island. The largest of this 
group is Hisher’s Island. (See New York 
City). »The chief. rivers which flow into the 
Sound, all from the north, are Connecticut, 
Mystic, Thames and Housatonic. 

Since the improvements made (1865-85) at 
Hell Gate (q.v.), Long Island Sound is an 
available route for ocean steamers. The large 
passenger steamers which ply daily between 
New York and New England ports pass through 
the Sound. A large number of forts with 
modern equipment are located along the shores, 
thus guarding most carefully the entrance to 
New York City by this route. 


LONG PARLIAMENT, in English his- 
tory the fifth Parliament of Charles I, sum- 
moned in 1640. Largely liberal and holding 
tenaciously by its own rights, thanks to the 
campaigning efforts of John Pym, it .declared 
ship-money illegal, claimed the right of taxa- 
tion as belonging solely to the Commons and 
not to the Crown, passed the Triennial Bill, 
abolished the Star Chamber and the High Com- 
mission and, attacking the king’s favorites, put 
Laud in prison and Strafford to death. It also 
passed an act declaring that it could not be 
dissolved except by its own consent. In Novem- 
ber 1641, passing successfully a reactionary 
crisis, it adopted the Great Remonstrance, and in 
January of the next year refused to obey the 
king’s order to surrender “the five members,” 
its leaders, Hampden, Pym, Hollis, Haselrigg 
and Strode. Thus it brought on the Civil War, 
through which it continued in power, and was 
in 1648 “purged” by Colonel Pride of 96 


640 


members who, supporting an attempted com- 
promise with the king in 1648, had made them- 
selves obnoxious to the chiefs of the Parliamen- 
tary army. The handful of members left com- 
posed the “Rump,” which was nominally in 
power until expelled in 1653 by Cromwell. After 
the death of Cromwell it was again summoned 
in 1659, but in October of that year the members 
were turned out by General Lambert. In 1660 
it was again briefly reconvened. See CROMWELL. 


LONG-TAILED DUCK. See OLp Squaw. 


LONG-TAILED HUMMER, a humming- 
bird very common in Jamaica (Aithurus polyt- 
mus), remarkable for its pair of long crossed 
tail-feathers. It is also distinguished by a long 
black crest. It builds a nest of silk cotton, bark, 
lichen, etc., and covers the outside with spiders’ 
webs. 


LONG TOM, (1) the name given a 42- 
pound gun captured by the British in 1798 from 
the French battleship Hoche. It was afterward 
purchased by the Americans and used in the 
attack on Haiti by the French in 1804, and re- 
mained idle till 1812, when it was placed on the 
General Armstrong. This vessel ran the British 
blockade at New Orleans, 9 Sept. 1814, and put 
into the bay near Horta, Fayal, being disabled 
in an encounter with a British squadron. Here 
the gun was dismantled and remained till 
Colonel Reid, son of the commander of the 
General Armstrong, had it brought back to New 
York, 18 April 1893. (2) An apparatus for 
washing gold from the earth or gravel in which 
it is found. It consists of a wooden trough, 
from 12 to 25 feet long and about a foot wide. 
At its lower end it widens and its floor there 
is of sheet-iron pierced with holes half an inch 
in diameter, under which is placed a flat box 
a couple of inches deep. A stream of water is 
kept running through it by means ofsa hose; 


the dirt is shoveled in, and stirred at the lower © 


end, where the earth and gravel fall through 
the sieve into another box, where they are again 
sifted. The machine, like the “rocker,” was 
cheap and wasteful; and both were soon dis- 
placed by the sluice. 


LONGACRE, James Barton, American 
engraver: b. Delaware County, Pa., 11 Aug. 
1794; d. Philadelphia, 1 Jan. 1869. He was 
apprenticed in Philadelphia, first attracted at- 
tention by his plate of Andrew Jackson after 
Sully, and in 1819-31 was employed in the 
illustration of many of the foremost American 
works then published. At first with James Her- 
ring, and later independently, he published the 
‘National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished 
Americans? (1834-39), many of whose engrav- 
ings were from sketches by himself. His por- 
traits are good likenesses, executed with con- 
siderable life. Stipple work was his forte but 
he occasionally turned to line engraving. In 
1844 he was appointed engraver to the United 
States mint, and from that time until his death 
designed all new coins. He also remodeled the 
coinage of Chile. 

LONGAN, a tree and its fruit. See Litcut. 

LONGARD DE LONGGARDE, Doro- 
thea. See GERARD, DoroTHEA. 

LONGCHAMPS, 16n-shon, Paris, France, 
a celebrated racecourse on the southwest side 
of the Bois de Boulogne, where the race for 
the “Grand Prix” is run. Prior to, its sup- 


LONG-TAILED DUCK — LONGEVITY 


pression in 1792, part of the site was occupied 
by the Convent of Longchamps, founded in 
1260 by Isabel, sister of Saint Louis. Miracles 
performed at her tomb caused many princesses 
to seek the veil there; but in the 16th century 
it began to lose its sanctity, and in 1652 Saint 
Francis de Sales protested against the worldly 
life of its inmates. In 1727 the celebrated opera 
singer, Mlle. Le Maur, took the veil here. It 
was a popular resort for carriage driving, es- 
pecially during the week preceding Easter. The 
Emperor William I of Germany held a review 
Chant i at Longchamps during the War of 
1870. 


LONGE, a local name (Vermont) for the 
lake trout (q.v.). | 


LONGEVITY. The normal duration of 
life differs in different species of animals, but 
what factors determine the length of life of a 
particular species have not been discovered. 
Observation has taught a few generalities, that 
large animals live longer than small ones, ‘that 
species having a numerous progeny are short- 
lived, that those that have a long period of 
gestation live longer than those that have a 
short period of gestation, etc. Buffon, Fleuron 
and other naturalists have devised formule for 
estimating the normal duration of life, but 
none will apply to more than a few species or 
will apply to man. 

To obtain a rational basis for estimating 
the normal duration of human life we must 
consider the human being possessing the in- 
herent factors and living under the most favor- 
able conditions necessary to complete the nor- 
mal cycle of life. Possessing the inherent fac- 
tors of heredity and sound constitution and 
living in the proper environment and follow- 
ing a natural mode of living, the normal cycle 
of life falls naturally into three distinct periods, 
development, maturity and decline, each lasting 
about 30 years. That few complete the nor- 
mal cycle is due in most cases to accidental 
and avoidable causes, while the few ‘who 
greatly exceed the normal duration are consid- 
ered as freaks of nature, comparable to giants 
in growth. An important factor conducive to 
longevity is the adaptability of the human or- 
ganism to diverse environmental and living 
conditions. Instances of longevity are found 
in the torrid and frigid zones as well as in the 
temperate zone, in the smoke-laden atmosphere 
of manufacturing cities as well as in the clear 
atmosphere of the plains and mountains, in the 
ghettoes and slums and in the homes supplied 
with every known hygienic device. The factor 
of heredity-is dominant as Jong as there is no 
change in environment and mode of life. A 
large proportion of the Jews in the European 
ghettoes reach old age. Transplanted to the 
United States and subjected to the same influ- 
ences that shorten the lives of Americans, they 
deteriorate and few reach the age of their 
parents. The same applies to the children of 
Trish and Russian peasants when they come to 
this country. The factors especially conducive 
to longevity, beside the inherent factors of 
heredity and constitution, are outdoor. active 
life, the activity being gauged by the physical 
capacity of the individual; coarse, fresh food 
not in excess of the needs of the body, as 
indicated by the sense of hunger; immediate 
attention to the call for the elimination of 


LONGEVITY 


waste; sleep, the time and amount regulated 
by the needs of the body without regard to 
the clock; rational recreations on the principle 
that the ‘recreation should be the antithesis of 
the work which made it necessary; freedom 
from worry and other causes of mental de- 
pression. These factors prevail to the greatest 
extent in the peasant class and in this class is 
found the largest number and largest propor- 
tion of persons who complete the normal cycle 
of life. The peasant as he grows old gradu- 
ally adapts his mode of life to the changing 
physical conditions, he works more slowly, 
rests more, sleeps longer and takes naps dur- 
ing the day, eats less, and as the mental powers 
wane he takes a lessened interest in the events 
of the day and is less affected by cares, wor- 
ries and excitement. Under the stress of mod- 
erm commercial and manufacturing activity, 
especially in the cities, it is becoming more 
and more difficult to live in such a manner 
that the factors conducive to longevity can be 
made available, and consequently premature 
senility and avoidable causes of disease and 
death are everywhere becoming more prevalent. 

The statistics and records of longevity are 
notoriously unreliable. Records are either 
absent or defective. With advancing years the 
faculty of memory becomes weakened .and the 
mind shows a tendency to exaggeration and 
the appropriation, through auto-suggestion, of 
incidents belonging to the lives of others, or the 
invention of incidents which through frequent 
telling become so firmly impressed. upon the 
mind as to appear real. Forgetting their exact 
age they say they are near or about the next 
semi-decade and in a year or two they will 
- have passed that semi-decade and are near or 
about the next semi-decade. Having thus 
reached 90 they say they are near 100, about 
100 or have passed the century mark. This 


explains why the census records show more 
persons living at the age of 80 than at the age ~ 


of 79, more at 85 than at 84, more at 90 than 
at 89, more at 95 than at 94 and many more 
at oe or over than at the age of 96, 97, 98 
or 99, 

According to the Bible man’s days shall be 
120 years (Gen. vi, 3), but this does not har- 
monize with the ages of antediluvian Biblical 
characters. We find however a progressive 
reduction in ages after the flood. Noah was 
950 years old, his son Shem was 600 years old 
and Shem’s son Arphaxad was 438 years old. 
The first born of the 4th, 5th and 6th genera- 
tions after Arphaxad were between 230 and 
239 years and those who came later were less 
than 200 years old. Abraham was 175 and 
Joseph, the third generation after Abraham, 
was 110 years old. Few later Biblical charac- 
ters exceeded this age. Moses was 120 years 
old and Aaron reached the age of 123 but 
David was only 70 when he was described as 
being old and stricken in years. 

Numerous instances of extreme longevity 
are recorded by ancient writers but it is impos- 
sible to verify them. Pliny records 170 cen- 
tenarians found in a population of 3,000,000 
inhabitants living between the Apennines and 
the Po, in a tax census taken during the reign 
of Vespasian. Pliny, Lucian and other writ- 
ers record ages ranging from 200 to over 800 
years. It is possible that under the rigorous 
regimen then in vogue the weaklings died 

VoL, 17 — 41 


= 


641 


young and those who survived reached old age 
but we have no means of verifying those ages. 
Hippocrates is one of the few notables whose 
age is’ supposed to have exceeded 100, yet his 
biographers give his age variously as 84, 90, 
104 and 109 years. 

In most modern instances of extreme lon- 
gevity critical investigation fails to substantiate 
the reputed age. In the celebrated case of 
Thomas Parr, the Shropshire peasant who 
died at the reputed age of 153, and who was 
buried in Westminster Abbey, critical investi- 
gation thas virtually disproven the recorded 
age. In the case of Petraz ‘Czarten, a peasant 
who died in 1724 in the village of Kapros, 
Hungary, at the reputed age of 185, there are 
no records except the statement of his son 
who was 95 years old at the time of his father’s 
death. In 1797 Joseph Surrington, a Norwe- 
gian peasant, died at the reputed age of 160, 
leaving several children, the oldest claiming to 
be 103, the youngest 9 years old. A factor 
which makes the verity of these great ages still 
more doubtful is the late age at which they 
are said to have married. Parr is said to have 
married at the age of 120 years; Drakenburg, 
a Danish peasant, married at the age of 111 and 
reached the age of 146, and a number of other 
centenatians are said to have married in the 
ninth and tenth decades of life. Gurgen Doug- 
las who married at the age of 85 had eight 
children, Peter Albrecht had seven children 
after he married at the age of 85. In these 
cases the individuals were ignorant peasants, 
there are no records by which the ages can be 
verified and the ages given were probably 
rough guesses made by persons who had no 
means of determining the real age. 

A number of cases of extreme longevity 
have been reported in the United States but in 
very few cases has it been possible to verify 
the ages owing to lack of records. Most cases 
were those of Indians, negroes and illiterate 
whites who had no means of knowing their 
exact age. The tendency. to exaggerate is evi- 
dent from the census reports which show a 


. greater number of persons who give their age 


as. at a semi-decade, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 100, than 
at a year or two younger.- In cases where it 
has been possible to make a critical investiga- 
tion exaggeration has almost invariably been 
found. In the celebrated case of Noah Raby 
who died in. 1904. in Piscatawney almshouse, 
New Jersey, at the reputed age of 132, the 
Census Bureau made a critical investigation. 
No record of his birth could be found. Raby 
stated that he was in the United States navy in 
1809 but the records of the navy showed that 
Noah Raby was first mentioned in the navy 
records in 1839. The census records showed 
that Noah Raby was in the almshouse in 1870, 
his age then given being 59. This and other 
incidents of his life that could be verified made 
his actual age 93 or 94. 

The unreliability of longevity statistics is 
apparent when we consider that the largest 
number of reputed centenarians are found in 
countries having a large illiterate population 
and incomplete records or no records at all. 
According to the 1910 census there were 3,300 
centenarians in Rumania in a population of 
8,000,000 and the same number in Bulgaria 
with half that population... The largest number 
is reported from Russia. In countries where 


642 


census and church records are fairly reliable 
the number of centenarians is small. In France 
there were 164, in Great Britain there were 94, 
in Germany there were 76 and in. the. United 
States there were only 40 centenarians whose 
ages could be verified. Statements from igno- 
rant peasants which cannot be verified through 
reliable data are devoid of scientific value. It 
is safe to assume, however, that under the un- 
hygienic conditions existing in Rumania, Bul- 
garia and Russia only the most vigorous sur- 
vive the vicissitudes of childhood and these 
have a fair chance to complete the normal 
cycle of life. In other countries where 1m- 
proved methods of hygiene have been intro- 
duced, where the science of medicine has di- 
minished infant mortality and through a better 
understanding of tuberculosis and other infec- 
tious diseases diminished the death rate in 
early life, more persons reach middle age. 
After this time, however, the causes for rapid 
ageing, especially insufficient. sleep, improper 
food, intense excitement and depressing emo- 
tions, cause a rapid increase in the death rate 
and few reach old age. Only a complete 
revolution in our mode of life, involving a re- 
turn to the slow, quiet life of the country, and 
applying to it the advantages of modern sani- 
tary science, gives any hope for an increase of 
human longevity. See Otp AGE; SENILITY. 
I. L. Nascuer, M.D. 
Author of Geriatrics: Diseases of Old Age and 
Their Treatment. 


LONGFELLOW, Ernest Wadsworth, 
American artist: b. Cambridge, Mass., 23 Nov. 
1845; d. Boston, 24 Nov. 1921. -He studied under 
Couture in Paris, and among paintings by him 
may be named (Italian Pines»; ‘Misty Morn- 
ing”; portrait of his father, Henry W. Long- 
fellow, the poet; ‘Evening on the Nile? ; ‘Morn- 
ing on the A*gean’?; ‘Solitude?; ‘The Matter- 
horn,’ and many pictures of Egypt and a number 
ef portraits. 
Association, New York. 


LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth, 
American poet: b. Portland, Me, 27 Feb. 
1807; d. Cambridge, Mass., 24 March 1882. He 
was the second son of Stephen Longfellow, 
lawyer and congressman, and Zilpah, daughter 
of Gen. Peleg Wadsworth— thus coming from 
excellent stock on both sides. He seems to 
have combined the best characteristics of both 
parents and to have passed an ideal kind of 
childhood in the beautiful seaport town. His 
disposition was gentle, sympathetic and studi- 
ous, and his education was such as to bring 
out his finest qualities. He was encouraged to 
read the best English poetry and early began 
to write verses on his own account, doubtless 
finding in the success of his favorite volume, 
Irving’s ‘Sketch-Book,? encouragement to be- 
lieve that a bright future lay in store for Amer- 
ican writers. 

In 1822 he entered Bowdoin College, of 
which his father was a trustee. He continued 
to lead much the same wholesome life he had 
led at home, avoiding rough sports, showing a 
chivalrous regard for women, especially his 
mother, reading and writing poetry, and per- 
forming faithfully his academic duties. Some 
of his poems were published in The United 
States Literary Gazette, of Boston, and brought 
him in a tiny sum of money besides an amount 


He was a member of the Century — 


“on topics of foreign literature, and 


LONGFELLOW 


of notice altogether out of proportion to their 
merits. He also gave much thought to the 


choice of a profession, and, rejecting the law 


and, despite his piety and attachment to his 
faith, the Unitarian ministry, he fixed his mind 
upon the calling of a man of letters. His 
father prudently did not altogether thwart him, 
and soon another but not alien calling offered 
itself. He stood so well in his class — of which 
Nathaniel Hawthorne (q.v.) was a member — 
that the trustees proposed to him that he should 
go to Europe to fit himself to be the first in- 
cumbent of a chair of modern languages. they 
had determined to establish. Their. offer was 
accepted, and after a few months of study at 
home he sailed for Havre, landing there on15 
June 1826. C 

His friend George Ticknor (q.v.) had ad- 
vised him to get all he could from the systema- 
tized scholarship of Germany, but Ticknor was 
in advance of his fellow-countrymen, and Long- 
fellow wisely followed his own instinct to steep 
himself in the color and movement and romance 
of the Old World’s life and literature. He was 
not idle—for in France, Spain, Italy and Ger- 
many he cultivated his exceptional linguistic 
gifts and prepared himself for the main duties. 
of his chair; but the end he proposed to ‘him- 
self was plainly’ culture, not scholarship. It 
was Old-World culture and romance that the 
new world needed, and these Longfellow later 
showed that he could transmit even better than 
Irving had done, and much better than his light- 
hearted contemporary N. P. Willis (q.v.) was 
to do. Although his popular reputation will 
always be that of a poet, Longfellow’s import- 
ant place in the history of American literature 
is partly due to his eminent services as a trans- 
lator and a transmitter of culture. 

Although very young, the traveler made 
friends everywhere, both with natives and with 
fellow Americans, and although his precocious 
Muse was singularly silent for some ‘years, he 
laid up a valuable stock of poetic impressions. 
There was a slight hitch with regard to his pro- 
fessorship, but this was overcome and he re- 
turned to America in August 1829 and entered 
upon his duties at Bowdoin. These he fulfilled 
with great success, acting also as librarian. He 
translated and edited textbooks for his students, 
with whom he always stood in friendly rela- 
tions, he prepared his lectures carefully, he 
wrote articles for The North. American Review 
he pub- 
lished, in another magazine, sketches of travel, 
which were collected in 1835 under the title of 
‘Outre-Mer.» It was a quiet and useful life 
and one that was rendered still happier by his 
marriage in September 1831 to Miss Mary 
mioret pe plier, OF Eortiand > aes 

A little over three years later he was invited 
to succeed Ticknor as Smith professor of 
modern languages at Harvard, with the inti- 
mation that. he would do well to spend some 
months in Germany before beginning his work. 
He sailed with his wife in April 1835, and 
spent the summer in Sweden and Denmark, 
studying the Scandinavian literatures, which 
were destined to have a strong influence upon 
his writings. In the autumn Holland was vis- 
ited, and there at. Rotterdam, after a protracted 
illness, his: young wife died. Much. affected, 
Longfellow went to. Heidelberg and settled 


LONGFELLOW 


down for study, yielding his bereaved spirit all 
the more willingly to the influence of German 
sentiment and the not yet outworn romanticism 
of the epoch. Then, after some pleasant trav- 
eling in Switzerland, he returned home in 
October 1836. 

Two months later found him at work in 
Cambridge and soon he was established in the 
famous ‘Craigie House. He devoted himself to 
his lecturing and to superintending his assist- 
ants — foreigners, who gave him not a little 
trouble. He was no recluse, and enjoyed es- 
pecially the society of such men as the historian 
W..H. Prescott (q.v.), Charles Sumner (q.v.), 
and that “heartiest of Greek professors,” as he 
was called by Dickens, whom Longfellow also 
knew pleasantly, Cornelius C. Felton (q.v.). 
Soon he resumed his long-abandoned habit of 
writing verses, and after gaining popularity in 
the magazines through such pieces as ‘The 
Psalm of Life,» he issued his first volume of 
poems, ‘Voices of the Night, late in 1839. . It 
made an instant appeal, partly through its 
sound, moral didacticism, partly through its 
sentiment and its melody, both of which had 
been in considerable measure derived. from 
Longfellow’s study of German poetry. Earlier 
in the same year he had published a prose work 
equally or more indebted to German literature 
—‘Hyperion, a Romance,’ which was also very 
popular. This idealized record of his foreign 
experiences and the later prose tale of New 
England village life, ‘Kavanagh? (1849), have 
long since ceased to hold the majority of read- 
ers, but ‘Hyperion? was very important in his 
work as a transmitter of Old World culture. 
Late in 1841 his second volume of verse, ‘Bal- 
lads and Other Poems,’ with such moving 
pieces as ‘The Wreck of the Hesperus? se- 
cured him in his position as the most popular 
of American poets—the singer whose songs 
have gone straightest to the largest number of 
hearts. There is evidence that he deliberately 
sought to move the people’s feelings, and never 
was conscious literary effort, more thoroughly 
successful. 

In 1842 he paid a third visit to Europe, 
forming this memorable friendship with the 
German poet Freiligrath and getting the in- 
spiration for such poems as ‘The Belfry of 
Bruges.’ While sailing back he wrote his 
‘Poems on Slavery, published late in the year. 
His gentle nature did not fit him to be a mili- 
«ant poet like Whittier, but his slave lyrics were 
effective through their sincerity and their met- 
rical and descriptive power. 

In July 1843, he married Miss Frances EFliza- 
beth Appleton, of Boston, a beautiful, cultured 
and wealthy young woman whom he had met 
on his second visit to Europe and had portrayed 
as Mary Ashburton in ‘Hyperion.? She bore 
him’ children, made his home a hospitable cen- 
tre and ministered to him in an ideal way until 


her tragic death. The next 17 years formed 


a period of quiet work and maturing fame. His 
drama ‘The Spanish Student» (1843) was a 
failure, but ‘The Poets and Poetry of Europe> 
(1845) and ‘The Belfry of Bruges and Other 
Poems? (1846) did him credit, and the beauti- 
ful idyll ‘Evangeline? (1847) not only won all 
hearts, but enabled his admirers to proclaim 
him as’an American poet who had succeeded in 
a fairly elaborate work of art. The not yet 
naturalized hexameters and the bookish origin 


643 


of the descriptions have not effectively counter- 
acted the narrative power and the pathos of the 
story, and ‘Evangeline’? seems destined to hold 
its own with readers yet unborn. 

Longfellow had already planned a still more 
elaborate work on which he labored for many 
years, but which he was never able to make a 
success. This was ‘Christus, a Mystery,? 
finally completed in 1872, a poem designed to 
picture Christendom in the apostolic, the 
medieval and-the modern periods. The second 
portion, ‘The Golden Legend? (1851), was the: 
part first published and was by far the best. 
Its pictures of medieval life have deservedly 
won high praise, but the general public has re- 
mained singularly cold to the merits of the 
work. 

Meanwhile, the duties of his professorship, 
little onerous though they seem to have been, 
weighed more and more heavily on Longfellow, 
who was also troubled with weak eyes, fre- 
quent attacks of neuraligia and the importuni- 
ties of autograph hunters and other bores. In 
1854 he resigned his chair and thenceforth de- 
voted himself entirely to literary work and 
pleasant social life. His Indian epic ‘Hiawatha? 
(1855), written in the trochaic measure of the 
Finnish ‘Kalevala,> was immediately popular, 
and three years later in ‘The Courtship of 
Miles Standish,» he reached his highest point as 
a narrative poet. Excellent though ‘Evange- 
line,’ ‘The Golden Legend» and ‘Hiawatha? 
had been, they had, nevertheless, been too 
plainly the work of a sophisticated poet writing 
in his library; ‘Miles Standish,» dealing as it 


did with the past of Longfellow’s native New 


England, drew part of its inspiration from the 
poet’s own life and character, molded as they 
were by tradition and environment. 

During the agitated period which immedi- 
ately preceded the Civil War Longfellow sym- 
pathized with the cause represented by his 
friend Sumner, but took no active part in the 
strife. In July 1861 the tragedy of his. life 
came to him late—his wife was burned to 
death, her light dress having caught fire from 
a match on the floor. _He was practically 
heart-broken, but bore his bereavement man- 
fully. Taking up a task that had long befere 
interested him, he sought solace in translating 
the great poem of Dante. With the aid of 
Lowell and Prof. Charles Eliot Norton 
(q.v.) he completed the work in about five 
years (published 1867-70). It ranks with the 
best of such ‘renderings of great poems into 
English, though some have questioned, whether 
Longfellow was not more successful in his 
earlier attempts to translate a poet always dear 
to him. 

Meanwhile, in 1863, he had published his 
‘Tales of a Wayside Inn,» some portions of 
which, such as ‘The Saga of King Olaf, were 
excellent. In 1868 ‘The New England Trage- 
dies,» the final section of ‘Christus, failed to 
attract readers, as did also the first section, 
‘The Divine Tragedy, which appeared in 1871. 
In the spring of 1868 he sailed for the last 
time to Europe and remained over a year, re- 
ceiving degrees from Oxford and Cambridge 
and other evidences of the affection and ad- 
miration his works had gained for him abroad. 
The rest of his life was marked only by the 
appearance of an occasional volume, and by a 
growing veneration among his countrymen for 


644 


his character and his genius. Probably the 
most significant productions of his old age were 


some of his sonnets and his dignified ‘Morituri | 


Salutamus,? delivered at Bowdoin (in 1875) 
at the semi-centennial of his class. He lived 
on, declining in health but still preserving the 
serenity of his disposition, until 24 March 1882, 
when he died after a short illness. Two years 
later his bust was placed in the Poets’ Corner 
of Westminster Abbey—for his fame was 
almost as truly a British as an American pos- 
session. 

Longfellow is generally admitted to be the 
most popular of American poets, and the cele- 
bration of his centenary showed that there 
has been no real abatement of his countrymen’s 
regard for his character and his works. Natu- 
rally, however, he has not escaped censure on 
the score of the comparatively derivative and 
facile quality of his genius. Authors of greater 
individuality, of finer artistic powers and train- 
ing, of more pronounced national and demo- 
cratic qualities Emerson, Poe, Hawthorne, 
Whitman, for example,— have received higher 
praise from critics and have aroused in their 
devotees a more perfervid admiration than has 
fallen to Longfellow’s lot, at least of late years. 
Waiving comparisons, we may frankly admit 
that Longfellow did follow, in the main, well- 
beaten paths, that he was much indebted to the 
culture of other nations, that he fell short of 
the higher reaches of the art of poetry, that a 
considerable proportion of his work is of but 
slight value. On the other hand, we should in- 
sist that nearly all his work, whether in prose 
or verse, was important in the development of 
American literature and the American char- 
acter, that within his limits he was a true and 
very accomplished artist, that he succeeded in 
both elaborate and unelaborate forms, that his 
fame transcended the bounds of his own. lan- 
guage, and that, as a narrative poet and a 
writer of appealing lyrics of sentiment and re- 
flection, he has left a body of work of per- 
manent and individual value. It seems to be 
hypercritical | not to allow the author of 
‘Flowers, “The Building of the Ship, ‘The 
Bridge,’ ‘The Day is Done,» and scores: of 
similar lyrics, of such sonnets as the, beautiful 
“Cross of Snow’ (in memory of his second 
wife), and of such sustained. poems as ‘Evan- 
geline,’ ‘The Golden. Legend, ‘Hiawatha? 
and ‘The Courtship of -Miles Standish, the un- 
grudging praise due to the poet who is both 
great and essentially good and wholesome. 

Longfellow’s more important. publications 
have already been named, but to them may be 
added ‘The Seaside and the Fireside? (1850), 
which contained ‘The Building of the Ship’; 
“Flower-de-Luce? (1867); ‘Aftermath? (1874) ; 
‘The Masque of Pandora and Other Poems? 
(1875), which included ‘Morituri Salutamus? ; 
‘Kéramos and Other Poems? (1878); ‘Ultima 
Thule? (1880); ‘In ‘the Harbor? (1882) ;.and 
“Michael Angelo? (1883)... For bibliography 
see Foley’s ‘American Authors and the ap- 
pendix, to E. S. Robertson's memoir in. the 
‘Great Writers? series. A very useful list. of 
authorities is given im -C.H.}Page’s;{ ‘Chief 
American Poets,”. pp. 641-642: See EVANGELINE; 
HIAWATHA; TALES or A WaysIpDE INN?” 

Bibliography.— There are good editions of 
the complete works (e.g., the Riverside in 11 


LONGFELLOW 


vols., Boston 1886-90), and of the poems (e.g., 
Cambridge, 1 vol.). The standard biography 
is that by Samuel Longfellow (3 vols., Boston 
1891 — superseding the ‘Life, 2 vols., and 
‘Final Memorials”). An excellent brief sketch 
is that by G. R. Carpenter in_ the ‘Beacon 
Biographies” (Boston 1901). The volume in 
the ‘American Men of Letters? is by Col. T. 
W. Higginson. Consult also W. D. Howells. 
“My Literary Friends,» (New York 1900), and 
Charles Eliot Norton’s ‘Longfellow: (Boston 
1907 — with poems of an autobiographical char- 
acter) ; Robertson in the ‘Great Writers Series” 
(London 1887) ; Wendell, ‘Literary History of 
America» (New York 1900) ; Bliss, Perry, ‘The 
Centenary of Longfellow?’ (Boston 1908); Liv- 
ingston, L. S., ‘Bibliography of the First Edi- 
tions in Book Form of the Writings’ of Henry 
Wadsworth ‘Longfellow? (New York» 1908): 
For criticism’ consult Stedman’s ‘Poets of 
America? (New York 1885), and the histories 
of American literature. 
cw ictal P. TRENT, 
Professor of English Literature, C olumbia Uni- 
versity. 


LONGFELLOW, Samuel, American Uni- 
tarian clergyman atid poet: b. Portland, Me., 
18 June 1819; d. Cape Elizabeth, Me., 3. Oct. 
1892. He was. a-.younger brother of H. W. 
Longfellow, and was graduated from Harvard 
in 1839 and from Harvard Divinity School in 
1846. After his ordination to the ministry he 
was pastor of the Unitarian church at Fall 
River, Mass., 1848-51; of the Second Unitarian 
Church in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1853-60; and of the 
Unitarian church at Germantown, _Philadel- 
phia, 1877-82. His remaining years were spent 
in Cambridge. His fame as a poet has been 
overshadowed by that of his brother, but he had 
a very distinct poetic gift, and his hymns, of 
which he wrote many, are among the best of 
modern religious lyrics. He wrote a number of 
essays for the Radical, 1866-71. His published 
works include ©A..Book of Hymns,” with S. 
Johnson (1846), a compilation revised in 1864 
as ‘Hymns of the Spirit? ; ‘Thalatta: a Book 
for the Seaside, with T. W. Higginson (1853), 
averse compilation partly original: ‘Life ‘of 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow? (1886) : Final 
Memorials of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow? 
(1887) ; ‘Essays and Sermons? (1894) ; ‘Hymns 
and Verses? (1894). Consult May, Joseph, 
‘Memoir and Letters of Samuel Longfellow? 
(Boston 1894). 


LONGFELLOW,. William Pitt ‘Preble, 
American architect: b...Portland, Me. 25 
Oct. 1836; d. 1913. He wasa nephew of Henry 
W. Longfellow (q.v.), and was graduated from 
Harvard. in 1855. He was assistant architect 
of the Treasury Department, 1869-72; was a 
Fellow of the American Society of Architects, 
and was the original editor of The American 
Architect. In 1881-82 he was adjunct professor 
of architectural design at the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology. He was chairman of 
the architectural section of the Board of Judges 
of the World’s: Columbian Exposition, 1893. 
He published ‘Abstract of Letters on Perspec- 
tive? (1889); ‘Cyclopedia of Architecture in 
Italy, Greece and the Levant? (1895; new -ed., 
1903), a work of great value; ‘The Column and 
the | Arch? (1899) ; ‘Applied wide sf 
(1901). ims 


LONGFORD 


LONGFORD, Ireland, county-town of 
Longford County, on the.Camlin River, and on 
the Midland Great Western Railway, 75 miles 
west northwest of Dublin. It contains the 
magnificent cathedral of Saint Mel of the 
diocese of Ardagh, one of the finest ecclesiasti- 
cal buildings in Ireland. It is also the seat of a 
Roman Catholic college and has corn mills, a 
spool factory, brick yards and tanneries. A 
large trade is carried on in bacon, butter, grain 
and other farm produce. Early in the 16th 
century the ancient name of the town Athfada 
was Anglicized Longford. It was chartered in 
the reign of Charles IIT and sent two members 
to Parliament. It lost its representation in 
1800. The town government is vested in an 
urban district council. Pop. 3,760. 


LONGICORNES, or LONG-HORNED 
BEETLES. See CERAMBYCIDZ. 


LONGINUS, Cassius, Athenian Neo- 
platonic philosopher and. rhetorician: b. about 


213 a.p.; d. Palmyra, Syria, 273 av. Greek 
literature was the principal subject of his 
studies, He studied the philosophy of the day 


under Ammonius. Sacas. at Alexandria, but 
subsequently became an ardent adherent of the 
Platonic philosophy. and annually celebrated 
the birthday of its founder by a banquet. He 
afterward visited the East, and on the invita- 
tion of Queen Zenobia went to Palmyra to in- 
struct her in Greek learning and to educate her 
children. On the death of her husband he was 
employed by her in the administration of the 
state, and advised her to throw off the Roman 
yoke, by which means he was involved in the 
fate of this queen. For when Zenobia was 
taken prisoner by the Emperor Aurelian, and 
could save her life only by betraying her coun- 
sellors, Longinus, as the chief of them, was 
seized and beheaded 273 av. He suffered 
death with all the fir-iness of a philosopher. 
He was distinguished by his oratory as well as 
his statesmanship and love of liberty. He ap- 
pears to have known Latin and Syriac as well 
as Greek. The work known as ‘Longinus on 
the Sublime, the best piece. of literary criti- 
cism in the Greek language, was written either 
by him or by a certain Dionysius Longinus, 
whose date is the Ist century after Christ, 
It was edited by Vahlen, and published at Bonn 
in 1887. (See Sustime, Tur). Consult Rob- 
erts, ‘Longinus. on the Sublime? (2d ed.; Cam- 
bridge 1907). 


LONGITUDE. The longitude of a place 
on the earth is the angle at the pole between 
the meridian of Greenwich and. the meridian 
passing through the observer’s place; or it is 
the arc of the equator intercepted between these 
meridians; or, since this arc is measured by 
the time required for the earth to turn. suffi- 
ciently to bring the second meridian into the 
same position held by the first, it is simply the 
difference of their local times, usually reckoned 
in hours, minutes and seconds, instead of 
degrees. Since it is easy for the -observer to 
find his own local time by the methods which 
have been given, .the problem is really this: 
being at any place, to find the corresponding 
local time at Greenwich without. going there. 
There are three principal methods of finding 
longitude. 

Finding Longitude by Means of Signals 
Simultaneously Observable at the Places be- 


— LONGITUDE 


645 


tween which the Difference of Longitude is 
to be Found.— 1. A Lunar Eclipse. When the 
moon enters the shadow of the earth, the phe- 
nomenon is seen at the same moment, no mat- 
ter where the observer may be. By noting, 
therefore, his own local time at the moment, 
and afterward comparing it with the time at 
which the phenomenon was observed at Green- 
wich, he will obtain his longitude from Green- 
wich. 2. Eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter 
may be used in the same way, with the advan- 
tage that they occur very frequently — almost 
every night, in fact; but the objection to them 
is that they are not sudden, 3. The appearance 
and disappearance of meteors may be and has 
been used to determine the difference of longi- 
tude between places not more than two or three 
hundred miles apart, and gives very accurate 
results. This method is now superseded by the 
telegraph. 4. Artificial signals, such as flashes 
of powder and rockets, can be used between 
two stations not too far distant. The differ- 
ence of longitude between the Black Sea and 
the Atlantic was determined by means of a 
chain of signal stations on the mountain tops; 
so also, the difference of longitude between the 
eastern and western extremities of the north- 
ern boundary of Mexico. This method is now 
superseded by the telegraph. 

Finding Longitude by Regarding the 
Moon.— Since the moon revolves around the 
earth once a month, it is continually changing 
its place among the stars; and as the laws of 
its motion are now well known, and as the 
place which it will occupy is predicted for every 
hour of every Greenwich day three years in 
advance in the nautical almanac, it is possible 
to deduce the corresponding Greenwich time by 
any observation which will determine the place 
of the moon among the stars. The almanac 
place, however, is the place at which the moon 
would be seen by an observer at the centre of 
the earth, and consequently the actual observa- 
tions are in most cases complicated with very 
disagreeable. reductions. for parallax before 
they can be made available. 1. That of Moon 
Culminations.— We. merely observe with a 
transit. instrument the time when the moon’s 
bright limb crosses, the meridian of the place; 
and immediately after. the moon we observe 
one or more stars with the same instrument, 
to give us the error of our clock. As the moon 
is observed on the meridian, its parallax does 
not affect its right ascension, and accordingly, 
by a simple reference to the almanac, we can 
ascertain the Greenwich time at which the 
moon had the particular right ascension deter- 
mined by the observation. The method has 
been very extensively used, and would be an 
admirable one were it not for the effects of 
personal equation. 2. Lunar-Distances— At 
sea it is impossible to observe the moon with 
a transit instrument, but we can observe its 
distance from the stars near its path by means 
of a sextant. The distance observed will not 
be the same that it would be if the observer 
were at the centre of the earth, but by a mathe- 
matical process called “clearing a lunar” the 
distance as seen from the centre of the earth 
can be easily deduced, and compared with the 
distance given’ in the ‘almanac. From this the 
longitude can be determined. 3. Occultations.— 
Occasionally, in its passage through the sky, 


646 


the moon overruns a star, or “occults” it. The 
star vanishes instantaneously, and, of course, 
at the moment of its disappearance the distance 
from the centre of the moon to the star is pre- 
cisely equal to the apparent semi-diameter of 
the moon: we thus have a “lunar-distance” 
self-measured. Observations of this kind fur- 
nish one of the most accurate methods of de- 
termining the difference of longitude between 
widely separated places, the only difficulty aris- 
ing from the fact that the edge of the moon is 
not smooth, but more or less mountainous, so 
that the distance of a star from the moon’s 
centre is not always the same at the moment of 
its disappearance.- 4. In the same way a solar 
eclipse may be employed by observing the mo- 
ment when the moon’s limb touches that of the 
sun. This and the preceding methods (the 
methods of occultation and solar eclipse), do 
not belong in the same class with the method 
of lunar eclipse, because the phenomena are not 
seen at the same instant at different places, but 
the calculation of longitude depends upon the 
determination of the moon’s place in the sky 
at the given time, as seen from the earth's 
centre, 

There are still other methods, depending 
upon measurements ot the moon’s position by 
observations of its altitude or azimuth. In all 
such cases, however, every error of observation 
entails a vastly greater error in the final re- 
sults. Lunar methods (excepting occultations) 
are only used when better ones are unavailable. 

Finding Longitude by Mechanical Meth- 
ods.— 1. By the Chronometer; which is simply 
an accurate watch that has been set to indicate 
Greenwich time before the ship leaves port. 
In order to find the longitude by the chronom- 
eter, the sailor has to determine its “error” 
upon local time by an observation of the alti- 
tude of the sun when near the prime vertical. 
If the chronometer indicates true Greenwich 
time, the error deduced from the observation 
will be the longitude. Usually, however, the 
indication of the chronometer face requires 
correction for the rate and run of the chro- 
nometer since leaving port. 2. The Telegraph. 
— When we wish to find the longitude between 
two stations connected by telegraph, the process 
is as follows: the observers at both stations 
proceed to determine their own local time by a 
series of star observations with the transit in- 
strument. Then, at a time agreed upon, the 
observer at the first station “switches his clock” 
into the telegraphic circuit, so that its beats are 
communicated along the line and received upon 
the chronograph of the second, or say the 
Western station. After the Eastern clock has 
thus sent its signals, it is switched out of the 
circuit, and the Western observer now switches 
his clock into the circuit, and its beats are re- 
ceived upon the East chronograph. The oper- 
ation is closed by another series of star obser- 
vations. We now have upon each chronograph 
sheet an accurate comparison of the two 
clocks, showing the amount by which the West- 
ern clock is slow of the Eastern. If the trans- 
mission of electric signals were instantaneous, 
the difference shown upon the two chronograph 
sheets would exactly agree. Practically, how- 
ever, there will always be a small discrepancy 
amounting to twice the time occupied in the 
transmission of the signals; but, the mean of 
the two differences will be the true difference 


LONGLEY — LONGMANS 


of longitude of the places after the proper cor- 
rections have been. applied. Care must be 
taken to determine with accuracy and eliminate 
the personal equations of the observers. See 
LATITUDE. 


LONGLEY, James Wilberforce. Canadian 
politician: b. Paradise, Nova Scotia, 4 Jan. 
1849: d. Halifax, N. Ge 16 March 1922. He 
was educated at Acadia College, Nova Scotia, 
studied law in Halifax and was called to the bar 
in 1875. He was chief editorial writer for the 
Acadian Recorder, 1873-87, and.was managing 
editor of the Halifax Morning Chronicle (1887—- 
91). After 1882 he was a member of Nova Scotia 
Assembly and in 1884-96 was attorney-general 
and from 1896-1905 was commissioner of Crown 
lands. He passed in 1890 a bill for the abolition 
of imprisonment for debt. He was appointed a 
puisne judge of the Supreme Court of: Nova 
Scotia in 1905. His literary works include 
‘Socialism: Its Truths and Errors?; ‘Canada 
and Imperial Federation” ; and ‘Joseph Howe? 
in the ‘Makers of Canada? series. 


LONGMAN, Mary Evelyn Beatrice, 
American sculptress: b. Winchester, Ohio, 
1874. In 1896-98 she studied at Olivet Col- 
lege, Michigan, and in 1898-1900 studied sculp- 
ture at the Art Institute of Chicago, taking her 
degree with honors in the latter year. For 
several years after 1901 she was assistant in 
the studio of Daniel Chester French. At Saint 
Louis in 1904 she was awarded a silver medal 
for her ‘Victory? and in 1906 won the com- 
mission for the bronze doors at the chapel of 
the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis. 
She also executed the bronze doors of the 
Wellesley College Library and the Storey 
Memorial in the cemetery of Lowell, Mass., 
Foster Memorial at Middleburg, N. Y., a torso 
in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the 
busts, ‘John Stewart Kennedy, “Louise? and 
(Enigma. » In 1909 she was made an associate 
National Academician and a member of the 
American Federation of Arts, the American 
Numismatic Society, the Municipal Art Soci- 
ety and the National Sculpture Society. Miss 
Longman was the recipient of silver medals at 
Et) aie ie Exposition, San Francisco, 
1915. 


LONGOBARDI. See Lomsarps. 


LONGMANS, London publishers for many 
years identified with high-class literature. 
Thomas Longman (1699-1755) was apprenticed 
to John Osborne, bookseller, Lombard street. 
Longman bought the business of William Tay- 
lor, publisher of ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ conducted 
in Paternoster Row, whence he moved in 1726 
to the present site. Longman was a share- 
holder in many important publications, such as 
Boyle's ‘Works, Ainsworth’s ‘Latin Diction- 
ary, Chambers’ “Cyclopedia? and Johnson’s 
‘Dictionary. His nephew and successor, 
Thomas Longman (1730-97), published a new 
edition of ‘Chambers. With Thomas ‘Norton 
Longman (1771-1842) the firm reached a high 
degree of literary and commercial prosperity. 
Lindley Murray’s ‘Grammar? was published 
and proved valuable, while the firm had literary. 
connection with Wordsworth, Southey, Cole- 
ridge, Scott, Moore (to whom it paid £3,000 
for ‘Lalla Rookh), ‘Sydney Smith and other 
leading authors. In 1826 the Edinburgh Re- 


LONG’S PEAK — 


view became the property of Longmans. The 
next important members of the firm were 
Thomas Longman (1804-79), the eldest son of 
T. N. Longman who issued a beautifully illus- 
trated New Testament, and William Longman 
(1813-77), the third-son, who wrote ‘Lectures 
on the History of England» (1859); ‘History 
of the Life and Times of Edward IID (1869); 
and ‘History of the Three Cathedrals of Saint 
Paul (1873). The events of this generation 
were the publication in succession of Macau- 
lay’s ‘Lays of Ancient Rome? (1842); ‘Es- 
says? (1843); and ‘History. The famous 
check for £20,000 paid to Macaulay as his share 
of the profits of the third and fourth volumes 
for the first few months (1855) is still pre- 
served. The partners of the fifth generation 
were Thomas- Norton Longman and George 
Henry Longman, sons of Thomas Longman, 
and Charles James Longman and H. H. Long- 
man, sons of William Longman. One of the 
earliest ventures of this time was Disraeli’s 
‘Endymion, for. which the author received 
£10,000. The connection with Lord _ Bea- 
consfield had begun in 1870, when they pub- 
lished his ‘Lothair.». A  magazine— Long- 
man’s — was also established by the house in 
1882, and ceased publication in 1905. In 1890 
Longman’s took over the business of Riving- 
tons, an older firm even than their own. In 
the persons of Thomas Norton Longman, 
Charles James Longman and Sir Hubert Harry 
Longman, the family connection with the busi- 
ness is still maintained. 


LONG’S PEAK, one of the highest eleva- 
tions of’ the Rocky Mountains, in Colorado, 
about 48 miles northwest of Denver. Its height 
is 14,271 feet. It was named in honor of Col. 
Stephen Harriman Long (q.v.). 


LONGSPURS, a group of large finches, 
typically of the genus Calcarius, distinguished 
by the great size of the claw of the hind toe. 
All are northern birds, frequenting open lands 
and inclined to form into flocks. The Lapland 
longspur (C. lapponicus) is known throughout 
the northern parts of Europe and Asia as well 
as America, and breeds only in the extreme 
north, coming south of the area of deep snow 
in winter, but always rare and irregular in the 
United States. Three other species are re- 
stricted to North America, one of which, the 
chestnut-collared (L. ornatus), is well known in 
the West, as it breeds abundantly on the plains 
of Dakota and’ Montana, making its nest on 
the ground. All are handsome birds, with a 
mixture of colors, in which black, chestnut, red 
and buff are conspicuous. Detailed descriptions 
of all may be found in Dr. E. Coues’ ‘Birds of 
the Northwest? (Washington 1874). 


LONGSTREET, Augustus Baldwin, son 
of William Longstreet (q.v.), American jurist 
and author: b. Augusta, Ga., 22 Sept. 1790; 
d. Oxford, Miss., 9 Sept. 1870. He was grad- 
uated at Yale College in 1813, began the study 
of law at Litchfield, Conn., and was admitted 
to practice: in Georgia in 1815. In 1821 he 
represented the county of Greene in the legis- 
lature, and in 1822 was made judge of the 
Superior Court of Ocmulgee circuit. Declining 
re-election to the bench, he returned to the bar, 
and was especially distinguished for his efforts 
and successes in criminal cases. In 1822 he re- 
moved to Augusta, Ga., and founded the 


LONGSTREET 647 


Sentinel. In 1838 he entered the ministry of 
the Methodist Church, and was president of 
Emory College 1839-48, then of Centenary Col- 
lege, Louisiana, and subsequently of the Uni- 
versity of Mississippi. He resigned this post 
after six years and became a planter, but in 
1857 he became president of South Carolina 
College, and a few years later resumed his 
former post at the University of Mississippi. 
His works include ‘Georgia Scenes, a series 
of broadly humorous sketches, long: popular 
(1840). Heis said to have disowned the second 
edition (1867) and vainly tried to destroy the 
first, “Letters From Georgia to Massachusetts.’ 


LONGSTREET, James, American soldier: 
b: in -Edgeheld district, ‘S.-C., 8 Jan: 1821; 
d. Gainesville, Ga., 2 Jan. 1904. He was grad- 
uated at the United States Military Academy 
in 1842; entered the army as lieutenant of in- 
fantry and, after performing duty at various 
Western posts, served in the Mexican War, in 
which (at Chapultepec) he was badly wounded 
and for gallantry in which he received the bre- 
vets of captain and major. From 1847 to 1852 
he was stationed on the Texas frontier and in 
1858 became paymaster with the rank of major. 
In June 1861, the Civil War having broken out, 
he resigned from the United States army and 
entered that of the Confederacy as a brigadier- 
general. At the first battle of Bull Run (q.v.) 
he commanded a brigade, and in 1862 was made 
a major-general. In the retreat before Mc- 
Clellan, during the Peninsular campaign (q.v.), 
he was in command of Gen. J. E. Johnston’s 
rear guard, and contributed greatly to the safe 
withdrawal of the main army to Richmond. 
In the Seven Days’ Battles (q.v.) he fought 
with credit to himself and his division, whose 
losses were very heavy; and at the second bat- 
tle of Bull Run (q.v.) he displayed promptness, 
energy and generalship to which the Confederate 
victory was largely attributed. He com- 
manded the right wing at Antietam, and at the 
battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.). had command 
of the left, repulsing the desperate assault of 
Burnside’s army. After Fredericksburg he was 
made lieutenant-general, and with that rank 
commanded one of the three corps of the Con- 
federate army of invasion, known as the Army 
of Northern Virginia. At the battle of Gettys- 
Hurg (q.v.) during the second and third days, 
he commanded the right wing, which sustained 
the chief burden of the conflict, furnishing the 
columns that made Pickett’s charge. Trans- 
ferred to the Army of Tennessee, Longstreet 
arrived on the field in time to save the day at 
the battle of Chickamauga (q.v.). He next 
moved unsuccessfully against. Burnside at 
Knoxville (q.v.) and early in 1864 rejoined 
General Lee in Virginia. Again distinguishing 
himself in the battles of the Wilderness, he 
was severely wounded and for some months 
disabled, but was in command of the first corps 
of the Army of Northern Virginia during the 
later months of 1864 and took some further part 
in active field-service, retaining to the last his 
distinction as a general and a fighter, and com- 
ing out of the war at its close with the respect 
of the whole country, which has never dimin- 
ished. After the war he engaged in business 
as a cotton factor in New Orleans and, having 
become a Republican in politics, was surveyor 
of customs at that port, 1869-73. In the same 


648 


city he was afterward postmaster. He re- 
moved to Georgia in 1875; was United States 
Minister to Turkey, 1880-81; in 1881-84 served 
as United States marshal of Georgia, and was 
appointed United States railway commissioner 
in 1898. He wrote for periodicals, and pub- 
lished ‘From Manassas to Appomattox? (1896; 
2d ed, Philadelphia 1904). Consult Long- 
street, Helen D., ‘Lee and Longstreet at. High 
Tide? (Gainesville, Ga., 1904). 

LONGSTREET, William, American in- 
ventor: b. New Jersey, 1760; d. Georgia, 1814. 
He settled in Augusta, Ga., in early life and on 
26 Sept. 1790 wrote a letter to Thomas Telfair 
of Savannah asking his. assistance in raising 
the means to construct a boat to be propelled by 
steam. This letter was published in the Savan- 
nah and Augusta newspapers, but funds were 
not immediately obtained, though he stated his 
entire confidence in the success of_the scheme. 
He was subsequently furnished with the neces- 
sary means for experiment, and constructed a 
small model boat, upon a plan very different 
from Fulton’s, which went on the Savannah 
River against the stream at the rate of five miles 
an hour. Cotton had previously been ginned by 
two rollers, not quite one inch in diameter, 
which caught the fibres, pressed out the seed 
and delivered the clean cotton on the other side, 
where it was taken by the ginner’s hand, and 
deposited in a bag attached to his person. Long- 
street invented and patented the “breast roller,» 
moved by horse power, which entirely super- 
_seded the old method. The inventor set up two 
of his gins in Augusta, which were propelled by 
steam, worked admirably and promised him a 
fortune. They were, however, destroyed by 
fire within a week. He next erected a set of 
steam mills near Saint Mary’s, Ga., which were 
destroyed by the British in an invasion in the 
War of 1812. These disasters exhausted his 
resources and discouraged his enterprise, though 
he was confident that steam would soon super- 
sede all other motive powers. 


LONGTON, England, former town of 
Staffordshire, two miles southeast of Stoke-on- 
Trent, on the North Staffordshire Railway. It 
is situated in the potteries district and there are 
coal and iron mines nearby. Chinaware and 
earthenware are manufactured in great quan- 
tities. It contains the fine recreation ground 
named Queen’s Park. In 1865 Longton was 
incorporated as a town; in 1910 it became part 
of the borough of Stoke-on-Trent. Pop. 
37,470. 

LONGUEUIL, lon-gél, Canada, town of 
Chambly County, in the province of Quebec, 
on the Saint Lawrence River, and on the 
Canadian Pacific Railroad. It is situated 
opposite Hochelaga, the northeastern. part of 
Montreal. Longueuil is a residential suburb of 
Montreal, and the country around contains 
many summer homes of city residents. Its in- 
dustries include the Armstrong-Whitworth steel 
plant, saw mill and foundry. Pop. (1921) 4,736. 

LONGUEVILLE, Anne Geneviéve de 
Bourbon-Condé, an zhén-vé-éy dé boor-bdn 
kon-da long-vél, DucHess or, French beauty 
and politician: b. Vincennes, 28 Aug. 1619; 
d. Paris, 15 April 1679. Her father, Henry II, 
Prince of Condé, was prisoner in the chateau 
of Vincennes at the time of her birth. Her 
brothers were the great Condé and the Prince 


LONGSTREET — 


LONGWORTH 


of Conti. The Prince de. Joinville, to whom 
she had been betrothed, having died, she mar- 
ried in 1642 the Duke de Longueville, a widower 
double her age. Imbibing a fondness for poli- 
tics, and actuated by hostility to the court and 
Mazarin, she took an active part in organizing 
the first Fronde. In order to punish the 
duchess, her brothers and husband were ar- 
rested by order of Anne of Austria, the regent, 
in 1650; but she persisted in her resistance to 
the court, and repaired to the citadel of Stenay 
in Flanders, of which she took the command, 
and was able to induce Turenne to join the 
Fronde. After the peace of 1659 she devoted 
herself to a religious life and her influence in 
Rome was said to have secured for the Jan- 
senists the so-called peace. of Clement IX 
(1668). The later part of her life was spent in 
the Carmelite convent of Paris in most string- 
ent observance of religious duties. Cousin, in 
his ‘Madame de Longueville? (6th ed., 1859), 
calls her “the soul of the Fronde” Consult 
also Cousin’s ‘Youth of M..de Longueville? 
(1854) ; and Williams, H. N., ‘A Princess of 
Intrigue? (London 1907). 


LONGUS, long’iis, Greek writer, supposed 
to have lived about the close of the 4th or the 
beginning of the 5th century A.D. Concerning 
his history nothing is known. He was the 
author of a pastoral romance entitled ‘The 
Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe,» of which the 
best editions are those of Villoison (1778), 
Courier (1810), Passow (1811). Longus is the 
latest of the bucolic poets and in the Renais- 
sance period was widely read, his pastoral 
descriptions, as given in Amyot’s French trans- 
lation (1559), having not a little to do with the 
revival of the pastoral form. (See DAPHNIS 
AND CHLOE). Consult Wolff, “Greek Romance 
Pa Say Prose Fiction? . (New York 
1 : 


LONGVIEW, Tex., town, county-seat of 
Gregg County, on the Texas and Pacific, the 
Texas, the International and Great Northern, 
and the Texas and Gulf railroads, about 240 
miles northeast of Austin and 120 miles east of 
Dallas. It is situated in an agricultural section, 
in which are raised large crops of grain and 
cotton. The chief manufacturing establish- 
ments are foundry, lumber mills, railroad shops, 
cottonseed-oil mills, crate and box factories 
and plow works. The principal offices of the 
Texas, Sabine Valley and Northwestern Rail- 
road are in Longview. The trade is principally 
in agricultural products, livestock, hides, cot- 
tonseed-oil and lumber. The waterworks and 
sewage system are the property of the munic- 
ipality. Pop. (1920) 5,713. 

LONGWORTH, Nicholas, American wine 
manufacturer and horticulturist: b. Newark, 
N. J., 16 Jan. 1783; d. 1863. At 21 he went to 
the then unimportant settlement of Cincinnati, 
where he studied law. After, 25 years’ ex- 
perience at the bar he retired from professional 
life in order to devote himself to the cultivation 
of the grape, with a view of manufacturing 
wine. At first his efforts were unsuccessful 
from his having adopted the erroneous notion 
of the early American vine growers, that 
foreign plants were alone to be relied upon. 
He had imported many different species from 
every vine-growing country in Europe before 
trying those indigenous to the United States. 


LONGWY — LOOM 


About 1828 he commenced the experiment, and 
became a high authority in agricultural matters 
as well as in vine culture, being not infre- 
quently called the “Father ‘of American Grape 
Culture.” His writings, now obsolete, attained 
a wide influence in his time. 


LONGWY, long’vé’, France, fortified town 
in the department of Meurthe-et- Moselle, 90 
miles northwest of Nancy, 19 miles southwest 
of Luxemburg, near the Belgian frontier. It 
is situated on a plateau, 1,240 feet above the 
sea, overlooking the Chiers, an affluent of the 
Meuse. The town comprises an upper and 
lower town. The former on a hill 390 feet high 
commands the Luxemburg road and is strongly 
fortified. The industrial establishments are in 
the lower tower and include manufactures of 
iron and steel, jewels, gold and silver ware 
and porcelain. It has a fine town-hall, built in 
1730, a hospital and a 17th century church. 
Longwy (Longus Vicus) is known as the Iron 
Gate of France. In 1678 it came into French 
possession and was fortified by Vauban. The 
Prussians took it in 1792, 1815 and 1871. In 
the Great War of 1914-18 Longwy was the 
first French fortress attacked and although de- 
fended with spirit it soon fell to the German 
invader. Pop. 9,700. 


LONNROT, lén’rot, Elias, Finnish philolo- 
gist: b. Sammatti, in Nyland, 9 April 1802; 
d. there, 19 March 1884. Recognizing the value 
of the people’s songs and ballads for Finnish 
language study, he spent years— for the most 
part alone and on foot—in collecting such 
material in Finland, Lapland and adjoining 
provinces, and published the fruits of his re- 
searches in a series of volumes. Among his 
“finds” is to be numbered the great popular 
epic ‘Kalevala,? of which only a few cantos 
were previously known to the learned world. 
He wrote a ‘Finnish-Swedish Dictionary? 
(1866-80). He was professor of the Finnish 
language and literature at Helsingfors, 1853-62. 
See KALEVALA. 

LONS - LE -SAUNIER, 16n-lé-sd’nya, 
France, town and capital of the Department of 
Jura, situated on the Valliére, and on the Paris- 
Lyons Railway, 75 miles northeast of Lyons. 
It is surrounded by vine-clad hills; contains a 
12th century church, law courts, chamber of 
commerce, lycées, training colleges and a bank. 
There are salt works in the neighborhood. 
There is a brisk trade in livestock, cheese, 
cereals and wood. Wine and leather making 
are the principal industries. The town was 
founded by the Gauls, by whom it was called 
Ledo. The Romans called it Ledo Salinarius. 
The English burned it in 1364 and it suffered 
a like fate in 1637 at the hands of the Duke of 
Longueville. Not until 1674 did. it become 
definitely a part of France. At Lons-le-Sau- 
nier Ney and Napoleon met after the latter’s 
return from Elba. It is the birthplace of 
General Lecourbe, to whom a monument has 
been erected. There is also a monument to 
Rouget de l’Isle, author of ‘La Marseillaise, 
who was born nearby at Montaigu. Pop. 11,060. 


LOO (short for lanterloo, from the Dutch 
name), a game of cards best played with five 
(three cards is the more common form), dealt 
from a whole pack, either by threes and twos, 
or one at a time. After dealing, a card is 


649 


turned up for trumps. The jack of clubs, or 
the jack of the trump suit, as agreed on, is the 
highest card, styled “pam”; the ace of trumps 
is next, and then the other cards as in whist. 
Five cards of a suit, or four with “pam,” com- 
pose a “flush,” which sweeps the board, and 
yields only to a superior flush, or the elder 
hand. When the ace of trumps is led, it is 
usual to say, “Pam be civil”; the holder of 
the jack (of trumps or clubs; see above) is 
then expected to let the ace pass. Each player 
has the liberty of changing his cards for others 
from the pack, or of throwing up the hand, in 
order to escape being looed, that is, failure to 
gain a trick. All those that win tricks divide 
the pool or “loo,” to which on entering the 
game each player contributes chips (usually 
three) in proportion to the tricks taken. Every 
player who is looed must again contribute a 
stake, which, with the dealer’s stake, forms a 
new ‘pool. At one time the most popular of 
the round card games, it gave way to “Nap” in 
England and poker in the United States. Con- 
sult Foster’s ‘Complete Hoyle? (London 1911). 


LOO-CHOO ISLANDS. See Liv-Kiu 
ISLANDS. 


LOOFAH, Egyptian, the fibrous portion 
of the fruit of one or two species of the genus 
Luffa of the gourd family, sold for use as a 
bath-sponge or flesh-rubber. There are about 
10 species of the genus known,-but the “towel 
gourd,” as this bath-sponge is sometimes called, 
appears to be obtained chiefly from L. egyptiaca. 
In the West Indies the fruit of L. acutangula 
yields a similar network of fibres, and is there 
used as a sponge or dishcloth, and worked up 
into baskets and small ornamental articles. 


LOOKING BACKWARD, 2000-1887, a 
romance by Edward Bellamy, published in 1888. 
It had a sale of nearly 400,000 copies in the 
next 10 years, and is still in demand. It re- 
counts the strange experiences of Julian West, 
born in 1857, who in 1887 is put into a hypnotic 
sleep. In the year 2000, Dr. Leete, a retired 
physician, is conducting excavations in his 
garden, when West’s subterranean chamber is 
disclosed. The doctor discovers and_resusci- 
tates the young man, who finds himself in a 
regenerated world. 


LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. 
TANOOGA, BATTLE OF. 


LOOM, a term originally meaning simply 
“tool,” but now particularized so as to apply to 
a machine for weaving. The simplest form of 
the loom, still in use among 


See CHAT- 


-semi-primitive tribes and up to 


the middle of the 18th century 
practically the only form, was 
the hand loom, a_ rectangular 
frame, from one side of which 
yarn is stretched to the opposite 
side, where it is so secured that 
the transverse threads may be Pot 
passed by hand “over and es 
under” the threads already stretched. Fig. 1 
shows the simplest form of this loom. From 
ancient carvings it appears that this simple loom 
frame was at first hung vertically from an over- 
head support, and in all probability was ar- 
ranged to be lowered as the weaving progressed, 
so as to keep the work at a convenient level. 
So long as the warp lay inert before the 


650 


weaver it was a very slow process to pick up 
each alternate thread by hand in order to pass 
the weft under them. This was overcome from 
the earliest times by the device of attaching 
these alternate threads to a staff on which was 
a loop into which the weaver inserted his great 
toe and pulled the alternate threads of the 
warp down together, producing a “shed” below 
the level of the cloth through which he could 
throw his shuttle with a single cast. The loose- 
ness of the cloth thus woven called for some 
method of firming it as the weaving proceeded, 
and at first this was done by lengthening the 
shuttle so that it was longer than the width of 
the cloth, and using that to press the newly 
laid thread or “pick” snugly into the angle or 
shed of the divided threads of warp. This 
function: was later performed by the “reed” or 
“sley» —a frame hanging upright, from pivots 
at the top and filled, at first, with very thin 
strips of bamboo, but later of fine polished wire. 
According to the firmness of the cloth to be 
woven the wires were passed between every two 
threads of warp, or between every other pair or 
every other triplet. After each throw of the 
shuttle the reed is pulled forward, pressing the 
pick solidly against the newly woven cloth on 
the cloth roll: When working a wide piece of 
cloth it was customary to have an assistant at 
one end to throw the shuttle back to the 
weaver’s end, or if the piece were very wide 
two shuttle throwers were required, on at each 
side of the loom. 

The first important improvement was the “fly 
shuttle? invented by John Kay in 1733. This 
consisted of a pair of shuttle boxes fastened 
each at one end of a smooth wooden shelf or 
deck running along the lower part of the reed, 
and coming close up against the threads of 
the warp. In each of the shuttle boxes was 
placed a block of hard wood known as a 
“picker” strung on a wire, and connected by a 
cord to a handle immediately above the cloth 
and in front of the weaver. A sharp pull on 
the handle would drive the picker against the 
shuttle with a quick blow and send it flying 
through the shed. Kay’s invention practically 
revolutionized the weaving industry, as it in- 
creased four or five fold the output of a loom 
fitted with the “fly shuttle,» and rendered 
assistants unnecessary. He was granted a 
patent but the weavers everywhere appropriated 
the device in spite of the patent, and finally 
mobbed him and drove him to France, where 
he died in extreme poverty. Nevertheless his 
invention was a long step forward toward the 
development of the power loom. — 

The hand loom for most of the modern 
textiles has been superseded by the power loom, 
but for some classes of work it cannot be re- 
placed. It is still in constant use for working 
out new patterns to be eventually wrought on 
power looms, and many kinds of, high grade 
fabrics in silks, velvets, fancy cloths and the 
so-called art fabrics are still made on_it. 

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 2) 
shows ina simplified form the essential parts of 
the hand loom as it existed up to the time of 
Cartwright’s invention of the power loom in 
1785. The primitive frame (Fig. 1) occupies a 
horizontal position in the framework (AAAA), 
and the former end pieces have become rollers, 
so that the length of the piece of cloth is no 
longer necessarily less than the length of the 


LOOM 


frame. These rollers are the beam or yarn- 
roll (B), which is at the back of the loom, and 
upon which the warp threads are wound, and 
the cloth beam (C) to which the threads are 
fastened and which winds up the cloth as it is 
made. The threads of the warp, held tight by 
weights (b, b) acting upon the yarn-roll to pull 
it backward, pass through the eyes of the 
healds, by which they are separated to permit 
of the passage of the shuttle, and also between 
the wires of the reed. The shuttle in the 
hand loom is thrown by the operator, and in 
the power loom by the picker-staff pee G 
in either case it is made of hard wood, 
pointed at either end with iron and carries in 
a recess the quill or bobbin. D shows the 
hanging batten frame with the reed at the bot- 
tom, and the shuttle boxes at each end. At E 
are the treadles which operate the healds (H) 
and at G are the points which separate the 
threads of the warp so that a broken yarn can 
be quickly identified and mended. 


Fic. 2. 


This hand loom was first improved, after 
the unsuccessful attempts of De Gennes in 
1678, by Edmund Cartwright, who undertook 
in 1785 to counterfeit by mechanical means the 
three simple motions of weaving. He was a 
clergyman, with neither mechanical nor textile 
training, but his loom though cumbrous and 
awkward is essentially that now in use. Dr. 
Jeffrey, working independently, achieved about 
the same indifferent results. The first substan- 
tial advance was made by Andrew Kinloch in 
1793 and William Horrocks added his contri- 
bution in overcoming some of the mechanical 
difficulties. But some minor inadequacies re- 
maining, his loom was quickly superseded by 
the superior Richard Roberts loom built on the 
same principles but with greater mechanical 
skill. The simplest modern loom differs essen- 
tially from the hand loom in that the warp yarn 
is no longer stretched direct. from the yarn 
roll to the cloth beam, and these two parts are 
no longer placed at the same height from the 
base of the frame nor at so great a distance 
as before. The yarn runs upward from the 
warp-beam over the whip-roll, thence is carried 
through heald, heddle or (the American term) 
harness, and through. the reed, and down from 
the latter to the cloth roll. The advantage of 


LOOM 


so[puids usatip-ode} YM oWeIY SUSIME ¥ 


smMVIY sUIAOY wood € 


‘a0y UIeX pesoidwy z 


(jUOJJ) DUIQIeI. SUIQqUIOD poaAoIdmMy T 


LOOM 


1 Silver Lap Machine 2 Ribbon Lap Machine 3 Heavy Duck Loom 


LOOM 


PIVD ILIA Bcrapoasy F 


smMvIg ZuIUUIdS [OOM Z 


suvIA Suruuidg sAliq  edey 


mt 


LOOM 


1 Dobby Loom 2 Wide Loom 


« 
LOOMIS 


this arrangement is greater stability and a dis- 
tinct saving in space, the depth of the loom 
being materially decreased. The ordinary 
power loom has no mechanical device for re- 
newing the weit as it is used. The ordinary 
bobbin will run in a power loom for not more 
than four to six minutes — depending upon the 
fineness of the yarn. Then the loom must be 
stopped and a new bobbin put in. Two meth- 
ods have been adopted to overcome this diffi- 
culty: changing the shuttle, as in the Harri- 
man loom, and changing the bobbin, as in the 
Northrop loom. In practice it has been found 
that at the speed the loom is usually run, 
changing the shuttle takes too much time, and 
the loom has to be slowed down to a standstill. 
This is accomplished automatically, the shuttle 
changed and the loom started again. The other 
method has been even more effective, and the 
necessary mechanism quite simple. At the 
proper moment the loom sets in operation a 
lever which pushes a fresh bobbin from a mag- 
azine into the shuttle at the moment it lies 
stationary in the shuttle box, and the same 
movement releases a catch and the empty spin- 
dle drops out. 

With the old-fashioned heddle only the sim- 
plest and most regular webs could be woven, 
the number of heddles being limited to six. 
The demand for a greater variety in color, pat- 
tern and texture led to the invention of the 
dobby, a lever operated by a projecting pin 
which engages in the pattern chain. The dobby 
is not operated alone but in a series, or “bat- 
tery» ranging in number from 10 up to 25. 
Each dobby works a harness connecting with 
a certain set of warp threads in forming the 
shed, and the more dobbies on the loom the 
greater variety possible in the fabric. For 
highly ornate and figured patterns the most ef- 
fective mechanism is the Jacquard attachment, 
patented by a weaver of Lyons, Joseph Marie 
Jacquard, in 1801. This machine lends itself 
readily to use with any loom. It may be de- 
scribed as a means of controlling the shed. A 
revolving prism or “cylinder” is so perforated 
as to receive certain selected needles, which in 
turn govern a set of perpendicular hooks. 
These hooks lift or depress the threads of the 
warp, so that the weaving is no longer of neces- 
sity simply “under or over». How many 
threads are to be skipped is determined by a 
perforated card-board, the perforations occur- 
ring where the thread of the warp is to lie 
above the weft; but if the warp-threads are 
not to be raised no holes are cut in the cards, 
the needles do not enter the cylinder and the 
hook attached to the needle does not lift (by 
means of its neck-cord or loop of twine), the 
thread of the warp. A connected series of 
these cards, each with different perforations, 
makes an almost infinite combination of pat- 
terns possible, as each card makes a different 
shed. As each card represents a single pick, 
a series for an intricate pattern is very large, 
reaching sometimes 30,000 cards.. 

The hand loom is still used for the manu- 
facture of rugs and fine carpets, but the power 
loom, driven by various powers, electricity 
being the latest- and in some ways the most 
economical, is used for almost any purpose. 
The ribbon loom, for instance, weaves simul- 
taneously a number of narrow pieces. Many 
attachments, invented in a long series, have 


651 


continuously and wonderfully decreased the 
need of any supervision of the loom, making 
it more and more automatic: thus a shuttle 
protector automatically stops the machinery if 
the shuttle fails to fly all the way across the 
warp; the filling stop motion protects the 
machinery from running on uselessly when the 
filling breaks or runs out; and take-up, let-off 
and warp-stop motions are further automatic 
devices. A very ingenious machine known as 
the Chernack circular loom is used in weaving 
tubular fabrics such as constitute the basis 
of fire-hose. This loom resembles in appear- 
ance a knitting machine. Its shuttle travels 
around the circuit of upright needles in a circu- 
lar track being propelled by a pinching move- 
ment of the rising and falling needles, in a 
fashion similar to jumping a fresh apple seed 
with the pressure of thumb and finger. This 
loom is used also for weaving wire. 

Consult Ainley, A., ‘Woolen and Worsted 
Loomfixing? (Lawrence, Mass., 1900); The 
Draper Company, (‘Labor-Saving Looms? 
(Hopedale, Mass., 1907) ; International Library 
of Technology (Vol. LXXX, Scranton, Pa., 
1905); Murphy, W. S., ‘Textile Industries? 
(Vol. IV, New York 1912); Posselt, E. A., 
“Manufacture of Narrow Woven. Fabrics? 
(Philadelphia 1916). 


_ LOOMIS, Alfred Lebbeus, American phy- | 
sician: b. Bennington, Vt., in 1833; d. 23 Jan. 
1895. He was graduated at Union College in 
1851, and studied medicine in New York City 
at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
where he was graduated in 1852. He gave his 
attention to diseases of the lungs at a time 
when auscultation and percussion were acquir- 
ing great scientific importance in medical prac-. 
tice, and in the treatment of such diseases be- 
came an efficient specialist. In 1859 he was 
appointed visiting physician to Bellevue Hos- 
pital, New York, and was made lecturer on 
physical diagnosis at the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons in 1862: Having spent some 
months in the Adirondack Mountains for the 
improvement of his health, in later years he 
established the Sanitarium at Saranac and the 
Hospital for Consumptives at Liberty, N. Y. 
In 1866 he accepted the professorship of theory 
and practice of medicine at the University of 
the City of New York, remaining in connec- 
tion with that institution until his death. The 
work done by him for its medical department 
was of great and lasting importance, as were 
also the services he rendered to the New York 
Academy of Medicine. In 1874 he was ap- 
pointed visiting physician to Mount Sinai Hos- 
pital; was president of the New York Academy 
of Medicine, 1889-90 and 1891-92. His publi- 
cations include “Lessons in Physical Diagnosis? 
(1870); “Lectures on Fevers? (1877); and ‘A 
Text-book of Practical Medicine? (1884). He 
also edited ‘An American System of Medicine? 


(1894). 


LOOMIS, Charles Battell, American hu- 
morist: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 16 Sept. 1861; d. 
1911. He was educated at the Brooklyn Poly- 
technic Institute and held a business clerkship 
1879-91, which he resigned to devote himself 
to the writing of humorous sketches. He was 
a frequent contributor to periodicals and pub- 
lished ‘Just Rhymes? (1899) ; ‘The Four-Masted 
Cat-boat?. (1899); ‘Yankee Enchantments? 


& 
652 


(1900) ; 


(Cheerful Americans? 


‘A Partnership: in Magic? (1903) ; 
(1903) ; ‘More Cheer- 
ful Americans? (1904); ‘I’ve Been Thinking’ 
(1905); — “Minerva’s Manceuvres? (1905) ; 
‘Cheer Up? (1906); ‘A Bath in an English 
Tub? (1907); ‘Poe’s “Raven” in. an Elevator? 
(1907); a third edition of ‘More Cheerful 
Americans, The Knack of It? (1908); ‘A Holi- 
day Touch? (1908) ; ‘Just Irish? (1909). 


LOOMIS, Chester, American painter: b. 
near Syracuse, N. Y., 18 Oct. 1852. He was 
educated at Cornell University (1868-71) ; 
studied painting*at Paris under Léon Bonnat, 
and after a residence of 11 years in France 
opened a studio at Englewood, N. J. He is 
favorably known as a figure, portrait and land- 
scape painter and his pictures are found in 
many private collections. His ‘Christopher 
Sly? was purchased by the Indianapolis Art 
Association. His ‘Normandy Milkmaid? was 
awarded a gold medal at the Massachusetts 
Charitable and Mechanics’ Institution Exhibi- 
tion. Of recent years he has turned his atten- 
tion more to portrait and mural painting than 
to the production of genre pictures and land- 
scape. He is an associate member. of the 
National Academy of Design, and member of 
the National Society of Mural Painters, the 
Architectural League, the Artists’ Fund Society 
and the National Arts Club. 


LOOMIS, Elias, American physicist: in. 
Willington, Conn., 7 Aug. 1811; d. New Haven, 
Conn.,' 15 Aug. 1899. He was graduated at 
Yale College in 1830, and was tutor there in 
1833-36. He was the first person in America 
to obtain a view of Halley’s comet, at. its 
return in August 1835, and his observations 
on that body, with a computation of its orbit, 
were published in the American_ Journal of 
Science. After a year’s study in Paris he was 
professor (1837-44) of mathematics in West- 
ern Reserve College, Ohio, of natural philoso- 


phy (1844-60) in the University of. New York, . 


and of natural philosophy and astronomy 
(from 1860) at Yale. He devoted much of his 
time to original research, wrote more than 100 
scientific treatises and published a series of 
textbooks on mathematics, natural philosophy, 
astronomy and meteorology, of which more 
than 500,000 copies were sold; they included 
‘Elements of Algebra? ; ‘Elements of Geometry 
and Conic Sections?; ‘Recent Progréss in 
Astronomy. 


LOOMIS, Francis B., American journalist 
and diplomatist: b. Marietta, Ohio, 27 July 1861. 
He was a graduate from Marietta College and 
in 1883 joined the staff of the New . York 
Tribune. He was State librarian of Ohio 
1885-87; consul at Saint Etienne, France, 1890- 
93, and editor-in-chief of the Cincinnati Daily 
Tribune 1893-96. He was United States Envoy- 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to 
Venezuela, 1897-1901, and while there was 
active in promoting the interests of Amer- 
ican commerce in South America. His succes- 
sor, H. W. Bowen, charged that Loomis had 
carried on improper business transactions while 
in Venezuela, but these charges were dismissed 
by President Roosevelt. He filled the same 
diplomatic position at the court of Portugal 
1901-02, and became Assistant Secretary of 
State in January 1902, resigned in 1905. He 
was designated as special Ambassador to France 


LOOMIS — LOOSESTRIFE 


in 1905 to receive the remains of John Paul 
Jones, was special envoy to Japan in 1908, com- 
missioner-general to the Tokio Exposition 1911, 
and to the Exposition at Turin in 1912. He 
was made grand officer of the Legion of Honor, 
France, 1904, and has received decorations from 
the emperor of Japan and the king of Italy. 


LOOMIS, Gustavus, American soldier: b. 
Thetford, Vt., 1789; d. 1872. He was gradu- 
ated at West Point and received his commission 
as sub-lieutenant of artillery in 1811. He saw 
service on the Niagara frontier from 1812 to 
1813, in which latter year he took part in the 
capture of Fort George (27 May) and was 
made prisoner the following December at Fort 
Niagara. During the war with Great Britain, 
the Black Hawk War and the campaign against 
the Seminole Indians, he held important com- 
mands, and after the Civil War, in which he 
served as superintendent of the general recruit- 
ing service, was retired with rank as colonel 
of infantry. In 1865 he received the brevet of 
brigadier-general of the United States army. 

LOOMIS, Silas Laurence, American scien- 
tist and inventor: b. Coventry, Conn., 1822; d. 
1896. He was graduated from Wesleyan Uni- 
versity in 1844, from the Medical School of 
Georgetown University in 1856 and was pro- 
fessor of physiology at Georgetown in 1859- 
60. In 1857 he was appointed astronomer to 
the United States Coast Survey, in 1860 instruc- 
tor in. mathematics to naval cadets, in 1861-67 
was professor of chemistry and toxicology at 
Georgetown, and subsequently occupied a chair 
at Howard. Among. his inventions are a 
process for manufacturing a textile fabric from 
the palmetto, and another for making profitable 
use of chromium ores. He wrote textbooks 
of arithmetic, a ‘Key to the Normal Course? 
(1867); ‘The Education . and | Health of 
Woman? (1882), and other. works. 


LOON, 16-6n’, Philippines, a pueblo 68 the 
province of Bohol, situated on the west coast 
13 miles north of Tagbiliram, and opposite 
Dalaguete, Cebu. A mole 328 feet long, pro- 
tecting the harbor, extends to the town; which 
is reached by steps cut in the rock. It is’ pic- 
turesquely situated on the slope of the Cam- 
manoc hills and has an old Spanish fort with 


bastions. It is centrally located for trade, and 
is the largest town in the province. Pop. 
15,400. 


LOON. See Diver. 


LOOS, 16s, Charles Louis, American edu- 
cator: bs Woerth-sur-Sauer, | Basse-Alsace, 
France, 23 Dec. 1823; d. 1912... He came to the - 
United States in 1832, and. settled at New 
Franklin, Ohio, where he studied English. He 
was eraduated from Bethany College in 1846, 
where he was professor of ancient languages 
1858-80. _He was president of Kentucky Uni- 
versity 1880-97. In 1849 he was ordained to 
the ministry of the Disciples and was of great 
prominence in his. denomination. He | held 
pastorates at Wellsburg, Va., Somerset, Pa., 
and Cincinnati, Ohio. 


LOOSESTRIFE, a plant of the genus Lysi- 
machia, of the primrose family, about 40 species 
of which grow in the temperate zones. Several ~ 
yellow-flowered species belong to the United 
States, but those best known are the whorled 
or four- leaved, L. quadrifolia, and’ the bulb- 


LOOT — 


bearing, L. terrestris. Two or three species, es- 
pecially L. nummularia, popularly. known as 
moneywort,. creeping Charley and _ creeping 
Jenny, have been introduced from Europe. One 
kind is eaten in India as a pot-herb with fish. 
“Again and again,” says Miss Lounsberry, in 
her ‘Southern Wild Flowers and Trees,’ “we 
come across the loosestrifes during our summer 
and early autumn rambles. And soon we learn 
to. associate with them. their opposite, or 
whorled, leaves, always entire, and their up- 
right, rather stiff manner of growth, and very 
frequently we look for their petals to be darkly 
spotted near the bases. In personality the genus 
reminds us somewhat. of the St. John’s-wort, 
but we think of the latter as being usually freer, 
more prolific bloomers. The old and pretty 
legend concerning our present plants is that 
they loose strife; that they act as peace-makers 
especially among cattle that are quarrelsome. 
Believing this, people in the old country used to 
tie such a spray to their ‘yokes before starting 
out on a long journey.” 

The name loosestrife is also given to species 
of the genus Lythrum of the familv Lythracee, 
of which about a dozen species are widely dis- 
tributed in temperate climates. They are char- 
acterized by four-angled stems, usually opposite 
leaves which are sometimes whorled, and red- 
dish-purple or white flowers, solitary above and 
whorled lower down the stems. Some are culti- 
vated for ornament in borders and among 
shrubbery, where they succeed well. The best- 
-known species is the purple loosestrife (L. 
salicaria), which is frequently. planted. 


LOOT, formerly the plunder taken from an 
enemy in war, now more specifically, goods of 
citizens or soldiers of the enemy country taken 
without authority by the invaders. All civilized 
nations forbid looting under pain of severe 
penalties. During the Great War (1914-18), 
frequent complaints were made by. the _in- 
habitants of the occupied regions of Belgium 
and France that the Germans were systematic- 
ally looting the country either with the con- 
nivance or under the express order of. the 
higher .command. After the. liberation in 
November 1918 these complaints in many in- 
stances were shown to have been well founded. 

LOPE DE VEGA, 16-pa da va-ga. See 
VecA Carpio. 

LOPES, or LOPEZ, 16’path, Fernao, Por- 
tuguese chronicler: b. about 1380; d. after 1459. 
He was appointed chief archivist of the king- 
dom by Dom Joao I in 1434, and spent his life 
in historical research and the composition of 
chronicles, which for literary and critical value 
were unsurpassed in his century. His ‘Chron- 
icle of Sefior Don John I,? describing the great 
struggle between Portugal and Castile, invites 
comparison with Froissart’s chronicle on ac- 
count of its picturesqueness, naive simplicity 
and dramatic reality. Equally vigorous are his 
chronicles of Dom Pedro I and Don Fernando. 


LOPEZ, 16’paz or 16’path, Carlos Antonio, 
President and dictator of Paraguay: b. near 
Asuncion about 1790; d. there, 19. Sept. 1862. 
He was educated in Asuncion, studied civil and 
canon law at the ecclesiastical seminary there 
and became noted for his legal acquirements. 
During Dr. Francia’s incumbency of the presi- 
dency Lopez lived in seclusion to avoid the 
hostility of the former, After the death of 


LOPEZ 653 


President Francia, in 1840, he was secretary of 
the junta which controlled Paraguay for a few 
years. In March 1844 the Paraguay Congress 
adopted the constitution he had drawn-up and 
elected him President of Paraguay for 10 
years. He was re-elected for three years in 
1851; and again in 1857 for seven. He followed 
Francia’s policy in the main and became in- 
volved in quarrels with foreign nations. In 
1859 the United States sent a naval force to 
the Plata to enforce demands against him. He 
offered to submit the question of damages to- 
arbitration, but afterward evaded the claim. 
He organized an army and navy and made com- 
mercial treaties with several foreign nations, 
built a railroad and in general furthered the 
material prosperity of the country. The Con- 
gress had empowered him to name his successor 
at will, and he was succeeded by his son, Fran- 
cisco Solano Lopez (q.v.). 


LOPEZ, Francisco Solano, Paraguayan 
President: b.. Asuncion, 24 July 1827; d. near 
the Aquidaban, 1 March 1870.. He was the son 
of Carlos Antonio Lopez (q.v.). He was edu- 
cated in Paris and in his 18th year his father 
made him a brigadier-general in the war against 
Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Aires.. He after- 
ward filled some of the principal offices of state, 
and was sent to Europe in 1853, accredited to 
the chief courts there. He negotiated treaties 
with England, France and Sardinia. In 1855 
he returned to Paraguay, became Minister of 
War, and on the death of his father, in 1862, 
President for 10 years. He had aimed at the 
foundation of a great inland empire, and as 
his military preparations were now complete, 

and his army superior to that of any of the 
Saiki American states, he began hostilities 
against Brazil in 1864 by taking possession of 
the province of Matto Grosso. He was made 
marshal of the army by Congress and extraor- 
dinary powers were granted him. In 1865 he 
demanded permission of Argentina to cross her 
territory in order to invade Rio Grande do Sul, 
Brazil. Permission being refused he seized 
Corrientes and hada measure of success in his 
early campaigns. The Argentine Republic and 
Uruguay allied, themselves with Brazil, and 
after five years’ conflict Lopez was reduced to 
extremities, and was finally surprised on the 
banks of the Aquidaban by a troop of Brazilian 
cavalry and slain. Lopez recruited his forces 
by a conscription of all males between 12 and 
70 years. The latter part of his career had been 
stained by many cruelties and wanton murders. 
(See Paraguay — History). Consult Thomp- 
son, ‘The War in Paraguay? (1869) ; Master- 
man, ‘Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay’ 
(1869) ; Burton, ‘Letters from the Battle Fields 
of Paraguay? (1871); Washburn, ‘History of 
Paraguay? (1871): Schneider, ‘Der Krieg der 
Triple-Allianz> (1872-75). ; 


LOPEZ, José Hilario, h6-sa’ hé-la’ré-o, 
Colombian politician: b. Popayan, 18 Feb. 
1798; d. Neiva, 27 Nov. 1869.. He was Presi- 
dent of New Granada (Colombia) from 
March 1849 to 7 March 1852, and in the last- 
named year slavery was abolished and changes 
were made looking to the formation of a fed- 
eral government. In the revolutions of 1854 
and 1859-62, he fought with the Federalists and 
was commander-in-chief for part of this period. 
He was a member of the provisional govern- 


‘654 


ment 1862-63, and subsequently President of 
Tolima. In 1867 he was named commander-in- 
chief of the army. 


LOPEZ, Martin, the first shipbuilder of 
the American continents. He was in the em- 
ploy of Cortés, or formed one of the army of 
the conqueror when he began his famous 
march against the city of Mexico (Tenochtit- 
lan). He was a shipbuilder by trade and had 
been attracted to the New World by the 
stories of wealth to be had there and the spirit 
of adventure that had taken possession of all 
Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. 
While Cortés was in the city of Mexico for 
the first time, he made the Emperor Moctezuma 
a prisoner in his own palace, and to please his 
captive he had Lopez construct two vessels to 
navigate the waters of Lake Texcoco, which 
then surrounded the capital of the Aztecs ex- 
cept on one side. This gave him the idea, a 
year later, of building a number of larger 
vessels of various sizes with which to attack the 
city of Mexico from water while his army con- 
tinued the siege from land. Lopez built 13 
vessels in the neighboring town of Tlaxcala, all 
brigantines, and some of them of considerable 
size. He made them in parts, so that they 
could be carried on the backs of Indian peons 
over the mountains to the town of Texcoco, 
where he had them set up. From there a 
canal a mile and a half long and 12 feet deep 
was dug to the lake to float the vessels down to 
it. It required 20,000 men, warriors and car- 
riers, to bring the ships from Tlaxcala to 
Texcoco, a distance of 60 miles;.and the work 
of transportation occupied nearly a week. The 
convoy stretched across the country for six 
miles. At the Texcoco end-of the line 8,000 
men were employed for over two months dig- 
ging the canal to connect the city with the lake. 
All the Spaniards in Mexico, the Tlaxcalans in 
Texcoco and thousands of Texcocans, includ- 
ing all the representatives of royalty and 
nobility, a mighty host in holiday attire. turned 
out to see the 13 vessels launched (1521) at an 
elevation of a mile and a half above sea-level. 
These 13 brigantines played a very important 
part in the reduction of the capital of the 
Aztecs. They held the whole water front and 
prevented the Aztecs getting supplies of food 
and other necessities; and the guns on the 
vessels frequently directing a cross-fire at the 
besieged while the land cannon were pounding 
them from several other directions. Finally 
they prevented the escape of the emperor, 
Guatemotzin and numerous nobles after further 
defense of the city had become impossible. 
Consult Letters of Cortés; Diaz del Castillo, 
Bernal, ‘The True History of the Conquest of 
New Spain”; Prescott, ‘The Conquest of 
Mexico.’ 


LOPEZ, Narciso, Cuban revolutionist: 
b. Venezuela, 1799; d. Havana, Cuba, 1 Sept. 1851. 
He served for some time in the Spanish army, 
from which he retired in 1822 with the rank of 
colonel. After the evacuation of Venezuela by 
the Spanish troops, he established himself in 
Cuba, and afterward during a stay at Madrid 
joined the party of Isabella against Don Carlos, 
and became successively adjutant of Valdes, 
governor of the Spanish capital, and senator for 
Seville, but threw up his offices after the refusal 
of the Cortés to admit the reoresentatives of 


LOPEZ— LOPEZ DE AYALA 


Cuba. Valdes became governor-general of that 
island, and Lopez on returning thither was em- 
ployed by him in various capacities. He was 
soon absorbed by the project of throwing off 
the yoke of Spain, and he proceeded in 1849 to 
the United States, where he sunk almost his 
whole fortune in the organization of three suc- 
cessive expeditions to Cuba: the so-called 
Round island expedition in 1849; the “invasion 
of Cardenas” expedition in May 1850, both of 
which failed, and the Bahia-Honda expedition, 
of August 1851, which ended fatally. Lopez, 
with several hundred persons of different 
nationalities whom he had enlisted in various 
parts of the United States, landed at Morillo, 
near Havana, where he left 200 of his men 
under the command of Colonel Crittenden, who 
were taken by the Spaniards and shot. Lopez 
went to Las Pozas, where he succeeded in re- 
pelling an attack of the Spanish soldiers; but, 
isolated from his friends, sought refuge in 
the mountains, where he was captured and 
taken to Havana. He was sentenced to death, 
which he met with great firmness. Consult 
Claiborne, J. F., ‘Life and Correspondence of 
John A. Quitman? (New York 1860) ; Morales, 
V., “Iniciadores y primeros martires de la 
revolucién cubana»? (Habana 1901); D. T., ‘El 
General Narciso Lopez y la. Isla de Cuba>~ 
(Caracas 1851). 


LOPEZ, Cape. See Care Lopez. 


LOPEZ DE AYALA, Adelardo, Spanish 
dramatist and politician: b. Seville district, 
1 May 1828; d. Madrid, 30 Jan. 1879. He 
was educated at the University of Seville, 
and at Madrid in 1851 had his first drama, 
‘Ei Hombre de Estado, produced. In 1857 
he was elected deputy from Badajoz to the 
Cortés, and subsequently he was a member of 
Alfonso XII’s first Cabinet. He was the-author 
of numerous lyrics which take excellent rank 
in Spanish literature, especially of the ‘Epis- 
tola.2. But he was better known as a dramatist 
of high literary and popular success skilful in 
his construction of plot but deficient in his 
drawing of character. Chief of his plays are 
‘Tanto por Ciento? (So Much per Cent), which 
was recognized by the bestowal upon him of a 
gold crown, and ‘Consuelo.» ‘Both are search- 
ee arraignments of the principles of modern 
ife. 


LOPEZ DE AYALA, Pedro, pa’dr6, Span- 
ish poet: b. Murcia, 1332; d. Calahorra, 1407. 
He served, with an eye to his own interest, 
Henry II, John I and Henry III, kings of 
Castile. He was taken prisoner by the Black 
Prince at Najara in 1367, and again at Aljabar- — 
rota in 1385, and is said to have spent 15 months 
in an iron cage at Oviedes. He attained the 
highest dignities, including those of lord chan- 
cellor (1398) and high chamberlain of Castile, 
and wrote the ‘Cronicas de los Reyes de 
Castilla» (‘Chronicles of the Kings of Castile, 
first complete edition 1780), which covers the 
period from King Peter to Henry III. In this 
work he strove to substitute for the dry record 
of the historiographers a pragmatic account of 
historical events which is remarkable for its 
vivid pen portraits. He also wrote lyrics, and 
the ‘Rimado de Palacio? (‘Rime of the Pal- 
ace), a satiric poem on political and social 
questions. . 


LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI— LORD 


LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI, 14-gith’pé, or 
LEGASPI, 1a-gas’pe, Miguel, Spanish soldier 
and navigator: b. Zumarraga, about 1510; 
d. 1572. He went to Mexico in 1545 and fora 
time served with distinction as chief secretary 
of the city and government there. As a re- 
ward he was placed in command of Velasco’s 
expedition, fitted out in 1564 for the conquest 
of the Philippines. He took the expedition 
over in four vessels, arriving there in-1565. He 
established the first settlement at San Miguel 
on the island of Cebu. Several parties were 
sent out to explore and occupy the country, and 
by May 1571 Lopez had conquered Luzon and 
in that month founded Manila. He named the 
islands Isles Filipinas in honor of his sovereign, 
Philip II. His conquest’ was accomplished with 
little trouble due to the tact and-kindness of 
Lopéz. 

LOPEZ Y PLANES, 1o’paz or 16’path é 
pla’nés, Vicente, Argentine poet: b. Buenos 
Aires, 1784; d. there, 1856. He was prominent 
as a soldier and politician, was member of Con- 
gress, 1819-25, and provisional President of the 
republic, 5 July to 13 Aug. 1827.. He presided 
over the Supreme Court of Justice, and was 
governor of the province of Buenos Aires. He 
was the author of the ‘Argentine National 
Hymn? and other. poems. 


LOPHIODON, an extinct tapir-like animal, 
found in the Eocene fresh-water deposits of 
central Europe and to some extent in the White 
River and neighboring formations of Wyoming. 
It is. one of the early and general types of 
perissodactyls, or odd-toed ungulates. The 
genus is typical of a family (Lophiodontide) 
which includes also the genera Hyracotherium, 
Hyrachus, Systemodon and Orolippus, and is 
a very generalized group probably ancestral to 
the rhinoceroses. 


LOPHOBRANCHII, 16-f6-brang’ki-i, a 
suborder of bony fishes, including the “sea- 
horses” and “pipe-fishes” (Syngnathide). See 
ICHTHYOLOGY. 


LOQUAT 1d’kwat, or JAPAN PLUM, a 
shrub or small tree (Eriobotrya japonica) of 
the family Malacee. It attains heights of about 
20 feet, bears thick evergreen leaves near the 
ends of the branches, and fragrant, woolly, 
whitish flowers in terminal panicles in late sum- 
mer and autumn, followed by downy, yellow, 
oval or pyriform fruits (pomes)° which ripen 
in very early spring. The fruits, which in 


favorable climates are borne in profusion, are 


highly esteemed for their sub-acid flesh and 
their pleasantly flavored seeds, the former being 
used as a dessert, the latter for flavoring cook- 
ery. The tree is a native of Japan and China, 
whence it has been taken to subtropical climates 
throughout the world. In the Gulf States and 
in California it is widely popular as a home 
fruit, though it appears in Northern markets. 
In California several highly improved varieties 
were produced during the closing decade of the 
last century. In the North it is often grown 
in conservatories. 


LORAIN, 16-ran’, Ohio,. city, in Lorain 


County, on the south shore of Lake FErie, at. 


the mouth of the Black River, and on the New 
York, Chicago and Saint Louis (Nickel Plate), 
Baltimore and Ohio and _ other railroads, 
about 26 miles west of Cleveland. The first 


655 


permanent settlement was made in 1822 by 
Barney Meeker. It was incorporated as a vil- 
lage in 1873 and as a city in 1895. It is situ- 
ated in an agricultural and natural-gas region, 
and is a shipping port for farm products, for 
the output of the central Ohio coal fields, and 
for the lumber and iron ore of a large section 
of the State. The chief industries of the city 
are ship-building, coal shipping, manufacturing 
steel, automatic shovels, stove works, general 
manufacturing and fishing. The city has ex- 
cellent public and parish schools, a public li- 
brary, 22 churches and Saint Joseph’s Hospi- 
tal. About 75 per cent of the inhabitants are 
American born. The government is vested in 
a mayor, elected biennially, a unicameral coun- 
cil and administrative. boards. The water- 
works are owned and operated by the city. 
Pop. (1920) 37,295, 


LORCA, lor’ka, Spain, city, in the province 
of Murcia, on the Sangonera River, about 20 
miles north of Aguilas, the Mediterranean port. 
It is an anciént city, established before the 
Moors came to Spain, as is evidenced by the 
older houses; but the main part of the city 
now existing is of Moorish construction. It 
has a fine old castle, considerable flour and 
textile manufactures, and in the vicinity are 
valuable mines of silver, sulphur and _ lead. 
The farms in the surrounding country have to 
be irrigated in the dry seasons, and for the 
storage of water of the Sangonera a dam, 800 
feet long and 160 feet high, was built near the 
city. In 1802 the dam burst, and the valley 
was flooded, when many lives were lost. The 
dam was reconstructed in 1886. Lorca was the 
scene of many battles between the Christians 
and the Moors. Pop. 70,807. 


LORD, Chester Sanders, American jour- 
nalist: b. Romulus, N. Y., 18 March 1850. He 
studied at Hamilton College, was for a time 
associate editor of the Oswego (N. Y.) Ad- 
vertiser, and in 1872 became a member of the 
staff of the New York Sun, and of which he 
was managing editor in 1880-1913, when he 
retired from business. He was regent of the 
University of the State of New York 1897- 
1904; was re-elected regent in 1909 for the 
term ending in 1922. 


LORD, Edwin Chesley Estes, American 
geologist and petrographer: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 
7 May 1868. Educated in the public schools of 
New York City and in Brunswick and Heidel- 
berg, Germany, and in Harvard University, 
Cambridge. Received the degrees of Ph.D. 
(Heidelberg) and M.S. (Harvard). He served 
as field assistant in the United States Geological 
Survey, 1895-97, was professor of Geology and 
mineralogy in Hamilton College, New York, 
1899-1900, Austin Teaching Fellow and assistant 
in mineralogy and petrography, Harvard Univer- 
sity, 1900-01. He was assistant in petrography 
and chemistry of the United States Department 
of Agriculture 1901-04, and has been petrop- 
rapher:in the office of public roads and rural 
engineering of the United States Department 
of Agriculture since 1904. He has published a 
geological and petrographical paper on igneous 
rocks from Bavaria, Germany, Mexico, Texas 
and Maine, U. S. A., 1894-1900. Since 1900 


_has published papers on the petrography of 


rocks for road building, and the relation of 
mineral composition and rock structure to the 


656 


physical properties of road materials, ‘Bulle- 
tins 31 and 37,” Office of Public Roads, and 
‘Bulletin 348, United States Department of 
Agriculture; and on the mineral composition 
and utilization of blast furnace and other slags, 
Proceedings Seventh International Congress of 
Applied Chemistry, 1909. 


LORD, Herbert Gardiner, American phi- 
losopher: b. Boston, 29 March 1849. He was 
the son of the Rey. Daniel Miner Lord and 
was graduated at Amherst College in 1871 and 
at the Union Theological Seminary in 1877. 
He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry 
in 1878 and served as pastor of the church 
of the Redeemer, Buffalo, 1877-95. During 
1895-98 he was professor of philosophy at the 
School of Pedagogy, University of Buffalo; 
from 1890 to 1900 was principal of Franklin 
School, Buffalo; and in 1900 was appointed 
professor of philosophy at Columbia University. 
He was one of the joint authors of ‘Essays 
Philosophical and Psychological in Honor of 
William James”; and is the author of ‘The 
Psychology of Courage? (1918). 


LORD, John, American historian and lec- 
turer: b. Portsmouth, N..H., 10 Sept. 1812; d. 
Stamford, Conn., 15 Dec. 1894. He was grad- 
uated from Dartmouth in 1833; studied theol- 
ogy for a time at Andover Theological Semi- 
nary, and in his second year there wrote a 
series of lectures on the Dark Ages, which he 
delivered soon after during a tour of northern 
New York. He became an agent of the Amer- 
ican Peace Society. Though not ordained to 
the ministry occupied Congregational pulpits in 
New Marlboro and Stockbridge, Mass. After 
1840 he devoted himself to literary work and 
lecturing. In 1843-46 he was in England giv- 
ing lectures on the Middle Ages, and on his 
return to the United States continued to lec- 
ture for many years in the principal towns and 
cities, giving over 6,000 lectures in all. From 
1866-76 he was lecturer on history at Dart- 
mouth College. His lectures were published 
under the title ‘Beacon Lights of History? 
(1883); he also wrote ‘Modern History for 
Schools? (1850); ‘The Old Roman World 
(1867); and ‘Ancient States and Empires? 
(1869) ; ‘Points of History? (1881). 


LORD, John King, American educator: b. 
Cincinnati, Ohio, 21 Oct. 1848. He was gradu- 
ated at Dartmouth College in 1868. In 1869 
he was made a tutor in Latin in Dartmouth; 
professor of Latin and rhetoric, 1872-80; pro- 
fessor of oratory and belles-lettres, 1880-82; 
associate professor, 1882-92, and after 1892 
professor of the Latin language and literature. 
He was acting president of Dartmouth College, 
1892-93; and acting president of the faculty in 
the absence of the president, 1893-1900. He 
has edited many Latin textbooks and Chase’s 
“History of Dartmouth ‘College? (Vol. I, 
1891), is the author of an ‘Atlas of the Geog- 
raphy and History of the Ancient World 
(1902), and has translated Hertzburg’s ‘Ge- 
schichte der R6mer in Alterthum? (1902) ; ‘His- 
tory of Dartmouth College, 1815-1909 (1913). 


LORD (Anglo-Saxon “hlaford, for “hlaf- 
weard,” bread-keeper), English title of honor 
or dignity, used in different senses. In feudal 
times the lord was the grantor or proprietor of 
the land, who retained the ultimate property 

in it, the use only being granted to the tenant. 


LORD —LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR 


Between the superior lord, or lord paramount, 
and the actual tenant, stood the lord of the 
manor or mesne lord. Lord is also a mere 
title of dignity, attached to certain official sta- 
tions, which are sometimes hereditary, but 
sometimes only official or personal. Of the 
latter may be cited the lord’s justices in Eng- 
land and the judges of the Court of Session in 
Scotland; lord advocate, the chief law officer 
of the Crown in Scotland; lord mayor and lord 
provost, the former applied to the chief magis- 
trate in certain English and Irish cities, and 
the latter to the corresponding officials in sev- 
eral Scottish cities, as lord advocate, or lord 
mayor, a title applied to the chief magistrates 
of London, York and Dublin. (See also Lorp 
CHAMBERLAIN and Lorp LIEUTENANT). In its 
most definite sense in English it is equivalent 
to peer, but does not express any special rank 
or degree of nobility. The five orders of no- 
bility — dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts and 
barons — constitute the “lords temporal,» in 
contradistinction to the prelates of the Church, 
or “lords spiritual,” that is, such archbishops 
and bishops of the Church of England as are 
members of the legislature and sit in the House 
of Lords. The title is also applied, but only 
by courtesy, to the sons of dukes and marquises, 
and to the eldest sons of earls. 


LORD CHAMBERLAIN, an officer in 
England who has control of the establishment 
attached to the chapels royal; of officers and 
servants attached to the royal chambers, except 
of those of the bedchamber; and over the med- 
ical men of the household. ‘He appoints royal 
tradesmen, directs all great royal ceremonies, 
receives all applications to attend levées and 
drawing-rooms, superintends the royal ward- 
robe and the jewel house at the Tower, and 
licenses theatres and plays, his power extend- 
ing to the cities of London and Westminster, 
and certain other parts of the metropolis, as 
well as to those places within which the sover- 
eign may reside occasionally. 


LORD HERBERT OF CHERBURY, 
The Autobiography of. See HERBERT, EDwArp, 
Lorp HERBERT OF CHERBURY, AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF. 


LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR. The 
highest legal dignitary in the British govern- 
ment and principal legal adviser to the Crown; 
ex officio president or speaker of the House ot 
Lords and Keeper of the Great Seal. He may 
fulfill those offices even though not a peer. By 
virtue of his office he is a Privy Councillor and 
takes precedence of all but royal dukes and the 
archbishop of Canterbury. He presides when 
the House of Lords sits as a Court of Appeal, 
and reads the speech from the throne in the 
absence of the sovereign. He is also a mem- 
ber of the judicial committee of the Privy 
Council; of the commission for giving the 
royal assent to bills; president of the Chancery 
division of the High Court and of the Court of 
Appeal; visitor of all hospitals of royal founda- 
tion; general guardian of all infants, idiots and 
lunatics, and general supervisor of all chari- 
table trusts. It is his duty to nominate the 
younger and County Court judges and most of 
the county magistrates, in addition to which he 
is the patron of numerous ecclesiastical benefices. 
Until recently a Roman Catholic was not eligible 
for the office. The Lord Chancellor has a seat 
in the Cabinet and goes out of office with the 


LORD HOWE ISLANDS —LORD’S PRAYER 


ministry, with a pension of $25,000. His salary 
is $75,000. 


LORD HOWE ISLANDS, a group of 
small islands in the Pacific Ocean, nearly 500 
miles east of Sydney, Australia. They are of 
volcanic origin, are steep and mountainous 
and have a fine climate; area, 3,220 acres. The 
group was discovered in 1788 by Lieutenant 
Ball, but was not occupied until 1834; in 1840 
New South Wales was given charge of the gov- 
ernment. In the surrounding waters there is 
an abundance of fish. The only article of ex- 


port is the seed of the palm Ficus colom naris. 
op. 107. 


LORD OF THE ISLES, a title borne by 
chiefs who ruled the western islands of Scot- 
land. They were descended from Somerled, 
the Lord of Argyll, on whom David I conferred 
the islands of Arran and Bute after he had 
driven the Norwegians out. The father of 
John, the first to adopt the title, fought at 
Bannockburn. John, fourth and last Lord of 
the Isles, was deprived of his title and estates 
by the Parliament of May 1493. In 1540 the 
Lordship of the Isles was annexed to the Scot- 
tish crown, and from it the Prince of Wales de- 
rives one of his titles. 


LORD-LIEUTENANT, a British official 
of high rank, representing the sovereign, as: 
(1) The viceroy, or Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 
who is nominally a member of the ministry, 
and retires from office on the resignation of the 
Cabinet. The office dates back to a remote 
period in the English occupation; but since the 
union its holder has resided in Dublin. His 
powers are nominally quasi-regal, and he con- 
fers the honor of knighthood; but the substance 
of power is in the hands of the secretary to the 
Lord-Lieutenant, who is generally a member of 
the British Cabinet. The abolition of the office 
is contemplated. (2) The Lord-Lieutenant of a 
county, the principal honorary official of a 
county, at whose nomination all deputy-lieu- 
tenants and justices of the peace are appointed. 
The office dates from the time of Henry VIII. 
He was head of the military organization of the 
county; but after the Cardwell reorganization 

in 1871 his powers were transferred to the 
- Secretary for War; but under the territorial 
scheme of 1907 the ancient authority in defense 
was to a great extent restored. 


- LORD-MAYOR’S DAY, the 9th of No- 
vember, on which a great procession accom- 
panying the newly elected lord mayor of Lon- 
don from Westminster to the Guildhall takes 
place. The procession, formerly famous for 
its historical and allegorical devices, notably the 
huge wooden effigies called Gog and Magog 
(now deposited in the Guildhall), has recently 
been shorn of much of the burlesque-spectac- 
ular features that formerly attended it. . 


LORD ORMONT AND HIS AMINTA, 
a novel, by George Meredith, published in 1894. 
In this tale the author’s enigmatical laughter 
sounds louder than usual; possessing at the 
same time a quality which leaves the reader in 
doubt whether the mirth is at his expense or 
at the expense of the characters. The basis of 
the story is founded on the secret marriage of 
Charles Mordannt, Earl of Peterborough, with 


Anastasia Robertson. 
VOL. 17 — 42 


657 


LORD ULLINS’ DAUGHTER, a bal- 
lad written by Thomas Campbell in 1809. It 
became a prime favorite and found its way into 
many schoolbooks. It was set to music by 
George Thomson. 


LORDS, House of. 
— PARLIAMENT. 


LORDS OF THE CONGREGATION, 
a title given in Scottish Church history to the 
chief nobles and gentlemen who signed the 
Covenant of Liberty of Worship (3 Dec. 1557). 
The whole body of adherents was called the 
Congregation, probably because the word con- 
gregation is found so frequently in the docu- 
ment. See CONGREGATION AND COVENANT OF 
LIBERTY OF WORSHIP. 


LORD’S DAY. See Saspartu. 


LORD’S PRAYER, The, sometimes called 
“Our Father” or the “Pater Noster,” from the 
first two words in English or in Latin; and 
called the “Lord’s Prayer” because taught by our 
Lord to his disciples. The prayer is given in 
the Bible, in Saint Matthew vi, and in Saint 
Luke xi. It is given both as a prayer and as a 
model or standard of prayer, and in Matthew 
is introduced by the words: “After this manner 
therefore pray ye In Luke the introduction 
is: “When ye pray say,” and is followed bv the 
words. There is a difference in the form as. 
given in the two gospels mentioned. -In 
Matthew the words are “Our Father who-art 
in heaven, hallowed be thy name; thy king- 
dom come; thy will be done as in heaven so 
upon earth. Give us to-day our daily bread; 
and forgive us our debts, as we also have for- 
given our debtors; and lead us not into tempta- 
tion; but deliver us from evil. Amen” In. 
Luke the words are: “Father, hallowed be thy 
name; thy kingdom come. Give us day by day 
our daily bread; and forgive us our sins; for 
we also forgive everyone indebted to us; and 
lead us not into temptation.” 

The doxology, “For thine is the kingdom, 
and the power, and the glory for ever, Amen,” 
is not found in many of the best ancient au- 


See GREAT BRITAIN 


thorities, and for that reason it is omitted in 


Tischendorf’s eighth edition of the New Testa- 
ment and in the Westcott and Hort Greek New 
Testament. 

The prayer was introduced or taught in the 
“Sermon on the Mount,” and as given in Mat- 
thew consists-of nine parts — one salutation or 
invocation, seven petitions and “Amen.” In the 
salutation there are three distinct points; first, 
the word “Father,” implying fatherhaod, son- 
ship. Second, the word “Our,” which includes 
all mankind, a profession of brotherhood, a 
manifestation of charity in the most effective 
manner. Third, “Heaven,” where God is in 
His glory, for where His glory is revealed that 
is heaven. The seven petitions are usually 
divided into three parts. The first three peti- 
tions refer to the honor of God; the last three 
to our own advantage; and the fourth petition 
has an element.of both the first and the last 
groups. 

The “Amen” is a common ending to prayer, 
usually derived from the Hebrew verb meaning 
“to be firm,” or from a Hebrew noun meaning 
“truth,” and commonly rendered “so be it” or 
“may it be so.» In this place its signification is 
usually regarded as -meaning a stronger con- 


658 


firmation of what has just been said. In places 
in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic, the 
Protestant Episcopal and the Greek churches 
where the word “Amen” occurs, it is usually 
said by the server or clerk; but the “Amen” 
belonging to the “Lord’s Prayer” is said by 
the celebrant of the mass. 

Some of the early writers divided the peti- 
tions into six, joining the sixth and seventh. 
Many Protestant writers make this division, 
but Roman Catholic writers follow Saint Au- 
eustine, and divide the prayer into seven peti- 
tions. Lutheran writers generally follow this 
division, also the Protestant writers, Bleck, 
Hilgenfield, Keil and Tholuck. The gradation 
of a petitions is remarkable: First, the honor 
and glory of God is sought; second, our own 
greatest good; third, the necessary means to 
attain eternal life; fourth, necessities for the 
present life; fifth, to be freed from the great- 
est evil; sixth, to be freed from the evil next 
to the greatest; seventh, to be freed from all 
evil. The fifth, sixth and seventh petitions are 
directed against the respective impediments op- 
posed to the good mentioned in the second, 
third and fourth petitions. 

The doxology is explained in various ways, 
as a liturgical addition, as an ancient continua- 
tion used by the priests and then the people. 
The “kingdom” in the doxology seems to refer 
to the first and second petitions; the “power” to 
the third petition; and the “glory” to the fol- 
lowing petitions. 

Directly following the “Lord’s Prayer,” in 
the gospel of Saint Matthew vi, 14, there is an 
extension or explanation of the fifth petition, 
giving again the conditions of forgiveness; 
“For if ye forgive men their trespasses, your 
heavenly Father will also forgive you.” 

Commentators differ as to the exact relation 
between the form of the “Lord’s Prayer” in the 
gospel of Matthew and in Luke. It is held by 
many authorities that the prayer was tanght on 
two different occasions, to different persons, ex- 
cept the apostles who were present on both oc- 
casions. Both forms were given as models and 
both contain the essentials. It appears in the 
earliest manual of Christian devotion, the 
‘Didache,? at the beginning of the 2d century, 
and was first associated, not with the Eucha- 
ristic sacrifice, but with the daily offices. The 
prayer occurs in all ancient liturgies except the 
so-called Clementine liturgy— given in the 
Apostolic Constitutions. In all ‘the principal 
liturgies it occurs shortly before the Com- 
munion. 

Many polyglot collections of the prayer have 
been published. from the 16th century down- 
ward, the most remarkable of which were those 
of John Chamberlayne in 150 languages (1715), 
of Conrad Gesner in 200 (1748) and that of 
Padre Hervaz in 307 (1787). There are ex- 
positions of the Lord’s Prayer by Origen, 
Chrysostom, Gregory Nyssa, Cyprian, Luther, 
Leighton and Tholuck. 

Bibliography.— Maas, ‘The -Gospel Ac- 
cording to Saint Matthew? : Kenrick, the gos- 
pels of Saints Matthew and Luke in ‘The 
Four Gospels?; Saint Thomas Aquinas, ‘The 
Lord’s Prayer?; and the following authors 
in various writings, Bleck, Meyer, Kiel, Schanz, 
Spirago, Jannaris, Tholuck, W. Grimm, Hilgen- 
field, Peischel, Wendt, Weiss, Saint Augustine 
and Saint Alphonsus. Consult also Plummer 


LORDS SPIRITUAL — LORD’S SUPPER 


in Hastings’ ‘Dictionary of the Bible? and 
Nestle and Lambert in the ‘Dictionary of 


_ Christ and the Gospels,» with authorities quoted 


thereunder. 


LORDS SPIRITUAL, in Great Britain, 
archbishops and bishops of the Anglican 
Church who are given seats in the House of 
Lords. These are the archbishops of Canter- 
bury (the Primate of all England) and York, 
and 24 of the bishops. The bishops of London, 
Durham and Winchester are invariably mem- 
bers of the House of Lords; the other bishops 
are called according to seniority. Suffragan 
bishops are not eligible for the Upper House. 
On his retirement from his bishopric the Lord 
Spiritual ceases to be a member of the House 
of Lords. The Lords Spiritual.are not peers 
of the realm, but only Lords Spiritual of Par- 
liament. They have no right to demand trial 
by the House of Lords as peers, but are amen- 
able to the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts 
of law. Although the Lords Spiritual of the 
Upper House are distinct from the Lords Tem- 
poral, they do not vote separately, but jointly, 
forming for purposes of legislation one estate. 
The prelates vote on every subject brought be- 
fore the Lords, except in trials for high trea- 
son and other cases of a criminal nature. On 
such occasions they never attend or vote; this, 
however, is in deference to those canon laws 
which forbid them from participating in mat- 
ters of blood, and not owing to any Parliamen- 
tary requirement. The Spiritual Lords cannot 
vote or even take their seats in the House un- 
less robed in their jecclesiastical vestments, 
with rochet, lawn sleeves and mortar-board 
cap complete. The distinction between peers 
of the realm and the Lords Spiritual of Parlia- 
ment also extends to the families of the latter, 
courtesy titles not being accorded to them. 


LORD’S SUPPER (Lat. Cena Domini, 
Fr. La Sainte Céne, Ger. Abendmahl), one of 
the sacraments of the Christian religion, in the 
observance of which Christians commemorate 
the death of the Founder of their religion. It 
is so called because the Lord Jesus Christ insti- 
tuted the rite when he took his last meal with 
his disciples. It has also the names of eucha- 
rist and communion, and is celebrated by all 
Christian bodies however much their views may 
differ as to its nature and efficacy, except the 
Quakers. It was instituted at the time of the 
Jewish passover, as we read in the gospels of 
Matthew, Mark and Luke, the two former 
agreeing very closely in their accounts, while 
that of Luke has features of its own. A brief 
statement to the same effect is in 1 Cor. xi. 
There is no eee section in the fourth 
gospel, though in John vi Christ speaks of the 
eating of his flesh and the drinking of his 
blood. In all the churches founded by the 
Apostles the Lord’s Supper was introduced. In 
the lst and 2d centuries this rite was cele- 
brated in connection with the agape or love- 
feast. After the 3d century, when the congre- 
gations became more numerous, the agape 
ceased, and the Lord’s Supper was from thence 
celebrated separately in the churches, in such 
a way that all present could partake, with the 
exception of catechumens (that is, Christians 
not yet baptized) and unbelievers. ‘These were 
obliged to withdraw when the celebration of 
the Lord’s Supper commenced, because com< | 


LORD’S SUPPER 


munion was considered as a mysterious act, 
which was to be withheld from profane eyes, 
The deacons carried the bread of life to those 
whom sickness or imprisonment had prevented 
from being present at the meeting of the con- 
gregation. It was always believed to possess 
a peculiar efficacy, and ideas of the awful and 
mystical were associated with it. From the 
first Christians ascribed supernatural power to 
the rite, and the consecrated bread and wine 
were regarded as more than mere bread and 
wine, and as having became, in some mystical 
way, the body and blood of our Saviour. 

In the early Church there was no definite 
dogmatic formulation of the change undergone 
by the sacred elements, but in the 9th century, 
in consequence of the attacks of Berengarius 
(q.v.) on the doctrine of the Real Presence, 
the term transubstantiation, commonly ascribed 
to Paschasius Radbertus, first came into use 
to describe metaphysically the real and objec- 
tive change of the elements of bread and wine 
into the body and blood of Christ. .This term 
was adopted by the Council of Rome in 1079, 
and confirmed in 1215, in the Fourth Lateran 
Council, by Innocent III, and has ever since 
been employed by the Roman Catholic Church 
as the authentic expression of her faith in the 
doctrine of the Eucharist. The Council of 
Trent in the 16th century laid it down as of 
faith to confess the “change of the whole sub- 
stance of the bread into the body, of the whole 
substance (substanti@) of the wine into the 
blood [of Christ], only the appearances (spe- 
cies) of bread and wine remaining; which 
change the Catholic Church most fitly calls 
Transubstantiation”™ The Roman Catholic 
Church holds that the Eucharist has been both 
a sacrament and a sacrifice from the beginning. 
This, she declares, is evident from Christ’s 
words of institution, as narrated in the synoptic 
gospels, and-from Saint Paul’s words in his first 
Epistle to the Corinthians. And unbroken tes- 
timony from the Apostles through the Fathers 
of the Church, she further avers, bears ample 
evidence to her claim; besides this, she claims 
that her own witness as the duly divinely ap- 
pointed guardian of the deposit of revelation 
and its infallible interpreter commissioned to 
teach all nations is sufficient seal to the truth 
of the doctrine. As a sacrament it is the true 
body and blood of Christ under the appearance 
of bread and wine to be partaken by the faith- 
ful as a means of grace and union with Christ; 
as a Sacrifice it is the unbloody oblation of the 
body and blood of Christ by a duly appointed 
minister, that is, priest, by whom alone the ele- 
ments can be consecrated. Such she declares 
has been the Christian teaching and practice 
from the beginning. The reception of the sac- 
rament under both kinds, that is, under the 
forms of both bread and wine, was general 
until the Middle Ages, when communion under 
one kind, bread alone, began to be adopted, 
partly to avoid the danger of spilling the con- 
secrated wine and partly to counteract a grow- 
ing heresy that Christ was not received whole 
and entire under either kind alone. The Coun- 
cil of Constance, in the 15th century, made it 
universally obligatory to communicate under 
one kind to meet the heresy of Huss and 
Jerome of Prague. 

The position taken up by the Protestant re- 
foemers in the: 16th century was that the 


659 


Church had deviated in the celebration of the 
Lord’s Supper from the purpose of Christ and 
the example of the apostolic age. Both the 
German and Swiss reformers agreed in reject- 
ing the doctrine of Transubstantiation and the 
Mass, maintaining that the Lord’s Supper ought 
always to be celebrated before the whole con- 
gregation, and with the administration of both 
bread and wine. In explaining the words by 
which the supper was instituted, Luther and 
Zwinglius differed, and their different opinions 
on this subject formed the principal subject of 
the dissension between the Lutheran and Cal- 
vinistic churches. Luther took the words, “This 
is my body,” etc., in their literal sense, and 
maintained that the body and blood of Jesus 


- Christ were united, in a mystical way, with the 


bread and wine, which, however, remain un- 
changed, so that the communicant receives, in, 
with and under the bread and wine, the real 
body and blood of the Redeemer. Zwinglius, 
on the other hand, understood the words in a 
figurative sense: that Jesus “Christ meant to 
say, “The bread and the wine represent my 
body and my blood” He maintained, there- 
fore, that the bread and wine were mere sym- 
bols of the body and the blood of Christ, and 
that the Lord’s Supper was a simple com- 
memoration of the death of Christ, and a pro- 
fession of belonging to his church, and this 
view was in substance adopted by the Socin- 
ians and Arminians. From this difference of 
opinion arose a_ violent dispute between 
Luther and Zwinglius, which in later times has 
been continued between the Lutheran and Cal- 
vinistic divines. The opinion advanced by Cal- 
vin, by which the spiritual presence of the body 
and blood of Christ is manifest in the com- 
munion, and by partaking of which the faith- 
ful receiver is brought into union with Christ, 
through the medium of the Holy Ghost, though 
it came nearer to the Lutheran doctrine than 
that of Zwinglius did, yet was essentially dif- 
ferent, and therefore also met with a strong 
opposition from the strict adherents of Luther. 
The Calvinist position is known as Reception- 
ist or virtualist. Melanchthon inclined to the 
Calvinistic notion, and so did many other 
Lutheran divines, who were called, by the op- 
posite party, Philippists and Crypto-Calvinists. 
The formula concordia, or articles of religious 
peace, suppressed the Crypto-Calvinists in the 
greatest part of the Lutheran Church, and 
established the position of Luther; conse- 
quently there was a final separation of the 
Lutheran and Reformed or  Calvinistic 
churches, but in recent times many’ Lutheran 
divines have inclined to the Calvinistic doc- 
trine. The Greek Church has substantially held 
the doctrine of Transubstantiation in its whole 
extent. The Oriental Christians differ from 
the Western in using leavened bread in the 
Lord’s Supper and in administering it to chil- 
dren. (See GREEK CHURCH). 

It thus appears that the differences between 
the contending churches hinge on the mode in 
which the body and blood of Christ are present 
in the elements of bread and wine, for that 
they are in some way way present is admitted 
by them all. The majority of Protestant 
churches hold that presence means presence in 
efficacy, and will admit that it is “real” in the 
sense of being efficacious, though not in the 
sense of being corporeal. However, when they 


660 


are called onto define efficacy they differ in 
this, that some mean by it a sacrificial, and 
others a mysterious supernatural efficacy, ema- 
nating from Christ’s glorified body. The con- 
fessions of the Protestant churches 
framed expressly to conciliate the Lutherans, 
and contain, in consequence, more of the mys- 
tical element than is consistent with the senti- 
ments of the framers, as expressed in their 
writings. The 28th article of the Church of 
England, while repudiating Transubstantia- 
tion as “repugnant to the plain words of 
Scripture,” declares “that to such as rightly, 
worthily, and with faith receive the same, 
the bread which we break is a partaking of 
the body of Christ, and likewise the cup of 
blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ.” 
It further declares that “the body of Christ is 
given, taken, and eaten in the supper only after 
a heavenly and spiritual manner. And _ the 
mean whereby the body of Christ is received 
and eaten in the supper is faith.” But the 
High Church party in the Anglican Church 
makes an approach to the Roman position by 
belief in what is termed the “objective real 
presence.» The Westminster Confession, chap. 
xxix, s. 6 and 7, thus formulates the doctrine 
adopted by the Presbyterian Church of Scot- 
land, which in the main agrees with that pro- 
pounded by Calvin: ‘That doctrine which 
maintains a change of the substance of bread 
and wine into the substance of Christ’s body 
and blood (commonly called Transubstantia- 
tion) by consecration of a priest, or by any 
other way, is repugnant not to Scripture alone, 
but even to common sense and reason, over- 
throweth the nature of the sacrament, and hath 
been and is the cause of manifold superstitions, 
yea, of gross idolatries. Worthy receivers, out- 
wardly partaking of the visible elements in this 
sacrament, do then also inwardly by faith, 
really and indeed, yet not carnally and cor- 
porally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon 
Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: 
the body and blood of Christ being then not 
corporally or carnally in, with or under the 
bread and wine; yet as really, but spiritually, 
present to the faith of believers in that ordi- 
nance, as the elements themselves are to their 
outward senses.” The elevation, adoration and 
carrying about of the host, practised in the 
Greek and Roman Catholic churches, is thus 
spoken of in the 28th article of the Anglican 
Church: “The sacrament of the Lord’s Supper 
was not by Christ’s ordinance reserved, car- 
ried about, lifted up, or worshipped.» While 
the Roman Catholic Church makes its com- 
municants receive the consecrated waiter with 
the mouth from the hands of the priest, the 
Protestant churches put the bread and the 
chalice into the hands of the communicant. 

In the Greek and Roman Catholic churches 
the Eucharistic sacrifice is offered daily; in the 
Anglican Church the practice varies, the High 
Church ideal being a daily celebration of Holy 
Communion. It was formerly the custom in 
the Scottish Presbyterian Church to observe 
the rite once a year; but it is now more fre- 
quently administered, generally four times a 
year. 

Bibliography.— Only a partial and frag- 
mentary list can be included here: Adamson, 
R. W., ‘Christian Doctrine of the Lord’s Sup- 
per? (Edinburgh 1905); Armstrong, ‘Sacra- 


Were 


LORDWOOD — LORELEI 


ments of the New Testament? (New York 
1880) ; Bridgett, T. E., ‘History of the Holy 
Eucharist in England? (London 1908) ; Bright- 
man, ‘The Eucharistic Sacrifice? (ib. 1890) ; 
Dimock, N., ‘On Eucharistic Worship in the 
English Church? (ib. 1911); ‘Papers on the 
Doctrine of the English Church Concerning 
the Eucharistic Presence? (2 vols., ib. 1911); 
Frankland, W. B., ‘The Early Eucharist? 
(Cambridge .1902) ; Gardner, P., ‘Origin of the 
Lord’s Supper’? (London 1893); Gore, C.; ‘The 
Body of Christ? (ib. 1901); Groton, W. M., 
‘Christian Eucharist and the Pagan Cults? 
New York 1914); Harnack, ‘History of 
ogma?. (Eng. trans., London 1894-99) ; Lam- 
bert, J. C., ‘The Sacraments in the New 
Testament? (Edinburgh 1905); Mortimer, A. 
G., ‘Catholic Faith and Practice’ (Philadel- 
phia 1898); Moule, ‘The Supper of the Lord? 
(London 1889); Perowne, J. J. S. ‘The Doc- 
trine of the Lord’s Supper? (London 1887) ; 
Pusey, E. B., ‘The Doctrine of the Real 
Presence as contained in the Fathers? (Oxford 
1870) ; Sanday, W., ‘Priesthood and Sacrifice? 
(London 1900); Stone, D., ‘History of the 
Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist? (ib. 1909) ; 
Wilberforce, R. I., “The Doctrine of the Eu- 
charist? (ib. 1854); Wiseman, Cardinal, ‘Lec- 
tures on the Real Presence? (Dublin 1852); 
and the article in the ‘Encyclopedia of Reli- 
gion and Ethics. 


LORDWOOD. See LIQUIDAMBAR. 


LOREE, Leonor Fresnel, American rail- 
road president: b. Fulton City, Ill., 23 April 
1858. In 1877 he was graduated at Rutgers. 
College and the same year entered the railway 
service as assistant in an engineers’ corps of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1879-81 he was 
transitman in the engineer corps of the United 
States army. He was leveler, transitman and 
topographer of the preliminary survey and loca- 
tion of the Mexican National Railway from 
the Rio Grande to Saltillo, Mex., in 1881-83. 
In the latter year he became assistant engineer 
of the Chicago division of the Pennsylvania, 
engineer of the maintenance of way of the 
I. and V. division in 1884-86, divisional engi- 
neer 1886-88 and superintendent of the Cleve- 
land and Pittsburgh division from 1889 to 1896. 
In 1896-1901 he was general manager of the 
system and became fourth vice-president in 1901. 
In 1901-04 he was president of the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad, of the Rock Island Com- 
pany of New Jersey in 1904. On 10 April 
1907 he became president of the Delaware and 
Hudson Company and is president or director 
of 34 companies controlled or affiliated with it. 
Mr. Loree served as chairman of the United 
States delegation to the International Railway 
Congress at Paris in 1900. In April 1918 he 
was appointed member of the War Labor. 
Board, Washington, D. C. 


LORELEI, 10’ré-li, or LURLEI, loor'li, 
a rock on the right bank of the Rhine, near 
Saint Goar, about 425 feet above the river, 
through which a tunnel has been bored. Once 
a serious menace to passengers on the river 
and always famed for its echo, the rock has 
been personified by German poets, notably 
Heine, as a siren, luring sailors to destruction 
by the music of her voice, an evident idealiza- 
tion of the danger of the rock and of its echo. : 


LORENTZ — 


LORENTZ, 106’rénts, Hendrik Antoon, 
Dutch physicist : b. Arnheim, 1853. He received 
his education at the University of Leyden; 
was a teacher for five years in 1872-77 in his 
native place and in the latter year was made 
professor of mathematical physics at the Arn- 
heim ‘University. He developed Maxwell’s 
ether theory, and was one of. the founders of 
the electron theory. He arrived at the formula 
for the function of refraction at the same time 
as his namesake Lorenz of Copenhagen and 
subsequently developed the so-called “Zeeman 
effect.” In 1902 Lorentz was awarded, with 
Zeeman, the Nobel prize for physics. In 1906 
he lectured at Columbia University and in 
1912-13 at the Collége de France. In 1907 and 
1909 he was director of scientific expeditions 
to New Guinea. His published works include 
‘La théorie électromagnetique de Maxwell? 
(1892) ; ‘Versuch einer theorie der electrischen 
und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Kor- 
pern? (1895); ‘Textbook of Differential and 
Integral Calculus? (1882; 2d ed., 1907); ‘Text- 
book of Physics? (1888-90; German trans., 
’ 1907); ‘Zichtbare en onzichtbare bewegingen” 
(1901; German 1902); ‘Abhandlungen wtber 
theoretische Physik? (1907) ; “The Theory of 
Electrons? (1909). 


LORENZ, 10’rénts, Adolf, Austrian ortho- 
pedic surgeon: b. 1854. He was graduated 
from the University of Vienna in 1880, and 
worked as an assistant under Theodor Billroth 
in Vienna. On the advice of the latter he be- 
gan specialization in orthopedic surgery, and 
after years of study developed his so-called 
“bloodless” method .of reducing congenital dis- 
location of the hip joint. Before he developed 
his own method of operation he was one of the 
chief exponents of Hoffa’s cutting method, 
which, however, he modified largely. His oper- 
ation consists of the forcible stretching of 
all the soft parts about the hip until the head 
of the bone can be brought to the place where 
the socket should be (the acetabulum), and 
then holding it in that position and rotating 
the joint to secure it in the depression of the 
acetabulum. A plaster of paris cast is worn by 
the patient from six to nine months after the 
operation. Dr. Lorenz has performed this 
operation successfully in a large percentage of 
his cases; he demonstrated his method before 
the Medical Congress at Berlin in 1895; and 
thas‘also given demonstrations in England and 
the United States. His visit to the United 
States (1902) aroused widespread interest and 
enthusiasm.. He. is now professor of ortho- 
pedic surgery at the University of Vienna and 
a government councillor. His publications in- 
clude ‘Orthopadie der Hiiftgelenks-Kontrak- 
turen und Ankylosen? (1889); ‘Das instru- 
mentelle kombinierte Redressement der Hiift- 
gelenks-Kontrakturen? (1898); ‘Ueber die 
Heilung der angeborenen Hiiftgelenks-Verren- 
kung durch unblutige Einrenkung und func- 
tionelle Belastung? (1900); and with Saxl, 
“Orthopedics in Medical Practice? (translated 
by L. C. P. Ritchie (New York 1913). 


LORENZ, 16’rentz, Ottokar, German his- 
torian: b. Tglau, 7 March 1832; d: 1904. His 
first work was ‘The Consular Tribunal? (1855). 
He was appointed professor of history in the 
University of Vienna, 1862, and in 1885 ac- 
cepted a call to the University of Jena. Among 


LORETO 661 


his writings are ‘German History in the 13th 
and 14th Centuries’ (1863); ‘Sources of 
Medizval German History» (1870); ‘History 
of Alsace,’ with Scherer (1871); ‘History and 
Politics? (1876) ; “Genealogical Manual of the 
History of European States? (1895); ‘The 
Jubilee of Frederick, Duke of Baden? (1902) ; 
‘Kaiser William and the Foundations of: the 
Empire from 1866 to 1871 (1902). 


LORENZO, 10-rén’so, or LOURENEO 
MARQUES, 16-ran’s6 mar’kés, East Africa, 
capital and one of the principal ports of Portu- 
guese East Africa, and the name of one of the 
districts of the province of Mozambique, The 
port, which is on Delagoa Bay, is the entrépot 
for a great hinterland, including the Trans- 
vaal colony. The railway to Pretoria was com- 
pleted in 1895; a new line to the Swagiland 
border is under construction, 44 miles being 
open for traffic in 1915. The number of vessels 
entered in 1915 was 546. Pop. about 13,514, 
of which about half are Europeans. See 
DeLtacoa Bay. 


LORETA, 1o-ra’‘ta, Pietro, Count, Italian 
surgeon: b. Ravenna, 1831; d. 1889.. He re- 
ceived his education at the University of Bo- 
logna; became anatomical prosector there in 
1861 and four years later became director of 
the surgical clinic. He was appointed to the 
chair of surgery at Bologna University in 1868. 
His publications include ‘Nuovo metodo di 
cistotomia perineale?; ‘Nuovo metodo di cura 
degli aneurismi?; ‘La divulsione digitale del 
piloro?; ‘La divulsione instrumentale del car- 
dia; ‘La resizione del fegato. 


LORETO, 15-ra’to, Italy, city in the 
province of Ancona, about five miles from 
the Adriatic Sea and 15 miles south of the 
city of Ancona. It is. situated in -a fertile 
agricultural region, remarkable for its beautiful 
scenery. It is a famous place of pilgrimage, 
being visited by about 50,000 pilgrims annually, 
the centre of attraction being the Santa Casa, 
said to be the house in which Jesus, Mary 
and Joseph lived while in Nazareth. . The 
building is 31 feet in length and 13 feet in 
width. It is enclosed in a stately domed church 
(the church of the Holy House), the work of 
Bramante, in which there is a bronze statue of 


the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo, 


and stands under the dome. The original outer 
walls have been covered, but inside the coarse 
stonework of the original masonry is visible. 
The material is a dark reddish-colored stone, 
unlike the stone in the vicinity. The tradition 
is that after the power of the Christians was 
destroyed in Palestine, by the capture of Acre, 
in 1291, on 10 May 1291, angels moved this 
house from Nazareth to the hill of Tersatta, 
near Fiume. After a time, on 10 Dec. 1294, 
the house was again removed by angels to the 
opposite side of the Adriatic, near Recanati; 
and again, in 1295, it was removed to where it 
now stands. The trade i is mainly in the making 
of crucifixes, rosaries, etc.. for the pilgrims. 
Pop. of commune about 7,066. 


LORETO, Peru, an interior department 
bounded on the north by Ecuador and territory 
claimed by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east 
by Brazil, on the south bythe departments of 
Cuzco and Huanuco, and “west by Amazonas 
and Libertad. It is watered for thousands of 


662 


miles by the Marafion and its tributaries; area, 
288,456 square miles; pop., chiefly Indians, 
about 100,000. The quickest route from the 
coast to this province, which is only about 
700 miles distant in a direct line, is round the 
northern coast of South America and up the 
Amazon, a journey of 6,500 miles.- Loreto is 
separated from the coastal departments by the 
Andes, has a tropical climate and is densely 
forested; the chief products are rubber, salt, 
quinine, tobacco and tropical fruits. Rich gold 
deposits are believed to exist in the river beds. 
The principal towns are Iquitos, the capital, 
Moyobamba and Taropoto. 


LORETTE, Ancienne, 4n-sé-én l&rét, 
Quebec, Canada, a village seven miles south- 
southwest of Quebec city, on the Canadian 
Pacific Railway, with industries connected with 
the waterworks of Quebec on Lake Charles. 
Pop. 1,600. Three miles to the north is In- 
DIAN or JEUNE LoreETTE, peopled by about 300 
Christianized Indians, descended from the last 
of the Huron Indians who had found a refuge 
at Ancienne Lorette in 1650. The settlement 
was removed to Jeune Lorette in 1697. Jeune 
Lorefte commands a fine view of Quebec, for 
which it is visited, as also for the falls of Lo- 
rette and for its ancient chapel and statue of 
the Virgin, a replica of those at Loretto, Italy. 
Pop. 1,588 

LORETTO, or LORETO, Sisters of. 
See Orpers, RELIGIOUS. 


LORIA, lo’ré-a, Achille, Italian econo- 
“mist: b. Mantua 1857. He studied law at Bo- 
logna and proceeding successively to Rome, 
Berlin and London made a study of economical 
problems. He was professor of economics at 
Siena, 1881-91; at Padua, 1891-1903; and in 
the latter year was appointed to Turin. He 
has approached the subject of wealth distribu- 
tion and land-tenure in a spirit of optimism 
and has published many works on the subject. 
Among his writings are ‘Studii sul valore della 
moneta? (1891); ‘La terra ed il sistema so- 
ciale? (1892); ‘La costituzione economica 
odierna? (1889); and ‘Il capitalismo e la sci- 
enza (1901); ‘La scutesi economica? (1909 ; 
Eng. trans., ‘The Economic Synthesis, 1914) ; 
‘Le basi economiche della costituzione societa? 
(Eng. trans., ‘Economic Foundations of So- 
ciety? (1899). 

LORICATA (from Latin looricare, to 
clothe in mail). Jn zoology, (1) the group of 
pagolins (see MAnts); (2) the group of Cro- 
codiha; (3) a group of -decapod Crustacea, 
which includes the spiny lobsters (Palinurus, 
etc.), and the bear-crabs (Scyllarus, Ibacus, 
etc.). These forms are large, with thick shells 
and without pinching claws. All are edible, 
the spiny lobster replacing the true lobster as 
an article of food in the warmer parts of the 
earth; (4) in ichthyology, a sub-order of ga- 
noid fishes : (5) animalcule provided with a 
alee such as certain infusorians and roti- 
ers. 


LORIENT 16-ré-6n, or L’ORIENT, 
France, a fortified seaport town, in the depart- 
ment: of Morbihan, at the junction of the 
‘Scorff with the Blavet, on the Bay of Biscay, 
about 40 miles west of Vannes. It was founded 
in 1666.by the French East Indies Company 
and in 1690 it became a military fort. After 
the dissolution of the company, in 1782, the 


) 


tion of the 


LORETTE — LORIMER 


government bought the . ship-building plant 
The large harbor can accommodate with safety 
a great number of vessels. Lorient is a sta- 
French fleet and has extensive 
docks, two graving docks and is a great, port 
for naval construction, the shipyards occupy- 
ing 38 acres. It has also large artillery bar- 
racks, an artillery park, a marine arsenal and 
a great powder magazine in the middle of the 
channel. It has an observatory, schools. of 
marine, artillery and hydrography and other 
educational institutions and a large number of 
manufacturing establishments, including iron 
foundries and forges. The principal imports 
are coal, pitch and timber; the exports include 
oil, wood and sardines and there are extensive 
oyster beds. Lorient was unsuccessfully. at- 
tacked by the British in 1746. Pop. about 
42,463. -About five miles south of Laplene: is 
the fortified town of Port Louis, 


L’ORIGNAL, 10’ré’nyal’, Canada, town 
and county-seat of Prescott County, Ontario, 
on the Ottawa River and the Canadian North- 
ern Railway, 50 miles east of Ottawa. Steam- 
boats connect it with Ottawa and Montreal.’ 
Lumbering is the principal industry. The town 
is the seat of a Roman Catholic convent and 
possesses an electric plant. Pop. 1,350. | 


LORIKEET, a small kind of lory: (q.v.). 


LORIMER, loér’i-mér, George Claude, 
American Baptist clergyman: b. Edinburgh, 
Scotland, 1838; d. Aix-les-Bains, France, 7 
Sept. 1904. He came to the United States in 
1856 and was educated at Georgetown College, 
Kentucky. . In 1859 he was ordained to the Bap- 
tist ministry and held pastorates at Harrods- 
burg, Paducah and Louisville, Ky.; ‘he was 
then at Albany for a short time, at the Shaw- 
mut Avenue Church and Tremont Temple in 
Boston in 1870-79 and in Chicago till 1891. -In 
the latter year he returned to Boston to be- 
come pastor at Tremont Temple: In 1902 he 
went to New York as pastor of the Madison 
Avenue Church. He was associate editor of 
the Watchman and wrote ‘Isms Old and New? 
(1882) ; ‘Under the Evergreens? (1872); ‘The 
Great Conflict? (1876); ‘Studies in Social 
Life? (1886); ‘Christianity and the Social 
State; ‘Christianity in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury?; ‘Messages of To-day to the Men of To- 
morrow? (1897); ‘Master of Millions? (1903), 
a story of modern life; ‘The Modern Crisis in 
Religion» (1904). He edited ‘The People’s 
Bible History Prepared in the Light of Regeht 
Investigations»? (1895). 


LORIMER, George Horace, American 
editor and author: b. Louisville, Ky., 6 Oct. 
1868. He was educated at the Mosely High 
School, Chicago, at Colby and at Yale. He 
was engaged in business in Chicago until 1896 
when he became a reporter and correspondent, 
1896-97.. He became literary editor and man- 
aging editor of the Saturday Evening Post 
1897, becoming its editor-in-chief in 1899, His 
remarkable faculty of discerning popular taste 
and fancy has made for the immense success of 
that periodical. His best-known work is ‘Let- 
ters of a Self-Made Merchant to His. Son? 
(1902), remarkable for its humor, wit and use 
of slang to drive home a work-a-day philoso- 
phy. Other works are ‘Old Gorgon Graham? 
(1904); ‘The False Gods»? (1906); ‘Jack 
Spurlock — Prodigal» (1908). 


LORIMER — LORING 


LORIMER, John Henry, English painter: 
b, Edinburgh, 1856. He was educated at the 
Edinburgh Academy and University and began 
his art studies at the Royal Scottish Academy. 
One of his pictures was admittted to the an- 
nual exhibition of that institution when he was 
but 19. .He was elected a member of the Royal 
Scottish Academy in 1900. His most important 
exhibited pictures are ‘The Ordination of EI- 
ders?; ‘Pot Pourri?; ‘The Eleventh Hour? 
(1896), which in 1900 was awarded a gold 
medal at the Paris Exposition. In 1894 the 
French government bought his ‘Benedicite, 
which is now in the Luxembourg, where his 
portrait of Col. Anstruther Thompson has also 
been deposited. 


LORIMER, William, American capital- 
ist and politician: b. Manchester, England, 27 
April 1861. At the age of five he came to the 
United States with his parents and in 1870 to 
Chicago. At 10 he became a sign-painter’s ap- 
prentice and subsequently obtained employment 
in packing-houses and with a street railroad 
company. He received no schooling, but ob- 
tained the rudiments of an education through 
his own efforts. He entered the real estate 
business in 1886 and later was member of the 
firm of Murphy and Lorimer in building and 
brick manufacturing business. Since 1900 he 
has been a member of the contracting firm of 
Lorimer and Gallagher. He was connected 
with the Chicago water department as super- 
intendent of water-main extensions and later 
superintendent, in 1887-93. Lorimer was a 
member of Congress from 1895 to 1909, with 
the exception of the term 1901-03. On 26 May 
1909 Lorimer was elected United States sen- 
ator for the term 1909-15. He resigned from 
the House of Representatives and took his seat 
in the Senate on 18 June 1909... The. validity 
of his election was challenged in the Senate, 9 
Jan. 1911. By a vote of 46 to 40, on 1 March 
1911, the challenge was not sustained. This de- 
cision was unpopular as corrupt practices were 
suspected to have secured the election and when 
Congress reconvened the Senate decided to re- 
open the investigation (1 June 1911). A ma- 
jority of the Committee on Privileges and 
Elections reported that Lorimer’s election had 
not been brought about by corrupt practices. 
A bitter quarrel followed in the Senate, which 
divided into reactionaries and progressives ir- 
respective of. old party lines and on 14 July 
1912 a resolution was sustained by a vote of 
55 to 28, declaring that corrupt methods and 
practices had been employed in the election; 
that the election was in consequence invalid; 
and Lorimer’s seat vacant. Almost a direct 
result of the Lorimer case was the triumph of 
the movement for the election of United 
States senators by direct popular vote. From 
1910 to 1915 Lorimer was president of the La 
Salle Street Trust and Savings Bank. This 
and a number of affiliated concerns failed in 
1914, and Lorimer and several others were in- 
dicted for misappropriation of funds. 


LORING, loér’ing, Charles Greely, Amer- 
ican lawyer and orator: b. Beverly, Mass., 1794; 
. 1868. He was graduated from Harvard in 
1812 and practised his profession in Boston, be- 
coming in 1857 actuary of the Massachusetts 
Hospital Life Insurance Company. 


entered the State senate. He was of much 


In 1862 he | 


663 


prominence as an orator and a prominent mem- 
ber of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 
was the author of ‘Neutral Relations between 
the United States and England? (1863); ‘Life 
of William Sturgis? (1864). 


LORING, Charles Greely, son of the 
preceding: b. Boston, 1828; d. Pride’s Crossing, 
Beverly, Mass., 20 Aug. 1902.. He was gradu- 
ated from Harvard in 1848 and served in the 
Union army during the Civil War, being bre- 
vetted major-general of volunteers at its close. 
He became a trustee of the American Museum 
of Fine Arts in 1873 and was the executive 
aticel the institution from 1876 until his 

eatn. 


LORING, Charles Harding, American 
naval engineer: b. Boston, Mass., 1828; d. 
1907. He received his education in the public 
schools; became a machinist’s apprentice and 
in 1851 was appointed third assistant engineer 
in the United States navy. During the Civil 
War he was civil engineer of the Minnesota 
and participated in the action with the iron- 
clad Merrimac. Afterward he had charge of 
the construction of monitors; was fleet engi- 
neer of the Asiatic squadron and in 1881 be- 
came a member of the first Naval Advisory 
Board. In 1884 he was engineer-in-chief of 
the United States navy, a position he held until 
his retirement in 1890, When war broke out 
with Spain ‘in 1898 he was made ‘inspector of 
engineering work at the New York navy yard. 
He was honored, in 1892, with the presidency 
of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
neers. 


LORING, Ellis Gray, American lawyer: 
b. Boston, 1803; d. 1858. He was educated at 
the Boston Latin School, entered Harvard in 
1819, but without graduating left college and 
studied law. In 1827 he was admitted to the 
bar, where he soon won high distinction. He 
was one of the first pleaders for the abolition 
of slavery and one of the founders of the first 
anti-slavery society, in Boston, 1832, whose 
constitution he wrote. As a defender of fugi- 
tive slaves he gave freely of his time and tal- 
ents and. shared the odium visited upon all the 
early abolitionists.. Before the Supreme Court 
of Massachusetts he made a memorable. de- 
fense of a slave-child called Med, by which, 
against so formidable an opponent as Benja- 
min R. Curtis (q.v.), he secured a decision de- 
claring that every slave brought into that State 
thereby became legally free. The effect of his 
convincing argument was both instantaneous 
and lasting, and his triumph was a substantial 
service to the anti-slavery cause. He published 
numerous addresses on the slavery question. 


LORING, George Bailey, American agri- 
culturist: b. North Andover, Mass., 8 Nov. 
1817; d. Salem, Mass., 14 Sept. 1891, He 
was graduated from Harvard in 1838 and 
from. the Harvard Medical School in 1842, 
and after several years of medical work at 
the Chelsea Marine Hospital devoted himself 
from 1850 onward to scientific agriculture, 
writing many essays and papers. on farming 
and allied topics. He became famous as an 
orator, served several terms in Massachu- 
setts legislature, was member of Congress 1876- 
81, United States Commissioner of Agriculture 
1881-85. and. Minister to Portugual 1889-90. 


664 


He was president of the Massachusetts State 
Agricultural Society for many years and a 
member of the Republican national conven- 
tions of 1868 and 1872. He published ‘The 
Farm-Yard Club of Jotham? (1876). 


LORING, William Wing, American sol- 
dier: b. Wilmington, N. C., 4 Dec. 1818; d. 30 
Dec. 1886. He entered the United States army 
as a private in a troop of volunteer cavalry and 
was active in the Florida War in 1835-42. He 
studied at Georgetown College and then vol- 
unteered in the Texas struggle for independ- 
ence. From 1839 to 1842 he was a member of 
the Florida Territorial legislature and in the 
latter year was admitted to the bar. During 
the war with Mexico he was distinguished for 
bravery at Contreras, Churubusco and. Chapul- 
tepec and was brevetted lieutenant-colonel and 
colonel. In 1849-51 he commanded the troops 
in the Department of Oregon and campaigned 
against the Indians in the Rio Grande region 
1851-56. In 1857-58 he served under A. S. 
Johnston in Utah. Although opposed to seces- 
sion he held State Right views and in May 
1861 resigned his commission and became a 
brigadier-general in the Confederate army and 
later major-general. He served in West Vir- 
ginia and as a corps commander in Georgia, 
Mississippi and Tennessee; was active in the 
Vicksburg and Atlanta campaigns and served 
as second in command to John B. Hood at 
Franklin and Nashville. He also served under 
Joseph E. Johnston in the Carolinas, and with 
him surrendered to Sherman in April 1865. 
For a few years after the close of the war he 
was a banker in New York, then went to 
Egypt in 1869 and was made a pasha and chief 
of staff in the army of the Khedive. He re- 
organized the Egyptian army with great suc- 
cess, was successively commandant of Alex- 
andria, chief of the coast defenses and general 
of division. In 1879 he returned to the United 
Stees and published a description of his Ori- 
ental experiences in ‘A Confederate Soldier in 
Egypt? (1883). 

LORIS. See Lemur. 

LORIS-MELIKOFF, © 10’ris - mél'i - kof, 
Mikhail Tarielovitch Tainoff, Count, Rus- 
sian soldier and statesman: b. Tiflis, Russia, 1 
Jan. 1826; d. Nice, France, 22 Dec. 1888. He 
was of Armenian descent, entered the army in 
1843, served in several campaigns in the Cau- 
casus and became major-general in his 30th 
year and distinguished himself at the capture 
of Kars in 1854. He served in the Crimean 
War and was made lieutenant-general in 1863. 
In the Turco-Russian War of 1877 he won the 
victory of Aladja Dagh in October, following 
up which he took Kars in November and for 
his services in the campaign was made a count 
in 1878. He was recalled from Tiflis (where 
in charge of several districts he had intro- 
duced liberal reforms) during the Nihilist 
menace in 1879, and in 1880 was appointed 
Minister of the Interior, in which post he be- 
gan by introducing liberal measures, but the 
assassination of the Tsar (13 March 1881) 
was followed by the adoption of a reactionary 
policy on the accession of Alexander III, his 
position became untenable and he resigned. 


LORNA DOONE, by Richard Doddridge . 


Blackmore, published in 1869, was one of the 


LORING — LORRAINE 


earliest and by far the most popular of all 
Blackmore’s dozen or more novels.’ By’ some 
critics it has been esteemed one of the great 
pieces of English fiction, but this’ praise is un- 
doubtedly excessive. The theme is entirely 
romantic, there being little realism and no 
“problem” writing whatever. It is the theme 
of apparently hopeless, but finally triumphant, 
love; of feminine pity and distress; of manly 
courtesy and resolution; of the success of the 
noble-hearted and the discomfiting of evi] men. 
John- Ridd, a young rustic giant of North 
Devon, rescues the high-born Lorna from the 
hands of her outlaw relatives and finally rises 
not only to the possession of Lorna’s hand, but 
to high position on .the strength of his own 
merit. There is some historical background out 
of the reigns of Charles II and James II, most 
vividly represented at the battle of Sedgemoor. 
The Doones themselves are largely legendary. 
Probably their formidableness and knavery are 
very much exaggerated over any actual facts, 
just as the scenery of Devon and Somerset, es- . 
pecially the description of Doone Valley, are 
great exaggerations. Interwoven with the ro- 
mantic and semi-historical pictures of the tale 
are many pleasant details of country life and 
many quiet scenes and adventures of a placid 
rural sort. The length of the story. is not di- 
minished by being told in the first person by 
the hero, but it is full of honest spirit and of 
attractive detail. Oe | 

WILLIAM T. BREWSTER. 


LORNE, lorn, MarQuis or (JOHN GEORGE 
DoucLaAs SUTHERLAND CAMPBELL). See Ar- 
GYLE, CAMPBELLS OF. ; 


LORRAINE, Claude. 
RAINE. 


LORRAINE, 16-ran’, or LOTHARIN- 
GIA, a province of France, situated on its 
northeastern frontier and includes such import- 
ant towns as Metz and Thionville. It was in- 
corporated in the Germanic Empire in 855, 
when Lothair II, son of. the Emperor Lothair J, 
obtained the lands between the Scheldt, Meuse 
and Rhine, called Lotharingia, or Lorraine. It 
at first included Alsace and Friesland; but 
these provinces were separated in 870, being 
divided between’ Louis the German and Charles 
the Bald, king of the West Franks. About 911 
the county of Lorraine was elevated into a 
dukedom. In 945 it was divided into two parts, 
Upper and Lower Lorraine. Lower Lorraine 
came into possession of the dukes of Brabant 
in the 13th century and from that time was 
known as Brabant. Philip the Good of Bur- 
gundy incorporated it -in his dominions in. 
1429 and it now forms part of the kingdom of 
Belgium and province of Brabant and Guelder- 
land in Holland. Upper Lorraine continued 
to be governed by its own dukes until 1736, was 
given to Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, and on 
his death in 1766 was awarded to France. It 
was afterward divided into four departments, 
Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe and Vosges. The dis- 
trict between Metz and the Vosges, which in- 
cludes Metz and Thionville, was ceded to Ger- 
many at the close of the Franco-German War, 
under the Treaty of Frankfort, 10 May 1871, 
and was part of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lo- 
thringen, until its occupation by the troops of 
the Allied nations in November 1918. 


See CLAUDE* Lor- 


LORTZING — LOS ANGELES 


‘lorts'‘ing, Gustav Albert, 
German composer: b. Berlin, 23 Oct. 1801; d. 
there, 21 Jan. 1851. His parents were actors 
and at 19 young Lortzing made his theatrical 
début at Aachen and Diisseldorf. In 1824 he 
brought out his first opera, ‘Ali Pascha von 
Jannina,. but attracted little notice. —Two years 
later he became a member of the Court Thea- 
tre Company at Detmold.. ‘Der Pole und sein 
Kind appeared in ‘1831. Lortzing’s fame, how- 
ever, rests on the two operas, ‘Czar .und. Zim- 
mermann” (1837) and ‘Der  Wildschtitz? 
(1842). The former is one of the master- 
pieces of comic opera and still holds the boards 
in German opera-houses, although it was indif- 
ferently received at its first production at Leip- 
zig. ‘Undine? appeared in 1845 and ‘Der 
Waffenschmied? in 1846. Lortzing was made 
conductor of the Leipzig Opera in 1844, but re- 
signed soon afterward after a quarrel with the 
management. He was reinstated through the 
influence of friends, but his temperamental na- 
ture soon involved him in a second quarrel and 
brought about his removal. He was made ca- 
pellmaster of the Friedrich Wilhelmstadtisches 
Theatre, Berlin, in 1850. Consult Kruse, G. R., 
Albert ‘Lortzing? (Berlin 1899) and Wittmann, 
Herman, ‘Lortzing? (Leipzig 1889). 


LORY, any of several East Indian and 
Australian parrots, but more especially one of 
the brush-tongued Australian family Tricho- 
glosside, the smaller examples of which go by 
the name of lorikeets. Both the lories and the 
lorikeets are remarkable for their extensible 
tongue, furnished with a pencil at its extrem- 
ity, by which they are enabled to lick up the 
nectar of flowers. In doing so they carry pol- 
len from blossom to blossom, performing an 
* important service of cross-fertilization, espe- 
cially for the eucalyptus trees. (See FLOWERs, 
FERTILIZATION OF, BY Birds). The lorikeets 
are smaller than the lories and have long taper- 
ing tail-feathers. Swainson’s lorikeet (T._no- 
vehollandig) is the best-known species. It is 
found in eastern Australia _and Tasmania and 
is popularly known as the Blue Mountain lory 
or the Blue Mountaineer. 

The name lory is also given to the large, 
brilliantly colored parrots of the psittacine 
genus Eclectus. Consult Newton, ‘Dictionary 
of: Birds? “ (1896) ; Evans, ‘Birds? (in Cam- 
bridge Natural History, Vol. IX, New York 
1901).; and see Parrots. 


LOS ANGELES, Cal., city, county-seat 
of Los Angeles County, about 15 miles in an 
air line from the! Pacific Ocean, in the valley of 
the Los Angeles River, a dry river-bed in sum- 
mer, but in winter a considerable stream after 
heavy rainfalls. The Sierra Madre range of 
mountains, about 10 miles north of Los An- 
geles, may be seen from most any part of the 
city. There is also a lower range of mountains 
extending from the city to the ocean. Origi- 
nally Los Angeles covered an area of 36 square 


LORTZING, 


miles, extending three miles in each direction. 


from the old plaza. Within the past few years 
numerous additions have been made, including 

a “shoe-string strip» extending from the city 
to the ocean and taking in the ports of Wil- 
mington and San Redro. The area at present is 
351.1 square miles. The average altitude is 270 
feet above sea-level. The northern part of the 
city is hilly. 


665 


The city has railroad competition: in four 
transcontinental lines, two southern Pacific 
systems, By way of Ogden and El Paso, the 
SA Fé y way of Albuquerque, and the Los 
Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad, from Salt 
Lake. Altogether there are a dozen lines of 
railroad leading to Los Angeles, including an 
elaborate suburban electric railroad system, ag- 
gregating over 1,100 miles of track, some of 
the lines having four tracks. The electric street 
railway system is also extensive, the total mile- 
age of single track being over 300 miles. Half. 
a dozen lines run large and commodious steam- 
ships 475 miles northward to San Francisco, 
also to Portland and Puget Sound on the north, 
and to San Diego on the south. 

Los Angeles Harbor is guarded from the rare 
storms of the Pacific by a breakwater two and 
one-half miles long, built by the United States 
government at a cost of $3,500,000. Active 
work has been accomplished on the. further 
dredging of the harbor, construction of wharves 
and warehouses. The harbor is municipally 
owned and controlled. The harbor projects 
under construction include 21%4 miles of munic- 
ipal wharfage, besides a large area of 
wharfage under private ownership, Los An- 
geles Harbor is absolutely safe and in any 
weather may be entered by vessels under their 
own power. Los Angeles has the advantage of 
being located on the shortest road by the low- 
est grades between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. Since the opening of the Panama Canal 
it is close to the direct route of vessels sail- 
ing from the Atlantic to the Orient. Los An- 
geles is the commercial and social metropolis 
of the Southwest, including southern Califor- 
nia, southern Nevada and Arizona. It also 
does a large and increasing trade with northern 
Mexico, Central and South America. The two 
most important products of the country sur- 
rounding Los Angeles are citrus fruits and 
petroleum. The annual value of the orange 
and lemon output of this section is about 
$40,000,000. These fruits are marketed under 
a thoroughly organized co-operative system of 
distribution. Los Angeles is the central dis- 
tributing point for important petroleum fields 
with an annual output aggregating about 
$40,000,000. There are half a dozen beet sugar 
factories in the country tributary to Los An- 
geles, with a total output of $18,000,000. Other 
important products of the surrounding coun- 
try are beans and other vegetables, deciduous 
fruits, walnuts and grain. Los Angeles is rap- 
idly becoming an important manufacturing city, 
possessing great advantages in the .way of 
mild climate and cheap fuel in the shape of 
crude petroleum and electric power, derived 
from mountain streams. The annual value of 
its manufactired products is placed at $140,- 
000,000. There are 32 banks in the city with a 
total combined annual clearance of about 
$1,293,000,000. Building operations have an ‘an- 
nual average value of about $20,000,000. 

Los Angeles is a residential city, a large 
proportion of the people owning their own 
dwellings. The city is practically frostless; 
callas, heliotropes and other delicate plants 
flourishing throughout the winter in the open 
air. The residence streets are generally 
aligned by evergreen shade trees. The city is 
the seat of the University of Southern Cali- 
fornia, a Methodist establishment. Occidental 


666 


College is conducted by the Presbyterians. The 
Roman Catholics have a college and three acad- 
emies. There is a State normal school, several 
high schools, a polytechnic high school, a pub- 
lic library with nearly 280,000 volumes, 350 
handsome church buildings of all leading de- 
nominations and a model institutional church. 
There are 25 public parks within the city lim- 
its, aggregating over 4,000 acres, four of them 
having lakes of considerable size. The city de- 
rives its water supply from the snow-clad 
slopes of Mount Whitney, in Owens Valley, 
240 miles from Los Angeles, and from wells. 
A sewer system extends to the ocean. The 
mayor of Los Angeles holds office for two 
years. He appoints five trustees for the li- 
brary and is ex officio a member and chair- 
man of several committees. The city council 
of nine members, chosen by election from the 
city at large, has four commissioners who have 
charge respectively of police, health, fire and 
park departments. The board of education 
consists of nine members chosen by election 
from the city at large. : 

The pious Spanish pioneers who first in- 
troduced civilization in Alta, California, were in 
the habit of giving names to places in accord- 
ance with the Church calendar. Consequently, 
when mass was first celebrated on the present 
site of the city, in 1781, it was named Nuestra 
Senora Reina de Los Angeles, which the prac- 
tical Yankees upon their arrival at once pro- 
ceeded to abbreviate. 

The growth of Los Angeles has been re- 
markable. Until 1817 Los Angeles alternated 


with Monterey as the seat of Mexican provin-. 


cial government of Alta, California. In 1846 
it was taken by Commodore Stockton of the 
United States navy. It received its city char- 
ter in 1851. In 1850 its population was 1,610. 
The census of 1880 gave it a population of 
11,311. The census of 1910 gave it 319,198. In 
1914 the government. estimate of the popula- 
tion was 438,914, and the present (1920) popu- 
lation is 576,673. 


LOS INTERESES CREADOS, los in’ta- 
ra’sés kra‘a-dos (‘The Bonds of Interest), by 
Jacinto Benavente, the most popular and 
widely-known production of Spanish letters 
during the 20th century, was first presented at 
Madrid, 9 Dec. 1907. With this comedy the 
modern movement in Spanish art attained full 
maturity, the play taking its place immediately 
among the classics of the stage. The theme is 
the duality of human nature in the conflict be- 
tween the real and the ideal, ever present to 
the Spaniard in the persons of Don Quixote 
and Sancho Panza, but here transferred to the 
domain of the will and embodied in Leander 
and his servant, the rogue Crispin, to whom 
falls the task of grovelling that his master 
may rise. The philosophy of the play is prag- 
matic, while life is depicted as a series of ap- 
proximations incapable of unification. In feel- 
ing and technique, ‘Los Intereses Creados> 
belongs to the neo-romantic school, of which 
it must be accounted one of the finest exam- 
ples. Delicacy of poetic feeling is combined 
with an unfailing many-sided humanity in a 
portrayal of varied lights and shades, which 
is reinforced by the vivid colors of the satiric 
picaresque tradition, and couched in a diction 
which is among the most notable specimens of 


LOS INTERESES CREADOS — LOSE 


modern Spanish prose. Although employing 
the forms of: the Italian commedia dell’ arte 
Benavente achieves as in his other works an 
absolute de-artificialization of theatric effect. 
A continuation, ‘La Ciudad Alegre y Confiada,>» 
followed in 1916, but in this the intellectual 
element is directly predominant, both in con- 
ception and style, the second part being wholly 
distinct from its predecessor. 

“Los Intereses Creados? has been translated 
into the principal European languages. It is 


‘included in Benavante’s ‘Teatro? (Vol. XVI, 


Madrid 1908), having previously been issued 
independently by the Sociedad de Autores 
Espafioles. The English version is published 
in the ‘Plays by Jacinto Benavente? (New 
York 1917). 

. JOHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. 


LOS SUENOS, los stia’nyds. Francisco 
Gomez Quevedo Villega composed his ‘Suefios,? 
or ‘Visions, at intervals between the years 1606 
and 1627, at which latter date they were first 
published at Barcelona. The conception of .a 
dream or vision of the other world, peopled 
by contemporaries of the author in this, was 
familiar in medieval literature, and is utilized 
by Quevedo with. full realization of its possi- 
bilities in the sphere of personal satire and 
scandalous attack. The satire of the ‘Suefios? 
is rather journalistic than philosophic, more 
akin to the opportunism and animosities of 
the periodical press than to the spirit of belles- 
lettres. Ductile and incisive by turns, the 
humor is both crushing and keen. Clergy, 
physicians, merchants, Jews, actors, poets, all 
the cherished abominations of the author, pass 
in rapid kaleidoscopic review, more effective 
indeed at the outset, as in the “Vision of the 
Last Judgment,” and in miniature than in the 
later pages, which suffer from the repetition in- 
evitable in the monotony of the scheme. 
Usually reckoned as six in number, an addi- 
tional vision is admitted by many editors — 
“La Hora de Todos y la Fortuna con Seso.” 
Mature and highly mannered in style, this was 
printed posthumously in 1658, constituting a 
substantial volume in itself. It is properly 
a cento of later writings of the author. The 
earlier Visions? circulated in manuscript, or 
surreptitiously as pamphlets. Two years after 
the first collected edition, a reprinting under 
the title ‘Juguetes de la Nifiez y Travesuras 
del Ingenio» was authorized by the Inquisition 
at Madrid (1629), the more offensive passages 
being deleted, and the text revised through 
the substitution of names of pagan deities for 
those of the Christian dispensation. Although 
inferior in directness and energy, this version 
is that which has since been commonly known. 
The standard Spanish text, edited by Aurelio 
Fernandez Guerra, is included in the ‘Obras? 
of Quevedo, ‘Biblioteca de Autores Espafioles?, 
(Vols. XXIII and XLVIII, Madrid 1880 et 
seq.). The ‘Suefios? are also reprinted in the 


series of ‘Clasicos Castellanos? (2 vols., Madrid 


1916-17), with an introduction by Julio 
Cejadot y Frauca. The familiar English ver- 
sion is by Sir Roger L’Estrange. : 
JoHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. 

LOSE, George William, American clergy- 
man and author: b. Pleasant Unity, Westmore- 
land County, Pa., 28 Sept. 1852; was gradu- 
ated Capital University, Columbus, Ohio, 1871, 


LOS ANGELES, CALIF. 


wee 
Riveesteristht’ 
ane 


1 One of the principal streets in the shopping district 2 Terminal Wholesale Market 


qinog + Mol[esuNng 


LOS ANGELES, CALIF. 


LOSSING — LOST PLEIAD 


and from the theological seminary of same 
institution 1874. Entered the Lutheran min- 
istry and held several pastorates in Ohio and 
Pennsylvania. Editor of several Lutheran pe- 
riodicals and author of many books, including 
‘Esther and Other Poems? (1883); ‘The Tri- 
umph of Faith? (1888); ‘The Lives of the 
Twelve Apostles”? (1888); ‘From Darkness to 
Light? (1898); ‘The Pace that Kills? (1905) ; 
‘Ralph the Orphan” (1906); ‘Bread Upon the 
Waters? (1908); ‘The Secret of Happiness? 
(1909) ; “Christmas Eve at Eddington Place’; 
‘The Melnore Parish?; ‘The Song of the 
Pilgrim? ; ‘Promises Fulfilled ; ‘Their 
Mother’s Prayers’; ‘Theodore’; ‘Dorothy’ ; 
‘The Better Way’; ‘A Good Investment? ; 
‘Zaun?; ‘Commit Thy Way unto © the 
Lord?; ‘The Sandrock Estate?; ‘Lifting the 
Sandhill. Mortgage’; ‘Aunt Hannah’s Cup of 
Cold Water?; ‘The Last Son?; ‘The Good 
Shepherd?; ‘Clouds and Sunshine? (1914); 
‘Coals of Fire? (1914); ‘Through the Fire? 
(1914) ; ‘Catechism Bible Narratives» (1915). 


LOSSING, lds’ing, Benson John, Amer- 
ican historian and engraver: b. Beekman, 
Dutchess County, N. Y., 12 Feb. 1813; d. near 
Dover Plains, N. J., 3 June 1891. In 1826 he 
was apprenticed to a watchmaker in Pough- 
keepsie and subsequently entered into partner- 
ship with his employer, but in 1835 relinquished 
the business and became joint owner and edi- 
tor of the Poughkeepsie Telegraph. He soon 
after settled in New York as an engraver on 
wood, and at the same time edited and _illus- 
trated the Family Magazine. His connection 
with his newspaper enterprises in Poughkeepsie, 
however, continued until 1841. That year ap- 
peared his ‘Outline History of the Fine Arts,? 
followed in 1847 by an illustrated work, SSeven- 
teen Hundred and Seventy-Six, and in 1848 
by ‘Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of 
Independence.’ His ‘Pictorial Field Book of 
the Revolution? was issued in numbers in 1850- 
52, with more than 1,000 illustrations by him- 
self. In the preparation of this work, which 
is remarkable for the minute and accurate in- 
formation which it conveys, the author traveled 
at different times upward of 9,000 miles, visit- 
ing every important battlefield of the Revolu- 
tion and making sketches on the spot. Among 
other works are ‘Illustrated History of the 
United States for Schools and Families? 
(1854) ; “Our Countrymen, or Brief Memoirs 
of Eminent Americans? (1855) ; ‘Primary His- 
tory of the United States? (1857); ‘Mount 
Vernon and its Associations,’ illustrated by 
himself (1859); ‘Life and Times of Philip 
Schuyler? (1860); ‘Life of Washington? (3 
vols., 1860); “Lives of the Presidents”; ‘Pic- 
torial Field Book of the War of 1812? (1868) ; 
‘The Civil War in America? (1866-68); ‘The 
American Centenary? (1876); ‘Cyclopedia of 
United States History? (1881); ‘History of 
New York City? (1884); “Compendious His- 
tory of the Commonwealth of New York? 
(1887). 


LOST CAUSE, The, a phrase which first 
became current through the title of a history 
of the Civil War (1886) by E. A. Pollard. It 
is used as an expressive designation for the 
purposes and aims which the Southern people, 
through the war, vainly sought to realize in the 


667 


permanent establishment of the Confederate 
States of America. 


LOST CHORD, The, title of poem writ- 
ten by Adelaide A. Proctor. It was. first 
printed in Household Words, and appeared 
again in her collection of ‘Legends and Lyrics? 
(1858). The verses became widely. known 
when set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan; his 
mood was so attuned to that of the poet that 
words and music both sound a strain of 
grandeur, intellectual and emotional, mutually. 
interpretative. 


_LOST or HIDDEN ISLAND, an appel- 
lation anciently applied to Cephalonia, early 
navigators often being unable to find it on ac- 
count of its diminutive size. The name also 
has been given to islands in different parts of 
the world that once discovered have disap- 
peared or have not been found again. 


_ LOST PARADISE, The. The symbolical 
title of ‘Das verlorene Paradies? (“The Lost 
Paradise”) (1892) by Ludwig Fulda designates 
the world in which the vast majority of men 
and women eat bread in the sweat of their 
brows. The play is intended to arouse sympa- 
thy for workmen who strike rather than see 
their families starve. Contrasted with their 
state is that of an absentee Berlin proprietor 
whose luxurious mode of life leaves but a 
narrow margin for charitable concessions to 
his workmen, and who is just now especially 
impeded by having admitted to equal partner- 
ship in the business a young man of aristo- 
cratic name about to become his son-in-law. 
The latter attempts to cow the laborers into 
submission. But the daughter, visiting the 
factory for the first time on the occasion of 
her betrothed’s appearance there, is touched 
with pity for the employees, and is stirred to 
such indignation at the bargain for a son-in- 
law which her parents have made that she 
breaks the engagement and beseeches her father 
to grant the demanded increase of wages. 

The drama reflects conditions in Germany 
rather than any conceivable conditions among 
us. No American manufacturer would sup- 
pose that a gilded youth— though the son of 
an inventor—could assume the management 
of a machine-shop, or could avert a strike; 
none would regard his business as merely the 
dowry of his daughter, or would face bank- 
ruptcy rather than dispense with a socially dis- 
tinguished son-in-law. And even in Germany 
Herr. Bernardi’s daughter — sophisticated, but 
inexperienced, unused to feeling and yet sensi- 
tive to others’ wrongs—is an unlikely prod- 
uct of her environment. The superintendent of 
the factory has a keen sense of the joy of 
work and of social justice; Bernardi’s attitude 
is a mixture of aloofness and sentimentality. 
The play contains a number of dramatic mo- 
ments and an abundance of realistic dialogue, 
but also considerable stretches of sententious 
conversation. Translated by H. C. De Mille 
(New York 1897); edited by P. H. Grum- 
mann (Boston 1906). 

Witt1AmM G. Howarp; 

Assistant Professor of German, Harvard Un- 

versity. 

LOST PLEIAD, ple’ad, a star of the Plei- 
ades constellation which tradition says was 
once visible, being the seventh of that cluster. 


=) 


668 


Only six stars are now to be seen with the 
naked eye. In mythology the lost Pleiad is 
said to represent both Merope and Sterope who 
hid themselves ashamed at having married 
mortals; also as Electra, mother by Jupiter of 
Dardamus, who fled to avoid seeing the fall of 
Troy. The legend figures in modern poetry 
and art; a poem by Letitia Landon and a paint- 
ing by Thomas Buchanan Read each bear the 
title. 

LOST TEN TRIBES, The. After the 
death of Solomon the 10 northern tribes of 
Israel seceded and established the separate 
kingdom of Israel. It existed for 200 years, 
until it was finally brought to an end when 
Samaria was overthrown by Sargon of Assyria 
in 722 p.c. At that time 27,000 people were 
taken to different parts of the Assyrian Empire. 
It was formerly one of the puzzles of history 
to know what finally became of the Ten Tribes. 
There were several theories. Because of the 
fact that some Jewish monuments were found 
in China some writers traced them to that land. 
Others found their descendants in India. The 
theory that the Anglo-Saxons were the descend- 
ants of the Ten Tribes had many propagators, 
and the Anglo-Israelite theory, as it is called, 
produced a large literature. The general con- 


sensus of scientific opinion, however, is that ° 


the tribes became absorbed, as subsequent van- 
ished races have, in neighboring nations, and 
thus were not lost in the real significance of 
the term. In the Palestinian Talmud and 
Midrach Gen. Rabba Ixiii, the region of the 
exile of the 10 tribes is recorded as around 
the river Sabbation (q.v.), the Sabbatic River, 
so named from the sacred Sabbath of the Jews, 
identified in modern times with the stream 
running from the seven-days intermittent 
spring Fauwar ed-Deir in the Lebanon. In 
the ‘Eldad ha-Dani,» the narrative .of Eldad 
the Danite which appeared in northern Africa 
about the 9th century, and the source of con- 
siderable medizval legend and speculation, the 
lost children of Moses are described as a pow- 
erful Utopian race whose territory was sur- 
rounded by this wonderful river. Among re- 
cent recensions of his text are Epstein’s edi- 
tion (Pressburg 1891) and Miiller, D. H., in the 
Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy (Phil- 
hist. cl. .xli, I p. 41). Dr. Giles Fletcher (1548- 
1611) identified the Tartars with the lost 10 
tribes: consult his ‘The Tartars,> printed in 
‘Israel Redux,? edited by S. Lee (1667). Dr. 
Whiston (1667-1752) revived this identification. 
Dr. Francois Bernier (1620-88), French physi- 
cian for 12 years to the Great Mogul of India, 
in ‘Les voyages de Bernier contenant la de- 
scription des Etats du Grand Mogul de |’Hin- 
doustan? (1699), speculates on the Kashmiris 
as descendants of the lost 10 tribes from cer- 
tain customs and rites, and the prevailing type 
of facial features, as also of the neighboring 
Afghans and the Tajiks of Badakshan, being 
distinctly Hebraic. Numerous authors propa- 
gated the doctrine that the British races are 
_ descendants of the lost 10 tribes. (See ANGLOo- 
IsRAELITE THEORY). Consult Streator, M. L., 
‘The Anglo-Alliance in Prophecy, or the 
Promises to the Fathers? (2 vols., New Haven, 
Conn., 1900). The relation of the lost 10 
tribes to the “white” Indians of North Amer- 
ica, reputed descendants of Madoc (q.v.), the 


LOST TEN TRIBES —LOTHAIR I 


Welsh prince who with his followers, accord- 
ing to tradition, emigrated to America in 1170, 
has also been a source of fruitful discussion, 
for which consult Henshaw,.H. W., “Popular 
Fallacies respecting the Indians” (in American 
Anthropology n. s. Vol. VII, pp. 104-113, 1905) ; . 
Mooney, J. (in American Anthropology Vol. 
IV, pp. 393-394, 1891); Mallery, G., ‘Israelite 
and Indian: A Parallel in Planes of Culture? (in 
“Proceedings? of American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 
287-331, 1889) ; The ‘Book of Mormon? (q.v.) 
(1830) is typical of a recurrent phase of the 
theory. 


LOT, according to the book of Genesis, the 
son of Haran, and the nephew of Abraham. In 
order to avoid dissensions between his follow- 
ers and those of Abraham, he went east into 
the plain of Jordan, toward Sodom, while: his 
uncle dwelt in Canaan. After being taken cap- 
tive by some marauders (styled kings in Gen. 
xiv), Lot was delivered by Abraham. Having 
received two angels into his house in Sodom, 
an attack was made upon it by the inhabitants, 
who were struck blind, and the impending de- 
struction of the city was announced to Lot. 
He escaped with his family; but his wife, look- 
ing back, “became a pillar of salt” The name 
“Lot’s wife” is still given to a detached pillar. 
about 40 feet high, on the Jebel Usdim, a 
height near the Dead Sea. According to Gen- 
esis xix, 31-38, from Lot’s incestuous inter- 
course with his daughters originated the Moa- 
bite and Ammonite nations. 


LOT (ancient Loda or Olitis), France, one 
of the largest tributaries of the Garonne River, 
rises at Mount Lozére, one of the Cevennes,. 
near Mende, department of Lozére. It flows 
west by south across the departments of Lozére, 
Aveyron and Lot, and joins the Garonne at 
Aiguillon, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne.. 
Total course about 250 miles, of which 180 
miles, commencing at Entraigues, are navigable. 


LOTA, Chile, a city in the province of 
Concepcion, situated on Arauca Bay, lat. 37° 5’ 
S. At present the centre of Chilean coal min- 
ing, it was a fishing village until 1852, when 
the Cousifio family demonstrated the existence. 
of coal there in paying quantities. The Com- 
pafiia Esplotadora de Lota y Coronal, formed 
and controlled by the same family, with capital 
of about $20,000,000, has mines at Playa Negra, 
Coronal and Buen Retiro, in addition to those 
at Lota. Undersea and underground galleries 
in the Lota mines have electric lighting and 
tramways. The company controls also the 
Lota copper-smelting, pottery, bottle and fire-: 
clay-brick works, and a fleet of coasting steam- 
ers and sailing vessels. It provides for its 
workpeople free housing, schools, coal, medical 
attendance, hospitals and almshouses, a church 
and chaplain. A part of the Cousifio fortune 
has been employed in the creation of the fa- 
mous park above the town, containing trees and 
plants from all quarters of the globe, the statue 
of Caupolican, by Nicanor Plaza, etc. Pop. 
about 15,000. ) 

LOTHAIR (16-thar’) I, Roman emperor, 
eldest son of Louis-le-Debonnaire: b. about 
795; d. Priim, Prussia, 29 Sept. 855. He be- 
came associated with his father in the govern- 
ment of the empire in 817 and was crowned and 


LOTHAIR II — LOTTER FAMILY 


named king of the Lombards in 820 and em- 
peror in 823. On his father’s death Louis and 
Charles, his brothers, joined their forces and 
defeated him at Fontenoy in June 841. In 843 
the three brothers concluded the noted treaty 
of Verdun, by which Lothair retained the title 
of emperor, with Italy, and some French prov- 
inces beyond the Rhine and the Rhone. Charles 
then became king of France and Louis received 
a tract of country bordering on the Rhine. 


LOTHAIR II, called THE Saxon, Roman 
emperor: b. about 1060; d. near Trent, 4 Dec. 
1137. He became Duke of Saxony in 1106 and 
was elected king of Germany in 1125, and 
crowned by Pope Innocent II in 1133. By his 
performing certain acts of homage to the Pope, 
the claim was made that the empire was a fief 
of the Holy See. It was during his reign that 
the Diet of the empire claimed for itself the 
sole right to levy taxes, and to have in its hands 
the issues of peace or war. 


- LOTHAIR, a novel by Benjamin Disraeli, 
published in 1870. The scene of this extrava- 
gant, but remarkable, story is laid chiefly in 
England about the period of its publication. 
The hero, Lothair, a young nobleman of wide 
estates and great wealth, has been surrounded 
by a Protestant atmosphere. When, in accord- 
ance with his father’s will, he goes to Oxford 
to complete his education, his other guardian, 
Cardinal Grandison, determines to bring him 
into the Roman Church. The story is a graphic 
description of the struggles of rival ecclesias- 
tics, statesmen and leaders of society to secure 
the adherence of the young nobleman. 


LOTHROP, Amy. See WarNER, ANNA 
Bagtr_eit. 


LOTHROP, Harriet Mulford Stone 
(Marcarer Sipney), American writer: b. New 
Haven, Conn., 4 Oct. 1844; d. 2 Aug. 1924. 
She was married to ‘the Boston publisher 
D. Lothrop, in 1881, and was founder and 
president of the National Society of the 
Children of the American Revolution. Among 
her numerous publications mainly for young 
people, may be cited ‘The Five Little Pep- 
pers? series (1882-1907); ‘So As_ by Fire? 
(1881) ; “The Pettibone Name’ (1883) ; ‘The 
Golden’ West? (1885); ‘The Minute-Man? 
(1886); ‘Dilly and the Captain’ (1887) ; 
‘Little Maid of Concord Town’ (1898); ‘The 
Judge’s Cave: a Romance of the Days of Regi- 
cides?; ‘Little Maid of Boston Town,” etc. 
She was also a constant contributor to the lead- 
ing juvenile periodicals. 

LOTI, Pierre (Louis Marie JULIEN 
Viaup), French author: b. Rochefort, 14 Jan. 
1850; d. Hendaye, 10 June 1923. After a school 
education in his native, town he entered the 
French navy in 1867, becoming midshipman. in 
1873, and resigning in 1898 with the rank of 
lieutenant. _He visited, in the course of his 
calling or otherwise, a great part of the 


world, and descriptions of foreign scenery 
figure largely in his works. He served 
with distinction in the Tonkin campaign, 


but incurred official displeasure by describing 
the cruel proceedings of French soldiers at Hué 
in’a series of letters to the Figaro in 1883. In 
1887 he was honored by admission into the 
Legion of Honor, and in 1891 was elected a 
member of the Academy. Zola being a 
rival candidate on the occasion. He published 


669 


many stories, tales and sketches under the 
pseudonym “Pierre Loti” among them being 
‘Aziyadé? (1879); ‘Rarahu» (1880), reprinted 
in 1882 as ‘Mariage de Loti?; ‘Le Roman d’un 
Spahi? (1881); ‘Fleurs d’Ennui? (1882); 
‘Pécheur d’Islande? (1886), his chief work; 
for which he received the Prix Vitet from the 
Academy; ‘Madame Chrysanthéme”? (1887); 
‘Japonneries d’Automne? (1889); ‘Au Maroc? 
(1890); ‘Le Roman dun Enfant? (1890) ; 
“Fant6me® d’Orient?'’ (1892), “a” sequel to 
‘“Aziyadé?; ‘Le Désert? (1894); ‘Jérusalem? 
(1895); ‘La Galilée? (1895); ‘Ramuntcho? 
(1897); and ‘Figures et Choses qui Passaient? 
(1898). Many of these have been translated 
into English. His works are in general of an 
exotic’ character, dealing predominantly with 
the East, which he had studied during his naval 
service. (See THE IceELrAND FISHERMAN). 
Consult Lemaitre, ‘Contemporains”» (Vol. III, 
Ree Doumic, ‘Ecrivains d’aujourdhui? 


LOTION, a wash, solution or medicinal 
mixture for external application to the body; 
usually a liquid remedy, . consisting principally 
of water, as a menstruum, and applied to cir- 
cumscribed. portions of the skin, or of the 
mucous. surfaces. Lotions are either cooling, 
stimulating, astringent, soothing or sedative. 
Water combined with spirit or vinegar is an 
example of the first. The spirit is added to 
the water in the proportion of half an ounce 
and upward to the half-pint. The lead lotion 
is at once cooling and astringent. A good stim- 
ulating lotion is procured from a mixture of 
water with a third or a half of its bulk of 
spirit of wine, which is applied to the skin by 
means of lint, and covered to prevent evapora- 
tion. Astringent lotions are formed by adding 
from 1 to 10 grains of sulphate of zine or of 
white vitriol to an ounce of very cold water, 
having other astringents.in solution. Soothing 
lotions consist of the various preparations of 
opium, of the decoction of. poppies, hemlock, 
etc., and prussic acid is employed in the prep- 
aration of sedative lotions. Stimulating lo- 
tions are applied to indolent ulcers and tumors, 
and sedative and narcotic mixtures. are em- 
ployed to alleviate pain. A fomentation is a 
lotion used hot. So-called antiseptic. lotions 
contain bichloride of mercury, or carbolic acid, 
or boracic acid. 


LOTOPHAGI. See Lorus-Eaters. 
LOTTA. See CRABTREE, CHARLOTTE. 


LOTTER (lét'tér) FAMILY, a ‘family of 
printers in Germany, the founder of which, 
Melchior Lotter, born at Aue, appeared in 
Leipzig about 1491. There his publications of 
breviaries and missals brought him reputation, 
which his larger enterprises extended. He 
published ‘Persius? (1512); ‘Horatii Episto- 
le> (1522); “Lutheri Tessaradecos Consolato- 
ria pro Laborantibus” (1520), etc. One of his 
innovations was the reservation of Gothic 
types for German and use of Roman for Latin. 
He is supposed to have given at least secret 
sympathy and aid to the Reformation. His 
son, Melchior, who died about 1540, was the 
original printer of Luther’s Bible (1522-24), 
and was succeeded by Hans Lufft (q.v.). His 
publications also included various works of 
Luther, Melanchthon and other writers. 


670 


LOTTERY, a public gambling scheme, by 
which, for a valuable consideration, one may by 
favor of the lot obtain a prize of a value su- 
perior to the amount or value of that which 
he risks. In its best and most frequent applica- 
tion, the word describes those schemes cf this 
nature which are conducted under the super- 
vision and guaranty of government, and the 
proceeds of which are devoted to public objects. 
Almost all modern states have, at some period 
of their history, employed lotteries as a means 
of revenue. But though they supply a ready 
mode of replenishing the public treasury, they 
have always been found to exert a mischievous 
influence upon the people. The poor are in- 
vited by them rather than the rich. They are 
diverted from persistent labor and patient thrift 
by the hope of sudden and splendid gains; and 
as it is the professed principle of these schemes 
to withhold a large part of their receipts, a 
necessary loss falls upon that class which can 
least afford to bear it. Between the years 1816 
and 1828 the French government derived from 
lotteries an annual income of $2,400,000. Some 
years later the government suppressed them, 
and in January of the next year $110,000 more 
were found to be in the savings banks of 
Paris alone than in the same month of the 
preceding year. In France of to-day the lottery 
is used to secure state and municipal bonds 
at a low rate of interest—some of those in- 
vestments being subscribed 20 times over. Each 
subscriber gets a lottery bond, with prizes 
drawn four, six or eight times a year, and 
every care is exercised in the drawings for 
prizes. In several other European states gov- 
ernment lotteries are still maintained. They 
have become an almost indispensable source of 
revenue; and they are defended -by the argu- 
ment that as the passion for play is irrepres- 
sible among the people, and their money would 
otherwise be invested in foreign or in secret 
and less fairly managed schemes, the state may 
well assume the conduct of lotteries at home; 
that under its supervision the evils attendant 
upon them are diminished, and their earnings 
are devoted to the public welfare. Dice for 
the casting of lots have been found in ancient 
Egyptian and Assyrian tombs. The lot is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible as a means of 
settling disputes and partitioning land. One of 
the Apostles, Matthew, was chosen by_ lot. 
Venetian and Genoese merchants are known to 
have got rid of surplus stock by lottery. The 
first recorded public lottery was held at Bruges 
in 1446. The first in England was drawn in 
1569; they were finally abolished in 1826. 

th the United States, the lottery has. been 
from the earliest settlement of the country a 
familiar means of raising funds, which in. this 
country could have been secured in no other 
mode so easily, if at all. The Virginia com- 
pany: derived a large profit from English lot- 
teries, and the influence of them extended grad- 
ually. 'to the Eastern colonies; for it is reported 
that an assembly of ministers at Boston in 1699 
denounced the lottery as “a cheat,» and its 
agents as “pillagers of the people.» Generally, 
however, lotteries enjoyed a fair reputation and 
cer tainly were soon, extensively employed 
throughout the country. In the 18th century 
they were extraordinarily popular in America. 
Legislatures authorized lotteries for every spe- 
cies of public improvement, for the building of 


LOTTERY — LOTUS 


churches and colleges, for the repair of losses 
to individuals by fire and otherwise; for exam- 
ple, Faneuil Hall, after the fire of 1761, was 
rebuilt by lottery. The Continental Congress 
tried to raise money by lottery in 1777. V3 

In 1833 a society was formed in: Pennsyl- 
vania which advocated their suppression. In 
July 1834 the society issued an:address to the 
public, setting forth its objects and views. It 
was the educative work of this society that first 
arrested public attention to the. evils inherent 
in lottery systems, and it has been followed. by 
legislative action. Lotteries are now prohibited 
in all the States and Territories of the United 
States; in Massachusetts raffling is forbidden 
by express statute. The schemes known as art 
unions are held to be lotteries by express deci- 
sions. In the language of the court in New 
York: “These associations distribute a small 
number of prizes among a great number of 
persons. The prizes and blanks.are drawn in 
the same manner as in other lotteries... The 
intention of these schemes is to sell works of 
art for more than they can be sold for at private 
sale, and this is to be brought about by an 
appeal to the universal passion for playing at 
games of chance. They have all the attributes 
and elements of lotteries.” 

The sums annually employed by Americans 
in lottery speculations probably amounted to 
hundreds of thousands. The last lottery sup- 
ported by governmental encouragement was the 
Louisiana State Lottery. An Act of Congress 
passed in 1890 attempted to crush it by for- 
bidding it the use of the United States mails, 
which act compelled its removal to Honduras, 
where in 1903 it was still in existence, - and 
thousands of tickets for this lottery were sold 
monthly in the United States, particularly on 
the Pacific Coast, where as late as November 
1903 the daily newspapers issued “extras”. giv- 
ing the winning numbers in the drawings. of 
the Honduras company. Consult Ashton, J., 
‘History of English Lotteries? (London 1893) ; 
Palgraves, ‘Dictionary of. Political Economy’ 
(ib. 1896) ; Ross, A. F., “History of Lotteries 
in New York? (in Magazine of History, New. 
York 1907); Spofford, in the ‘Annual, Report 
of the American Historical Association? (Wash- 
ington 1892); Van Vorst, ‘Naples’ and the 
Lotti,?> (in Harpers’ for September 1910); and 
‘Report of the Joint Committee on Lotlerads 
to the British Parliament? (London. 1908), , 


LOTTO, a game having its origin in Italy 
but now played occasionally in other countries. 
It is played on boards, divided into 27 small 
squares arranged in three horizontal rows five 
squares in each row are marked with numbers 
between 1 and 90, four of the squares being left 
blank. Each person playing is provided with a 
board upon which he covers the space marked 
with the particular number called out by the 
dealer, who draws the counters from a bag. 
The player who first covers all the five numbers 
on any horizontal row is declared the winner. / 


LOTUS, in art, the lotus played an import- 
ant part in the art of the ancients. It. is com- 
mon in all Egyptian decoration, especially in 
borders. It was not unknown in the .art of 
the Assyrians and Persians and from all these 
sources it was derived by the Greeks and made 
familiar to the West by the Romans.. Some 
scholars unduly overrated its importance and 


LOTUS-EATERS — LOUDON 


frequency in Egyptian ornament, ascribing to it 
a kind of solar: symbolism; this is denied by 
others of equal authority. Consult Goodyear, 
W.H., ‘Grammar of the Lotus? (London 1891) 
and Flinders Petrie, W. M., ‘Egyptian Decora- 
tive Art? (ib. 1895). 

LOTUS-EATERS (Latin Lotophagi), in 
ancient Greek legends a people on the north 
coast of Africa: who lived on the fruit of the 
lotus-tree. According to Homer they received 
Ulysses and his followers hospitably, but the 
sweetness of the fruit induced such a feeling 
of happy languor that they forgot their native 
land and ceased to desire to return to it, their 
sole object being to live in delicious dreamy 
idleness in Lotusland. See Lorus. 


LOTZE, Rudolph Hermann, German phi- 
‘osopher and physiologist: b. Bautzen, Saxony, 
21 May 1817; d. Berlin, 1 July 1881. He studied 
philosophy and medicine at Leipzig and in 1842 
was appointed extraordinary professor of phi- 
losophy in that university and in 1844 ordinary 
professor in G6ttingen. In 1881 he filled the 
same chair in Berlin. His philosophical posi- 
tion is that of a teleological idealist, and he 
makes metaphysics to be destitute of all inde- 
pendent existence, apart from ethics. The uni- 
verse has its cause in the notion of the Good, 
which underlies all the phenomena and activities 
of the world. His position as a teleologist is 
the same as that of Asa Gray, and while allow- 
ing that mechanism obtains in the movements 
of the universe the denies that this excludes the 
possibility of creative design. Lotze is, how- 
ever, considered to have done his most original 
work in the domain of psychology. He teaches 
that our space-consciousness is built out of the 


distinctive, non-spatial sense-attributes, which - 


vary according to the locality of. the sense- 
organs stimulated. Among his works are 
“Metaphysik? (1841); “Logik? (1843); ‘Mi- 
kroskosmus? (1856-64); and ‘Geschichte der 
ZEsthetik in Deutschland? (1868).' Consult 
Falckenberg, ‘Hermann. Lotze? (Stuttgart 
1901); Hall, C. S. ‘Founders of Modern 
Philosophy? (New York 1912); Hartmann, 
“Lotze’s Philosophy? (Leipzig 1888) ; Jones, H., 
“Critical Account of the Philosophy of Lotze? 
(Glasgow 1895). 


LOUBAT, Joseph Florimond, zhé6-zef 
flé-ri-m6nd loo-ba, Duc bE, French author and 
philanthropist: b. New York, 21 Jan. 1831. 
He was graduated from the University of Paris 
and has been a liberal giver to public institu- 
tions, among his benefactions of this char- 
acter being a gift of $1,000,000 to Columbia 
University, including valuable books and manu- 
scripts. He has likewise given much to the 
Roman Catholic Church, and in recognition. of 
this fact received his title of Duc de Loubat 
from Pope Leo XIII in 1893. He has written 
‘Narrative of the Mission to Russia in 1866 
by G. V. Fox”; ‘Medallic History of the United 

tates. 


LOUBET; loo-ba, Emile Francois, French 
statesman: b. Marsanne (Drome), 1838. He 
was graduated in law at Paris, in 1865 was 
admitted to the bar at Montélimar, attracted 
attention by his legal ability, became counsel 
for the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Rail- 
way, in 1869 was elected conseiller d’arrondis- 
sement, and 4 Sept. 1870 was chosen mayor of 
Montélimar. Elected in 1871 to the general 


671 


council of the Drome, of which he afterward 
(1885) became president, he was returned to 
the Chamber of Deputies for Montélimar in 
1876, where he. served with the Republican left 
until 1885. In 1885 he entered the Senate for 
the department of Drome, and from December 
1887 until April 1888, when he retired with 
his colleagues of. the ministry, filled with much 
credit the post of Minister of Public Works 
in the Tirard Cabinet. He was chairman of 
the Finance Committee of the Senate in 1890, 
chairman of the Customs Committee in 1893; - 
and on 29 Feb. 1892 was made Premier by 
President. Carnot. His Cabinet, in which he 
held the portfolio of the Interior, lasted. until 
November of that year, when its retirement 
was caused by attacks on its supposed, laxity in 
the prosecution of the Panama case. In 1896 
he was’ chosen president of the Senate. Upon 
the sudden death of President Faure (16 Feb. 
1899), the National Assembly met in. congress 
(18 February) and elected Loubet President of 
the Republic on the first ballot. His position 
in politics is that of a moderate Republican, 


“without the tendency to Radical views -some- 


times ascribed to him. He has been not only 
a skilful) administrator, but’ a close. student 
of economic questions. He is a protectionist, 
though not of the extreme type, and. an ‘ad- 
vocate of economy in finance, having made an 
able speech on financial reform in 1895. His 
administration as President did’ much © to 
strengthen the Republicans, and the Monarchist 
party ‘has almost entirely disappeared as a 
serious factor in national affairs. Among the 
events of his term were the trial of Captain 
Dreyfus at Rennes and the remission of the 
10 years’ sentence there passed upon him; the 
strike of the miners at Montceau and of the 
dock-workers at Marseilles; the ‘complete 
separation of Church and State and the dis- 
turbances attendant on the passing of the law 
of the associations; and the conclusion of an 
entente with England, which left France a 
free hand in Morocco in return for non-inter- 
vention in Egypt. In 1906 he was succeeded in 
the Presidency by Clément Armand Falliéres 
(q.v.);,. See FRANCE — History. 


LOUDON, low’dén, James, Canadian 
physicist: b. Toronto, 1841. He received his 
education at the College of Upper Canada and 
at Toronto University. In 1862 he was ap- 
pointed instructor in classics at the latter insti- 
tution and subsequently became ‘assistant pro- 
fessor of mathematics.. From 91875 to 1887 
he held the chairs of mathematics and physics 
and from 1892 to 1906 was president of ‘Toronto 
University; In 1872 he was one of the original 
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada, and 
was. its. president in, 1901-02.. He is a member 
of several learned societies. His publications 
include papers in the ‘Transactions? of: the 
Canadian Institute, the American. Journal. of 
Mathematics, the Philosophical Magazine, etc., 
and the volume ‘Elements of Algebra? (1873). 


LOUDON, Fort, a name given to two 
forts built during the Colonial period, and in- 
tended for defense against the Indians. . One, 
built in 1750, was in Loudon County, .Tenn., 
on the Tennessee River. An Indian massacre 
took place here a few years after the erection 
of the fort.. The. other Fort Loudon was 
erected in 1752, near Winchester, Va. It was 


672 


a square building with four bastions, mounting 
24 guns. It was large enough to accommodate 
nearly 500. men. 

LOUGHBOROUGH, lif’bir-6, England, 
market town and municipal borough of Leices- 
tershire, on the Loughborough Canal, and the 
Great Central, the London and Northwestern 
and the Midland railways. It contains a 14th 
century church (restored) and several modern 
churches, a grammar school, free library, town 
and county halls, etc. It has hosiery, engi- 
neering, iron and dye works and bell foundries. 
The town has undergone extensive improve- 
ments. There is a fine public market, and the 
water, gas and electric plants, market, ceme- 
teries and allotment gardens are municipally 
owned. Garbage and waste are used to gener- 
ate steam for pumping the sewage, which is 
utilized on farms. Loughborough (Lucteburne) 
was given by William the Conqueror to Hugo 
Lupus. Pop. 23,000. Consult Fletcher, W. G. 
D., ‘Chapters in the History of Loughborough? 
(1883). 


LOUGHEAD, 16’héd, Flora Haines, Amer-* 


ican novelist and journalist: b. Milwaukee, 


Wis., 12. July 1855. She was graduated from 
Lincoln University, and was married in 1875 
to C. E. Apponyi, and in 1886 to John Loug- 
head, a journalist. She has done much jour- 
nalistic work in Chicago, Denver and San 
Francisco, and is the author of ‘The Libraries 
of California? (1878); ‘The Man Who Was 
Guilty? - (1886).; ‘Handbook of Natural Sci- 
ence? (1886) ;. “Quick Cooking? (1890) ; ‘The 
Abandoned Claim? (1892); ‘The Man- from 
Nowhere? (1892); ‘Santos’s Brother? (1892) ; 
‘A Crown of Thorns? (1892); ‘The Black 
Curtain? (1897); ‘The San Franciscan? ; and 
of several plays. She edited the ‘Biography of 
Oscar Lovell Shafter? (1915). 


LOUGHREA, loch-ré-a, Ireland, market- 
town and episcopal seat in County Galway, on 
the north shore of Lough Rea; and on the 
Midland Great Western Railway, 20 miles 
east by south of Galway and 116 miles west 
of Dublin. It contains the magnificent cathe- 
dral of Saint Brendan, erected 1900-05, and 
is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of 
Clonfert. Near the railway station are the 
remains of an early English Carmelite friary 
(about 1300) which survived the Dissolution. 
It was founded by Richard de Burgh, part of 
whose castle also survives. The town was once 
fortified and parts of the old ramparts remain. 
Later it was a military station; the military 
barracks still remain. The town has a large 
trade in farm produce; a great market is held 
every Thursday. Lace-making is the chief in- 
dustry, and is of small proportions. During the 
Agrarian strife, Loughrea was the scene of 
several disturbances. Pop. 3;100. 


LOUGHRIDGE, loch’ridj’, Robert Mc- 
Gill, American Presbyterian clergyman, mis- 
sionary and lexicographer: b. Laurensville, 
S. C., 24 Dec. 1809; d. Waco, Tex., 8 July 
1900. His father, James Loughridge, was a 
native of County Antrim, Ireland, and his 
mother, Deborah Ann (McGill) Loughridge, 
was a native of South Carolina and of Scotch- 
Irish extraction. His parents removed to Eu- 
taw, Ala., in his early youth. Robert M. Lough- 
ridge was educated at Miami University, gradu- 


LOUGHBOROUGH — LOUIS I 


ating in 1837... He then entered Princeton 
Theological Seminary, but remained only one 
year, the death of his father necessitating his 
return home ‘to aid his mother in the manage- 
ment of the family’s affairs. _He continued to 
pursue his theological studies under the direc- 
tion of his pastor, Rev. Dr: John’ H. Gray. 
He was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of 
Tuscaloosa, in 1841. In October 1842 he was 
ordained. by the same Presbytery being under 
appointment of the Presbyterian Mission Board 
as a missionary to the Creek Indians. He went 
to the Creek Nation. only. five years after the 
people of that tribe had expelled all mis- 
sionaries. When he presented , himself. before 
the Creek Council and-asked permission to take 
up his work it was granted with great reluct- 
ance and he began the organization of the mis- 
sion at Coweta, in February 1843, where a 
school was established. Six years later, his 
work had so prospered that the Creek Nation 
founded a manual labor school at Tullahassee, 
of which he was made superintendent, and 
where he continued to labor until the work of 
the mission was interrupted by the outbreak of 
the Civil War. Mr. Loughridge then moved to 
Texas, where he engaged in pastoral work 
until 1880, when he returned to the Creek 
Nation to accept the superintendency of the 
new manual labor school at Wealaka, in which 
capacity he continued to labor until his final 
retirement in 1892, after having reached the age 
of 82. He mastered the Creek or Muskogee 
language, translating the catechism, portions of 
the Bible and many hymns into that tongue and 
also compiling a Creek-English dictionary, 
which, however, was not printed until after his 


death. 


LOUIS, loo’is (Fr. loo-é), called THE 
CuiLp, king of Germany: b. 893; d. 911. He 
was the son: of the Emperor Arnulphus, and 
succeeded him in 899. During his nominal 
kingship the government was mainly conducted 
by Archbishop Hatto of Mainz. Atthis time 
the empire was constantly ravaged by the Hun- 
garians. He was the last prince in Germany of 
the Carlovingian race: . 


LOUIS I, surnamed Lr DEBONNAIRE, 
Roman emperor: b. 778; d. near Mainz, Ger- 
many, 20 June 840. He was the 3d son of Char- 
lemagne, was early appointed by his father 
king of Aquitania, and in 813 was named joint- 
regent of France, of which, in the following 
year, he became sole sovereign, as well as em- 
peror of the West. In 817 he divided his do- 
minions among his three sons, Lothair, Pepin — 
and Louis, and thereby gave rise to disturbances 
and contests which lasted during the whole 
period of his reign. In 829, in consequence of 
the solicitations of his second wife, Judith of 
Bavaria, who had borne him a.son, Charles the 
Bald, he made a new division of the empire. 
In 830 the brothers Lothair and Pepin combined 
against their father, took him prisoner, charged 
their stepmother with adultery, and shut her up 
in a monastery. The design of Lothair to 
make himself sole sovereign having been dis- 
covered, the Diet of Nimeguen obliged him to 
submit at discretion. Strife continued for the 
test of Louis’ life. In 837 Louis made a new 
division in favor of Charles, who obtained 
Neustria in addition to Aquitania.. Though not 
without good qualities Louis had neither the 


LOUIS II—LOUIS VIII 


statesmanship nor decision necessary for ruling 
so large an empire. He was succeeded as em- 
peror by Lothair, to whose protection he had 
recommended his favorite son, Charles. 


LOUIS II, Roman emperor: b. about 825; 
d. Brescia, 12 Aug. 875. He was the son of 
Lothair I, was made king of the Lombards 
in 844, and became emperor, in succession to 
his father, in 855. He was an able ruler, who 
contended victoriously against the Saracen in- 
vaders of southern Italy. 


LOUIS III, Roman emperor, surnamed 
THe Biinp: b. about 880; d. 928. He was the 
son of Boson, king of Province, and Ermen- 
garde, daughter of the Emperor Louis II. He 
succeeded his father on the throne of Provence 
at the age of 10, and in 900 contested the im- 
perial throne with Berengar I.  Berengarius 
forced him to leave Italy, and take oath never 
to return. In 904 he returned and won some 
‘successes; but Berengarius surprised and took 
him prisoner at Verona in 905, and deprived 
him of his sight. 


LOUIS IV, surnamed the BavarIANn, Ro- 
man emperor: b. 1287; d. near Munich, 11 
Oct. 1347. He was the son of Louis the Severe, 
Duke of Bavaria, and succeeded his father in 
the dukedom in 1294 and was elected emperor 
in 1314. Frederick le Bel of Austria was also 
chosen at Cologne by a minority of electors, 
and a war between the rivals ensued. Freder- 
ick was taken prisoner in 1322, and only gained 
his liberty by renouncing his claims. Pope John 
XXII then issued his bull of deposition against 
Louis, and the latter, appealing to a general 
council, went to Italy, where he declared the 
deposition of John and set up Peter de Corbiére 
as Pope under the name of Nicholas V, by 
whom he was crowned at Rome. In 1338 the 
German electoral princes in a council at Rhense 
announced that the emperor’s title to the Ger- 
man and imperial crowns were derived from 
his election by them and required no further 
sanction from the Pope, the validity of which 
proceeding was not recognized by the papacy. 


LOUIS I, king of France. See Louis I, 
Roman emperor. 


LOUIS II, surnamed LE BEcuE (the Stam- 
merer), king of France: b. 846; d. Compiégne, 
France, 10 April 879. He was the son of 
Charles the Bald, was crowned king of Aqui- 
taine in 867 and succeeded his father on the 
throne of France in 877. He was obliged to 
deliver up Provence to Boson, by whom it was 
erected into a kingdom. His children, Louis 
and Carloman, divided the kingdom between 
themselves and a posthumous son, afterward 
known as Charles the Simple. 


LOUIS III, king of France: b. about 
863; d. 882. He was the son of Louis II and 
the brother of Carloman, with whom he divided 
the rule of the kingdom. He defeated Hugh 
the Bastard, son of Lothair, marched against 
Boson, king of Provence, and successfully op- 
posed ‘the Normans at Saucourt (3 Aug. 881), 
a battle celebrated in the famous German poem, 
the ‘Ludwigslied? and in the ‘Chanson du roi 
Louis, 

LOUIS IV, surnamed D’OutTREMER (“from 
beyond the seas”), king of France: b. 921; d. 
September 954. He was the son of Charles the 
Simple, was educated at the court of King 

VOL. 17 — 43 


673 


Athelstan of England, and became king in 
936, on the death of Rudolph of Burgundy. He 
invaded Normandy, but was defeated and taken 
prisoner in 944. He was set free the next year 
after being obliged to concede Normandy to 
Richard, son of Duke William, and Laon to 
Hugh, father of Hugh Capet, the latter being, 
however, restored. 


LOUIS V, surnamed LE Farnéant (Do 
Nothing), king of France: b. 966; d. May 987. 
He was the last French monarch of the Carlo- 
vingian dynasty. In spite of the name con- 
ferred upon him he was an active ruler. He 
succeeded his father, Lothair, in 986, and soon 
after becoming king took the city of Rheims 
and was preparing to march to the assistance 
of the Count of Barcelona, hard pressed by the 
Saracens, when he is said to have been poisoned 
by his mother. Consult Lot, ‘Les derniers 
Carolingiens: ‘Lothair, Louis and Charles? 
(Paris 1891). 


LOUIS VI, surnamed LE Gros (the Fat), 
king of France: b. 1081; d. 1 Aug. 1137. He 
was the son of Philip I, with whom he was as- 
sociated in the government in 1100, and whom 
he succeeded in 1108. His reign was greatly 
disturbed by contests with the Normans, and by 
wars among his turbulent vassals in the Isle de 
France. He quarreled with Henry I of Eng- 
land, and thus was begun the struggle between 
the English and the French, which continued 
three centuries. He was a benefactor of the 
Church and of the poor. He was ably coun- 
seled by his minister, Abbé Suger. Consult 
Luchaire, ‘Louis VI le Gros? (Paris 1889); 
Thompson, J. W., ‘Development of French 
aie under Louis VI le Gros? (Chicago 
1 : 


LOUIS VII, called Le Jeunes, king of 
France: b. about 1120; d. 18 Sept. 1180. He 
was the son of Louis VI, and succeeded him in 
1137. He contested with Pope Innocent II the 
right of presentation to benefices, and was ex- 
communicated by Innocent and his kingdom 
placed under interdict. By the persuasions of 
Saint Bernard, Louis embarked on the Second 
Crusade, but was defeated by Saladin, and 
while returning to Europe was captured at sea 
by the Greeks, but afterward rescued by Roger, 
king of Sicily. His divorced queen, Eleanor 
of Aquitaine, married Henry of Normandy, 
afterward Henry II of England, bringing with 
her. as dowry the provinces of Poitou and 
Guienne. This caused a long war between Eng- 
land and France. Consult Luchaire, ‘Etudes sur 
les actes de Louis VII? (Paris 1885); Hirsch, 
‘Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII 
von Frankreich? (1892); Lavisse, ‘Histoire de 
France? (Vol. III, Paris 1901). 


LOUIS VIII, surnamed THE Lion, king 
of France: b. 1187; d. Montpensier, Auvergne, 
France, 8 Nov. 1226. He was the son of 
Philip Augustus of France and married Blanche 
of Castile in 1200. Accepting the offer of the 
English crown made him by the English barons, 
in 1216 he landed in England, took Rochester 
and Winchester, and received the homage of 
the barons at London. After the death of John 
and the accession of Henry III he was de- 
feated at Lincoln, signed the Peace of Lam- 
beth in 1217 under which he received a small 
indemnity. He was excommunicated by the 
legate and withdrew to France in September 


674 


1217. He succeeded his father in 1223, and 
soon regained most of the English possessions 
in France. In 1226 he led a crusade against 
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, and the Al- 
bigenses; took Avignon after a three months’ 
siege, and laid waste Languedoc. Consult Petit- 
Dutaillis, ‘Etude sur la vie et la régne de Louis 
VIIP (Paris 1894). — 

LOUIS IX, called Satnt Louis, king of 
France: b. Poissy, France, 25 April 1214; d. 
near Tunis, Africa, 25, Aug. 1270. He was the 
son of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile, and 
came to the throne on the death of his father. 
Being only in his 12th year he was placed under 
the guardianship of his mother, who was made 
regent of the kingdom, and he was declared of 
age in 1236. In 1243 Louis defeated the English 
in several engagements, and a truce for five 
years was concluded. Having made a vow, in 
the event of recovering from a dangerous dis 
ease, to march against the infidels in the Holy 
Land, he in 1248 embarked at Aigues-Mortes 
with an army of 50,000 men. - This expedition 
proved disastrous, and Louis with his army was 
captured by the Saracens. Damietta, which had 
been taken by the French, was demanded as the 
price of the monarch’s freedom, and a vast ran- 
som was also claimed for his followers. In 
1254 he returned home, and in the interval 
Queen Blanche, who had ruled the kingdom 
well in his absence, had died. Louis now turned 
his attention to the administration of the law. 
The subjects were now suffered to appeal from 
the decision of their lords to four royal tribu- 
~ nals, and men of learning’ were introduced into 
the Parliament. Louis also diminished the 
taxes and he founded the Sorbonne. The code 
of laws known as the ‘Etablissements de Saint 
Louis? is the work of some unknown compiler. 
In 1270 he undertook a crusade against Tunis, 
in the midst of which enterprise he died. He 
was succeeded by his son Philip III. He was 
canonized by Boniface VIII in 1297. The 
Sieur de Joinville wrote his life, of which an 
English translation by Hutton appeared in 1868. 
Consult Berger, ‘Saint Louis et Innocent IV? 
(Paris 1893), and ‘Histoire de Blanche de 
Castile? (ib. 1895); Faure, ‘Histoire de Saint 
Louis? (2 vols., Paris 1866) ; Lavissé, ‘Histoire 
de France? (Vol. III, Paris 1901) ; Lecoy de la 
Marche, ‘La France sous Saint Louis» (ib. 
1893) ; Perry, F., ‘Saint Louis the Most Chris- 
tian King? (New York 1901); Sepet, ‘Life? 
(Paris 1903). 


LOUIS X, surnamed Le Hurtin (the Quar- 
reler), king of France: b.. Paris, 1289; d. Vin- 
cennes, 4 June 1316. Through his mother he 
inherited the kingdom of Navarre in 1305, and 
in 1314 he succeeded Philip the Fair, his father, 
on the throne of France. His posthumous son, 
John I, survived but a few months, and Louis’ 
brother then succeeded as Philip V. 


LOUIS XI, king of France: b. Bourges, 
France, 3 July 1423; dd. Plessis-les-Tours, 
France, 30 Aug. 1483. He was the son of 
Charles VII, but in all respects very unlike 
him, and in 1440 he left the court and headed 
an insurrection against his father. Charles par- 
doned his son but the latter soon entering into 
new conspiracies was obliged to take refuge 
in Burgundy, and lived there five years in a de- 
pendent condition. On reaching the throne 
after the death of his father, in 1461, he dis- 


LOUIS IX—LOUIS XIII 


missed the former ministers and surrounded 
himself with obscure men, having neither char- 
acter nor talents to recommend them. In all his 


_acts.a crooked policy and sinister views were 


evident. Pretending to reconcile contending 
parties, he secretly instigated them against each 
other, and, when negotiating with a foreign 
government he bribed its messengers and estab- 
lished secret correspondences with them. He 
carried on a war with Charles the Bold, after- 
ward Duke of Burgundy, which lasted 1465-72, 
and on the death of Charles in 1477, at the bat- 
tle of Nancy, he joined Burgundy to France. 
In 1481 he united Anjou, Maine and Provence 
to the kingdom. Louis both reigned and 
governed, and was inflexible in his purposes. 
He vanquished the feudal lords, put an end 
to anarchy, consolidated the central power, art- 
fully played off the cities against the nobility 
and was implacable in his revenges. He greatly 
improved the means of communication. Until 
his last years he had no regard for the appear- 
ances of power, and dressed meanly. His later 
years were spent in the dread of death; he lav- 
ished gifts upon the saints, and spent his time 
in ascetic practices which failed to bring relief 
to his tortured mind. Consult ‘Louis XI et les 
villes> (Paris 1893): Hare, €., ‘Louis XP 
(London 1907); Kitchen, ‘History of France? 
(Vol. I, Oxford 1885); Lavissé, ‘Histoire de. 
France? (Vol. IV, Paris 1902), and, for its vivid 
presentation of the king, Scott’s ‘Quentin Dur- 
ward.? 


LOUIS XII, surnamed the FATHER oF His 
PEopLe, king of France: b. Blois, France, 27 
June 1462; d. 1 Jan. 1515. He was the son of 
Charles, Duke of Orleans, and on coming to 
the throne in 1498 he pardoned all who had 
wronged him previously. His reign was con- 
tinually disturbed by war. He subdued the 
Milanese, Genoa and Naples. His joining of 
the League of Cambrai (1508). enabled him to 
conquer Venice; but the Holy League was 
formed against him in 1511; and in 1513 the 
French were expelled from Italy. Henry VIII 
of England, a member of the league, attacked 
Louis in his own dominion and he was obliged 
to sue for peace after the battle of the Spurs in 
August 1513. For his third wife he married 
the young Princess Mary, sister of Henry VIII, 
who after his death was married to her first 
lover, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Louis 
XII was honest and magnanimous; he was 
friendly to science, and France prospered under 
him and his able chancellor, Cardinal d’Am- 
boise. Consult Claviére, ‘Histoire de Louis 
XID (Paris 1890 et seq.) ; Hauser, ‘Les sources 
histoire de France XVIe siécle? (ib. 1906), 
and Lacroix, ‘Louis XII et Anne de Bretagne? 


(1882). 


LOUIS XIII, king of France: b. Fon- 
tainebleau, France, 27 Sept. 1601; d. Saint Ger- 
main-en-Laye, France, 14 May 1642. He was 
the son of Henry IV, whom he succeeded under 
the regency of his mother, Mary de Medicis, 
and who made alliances with Spain and the 
Pope. In 1614 he was declared of age and the 
next year he married Anne of Austria who 
after 23 years of married life gave birth to a 
son, afterward Louis XIV. The realm at the 
beginning of his reign was in a very disturbed 
state. The Huguenots were threatening and a 
great part of the kingdom rebelled. In 1624 


LOUIS XIV 


Louis chose Cardinal Richelieu as his Prime 
Minister, and the remainder of his reign was to 
all purposes that of the great cardinal: Under 
him the Huguenot power was broken by the 
capture of La Rochelle in 1628.. The govern- 
mental power centralized and the influence of 
Austria materially weakened. In the Thirty 
Years’ War he supported Gustavus Adolohus 
and the Dutch against Spain and Austria. 
During his reign the Etats généraux —a body 
more ancient than the parliaments — met for 
the last time till the reign of Louis XVI. Con- 
sult Patmore, K. A:, ‘The Court of Louis XIID 
(London 1910) : Raumer, “Geschichte Ludwigs 
XIII und des Kardinals Richelieu» (1830); 


Topin, ‘Louis XIII et Richelieu» (1876); Zel- 
ler, ‘La Minorité de Louis XIII? (1897). See 
RICHELIEU. 

LOUIS XIV, king of France: b. Saint 


German-en-Laye, 5 Sept. 1638; d. Versailles, 
I Sept. 1715. He was only five years old when 
he succeeded to the throne, but his mother, 
Anne of Austria, was made regent during his 
nonage which ended in 1651, when he was 13. 
Cardinal Mazarin was then Prime Minister, and 
the French army under the leadership of Condé 
and Turenne was gaining much glory in the 
war with Spain and the emperor. But inter- 
nally the nation was in the throes of a civil 
war; Mazarin’s avarice and the peculations of 
Fouquet had disgusted the Parisians, who were 
moreover incensed with Anne of Austria’s con- 
duct of the regency and the supremacy of her 
agent the cardinal. The king and his mother 
were compelled with the unpopular Prime Min- 
ister to flee from the capital, and the Spanish 
armies streamed over the northeast boundaries 
from Holland and held their way victoriously 
through Champagne and Lorraine. When war 
broke out between England and Holland, Louis 
threw his strength on the side of the latter; 
but the conflict was largely confined to the sea, 
and after a few sea fights the war was ended 
by the Peace of Breda in 1667. Mazarin had 
died in 1661,.Fouquet was condemned to per- 
petual imprisonment after being compelled to 
disgorge his ill-gotten gains and when the king 
was asked who was to be referred to on mat- 
ters of public business he astonished his cour- 
tiers by saying “Myself.” And indeed he 
reigned as absolute monarch to the end of his 
days. He appointed Colbert to take charge of 
the public exchequer, and the consequence was 
a multitude of needed reforms.. He had forced 
the court of Spain as well as Pope Alexander 
VII to submit to his personal dictation and 
make ample reparation for the wrongs suffered 
by French ambassadors at the hands of Span- 
iards and Italians in foreign capitals; the king 
of England was his pensioner. All Europe was 
impressed by his bold self-assertion, and his 
well-known saying “L’état cCest moi» “I am 
the state,” was felt to be literally true. 

But the greaf desire of Louis was the at- 
tainment of military glory. When a child his 
chief amusement had been to turn his play- 
mates into soldiers and engage in a mimic war. 
After his victorious campaign in Holland, 
closed by the Treaty of Nimeguen in 1678, he 
was acknowledged to be the leading sovereign 
in Europe. He had the most numerous, the 
best drilled, the best equipped army. in the 
world. His diplomacy had triumphed in every 
court, and the French nation led Europe in 


675 


art, science and letters, while trade and indus- 
try were amazingly flourishing; and he success- 
fully established the liberties: of the Gallican: 
Church (1682). Louis shone among his min- 
isters, generals and literary courtiers as the 
sun among the stars, an ideal king, a paragon 
of learning, strength and wisdom. At Ver- 
sailles he built himself a palace. at a cost of 
150,000,000 francs. Here the splendor of his 
surroundings was the envy and admiration of 
all other monarchs. But his wisdom and polit- 
ical sagacity were much criticised when in 
1685, under the influence of Madame de Main- 
tenon, he revoked the Edict of Nantes by 
which the policy of Henry IV had made cer- 
tain indulgences to Calvinists of France. By 
unsheathing the sword of religious persecution 
he drove away many citizens whose industrial 
skill and steady lives formed one of the sta- 
blest and most precious elements in French 
national life. Soon after this half of Europe 
formed a league against France. Holland, 
Germany and Spain joined their forces in an 
attempt to humble the overweening arrogance 
of a monarchy whose greatness was a menace 
to each of them. In 1688 the Dauphin took 
Philipsburg on the Rhine, but was forced to 
evacuate and retreat before the overwhelming 
forces of the allies. The war continued with 
varied fortunes until the Peace of Ryswick, 
1697. The death of Charles II of Spain, the 
last of the house of Hapsburg (1700), brought 
on the war of the Spanish Succession. He left 
his crown to Philip of France, Duke of Anjou, 
who assumed the title of Philip V, but his claim 
was disputed by the Archduke Charles, who 
had the support of the emperor, as well as of 
Holland and England. In 1704 Prince Eugene 
and Marlborough routed the French forces at 
Blenheim, Barcelona surrendered to the Arch- 
duke Charles, Marlborough won the battle of 
Ramillies in 1706, and in 1708 that of Oude- 
narde. The fatal defeat of Malplaquet the fol- 
lowing year decided the struggle in favor of 
the allies and the Peace of Utrecht (1713) 
completed the humiliation of ‘France and added 
to the power and ascendancy of England. The 
treaty inflicted a heavy blow on French power 
in America, as under it Newfoundland, Acadia 
and Hudson Bay were ceded to England. 
France was, however, saved from dismember- 
ment, mainly through the boldness and vigor of 
Louis and his counsellors, and the principal 
foreign conquests of the king were not for- 
feited. For the two remaining years of his 
reign the country enjoyed tranquillity. Louis 
in his declining years expressed regret for the 
distress: he had brought on his well-loved coun- 
try by his love of foreign conquest and war- 
like glory. His unworthy private life had some 
part in rousing the remorse which tortured his 
last days, and caused him to show that. spirit 
of piety and devotion which Lesage ridiculed 
as hypocrisy. His mistresses, La _ Valliére, 
Montespan, Fontanges and others had made his 
court a by-word of scandal. Madame de Main- 
tenon, who was married to him a year after 
the death of his queen, Maria Theresa (1683), 
was influential in rousing his sense of past 
licentiousness. In this she was aided by the 
eloquence of Bossuet. 

The reign of Louis le Grand was made bril- 
liant by the great soldiers, sailors, literary men, 
artists and men of science who were his con- 


676 


temporaries. His reign has indeed been aptly 
styled the Augustan or golden age of France. 
Among his sea commanders were Chateau-Re- 
nand, Duquesne and Tourville; Vauban was 
his military engineer; Perault, Mansart and 
Blondel architects; among his painters were 
Claude Lorraine, Poussin and Lebrun; among 
poets and writers of his reign were Corneille, 
Racine, Moliére; among his great preachers 
were Massillon, Bossuet and Flechier. He was 
worthy of the title of the Great Monarch for 
his strong and astute statecraft, the magnifi- 
cence of his court, his dignity and munificence, 
and he fixed for the French monarchy that 
type of absolutism which Balzac has declared 
to be in France the safest and best foundation 
on which national greatness was to be devel- 
oped. 

Consult Barine, ‘Louis XIV et La Grande 
Mademoiselle? (Paris 1905); Blennerhassett, 
‘Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon? 
(London 1910); Bourgeois, E., ‘The Century 
of Louis XIV? (Eng. trans. by Hoey, ib. 1895) ; 
Gérin, ‘Louis XIV et le Saint-Sieége? (Paris 
1894) ; Hassall, “Louis XIV and the Zenith of 
the French Monarchy? (New York 1895); 
Lavissé, ‘Histoire de France? (Vol. VIII, 
Paris 1906) ; Ormesson, ‘De l’administration de 
Louis XIV? (ib. 1850) ; Pardoe, J., “Louis XIV 
and the Court of France in the 17th Century’ 
(3 vols., London 1886); Philippson, ‘Das 
Zeitalter Ludwigs des Vierzehnten? (Berlin 
1879) ; Voltaire, ‘Siecle de Louis XIV? (Eng. 
trans., ed. Masson and Prothero, 3 vols., Cam- 
bridge 1882-1912); and ‘Cambridge Modern 
History? (Vol. V, Cambridge 1908). An an- 
notated edition of his letters and other docu- 
metas was published at Paris in six volumes in 
1806. 


LOUIS XV, king of France: b. Versailles, 
France, 15 Feb. 1710; d. there, 10 May 1774. 
He was the great-grandson and successor of 
Louis XIV, and coming to the throne when 
only five years old, Philip, Duke of Orleans, 
was made regent. Louis was declared of age 
in 1723 and married Marie Leczinska, daughter 
of the king of Poland. The Duke of Orleans 
died that year and was succeeded as Prime 
Minister by the Duke of Bourbon, who was 
removed in 1725 to make way for Cardinal 
Fleury, who died in 1743. After the cardinal’s 
death the king’s mistresses, Pompadour and Du 
Barry, controlled the election of the prime min- 
ister and other officers. In 1741 France be- 
came entangled in the war of the Austrian 
Succession against Austria, which was ended 
by the Treaty of Aix-latChapelle.in 1748. In 
1756 she was involved in the Seven Years’ War, 
in which Austria was the ally of France. This 
was ended by the Peace of Paris in 1763. By 
this treaty Louisiana and Canada, as well as 
her Indian possessions, were lost to France. 
In 1764 the Jesuit order was suppressed. The 
kingdom was left impoverished at the death 
of Louis, partly by war and partly through the 
enormous sums squandered upon the royal mis- 


tresses. Consult Broglie, ‘Le secret duroi? 
(Paris 1878); Carré, H., ‘La France sous 
Louis XV? (Paris 1891); De Tocqueville, 


‘Histoire philosophique du régne de Louis 
XV (Paris 1846); Fleury, ‘Louis XV intime 
et les petites maitresses? (Paris 1909); Gon- 
court, ‘Le maitresses de Louis XV? (ib. 1860) ; 


LOUIS XV — 


LOUIS XVI — 


Haggard, ‘The Real Louis XV? (2 vols., Lon- 
don 1906); Pajot, ‘Les guerres sous Louis 
XV? (Paris 1881-92); Cambridge, ‘Modern 
History? (Vol. VI, Cambridge 1908). 


LOUIS XVI, king of France: b. Ver- 
sailles, 23 Aug. 1754; d. Paris, 21 Jan. 1793. He 
was the third son of Louis and of Marie 
Josepha, daughter of Frederic Augustus, king 
of Poland and Elector of Saxony. During the 
lifetime of Louis XV he bore the title of Duke 
of Berri. Amid the corruptions of the French 
court he kept aloof from ‘licentiousness, was 
reserved and taciturn, and took most delight 
in practising some mechanical art, such as lock- 
making or printing. In 1770 he married Marie 
Antoinette, archduchess of Austria, and four 
years later became king by the death of his 
grandfather. He began his reign with many 
popular measures tending to alleviate the finan- 
cial distress under which the country labored, 
and his appointment of Turgot (1775) as Min- 
ister of Finance, gave general satisfaction. The 
people were moreover pleased to see the par- 
liaments again convened (1774), and the king 
set an example of national economy and re- 
trenchment by the simplicity of his personal 
life, and the reduction of his retinue. The 
war of the American Revolution had sent 
Franklin and Deane to Paris to ask help for 
the young republic. Louis XVI was weak 
enough to take sides with the English colonists 
against their mother country, and the French 
and English war cost France an amount of 
treasure that almost plunged her into bank- 
ruptcy. At the same time French enthusiasm, 
roused in favor of republicanism, caused a feel- 
ing to prevail which threatened to endanger the 
stability of the monarchy. Necker, who had 
become Controller-General in 1776, by his at- 
tempts at reform and economy in order that 
the privileged orders should bear their share 
of taxation, so offended the nobility that he 
was compelled to resign (1781) and was suc- 
ceeded by the reckless and wasteful Calonne. 
The queen was meanwhile very unpopular, and 
the affair of the “Diamond Necklace” in 1785 
(q.v.) was made to aggravate public disaffec- 
tion toward the throne. The notables met in 
1787, but rejected a measure for universal tax- 
ation which would comprise the notables and 
clergy of the realm. Calonne, the finance min- 
ister, resigned, bankruptcy menaced the nation 
and Necker was recalled (1778), and suggested 
the convening of the States-General. The 
assembly met amid great popular excitement in 
May 1789, at Versailles; a series of reforms in 
public expenditure was begun, and the country 
was filled with enthusiasm. Necker sought to 
reproduce on French soil the limited monarchy 
of Great Britain. Louis proposed concessions, 
which were coldly greeted, and when he dis- 
solved the assembly, Mirabeau, who sat in the 
Third Estate, defied the royal power, and re- 
fused, in the name of the people, to obey the 
mandate of dissolution. So great meanwhile 
was the excitement and anxiety which reigned 
in Paris that a national guard was formed with 
Lafayette for a commander. The king vacil- 
lated, dismissed Necker, surrounded Paris with 
his army and the people rose in a burst of 
frenzy and sacked the Bastile. The king or- 
dered the approach of the troops on Paris, but 
to conciliate the people appeared at Hotel de 


LOUIS XVII— LOUIS XVIII 


Ville wearing the tricolor. Meanwhile . the 
princes of the blood and the nobles were leav- 
ing the country, Necker was recalled, and the 
king returned to Versailles, but on 5 October 
the mob- took possession of the royal palace 
there, and compelled the king and the royal 
family to return with them to Paris, where 
they were kept strictly guarded in the Tuileries, 
There they were confined as prisoners till the 
following year (1790). Necker had fled to 
Switzerland; Mirabeau, the one hope of the 
monarchy, had died. The king made an at- 
tempt to visit Saint Cloud (1791) but was pre- 
vented by the mob. He then escaped unnoticed 
from the Tuileries, but was stopped at Va- 
rennes, 150 miles from Paris. The invasion of 
France by the Prussians and Austrians roused 
the Parisians to fury. They stormed the Tui- 
leries and massacred the Swiss guard; the royal 
family were imprisoned in the ancient fortress 
known as the Temple. The national conven- 
tion met on 20 September; in December they 
brought the king to trial on a charge of con- 
spiring to overthrow the constitution and re- 
store the ancient order of things. He was 
condemned to death by an absolute majority 
of one vote in a house that contained 749 mem- 
bers (5 Jan. 1793) and was guillotined. A 
feeble but well-meaning ruler, he suffered for 
the sins of his house. His elder son had died 
in 1789; his younger son (Louis XVII) became 
the Dauphin, and his daughter was known as 
the Duchess of Angouléme. Consult Beau- 
court, ‘Captivité et derniers momento de Louis 
XVPD (Paris 1892) ; Bouvet, ‘Histoire de Louis 
XVP (ib. 1825); Courian, ‘Louis XVI et la 
Révolution® (ib. 1893) ; Haggard, At Cabs 
‘Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (London 
1909); Jobez, ‘La France sous Louis XVI 
(Paris 1877-93) ; Lavissé, ‘Histoire de France? 
(Vol. IX, ib. 1910) : Saint- Amand, ‘Marie An- 
toinette and the Downfall of Royalty? (Eng. 
trans. by E. G. Martin, New York 1898). 


LOUIS XVII, titular king of France: 
b. Versailles, 27 March 1785; d. Paris, 8 June 
1795. He was the second son of Louis XVI and 
Marie Antoinette; was at first styled Duc de 
Normandie; and after the death of his elder 
brother, in 1789, became heir to the throne. 
With his relatives, in 1792, he was imprisoned 
in the Temple; after his father’s death in the 
following year was styled king by the Royal- 
ists; but being given into the keeping of a 
shoemaker named Simon, in derision called 
his tutor, was subjected to brutal treatment, 
from which he died. The fact of his death 
was denied by certain impostors, whose claims 
to his name and to the throne found some sup- 
porters, was discredited by many, and there 
was no lack of claimants to the title, there being 
in all some 40 persons who claimed to be the 
legitimist king. The chief among these was 
the so-called Comte de Richemont, whose real 
name was Francois Hébert, a native of the 
Rouen district, and who first claimed in 1828; 
and the Potsdam watchmaker, Karl Wilhelm 
Naundorff (d. 1845), who certainly bore a 
striking resemblance to the Bourbon family, 
resided in France for three years, and was 
banished in 1836, and whose children raised 
actions in 1851 and 1874 to vindicate their 
claims. About the middle of the 19th century, 
Eleazar Williams (q.v.), a half-breed Indian 


677 


missionary, born in the State of New York, 
was led to believe that he was the lost Dauphin, 
he and his friends declaring that he had been 
delivered from prison and while still very 
young brought to this country. He died in 
1858. Although Williams made little attempt 
to enforce his own claim, others argued it, 
and a book was written in its support. But 
nothing in the nature of historical proof has 
been established to cast doubt on the actual 
death of the Dauphin as above related. ‘Con- 
sult Bourgeois, A., ‘Etude historique sur Louis. 
XVID (Paris 1905); Bilau, “Geheime Ge- 
schichten undratselhafte Menschen? (Vol. II, 2d 
ed., Leipzig 1863); Chantelauze, ‘Louis XVII, 
son enfance, sa prison, et sa mort au Temple? 
(Paris 1895); Evans, ‘The Story of Louis 
XVII’ of France?- (London 1893); Hanson, 
“The Lost Prince?’ (New York 1854); and J. 
Sanford Saltus’ ‘Bibliography of Louis XVIP 
(New York 1908). 


LOUIS XVIII, “Stanislaus Xavier (given 
the title of Le Desir&, by the Chamber of 
Deputies), king of France: b. Versailles, 
France, 17 Nov. 1755; d. Paris, 16 Sept. 1824. 
As the younger brother of Louis XVI he was 
designated Monsieur, his rank in the nobility 
being Count of Provence. He early showed 
himself a political marplot, a hinderer of re- 
form and one of the great obstacles to his 
brother’s success in handling the difficulties of 
the revolutionary movement. When the king 
escaped from the guards of the Tuileries 
(1791), Monsieur was by his side, and while 
Louis XVI was seized and taken back to con- 
finement, escaped to the frontier. With his 
brother, ‘the Count d’Artois, he held court for 
some time at Coblenz, where he issued animad- 
versions on the revolutionists in France, and 
seriously complicated the difficulties of the roy- 
alist cause by his want of temper and judg- 
ment. When the Duke of Brunswick invaded 
France, Monsieur and the Count d’Artois 
joined his forces and shared his disasters. On 
the death of Louis XVI (1793) the Count of 
Provence declared his nephew king, and when 
Louis XVII died (1795) he took the title of 
king of France. He wandered from court to 
court of Europe, and finally settled in England 
(1807), where he remained until the fall of 
Napoleon. At last he crossed the Channel and 
entered Paris (3 May 1814) after an absence 
of 23 years. 

His reign was inaugurated with the bitter 
retaliatory measures of the White Terror 
(q.v.). When Napoleon made his escape from 
Elba and arrived at Paris (1 March 1815) the 
unpopularity of the Bourbon restoration was 
proved by the enthusiasm and devotion of those 
who flocked to his standard. The king fled 
from Paris, but, after the battle of Waterloo, 
was once more restored, entered the capital 
under the protection of victorious Wellington, 
and appointed a new ministry with Talleyrand 
at the head of it. Louis proceeded to disband 
the army, to exclude from the general amnesty 
those who came under the head of “rebels,” 
those who had voted for the death of Louis 
XVI and were consequently “regicides,”» and 
those who had received rank and honors from 
Napoleon in 1815. The rest of his reign was 
satisfactory neither to Blues nor Reds, and the 
real stay of the country was the Duc de Riche- 


678 


lieu, the successor of Talleyrand. In accord- 
ance with the policy of the Holy Alliance the 
despotic Ferdinand VII was re-established on 
the Spanish throne by a French army (1823)! 
and the last year of the king’s life was spent in 
disease, followed by paralysis, which carried 
off a feeble and illiberal monarch whose only 
work in life had been to prove that political 
disquiet in France had not been and was not 
to be allayed by the restoration of the Bour- 
bons. Consult Daudet, E., ‘La terreur blanche? 
(Paris 1878); and ‘Histoire de la’ restauration, 
1814-30? (ib. 1882); Dulaure and Anguis, 
‘Histoire de la révolution depvuis 1814 jusqu’a 
1830? (1834-38); Hall, J. R. ‘The Bourbon 
Restoration? (Boston 1909); Romberg and 
Malet, ‘Louis XVIII et les cent-jours a Gand? 
(Paris 1898); Saint-Amand, ‘The Duchess of 
Angouléme and the Two Restorations? (trans. 
by J. Davis, New York 1902); Viel Castel, 
‘Histoire de la Restauration? (Paris 1860 et 
seq. ). 

LOUIS PHILIPPE, fé-lép, king of the 
French: b. Paris, 6 Oct. 1773; d. Claremont, 
near Windsor, England, 26 Aug. 1850. He was 
the éldest son of Duke Louis Philippe Joseph 
of Orleans, afterward surnamed Fgalité, and of 
the Princess Louise Marie Adelaide of Pen- 
thiévre. In infancy he held the title of Duke 
of Valois, and in 1785 that of Duke of Chartres. 
In 1782 his father entrusted the education of 
Louis Philippe and his other children to Ma- 
dame de Genlis. Having entered the national 
guard in 1790, he became a member of the 
Jacobin Club. In May 1792 he commanded a 
brigade of cavalry in Luckner’s army, rose 
under Kellerman in September to be lieutenant- 
general and did good service in the famous 
cannonade at Valmy. He next joined the 
army of Dumouriez, and took part in the 
victory of Jamappes. Dumouriez had formed 
a scheme for placing him on the throne as a 
constitutional monarch, and being included in 
the order of arrest directed against Dumouriez, 
in April 1793 he took refuge within Austrian 
territory. After many wanderings he procured 
the situation of teacher of geography and 
mathematics in the school of Reichenau, near 
Coire, where, during eight months, he passed 
under the name of Chabaud-Latour. In 1796 
Louis Philippe, since his father’s death Duke 
of Orleans, arrived in America, where, in the 
following year, he was joined by his two 
younger brothers. The three princes traveled 
in the United States, and at last took ship for 
England, where they landed in 1800. The 
brothers lived about seven years at Twicken- 
ham, near London. After the news of Na- 
poleon’s downfall the Duke of Orleans set out 
for Paris, where he was received by Louis 
XVIII, not without distrust and in 1814 ap- 
pointed colonel of hussars. On the news of 
Napoleon’s return he set out for I.yons to 
assist the operations of the Count d’Artois. 
After an unsuccessful attempt to hold the 
northern departments for the Bourbons, he left 
Lille and set out for England to join his 
family, who had preceded him. He returned in 
July 1815 and obtained the removal of the 
sequestration of his domains, which had been 
imposed by the imperial government. The 
estrangement of Louis XVII from him was, 
however, increased, and he withdrew in October 


LOUIS PHILIPPE — LOUISBURG 


1815 to England, but returned to Paris in the 
following year. After the coronation of 
Charles X his relations with the court became 
more friendly. During the bloody days of 
27, 28 and 29 July, the court had entirely for- 
gotten him. Nor during the struggle was his 
name mentioned in. Paris. On the 29th the 
provisional chamber, on Laffitte’s suggestion, 
resolved to offer him the regency as lieutenant- 
general of the kingdom. In a sitting of the 
chamber on 9 August he swore to the reform 
charter, and ascended the throne as king of the 
French. Being hated by the extreme Demo- 
crats, frequent attempts were made on his life; 
but during this period France made vast prog- 
ress in industry and wealth, and the durability 
of the July throne seemed to be thereby con- 
solidated. But his selfish policy had estranged 
the European courts, and a loud demand for a 
change in the electoral system being foolishly 
cpposed by the king and the Guizot Ministry, his 
position in France became extremely precarious. 
On 22 Feb. 1848 an insurrection began in the 
streets of Paris. Next day Guizot gave in his 
resignation; but the insurrection gained in 
extent and intensity, and neither the command 
given to the troops on the morning of the 
24th to stop firing, nor the abdication of the 
king a few hours after in favor of his grand- 
son, the Count of Paris, sufficed to allay the 
storm. Louis Philippe, completely disheartened, 
unsupported by any administration, and for- 
saken even by the courtiers, about midnight of 
24 February quitted the Tuileries with his 
family, and fled from Paris, and on 3 March 
1848 took up his residence in England, which he 
never again left. Consult ‘Mon Journal 
événements de 1815>; (Paris 1849); Arnaud, 
R., ‘Louis Philippe and his Sister? (London 
1908); Blanc, Louis, ‘Histoire de dix ans 
1830-40? (Paris 1841-44) ;. Lemoine, ‘Abdica- 
tion du roi Louis Philippe? (ib. 1851) ; Dumas, 
A. (1852); Nouvion (1861) ; Villault de Gerain- 
ville (1870-76); Sternberg, ‘The Secret of 
Louis Philippe? (New York 1914); Weill, G, 
‘La France ‘sous la monarchié du Juillet? 
(Paris 1902); and ‘Cambridge Modern His- 
tory? (Vol. X, Cambridge 1907). 


LOUIS D’OR, loo’é dor (Fr. “golden 
Louis”), a gold coin formerly current in France. 
It was first struck in consequence of an edict of 
Louis XIII, dated 31 March 1640. It was 22 
carats fine, and originally was worth 10 livres of 
the period (equal to 21 francs 33 centimes). 
Afterward it ranged in value from about $4 to 
$4.60. In 1810 the louis d’or was replaced by 
the napoleon of 20 francs. In some parts of 
Germany the five-thaler gold piece was popu- 
larly known as the louis dor. 


LOUISA, loo-é’za, queen of Prussia. See 
LuIsE, AUGUSTE WILHEMINE AMALIE, QUEEN 
OF PRUSSIA. 


LOUISBURG, loo’is-berg or 1loo’é-berg, 
town of Cape Breton Island in the province of 
Nova Scotia; on the coast at the entrance to 
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The earliest men- 
tion of English Harbor, later called Louisburg, 
is found on Champlain’s map of 1612 and was, 
in his time, the resort of fishermen mainly from 
England. It was ‘not until 1713 that Louisburg 
came into prominence by the removal to it of 
the French officers and inhabitants from Acadia 


LOUISE — LOUISIANA 


and Newfoundland, then ceded to England 
under the Treaty of Utrecht. The city is 
chiefly noted for the historical events which 
transpired in and around it and for the ruins 
of the fortifications. These fortifications were 
commenced in 1720 and completed about the 
year 1744 at a cost to the French government 
of 30,000,000 livres, equal to-day to about 
$10, 000, 000. They enclosed an area of about 
100 acres and had a _ circumference of 
2% miles. On the declaration of war in March 
1744 between France and England, Louisburg 
was the object of an attack by the expedition 
sent out by the New England colonies. This 
was composed of 3,250 men from Massachu- 
setts, 516 from Connecticut, 304 from New 
Hampshire and 150 from Rhode Island, sup- 
plemented by 14 vessels, carrying 200 guns, fitted 
out by the provinces, and by Commodore War- 
ren’s West India fleet of 10 vessels carrying 
460 guns, beside the captured Vigilante of 64 
guns. The siege, begun on 30 April 1745, 
ended in the capitulation by Governor Ducham- 
bon on 16 June. By the Treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 1748, the island of Cape Breton 
was restored to France and the fortifications at 
Louisburg were considerably strengthened, and 
a new battery erected at Point Rochefort at a 
cost of $5,000,000. In 1758, two years after war 
had been declared between France and Eng- 
land, a second expedition, consisting. of 23 
ships of the line, 18 frigates and 120 transports 
with 12,000 troops, assembled at Halifax, ar- 
rived at Louisburg on 28 June, laid siege to 
the fortress; and on 26 July it was surrendered 
to the British under the command of General 
Amherst, who had-as one of his brigadiers 
James Wolfe. Thus what has been called the 
“Keystone of the arch of French power in 
America” had been shattered, and the way was 
cleared for the culminating attack on the for- 
tress of Quebec. Shortly after the capture the 
great fortress was razed to the ground, and 
to-day only the casements or bomb-proofs re- 
main. The ruins are now being preserved, and 
a memorial tower has been erected bearing the 
names of the killed and wounded in both sieges. 

The first school in Nova Scotia is said to 
have been established at Louisburg by the 
Ladies of the Congregation in 1737: 

Louisburg is now becoming a port of con- 
siderable importance, having been established as 
the eastern terminal port of the Intercolonial 
Railway and used by the Dominion Steel Cor- 
poration as a shipping port for a large portion 
of their products. See CoLonIAL Wars IN 
AMERICA. 


LOUISE, loo-éz, an opera of Parisian life 
by Gustave Charpentier. First performed in 
Paris 1900; in New York 1908. Louise, a 
charming young dressmaker, attracts the atten- 
tion and love of a romantic young artist, Julien, 
who finally persuades her to give up her life 
of drudgery and live with him in a little home 
amid the gay and careless Bohemian circle of 
Montmartre. During a lively revel Louise’s 
mother appears and begs the girl to return 
home, as her father is ill. With an effort 
Louise tears herself away and resumes her 
former drab life. The reproaches of her 
father serve only to accentuate the memory of 
Julien’s loving kindness—and she goes back 
to the man who had given her happiness. 


679 


LOUISEVILLE, loo’éz-vil, or RIVIERE 
DU LOUP (enhaut), ré-vé-a dii loo, Canada, 
town, capital of Maskinongé County, in the 
province of Quebec, on Lake Saint Peter, an 
expansion of the Saint Lawrence River, and on 
the Canadian Pacific Railroad, about 18 miles 
west of Three Rivers. The mineral springs of 
Saint Léon in the vicinity, bring many people 
to Louiseville. The chief industries are a 
foundry, planing mill, box making and_ shirt 
factory. Pop. 1,675. 


LOUISIADE (loo-é-zé-ad) ARCHIPE- 
LAGO, in the Coral Sea, southeast of New 
Guinea; belongs, administratively, to British 
New Guinea. The largest islands of the group 
are Southeast (Sudest) Island, Saint Aignan 
and Rossel. Southeast Island is about 45 miles 
long and from 4 to 10 miles wide. Rossel and 
Saint Aignan each have an area of over 100 
square miles. They are all mountainous. Saint 
Aignan has a peak about 3,500 feet in height. 
Many of the small islands are of coral forma- 
tion; and the vegetation is varied and luxuriant. 
The islands were discovered in 1666 by Torres, 
and became British possessions in 1888. The 
majority of the inhabitants are uncivilized, and 
are of the Papuan race. 


LOUISIANA, one of the United States, 
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, one of 
the most important of the Southern States. 
The name “Louisiana” was first applied by La 
Salle in 1683 to the vast territory watered by 
the Mississippi and its tributaries, which he 
thus dedicated to King Louis XIV. It was 
admitted as a Territory 20 Dec. 1803 after the 
completion of the purchase and was the fifth 
State admitted to the Union under the Federal 
Constitution in 1812. It lies between lat. 28° 
59’ and 33° N. and long. 88° 40’ and 94° W. Its 
extreme length is 281 miles, and extreme width 
275 miles, with an area of 48,506 square miles. 
It is bounded on the north by Arkansas on 
parallel of 33° to the Mississippi and thence 
on the parallel of 31° eastward to Pearl River; 
on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, on the west 
by the Sabine River and a line drawn from it 
directly north to meet the 33° parallel. Within 
these limits are included 45,409 square miles of 
land and 3,047 of water, 637 in rivers and 3,370 
in lakes. The State is divided into 64 parishes 
gradually created from the five original divi- 
sions under French and Spanish domination. 

Rivers and Lakes.— The Mississippi River 
in its devious course splits Louisiana in twain 
with 37,000 square miles on the western bank. 
With but rare interruptions the river flows 
through alluvial soils of low elevation requir- 
ing the protection of levees. The coast line of 
the delta and eastward consists of lands little 
above sea-level intersected by small tracts of 
elevated prairies and low ridges covered with 
live oak. Northwestward the land rises until 
in North Louisiana the hills attain the height of 
500 feet. Both on the Mississippi and the other 
river valleys, the highest land is formed by 
the banks themselves, from which the land 
slopes away gradually to the marshes. To pro- 
tect these low-lyirig lands there have been built 
at vast expense some 1,500 miles of levees of 
great strength. These, however, give way Oc- 
casionally before the mass of waters brought 
down by the Mississippi in flood, and great dam- 
age results. (See LEVEE). The drainage sys- 


680 


tem of the State is toward the Gulf and mainly 
through the Mississippi and its tributaries, the 
Red River and the Ouachita. On the east Pearl 
River and on the west the Calcasieu River and 
the Sabine, which divides Louisiana from 
Texas—each drain small districts. The Red 
River formerly flowed directly to the Gulf of 
Mexico. Its old channel is now filled by the 
Atchafalaya, which has increased so rapidly of 
late years as to give rise to fears of its becom- 
ing the main channel of the Mississippi. The 
lakes of Louisiana are of two kinds. Those 
on the coast are shallow estuaries enclosed 
- within the delta, of which the greatest are lakes 
Pontchartrain and Maurepas. At the entrance 
to the former is Lake Borgne. A second class 
is formed by the curved sections of the river 
which are cut off and silted up as in the smaller 
rivers by the action of accumulated débris and 
rafts of driftwood such as are found above 
Shreveport. These are rapidly disappearing 
through the removal of the obstructions, and 
the lands are being reclaimed. 

Of the 29,061,760 acres of land in the State 
only 5,626,226 are in cultivation. Nearly the en- 
tire upland is covered by strata of drift or red 
sandy clays. One thousand nine hundred 
square miles are alluvial. The soil next the 
river is the lightest; the surface of the back- 
lands consists of a peculiarly friable soil known 
as buckshot to such a depth as to permit of the 
deepest cultivation and with a high absorptive 
power which secures crops against drought. 
South of the Red River the soils are less varied 
in character, but all are rich in the essential 
elements of plant food and require only drain- 
age and good culture to produce excellent crops. 
The land is distributed as follows: Alluvial 
lands, 13,225 square miles; bluff prairies, 5,739 
square miles; oak uplands, 8,103 square miles; 
long-leaf pine hills, 7,582 square miles; long- 
leaf pine flats, 2,556 square miles; central prai- 
ries, 785 square miles; coast marshes, 7,420 
square miles. 

Geology and Mineralogy.—The entire State 
is part of the Mississippi deposit on the bottom 
of an ancient gulf whose shore touched Cairo, 
Ill. Its oldest sediments were Cretaceous, now 
covered except in a few small spots in. the north- 
west. The upland region west of the northern 
course of the Calcasieu, and of the Ouachita, is 
a mass of horizontal Tertiary beds, clays. and 
clay sandstones. The entire alluvial region and 
coast swamps, besides much bordering prairie, 
is Quarternary. Such formations could hardly 
be rich in minerals, and though some iron ore 
and low-grade brown coal are found in the 
Tertiary districts, the only important minerals 
are rock salt, sulphur and petroleum. The salt 
is found in the chain of isolated hills known as 
islands, commencing with Petite Anse on the 
Gulf and extending to New Iberia. The first 
workings were at Avery’s Island; two other 
mines have been opened and the output has 
been increased to over 300,000 tons annually. The 
development of the oil and gas industries has 
been very large. From the nine fields were pro- 
duced in 1922 34,171,000 barrels. Several other 
localities show indications of great promise. 
The production of natural gas from seven fields 
was over 58,000,000,000 cubic feet. The amount 
of sulphur produced from the mines at Cal- 
casieu was, in 1915, 379,885 tons. 

Climate and Rainfall.— Louisiana, ranging 


LOUISIANA 


from the parallel of lat. 33° to 29° N. is semi- 
tropical in climate and products. The summer 
heat reaches 105 and averages 85 for the hottest 
month; it does not reach zero south of Shreve- 
port, and the coldest month ranges on an aver- 
age from 45° to 60°, according to location. The 
gulf vapors make it very equable, the prevail- 
ing winds being south and southwest — that is, 
from the ocean. There are only three months 
of frost in the year, the beginning varying from 
the lst of November to the lst of December. 
The rainfall varies from an average of 60 
inches a year in the southeastern part, to 50 in 
the northern. This abundant moisture and the 
steady warmth cover the State with luxuriant 
tropical growths, and the magnificent profusion 
and beauty of its flowers are famous. The mag- 
rolia is most familiar as a specially Southern 
product, but the roses, jasmines, oleanders, 
camellias, etc., are notably beautiful. The 
orange, fig and most other semi-tropical fruits 
will flourish here. 

Fauna. The only large quadrupeds sur- 
viving are black bears and a few catamounts in 
the less accessible forests and swamps. Many 
deer are found during the winter. The wild- 
cat is not uncommon, and the raccoon and 
opossum are familiar. The alligator is com- 
mon to all bayous and ponds. Bird-life is 
plentiful; it comprises eagles and vultures, peli- 
cans and cranes, besides wild turkeys, geese 
and ducks. Under the working of the Con- 
servation Commission created in 1916 the fauna 
of the State are fully protected and exact sta- 
tistics are compiled showing the value pro- 
duced. Deer have largely increased in number. 
In 1917, 185,614 ducks were marketed, a de- 
crease from the number of preceding years. 
The yield of fur-bearing animals, of which 
5,002,840 were killed in 1912, fell to 1,813,190 
in 1917. The alligator catch is diminishing rap-. 
idly. Through the action of the Sage Fund 
the area of bird preserves is now the largest in 
the United States and many rare species have 
been saved from utter extinction which threat- 
ened them. 

Forestry.— A large proportion of the entire 
forest wealth of the State is represented by im- 
mense areas of long and short leaf pine. It is 
estimated that the standing timber in 1918 was 
91,000,000,000 feet. of pine, cypress and hard- 
wood. The present rate of cutting over 60,000,- 
000 annually cannot be maintained for more 
than 10 years. Fortunately the cut-over lands 
are valuable for farming purposes. The for- 
estry division of the Conservation Commission 
has done much for the protection of the for- 
ests from destructive fires and has taken steps 
toward reforestation. In lumber production 
Louisiana ranks second in the United States. 

Agriculture.—From the considerations men- 
tioned, an exceptionally fertile soil, a warm 
climate with variations from northern high- 
lands to southern coast plains, Louisiana has 
remarkable natural advantages for a great va- 
riety of products, from temperate to semi- 
tropic. Yet less than two-fifths of the soil has 
been even nominally in farms, and only one-. 
fourth improved; and of the total in 1920, 
$231,506,000 in value of farm crops, $121,854,- 
000, or over one-half, was in two money 
crops and two food crops, « ion and sugar- 
cane, corn and rice. This lack of diversifica- 
tion of crops is largely a result of the old 


Abbeville, (F7).... 3,461 
Abita Springs, (L6) oe 


eC] O) ic. ene 
Addis, (H6)...... 473 
Adeline, (G7)..... 450 
Albamarle, (H7).. 1,200 
Alberta, (D2).. 500 


Alden Bridge, (C1). 150 
Alexandria, (F4) ..17,510 


Allemands, (K7) . 400 
Altos. (G2) eo ecraae 600 
Alton (LO)e neni. 100 
Ama, (KiQ)icee acc 800 
Amelia, (H7)..... 400 
Amita, (K5)...... 1,854 
Anacoco, ee. ee eee 200 
Anchor, (HS5).. 300 
Andrew, (F6).. 100 
Angie, (E5).tos04 230 
Ansley, (E2)...... 40 

Antrim, (C1)..... 350 
Arabic (lid)enaes sles 250 
Arbroth, (H5)ee 300 
Arcadia, (F1) 1,240 
ae (IGS) 100 

GW Wowace c 1 
Pei see) 408 


Ashland, (D2). 200 
Athens, (D1) a 493 


* Atkins, (D2)...... 300 


Atlanta, (E3). 311 
Avery Islan “G2. 200 
Avoca, (H7)..... 522 200 
Ayers, (D4)...... 250 
(seins, (sy. acc 100 
Baldwin, (H7).... 964 
Bancroft, (C5).... 200 
Bannister,(D5)... 100 
Barataria, (K7)... 300 
Barham, (D4).... 250 
Basile, (E6)...... 552 
Baskin, (G2)..... 654 
Bastrop, (Gia. 2152.16 
Batchelor, (Gs). 200 
BATON ROUGE, 


ee 


(6 
Bayou Chicot, (F5). 150 
Bayou Goula, '(H6) 1,000 
Bayou Sara, (HS). 934 


‘Belair: (ie wee 600 
Belcher, (CHe 200 
Bell City, (E6).. 330 
Belle Alliance, (Ho) 700 


Belledeau, (F: Aye 150 
Belle Helene, (J6). 160 
Belle Rose, (H6) .. 500 


Benson, (C3)..... 320 
Bently, (E4)...... 200 
Benton, (C1)..... 318 
Bermuda, (E3)... 100 
Bernice, (F1)..... 662 
Berties (J) ane ere 160 
Bertrandville, aL?) 300 


Berwick, (Ha. 1,691 
Bethany, (B22. 250 
Bienville, (E2)... ae nis 
Bigcane, (G5).... 150 
Blanchard, (C1)... 200 


Boleyn, (D3)..... 35 

Bolinger, (C1) 300 
Bolivar, (K5) 100 
Bonami, (D5 300 


Bonita, (G1)...... 310 
Bordelonville, (G4) 200 


LOUISIANA 


Bowie, (Vi)ecea ee Hs 
Boyce, (E4)...... 
a Bridge, 


(G6 
Broussard, (G6)... 


Brushy. CELO)ick er 
Bryceland, (E2)... 
Buckeye, (F4) 

Bunkie, (F5 . 
Buras, (L8)..... . 
Burnside, (J6) - 
Burton jif)ccie ects 
Caden (GO)an ee ¢ 


Calhoun, (F1).... 
Cameron, (D7)... 
Campti(D3).. =a. 
Canton (ES) mea 
Carencro, (F'6).... 
Carson (D5)2e. 
Carville, (H6).... 
Caspiana, (C2) ... 
Castors (D2)h acer 
Cataro, CES) taeeere 
Cecilia, (G6).sceoe 
Cedar Grove, (C2) 
Centerville, (H7) 2 
Central, (J6)..... 
Chacahoula, (J7).. 
Chalmette, (L7)... 
Chamberlin, (H5) . 
Charenton, (G7) .. 
Chatham, (F2)... 
Chataignier, (F5).. 
Chauvin, (J8).. 
Cheneyville, (4). 
Cheniere, (F1).. 
Choudrant, (E1).. as 


Church Point,(F6). 


Cinclare. “H6).... 
Clarks, (F2) << :..< 
Clinton) 5)eeme. 
Clio™ (iG) Srcacaeee 


Cloutierville, (E3). 


Colfaxy-(E3) ss 
Collinston, (G1)... 
Columbia, (F2)... 
Convent, (J6).... 
Converse, (C3) ... 
Cooper, (D4)..... 
Cottonport, (F5).. 
porn Valley, 


ee) 


Coushatta, (D2). . 


Covington, (K6) .. 
Crawford, (G7)... 
Crescent, (H6).. 
Crowley, (E26). 
Crowville, (G2 e Se 
Cut Off, (K7).. 


Davant, ‘yidy Bie 
Dean, (Fi).. ve 
Delcambre, (F7) aA 
Delis (G2) sec 
Delta, (JZ) eens « 
Denham Springs, 
(QED servis ore cee 
Denson, (J6)..... 
De Quincy, (D6).. 
a Ridder, (D5).. 


Ta CE2 ie cet 
ReCe asee 


(H6 
Donner, (J7).. 


1,200 
1,060 


Oss (Gl)... «6c eeeLOO 
Doyie, (J5)....... 100 
Doyline, (D1). 150 
Dry Ling (E3).. 100 
Dubach, (E1).. 726 
Dubberly, (D1). 200 
Dubuisson, (F gy 250 
Dunbar, (L6):. 200 
Duson, (F6) Ah ie 192 
Dutch Town, (J6). 100 
Duby G3) eo. ac 100 
Dykesville,(D1).. 100 
Easton, (F5)..... 300 
East Point,(D2).. 100 
Echo; (P4) 20% 6.6 281 
Edgard, (J7)..... 300 
Edna, €E6).53.... 200 
Beans (BG)stac oe. 100 
Elizabeth, (E5)... 200 
Ellendale, (J7).... 100 
Elton, (E6)....... 995 


Empire, (L8)..... 270 
Biola Gii5) tee rere 400 
Pirathe(h7 ee oes 713 
ros Gi2)see.. eee 1,184 
SthersGio/) ens aee 100 
Estherwnod, (F6).. 571 
Bithel(HS)s..2 150 
Eunice, (F6)...... 3 o2ie 
Evangeline, (F6).. 400 
VaHsen(1)5))seae oe 100 


Evergreen, (F5)... 262 
Farmerville, et 632 
Ferriday, (G3). a 044 

00 


Fisher, (D4)...... 6 
Kloras (k3)teel ees i) 
Florenville, (L6) .. 100 
Florien, (D4)..... 250 
fioyawCHt) oe... 200 
Folsom, (K5)..... 100 


Fordoche, (G5)... 200 
Forest Hill, (E4).. 200 
Fort Jesup, (D3).. 100 
Koster! (Hi )ieno 100 
Franklin, (G7).. 3,504 
Franklinton, (K5). 064 


French Settlement, 

(JG) Wee cae 210 
rey (iO) ac vers 100 
Frierson, (C2). . 300 
Fullerton, (E4)... 2 412 
Fulton, (D6) ee "150 
Gansville, (2) eee LOD 
Garden City (H7)> 500 
Gardere, (H6).... 150 
Gardner, (E4).. 200 


Garyville, Qos 1,000 
Ged, (C6)........ ’80 


Geismar, (TG) tee 250 
Genesee, (K5).... | 600 
Gheens, (K7).. 500 
Gibsland, (D ive 798 

ison, (H7) aah ear 200 
Gilbert, (G2)..... 442 
Gilliam, (C1)..... 150 
Gillis; (D6) acres 100 
Girard, (G2)...... 100 
Glencoe, (G7)... 100 
Glenmora, (E5) .. 2,298 
Gloster, (C2)..... 130 


Gold Dust, (F5)... 100 
Goldonna, (E2)... 150 
Gonzales, (J6).... 150 
Good Pine, Go . 500 


Gordon, (D1).. 100 
Grace, (E3) pate 250 
Gramercy, (J6).. 300 


Grand Cane, (C2). 378 
Grand Coteau, (G6) 470 
Grand Isle, (L8)., 200 


Grappes Bluff, (D3) ae 
Garay il )c eae 

Grayson, (F2). 337 
Greensburg, aie 286 
Greenwood, (B2).. 250 
Gretna, (K7) ae 7,197 
Grosse Tete. CE 500 


Gueydan, (E7). 233 
Gulletts, (J5).. 200 
Hackberry, (7: 200 
Hackley, (K5) 250 
Hadley, (€2)). ©. i: 100 
Hahnville, (K7)... 300 
Hailes (61). 120. 
Hammond, (K5)—. 3,855 
Haraham, (K6).. 100 
Harrisonburg, (G3). 399 
Harvey, (K7).. 340 
Haughton, (D2)... 249 


Hawthorn, (D4).. 200 
Hayes, (E6) Se sae 140 
Haynesville, (D1). 903 
Head of Island, 


GJiG) essere ares 3 100 
Hecker, (D6)..... 200 
Hermitage, CHS)ie e200 
Hessmer, (F4).... 325 
Hineston, Sue Peete LOU 
Hobart, (J6).. 100 
Hodge, (B2).. 300 
Hohen Solms, (H6) 170 
Holden.(j5)ine ere. 200 
IEolvan( G2) eee 200 


Holly Ridge, (G2). 100 
Homeplace, (L8).. 180 
HomernChis) pres 3,305 
Hope, (D2)....... 200 
Hope Villa, Soe meee LOU 


Hornbeck, (D4).. 350 
Hosston, (C 1 Dy. 100 
Houltonville, (K6) * 250 
Houma, (J7) Saltias 5,160 
Howard, (D2).... 100 
Howcott, (F3).... 100 
Husser, (K5)..... 200 
Hydropolis, (F4).. 200 
da; (C1)eentese ire 400 


Independence, (K5) 1,032 
Indian Village, (H6) ne 
Tota (iG) er sraeere 802 


Trish Bend, gui 150 
Jackson, (H5).. 2,020 


Jeanerette, (Cie 25k 2 
Nena Ch 3). een 520 


0 Jennings, (E6).. 3,824 


Jesuit Bend, (K7). 350 


Jones, (G1)...see. 100 
Jonesboro, (E2).. 837 
Jonesville, (G3)... 1,029 
Juanita, (D5).. 250 
Junction City, (E1) 322 
‘Kahns, (EL). aan 225 
Kaplan, (F'6)@.. 2 876 
Keatchie, (C2).... 500 
Keithville, (C2).. 100 
Kelloggs Landing, 

CHi2) ein. aie 350 
Kellys (F3)seces > 150 
Kenner, (K6)..... 1,882 


Kentwood, (J5)... 3,059 
Kilbourne, (H1).. 150 


Kinder, (E6),.... Mie 
Kingston, (C2). 500 
Kipling, (D5).. 100 


Klotzville, (H6).. 400 
Krotz Springs, (G5) 247 
Laark Glee ae 120 


Greenwood 


Sop ———_t. P. js. 
ongvie d 
S ] NM pers Sec 
Reiso: 


Manton 


iboll Je. 
Prestridge 


o7 Pt. Bolivar 
*) Galveston| Entrance 


GALVESTON 


G as 


d’s New 8 x 11 Map of Loulsiana 


= Copyright C.S. Hammond & Co.,N.¥u = 


A 94°30’ B 


3 oOBay} 
Zwolle 
ori 


ton 
u Scie yids, 


Sa 
\ 
t. Jos 
Lorin, ] 


fe) 
2° Hawtho 
Sherwood 7 


“Winnfield Oo 


, é (Couley 


i 89°80’ ML 89° N 


LOUISIANA 


SCALE OF MILES 


0 10 20 30 40 50 60 
36 MILES TO THE INCH 


State Capital @) County Seatse 


Quitman 
[N%,. 


| 
| 
| 
= | 
| 
! 
! 
| 


Pi 


cd 
es 
\ 


if a, e} 
Monticello 3B, 
30 


/Pase Manchae 


—— 


“HORN I petit Bois 1. 


a “DD ; i 
TV ye 


CHANDELEUR- 


| 
ii 


pu Sound oy 
== Bes 8 


ISLANDS 


* | BRETON SOUND 
LE —partuevorne _North Pt, 
———— 


Bird I. Sas = ———— 
—raptineg SS = 
carga Pest, oi PO ME X I CO} 
Wire = — 

ZAEEPS No) th Hast Pass 
C= 
TBE -MISSISSIPPE——— 


: Upptie Nes : oct Nast Pose = 


== == ~Q. A 7¥ 
__ Caillou| Bay \ > fe 
Raccoon Pt, — SS 
—DERNIERE|!, 


80’ from FX Greenw. 91° Cy; rns Oy : | 


LOUISIANA - Cont’d. 


Labadieville, (H7). 500 Mer Rouge, (G1).. 656 Pleasant Hill,(C3). 554 Sondheimer, (Hi) 300 


Lacombe, (K6)... _ 400 Merryville, Say 2,963 Point ala Hache,(L7)500 Sorrento, (J6) . 500 
Lafayette, (F6)... 7,855 Midland, (E6).. 200 Point Pleasant, (H2) 130 South Highlands, 
Lafourche Crossing, . Millikin, (H1).. 300° Pollock). (4) i cae (C2) 55 Se 612 
CUT) Re eects 400 Milton, (F 6).. 200 Ponchatoula, (K6) 955 South Mansfield, 
Lake Arthur, (E6) 1,882 Minden, (Di). 6,105 Port Allen, (H6).. 920 (C2) cee ee 441 
Lake Charles, (D6)13,088 Mira, (C1) Smrcee 150 Port Barre, (G5).. 588 Spearsville, ee 1202 
Lake End, (D3)... 100 Moberly, (K7).... 350 Port Barrow, (J6). 500° Springfield, (J6).. 250 
Lakeland, (H5)... 100 Mboeling, (E5).... 125 Port Eads, (M8).. 200 Springhill, (D1).. 748 
Lake Providence, Monroe, (F1).....12,675 Port Hudson, (H5) 350 Springville, J 6)... 100 
CED) ee eevee epee Montegut, (K8).... 150 Port Vincent, (J6) 200 Stables, (D4)..... 350 
Lakeside, (E6).. 230 Montgomery, (E3) 224 Potash, (L8)...... 320° Standard, (F3) 500 
Lamourie, (F ay 150 Montpelier, (J5).. 300 Powhatan, (D3).. 200 Sterlington, (F1).. 400 
Laplace, (K6). ... 320 Montrose, (D3)... 250 Prairieville, (J6).. 200 Stevenson, (G1)... 100 
L’Argent, (H3)... 200 Mbooringsport,(B1) 992 Pride, (J5)....... 150 Stonewall, (C2)... 150 
Larose, (K7)..... 190 Moreauville, (G4). 867 Provencal, (D3).. 262 Stonypoint, (J5).. 100 
Lauderdale, (J6).. 250 Morgan City, (H7) 5,429 Quitman, (E2).... 177 Strader, (K6)..... 200 
Laura. (Heer 200 Morganza, (G5)...- 332 WRaccourci, (G5)... © 100 Strange; (E3)....: 150 
Lawrence, (L7)... 150 Morley, (H6)..... 400 Raceland, (J7).... 700 Sulphur, (D6).... 1,714 
Lecompte,'(F4).°.. 1,034 Morrow, (F5)..... 283 Ragley, (D5)..... 300 Summerfield, (E1) 100 
Leesville, (D4).... 2,518 Morse, (F6)...... 482 Ramos, (H7)... 250 SUT Clo) eee 250 
Lenzburg, (D2)... 300 Mossville, rE 200 Ramsay, CKS)E 139 Sunrise, (GEIS) Saet 100 
Leonville, (G6)... 325 Mound, (H2).. 100 Randolph, (E1).. 500 Sunset, (CEG). 433 
Lettsworth, (G5).. 400 Mt. Airy, (J6).. 150 Rayne, (F6)...... - 2,120 Sycamore, (E4).:. 200 
Lewiston, (K5)... 100 Mt. Herman, (K6) 150 Rayville, (G1).. 1,499 Tatty (Rachie 200 
Libertyhill, (E2).. 150 Mt. Lebanon, (D2) 250 Reddell, (F5)..... 100 Tallulah, CH )ie 1,316 
Lillie, (1) 25.235 = 150 eeViyrtis. (Bd) pacer 250 Reeves, (D5) ARES, 243 Tangipahoa, (K5). "252 
Lions CO) hea ZOO meINalrzs 7S) sere 300 Reserve, (J6)..... 400 Thibodaux, abe 3,526 
Lisbon, (E1)...... 100 Naomi, (K7);..... °220° Riceville; (E6)2.. 2 7150 Thomastown, (J2) 120 
Livingston, GS). .. 450 Naples, (G4).. 250 Ringgold, (D2)... 335 Tickfaw, (J5).. ten. 200 
Livonia, (G5)..... 300 Napoleonville, (H7) 74a RIO (155) eeetererete 265 ‘Timberton, (J6)... 400 
Lobdell, (H6)..... 500 Natalbany, (K5). 150 Roanoke, (E@)2 oe 200 = iiogas (F4) per 585 
Lockport (KT) .. 803 Natchitoches, (D3) 3,388 Robeline, (D3).. 495° Portas, (G5) .e 500 
Logansport, (C3) 7 8052 = Neamie. (D5)nee "500 Rochelle, (F3).. 400 Tremont, (F1).... 500 
Logtown, (F2).... 200 Nero, (L7) Sales eet 150 Rodessa, (B1).. 100 “Trenton; (C3) on 1-00 
Lonepine, (F5).... 130 Newellton, (H3).. 541 Rogillioville, (HS) LOO ei Crout. (F3)eee ee 500 
Longbridge, (F4).. 500 New Iberia, (G6). .6,278 Roosevelt, (H1).. 100 Lullos (ES) eee 100 
Longleaf, (E5).... 500 Newlin, (D5)...... 200 Rosedale, (G6) ... 400 Turkey Creek, (F5) 100 
Longstreet, (B2).. 146 New Orleans, Roseland, (K5)... 603 Tyne, (D3)....... 100 
Longville, (D5)... 900 (Lyte 4 oe 387,219 ~Rosepine, (D5)-3... 9325: Union WiG6) 2-0) 
Longwood, (H1).. 250 New Roads, (H5).. 1,294 Routon, (F3)..... 150 Urania, (F3)..... 250 
Loreauville, (G6).. 439 New Verda, (E3).. 182 Ruddock, (K6)... 900 Vacherie, (J7). 250 
Loring, (C3) Pants 450° SNicholls)\Gi8)..0. 6.250 Ruston; (a2) ane 3,389 Varnado, (Libite 275 
Loulsas(Go)) atic. 175. Noble; (C3)e- sa 316 Rustville, (D4). 250 Venice, (M8) gee 350 
Lottie; (G5) 2 iscnic 100 Norwood, (H5)... 150 Saint Amant, (J6). 150) Verda. *(E3) eens 150 
Lucy, ai O) ie 100 Oakdale, (EDS 4,016 Saint Amelia, Chem 250.6 Vernon (i 2)neteres 100 
Ludington, (DS)... 300 Oak Grove, (H1).. "700 Saint Bernard, (L7) 500 Victoria, pes) 350 
Luling, (K7).. 350 Oak Ridge, (G1).. 318 Saint Francisville, Vidalia, (H3).. * 1,246 
Lutcher, (J6)..... ; 1,700 Oberlin, (E5)..... 623 (HS) Ree ce 67435). Vienna, (Et) ee 400 
McCall, (H6)..... 700 Oil City, (C1).... 900 Saint Gabriel, (H6) 500 Ville Platte, (F5) 1,364 
McDonoghville, Olivier, (G7)...... 100 Saint James, (J7). 350 Vinton, (D6) Ris Mor 1.441 
CK-/) setae 1<700> Olla, G3) aeemee. « 266 Saint Joseph, (H3) 734 Vivian, (C1)...... 1,364 
McNary, (E5).... 1,318 Opelousas, (F5)... 4,437 Saint Landry, (F5) 210 Walker, CS) Ree 371 
Madisonville, (K6) 1 103 Oscar. (CHS) eee 100 St. Martinville, Wallace, (J7) Sorc. 0e OOO 
Maeda, (F4)..... 100 Ouachita, CEN) 00 (G6). 222 2 ae 2,465 Ward, (E5)... 150. 
Mattlard(G7)ter e200) Oxtords (G3 ee 150 Saint Maurice, (E3) 100 Warnerton, (K5) 150 
Mamou, (F5)..... 649 Paincourtville, ah 550 Saint Patricks, Ce 00 Washington, (G5) 1,041 
Manchac, (H6).. 150 Palmetto, (GR 5 168 Saint Rose, (K7).. 500 Mb ea (H3) "340 
Mandeville, (K6).. 1,130 Paradis, cET0 150 Saint Tammany, Weeks, (G 7) vane 200 
Mangham, ae 462 Parcperdue, (F6).. 200 (1G) ec ioeiosters 280 Welcome, WO) Base 
Mansfield, pos 2,564 Parks, (G6).. 766 Seu CD)2)) renee 390 Welsh, {E6)...... Beier 
Manske, (L5).. 150 Patoutville,(G7).. 150 Sarepta, (D Cty. 300 Westlake, (D6)... 1,700 
Mansura, (F4).. .».. 829 Patterson, (H7).. . 2,538 Sartori, (F4).. 125 West Monroe, 
Many, (C3)erames 663 Paulina, (J6) Sic NaS 150 Scanlon, KD) $30 100 CED).at ee eee 2,240 
Marco, (E3).. 300 Pearl, (D6)....... 200 Schriever, (J7).... 100 Westwego, (K7).. "700 
Maringouin, (G6). 399 Pearl River, ries a OS . SCOLE CEO) sek oto 324 White Castle, H6) 1,566 
Marion, @1)..... 371 Peason, (D4). see, 900s Sellersi CR O)eae ccc 200 Whitehall, Go. 200 
Mark, (H6) LPcraats 300) (Pelicans (C3) ance 300 Selma, (F3).. 500 Wildsville, (G3).. 150 
Marksville, aoe 1,185 Perry, (F7) Jiidtrae 5 Seymourville, 5 cH6) 500 Willetts, (G3) ie OU 
Marrero, (K7).. 240 Phoenix, (L7)..... 100 Shamrock, (D3) . 150 Wilson, (H5)..... 470 
Marston, (L5).. 150 Pickering, (D5).. 750 Shongaloo, (D1) 100 Winnfield, (E3)... 2,975 
Marthaville, (D3). 285 Pine Grove, (J5y 22 100 Shreveport, (C1). 43,874 Winnsboro, (G2). 1,176 
Mathews, ne. 800 Pineville, (F4) .. . 2,188. Sibley, (D1)..,... 900 Winona, (E2).. "200 
Maurepas, (J6)... 150 Pinewood, (DS). 250 Sicily Island, (G3) 150 Wyatt, (E2)..:... 300 
Maurice, (F6).... 100 Pioneer, (H1).. 150 Simsboro, (E1)... 290 Yellow Pine, (D2) 1,000 
Maxie, (F6)...... 100 Pitkin, (E5).. ~-. 150 “Singer; (DS) Re iciatars 100 Youngsville, (F6). 361 
Melrose, (E3)..... 100 Plain Dealing, (C1) 655 Slaughter, (H5)... 215 Zachary, (HS).. 524 
Melville, (G5).... 958 Plaquemine, “(H6) 4,632 Slidell, (L6)...... 2,958 Zimmerman, (E4) 500 
Meridian, (F5).... 300 Plattenville, (J7)... 150 Smoke Bend, sr) 600). Zona (K5) 0,0 oe 220 


Mermenton, (E6), 364 Plauchtville, (G5), 335 Solitude, (HS)... 206 Zwolle, (C3)...... 909 


LOUISIANA 


slave system, which tended to concentrate at- 
tention upon a few staples roughly cultivable by 
gangs. ‘There are some indications of a change; 
but the chief feature has been the enormous de- 
velopment of irrigated rice culture, as told be- 
low. There has also been a progressive subdi- 
vision of farms; the average plantation of 1860 
was over 500 acres, the average farm of 1920 
was 74.0 acres. This does not, however, imply 
the cessation of large farms; on the contrary, 
Louisiana is the State of great plantations, 
there being 795 in 1920 containing more than 
1,000 acres each, This is. due to the heavy 
capital needed to carry on the sugar business, 
which must have a large territory to make fair 
returns. One result of the growth of the class 
of colored farmers, besides the cutting up of 
farms —their average being 40 acres to 150 for 
the white farmer—is the increase of rentals, 
they being usually too poor and unthrifty to buy. 
They almost equal in number the white farm- 
ers, but they own only 17.7 per cent of their 
farms against 63.0 per cent @wned by the 
whites, and there are nearly three times as 
many cash tenants and two and a half times 
as many share tenants as white. They operate 
but about one-fifth of the farm area, however. 
In cotton culture, Louisiana has been slower 
to recover from the Civil War than any other 
State, having not yet reached the figures of 
1860, while several others have immeasurably 
surpassed them, and it has not greatly grown 
since 1890; its product in 1922 was 357,000 bales 
of a value of $42,840,000. Cane sugar, the great 
specialty of the State, produced in 1922, 534,000,- 
000 pounds, worth $42,000,000. Louisiana pro- 
duces three-fourths of all the cane grown in the 
United States, outside of Hawaii, and more 
than 11 times as much as the next heaviest pro- 
ducer, Georgia. This is an extensive crop, con- 
centrating a great value on a small area; while 
the value of the crop was over half that of 
cotton, in 1920 its acreage was only one-fifth 
as much; with about one-sixth the total value 
of farm products, it occupied only 6 per cent 
of the farm acreage. One of the great draw- 
backs to Louisiana sugar-cane raising is that 
about one-fifth has to be kept for seed and 
cannot be replaced in the same season, while in 
Cuba the tops of unfit canes are simply dropped 
into hoe-made holes, and there are plenty always 
to be had; the Louisiana seed cane often rots, 
the Cuban never. The Cuban cane is also much 
richer in sugar, and the yield per acre is about 
double. From all these causes, the cost oi 
making a pound of sugar is about double in 
Louisiana what it is in Cuba. Corn, as in all 
the Southern States—owing to its value as a 
food crop, for feeding swine, cattle and 
other live-stock—has always had far greater 
attention. than any other cereal. In 1922 
the crop was 29,002,000 bushels valued at 
$24,072,000. But the great coming food crop 
is rice, whose culture increased about two and 
a half times in the last decade, and nearly all 
of this in the last three years: owing to the in- 
troduction of improved methods by a number 
of Iowa immigrants, and of a new system of 
irrigation, which has revolutionized rice cul- 
ture and worked a complete transformation in 
the great coast-prairie belt of southwestern 
Louisiana and southeastern Texas, formerly 
almost in primitive solitude. Up to 1897 nearly 
all the rice grown on these prairies was 


681 
“Providence” rice, dependent mainly on rainfall. 
Then two years of drought showed that there 
was no security without irrigation, and there 
was a stampede to the “pump lands,” where a 
new world was created by raising watet from 
bayous. This district, as above said, is full of 
slightly raised ridges; the canals are run along 
these, not by digging, but by throwing up 
parallel dikes for a channel; as the water in all 
these regions lies below the land to be irrigated. 
it is raised by pumping plants at the heads of 
the canals and distributed to the lands by grav- 
ity; sometimes two or more pump stations are 
needed on the same canal to lift the water high 
enough. This immense draft on the water sup- 
ply has created alarm for the future; but the 
whole region is underlaid with exhaustless water: 
bearing gravel strata, and easily bored wells 
can irrigate 100 acres without diminishing the 
flow. This prairie has the further advantage 
over the delta district, formerly the chief seat 
of the culture, that in the latter the heavy 
machinery needed for improved cultivation was 
apt to sink in the soil. In 1922 the rice grown 
was 19,980,000 bushels of a market value of 
$17,782,000. 

The values of other crops for 1922 were: 


AUS eee Gate ais Sele clic ae apa Re Pee ohdeaN is, Le $862 , 000 
SNM EE) LULA SET Seo a dese ankle tal gk adi pte igs etl 2,279,307 

Ngo AS ee Coie Leer at eRe Mee 00 BOS Ba eG rea oe Be 4,549,000 
Sweet potatoes. sit aya pios ie de seule 4,770,000 
SLODACET YE une cers, apes ths en | 8 SLES yy 48 , 000 
Ba Vee ae an es ds SARS PL bade sy MRR Da eg 745 ,000- 
PPOtGOGS 4 oc Pte Pk oot hed ee Te 2,632,000 


Stock Raising— The importance of the 
State for stock raising is receiving recognition. 
The statistics for 1 Jan. 1923 as shown in the 
following table are: 


Nia bol fp Sauiea n,n Aiea dene i brs, aad a te ET 171,000 
NMialehycowstened ghee. nt ey, San aa oe 216,000 
Other Cattle tien osetia ras eae al. ete eke 585 ,000 

ICED aicacce tates ee OSA nev feral ed Bete a pc 122,000 
SWINE ie ares he et tn eee ee Ne 756,000 
WIEST, darter onto ceh eine ati ete ee ieee ath 176,000 


The parish fairs have been highly successful. 

Fisheries.— Louisiana ranks next to Florida 
among the Gulf States in the value of its fish- 
catch. As a whole, however, the industry 
seems not to be increasing largely; the statis- 
tics for, 1917 show fresh fish, $1,141,259.33; salt 
water, $750,000. The oyster fishery is second 
only to that of Chesapeake Bay. It produced 
in 1917 2,310,972 bushels employing 680 boats. 
The oyster reefs extend almost unbroken from 
the mouth of Atchafalaya Bayou to the State 
line. Large canneries have been established on 
the Gulf. The seine fishery is declining; but 
Louisiana is still the chief source of shrimps. 
The total fish catch of 1918 was 24,953,376 
pounds, value $1,419,367. The alligator industry 
is decreasing with the gradual exhaustion of the 
supply; at the same time the scarcity of hides 
constantly enhances the market value. 

Manufactures.— These are chiefly repre- 
sented by the working up of the large natural 
resources and are principally carried on in New 
Orleans, by far the largest of the six cities of 
the State. In 1919 the manufactured products 
were valued at $676,190,000, and those of New 
Orleans $182,799,000. The industrial tendency is 
to increase production, but to reduce labor. 
With the exception of sugar the chief industries 


682 


of the State show a steady increase in value 
accompanied by a regular decrease in the num- 
bers of wage-earners, a proof of a growth of 
labor efficiency. 
1910 was 84,243. In 1919 it was 98,265. The 
second industry in the State was concerned with 
the utilizing of the immense timber resources. 
In 1919 585 establishments turned out products 
valued at $130, 521,000. The sugar and molasses 
produced in 1919 were in value $141,842,924. 
The manufacture of cotton-seed oil and cake 
held third place in 1919; the products were 
valued at $57,162,000 from 28 mills. This in- 
dustry is fostered by the immense facilities for 
export and import afforded by the Mississippi 
River. The cleaning and polishing of rice gave 
a product of 505,323,945 lbs. from 46 mills. A 
wonderful increase occurred in the manufacture 
of food preparations, which starting in 1900, in 
the year 1919 attained the value of $34,406,000. 
War conditions largely influenced manufactur- 
ing in 1918. One of the principal effects was 
the erection of important shipbuilding industries 
in and about New Orleans and the digging of 
a wide and deep canal connecting the Mississippi 
with Lake Pontchartrain. 

Commerce and Transportation.— Louisiana 
is the richest State in the Union in total length 
of navigable streams, 3,771 miles. Its lower part 
is a vast web of paths to the ocean, aggre- 
gating 2,500 miles. The entire 600 miles of the 
Mississippi’s length in the State is navigable 
and largely navigated; the jetties have trebled 
its value and made New Orleans a far greater 
corn and cotton port than before. A canal from 
the river to Lake Borgne has greatly lessened 
the distance from the city to the Gulf and to 
the coal fields of Alabama, hence reducing the 
cost of fuel for manufacturing purposes.. The 
railroad facilities have not been very extensive 
till the last decade, when they increased from 
1,739 to 2,801 miles and are now 5,276, The 
growing importance of New Orleans has led a 
number of trunk lines to make a special effort 
for its business; owing to the nature of the 
Gulf coast all turn away many miles from it. 
The chief lines are the Southern Pacific, the 
Texas Pacific, the Louisville and Nashville, the 
Queen and Crescent and the Illinois Central. 
Many others are laying plans for entering the 
city. As with most Western and Southern 
States now, rates are fixed by railroad com- 
mission. New Orleans is the third port in the 
United States in amount of foreign commerce, 
next to New York and Boston. For the year 
ending 30 June 1909 its imports and exports 
(principally the latter) amounted to over $190,- 
000,000. For the year ending 30 June 1921 its 
imports were $110,282,795 and exports $423,- 
043,019. In the year 1921 there were entered 
ships of a tonnage of 5,275,133 and cleared 
5,613,737. 

Banks.— The State has an excellent banking 
system, very conservative in its holdings of re- 
serves; the New Orleans banks were notable for 
their ‘exceptional solidity and punctuality in 
meeting Northern obligations when the Civil 
War broke out. On 30 June 1922 there were 
in operation 230 State banks with resources of 
$312,979,000. There were also individual deposits, 
including dividends unpaid and postal savings, 
in national banks aggregating $73,443,000. In the 
year 1922 the exchanges at the United States clear- 
ing-house at New Orleans were $2,266,898,000. 


The number of laborers in. 


LOUISIANA 


Government and Finance.— The constitu- 
tion of 1898 was devised to exclude the illiterate 
negro vote, except for owners of property to 
over $300 who are not subject to educational | 
qualification. Otherwise than that, each voter 
must be able to fill out his application blank for 
registration, but this does not apply to anyone 
who was a voter on 1 Jan. 1867 (that is, before 
the 14th or 15th Amendment was passed), or 
his son or grandson of mature age. Women 
taxpayers .can vote on all questions of tax- 
paying in any subdivision of the State. State 
officers are elected for four years. The gov- 
ernor has $7,500 salary, the pardoning power 
and a veto by items, which may be overriden 
by a two-thirds vote ‘of the elected members of 
each house. The legislature holds biennial ses- 
sions limited to 60 days; both houses are elected 
for four years; the senate may be from 36 to 
41 in number, the house from 98 to 110, and 
as. a fact the numbers are now 39 and 101; 
there must be one representative to each parish, 
and to each ward of New Orleans. The judi- 
ciary is headed by a Supreme Court, consist- 
ing of a chief justice and six associates ap- 
pointed by the governor with the consent of the 
senate, for 12 years. There are judicial districts, 
to be not less than 20 nor more than 29; the 
judges are elected for nine years, as is the 
district attorney for each. 

From and after 1 July 1904 there has been 
a Court of Appeals, composed of two district 
judges designated by the Supreme Court. The 
State has a large Democratic majority. It 
sends two senators and eight members to Con- 
gress. The assessed valuation of property in 
1921 was $1,718,286,902. The legislature cannot 
incur debts except to repel invasion or suppress 
insurrection. The bonded debt in 1922 was 
$14,345,981. The budget receipts for 1921 were 
$26,146,996.76. 


Education.— Louisiana, formerly near the 
foot of the ladder in the general education of 
its people, has made extraordinary efforts in 
the past two decades and in some respects has 
surpassed all other Southern States; a fact more 
creditable from its large negro population. The 
average school term (191.4 days) was the 
longest of any Southern State. The term of 
colored schools was as long as those of the 
white, and the amount expended is exceedingly 
creditable, being in 1920, $11,088,689, or nearly 
half as much as the current receipts of the 
State. The school revenues are made up of 
113/20 mills from the State property tax of 
six mills on the dollar, a poll-tax of $1 13/20 
on all males over 21—retained in the parish 
where levied, and other local taxes may be 
laid — special corporation taxes, etc. By the 
law of 1902 the school administration is cen- 
tralized in a State board of education consisting 
of the governor and.eight appointees, the super- 
intendent of education and the attorney-gen- 
eral; this appoints a four-year board of educa- 
tion for each parish (county), who appoint 
parish superintendents. The enrolment in 
schools during 1920 was 75.9 per cent of the 
children from 7 to 13, and 65.6 per cent of those 
of 14 and 15 years of age. Despite all efforts, 
however, the load of illiteracy is a heavy one to 
struggle against. In 1922 there were 8,060 teach- 
ers, nearly three-fourths female; over 1,200 col- 
ored teachers, about evenly divided. Besides 


LOUISIANA 


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UNIVERSE Gir IAL 


LOUISIANA 


these there were matiy hundred private teach- 
ers. The pupils in the Catholic schools alone 
were about 25,000. Total pupils enrolled in 
common schools were 339 687. For higher edu- 
cation there were 222 public high and second- 
ary schools, two industrial colleges, the In- 
dustrial Institute at Ruston (North Louisiana) 
and the Southwestern Industrial Institute at 
Lafayette, two normal schools, the State at 
Natchitoches and that of the city at New 
Orleans; the State University. and Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College at Baton Rouge, 
partly supported by the United States; Tulane 
University, with affiliated special colleges, one 
of the best reputed institutions in the South, 
and a number of Roman Catholic and sectarian 
colleges. For the colored people are four — 
Southern University, Leland University, New 
Orleans University and Straight University. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions.— The 
State Board of Charities and Corrections can 
only inspect and report. The old system of 
leasing out convicts to private contractors was 
abolished by the constitution of 1898, and they 
are now only employed on public works or con- 
vict farms, or in manufactures owned and 
operated by the State; and parish jail inmates 
may be employed on public works within that 
parish. The State Insane Asylum is at Jack- 
son, a Lepers’ Home in Iberville Parish, insti- 
tutions for the deaf and blind at Baton Rouge 
and there are State hospitals at New Orleans 
and Shreveport. The health of New Orleans 
is regulated by a board of health composed of 
three members appointed by the New Orleans 
city council. 

Churches.— The strongest denominations in 
order of church societies are the Baptists, 
Southern Methodists, the two forming the bulk 
of the Protestants, Roman Catholics, Presby- 
terians, Protestant Episcopalians, Lutherans 
and Unitarians. The Roman -Catholics are 
stronger here from the long Spanish and French 
domination than anywhere else in the South. 
In New Orleans are located a Roman Catholic 
archbishop and bishops of the Protestant and 
Methodist Episcopal churches. ‘There are also 
Roman Catholic bishops at Natchitoches and 
Leatayette. 

History.— The earliest knowledge of Louis- 
iana dates from the discovery of the mouth of 
the Mississippi in 1528 by Narvaez. De Soto, 
13 years later, crossed the great river on rafts 
at some point about the Arkansas; of the im- 
portance of this discovery the Spaniards were 
wholly ignorant. The next Europeans to sail 
on the great river were the French. In 1673 
Marquette and Joliet were sent by the governor 
of Canada to seek the river which might lead 
to the great western ocean. They descended as 
far as the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682 they 
were followed by La Salle. who completed the 
work of discovery and took possession of the 
country, which he called Louisiana, in the name 
of Louis XIV. In 1684 he sailed from France 
with colonists to form a settlement. He missed 
the mouth of the river, landed at Matagorda 
Bay and was murdered in 1687. Braye men 
were not lacking to take up the enterprise, and 
in 1698 Iberville, with his brother, Bienville, 
sailed from Brest for the Mississippi. Finding 
the Spanish in possession of Pensacola, he 
stayed for a short time at Mobile and ‘then 
entered and explored the lower part of the 


683 


rivers. His first settlement was at Biloxi, 
despite the protest of the Spanish governor of 
Pensacola. In 1702 the site of the colony was 
removed to Mobile. Antoine Crozat obtained 
the concession of Louisiana in 1712. It was 
handed over for 25 years to the Western or 
Mississippi Company, founded by John Law. 
Bienville was again made governor and was 
able to carry out his long-formed plan to create 
a city where is now New Orleans. Later, in 
1722, he was able to make it the capital of the 
colony. The Western Company sent out large 
numbers of emigrants, and the colony increased 
in population, but not in prosperity; misgov- 
ernment and Indian wars prevented all progress. 
In January 1732 Louisiana was surrendered to 
the king. Iberville resigned in 1743 and was 
succeeded by Vaudreuil, under whom were is- 
sued levee ordinances and police regulations for 
New Orleans. In the following years there 
was no improvement in the condition of the 
colony, ‘of which the annual expense was a 
drain on the exhausted resources of France. In 
1762, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louisiana 
west of the Mississippi, together with the island 
of Orleans, was ceded to Spain, and in the next 
year Louisiana east of the Mississippi, together 
with Florida, was surrendered to Great Britain 
by the Treaty of Paris. The dissatisfaction of 
the Louisianians and the long delay of Spain in 
taking possession of her new colony gave rise 
to a serious revolt which was sternly suppressed ~ 
by O’Reilly. He, however, provided for a form 
of government under which the colony made 
considerable progress. The great growth of the 
population on the upper Mississippi caused a 
demand for freedom from all restrictions of 
commerce on the river. This was obtained 
temporarily by concessions from the Spanish 
governors, but when the right of deposit was 
refused in 1803, there was grave danger of a 
descent on New Orleans. The desire of Napo- 
leon to create a colonial empire in America led 
to the secret Treaty of Saint Ildefonse in 1800, 
by which France acquired that portion of Louis- 
iana formerly ceded to Spain. In 1803 fear of 
English invasion induced Napoleon to sell 
Louisiana to the United States for $15,000,000. 
(See ANNEXATION; LoUISIANA PuRCHASE, for 
statistics of size and location). On 28 March 
1804 the part south of lat. 33° N. was organ- 
ized as Orleans Territory; the northern part 
being organized as Louisiana Territory, after- 
ward changed to Missouri Territory. An en- 
abling act was passed 20 Feb. 1811 to form 
Orleans into a State, and it was admitted 8 
April 1812. The French element was so strong 
that the constitution allowed members of the 
legislature to debate either in French or in Eng- 
lish, and the dividing line in politics was usually 
between the two, wth temporary alliances of 
other elements. ‘The organization of the Whig 
party, one of whose cardinal tenets was pro- 
tection, which helped sugar, turned Louisiana 
into one of the strongest Whig States in the 
South. she twice voting for Whig Presidents. 
The slavery issue, after 1860, made it more and 
more strongly Democratic, and in 1860 it was 
heavily for secession. New Orleans was cap- 
tured by the Federal troops 25 April 1862, and 
the State government, whose seat had been 
Baton Rouge since 1852, was transferred to 
Opelousas. During the rest of the war the 
territory held by the Federals was recognized 


684 


as the legitimate State government, though un- 
der a military governor, and sent members to 
Congress. On 30 July 1866 an attempt of the 
colored leaders to hold a constitutional conven- 
tion at New Orleans and secure the admission 
of their race to the franchise resulted in the 
massacre of many of the delegates by the 
whites, which had much to do with the exces- 
sive severity with which the subsequent Recon- 
struction government bore on the latter. (For 
the general history of the time, see REcoNn- 
STRUCTION. For the part borne by the State in 
the imbroglio of 1876, see ELECTORAL CoMMIS- 
SION). The most important item in the subse- 
quent history was the passing of the Constitu- 
tion of 1898, with the “Grandfather Clause,” to 
disfranchise the negroes, which reduced the 
negro registration to about 7,000, as against 
over 120,000 whites. 


GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA 


TERRITORY OF ORLEANS 


William CoCo Claibomes. <1 oe nee ee 1804-12 


STATE 
William C. C. Claiborne. Democratic Republican. 1812-16 


Jacques Philippe Villere. :. 1816-20 
Thomas B. Robertson.. 3 = 1820-24 
Henry Schuyler Thibo- 

deaux (acting)....... ed ¢ 1824 
Henry Johnson........ € = 1824-28 
Pierre Derbigny....... wg iy 1828-29 
Passleeiee Beauvais (act- . 5. 

ANG) sizer nelerea he. 1829-30 
Jacques Dupre (acting). e = 1830-31 
Andre Bienvenu Roman. Whig................ 1831-35 
Edward E. White...... AW AAR. ITO 1835-39 
André Bienvenw-Roman:, 447 .. acesnase alt 1839-43 
Alexander Mouton..... Oo aca ott Pope AE 1843-46 
Isaac Johnson......... Democrate,te ee 1846-50 
Joseph Walker......... f) mphaatTote: 1850-53 
Paul Octave Hebert.... Seceters eels. « optes oy 1853-56 
Robert C. Wickliffe. ... i pees Sale pie? 1856-60 
Thomas O. Moore..... Me Mae may Se. BS 1860-62 
George F. Shepley..... Military (250M AU oc 1862-64 


Henry W. Allen....... Governor of Confederate 


p part of State... os. .. 1864-65 
Michael Hahn......... Unionist and Military.. 1864-65 
James M. Wells... .... Demoeérat? 22 6 D162: 1865-67 
Benjamin F. Flanders. . Military.............. 1867 
Joshua Baker. om... 5 ME ise RE 1867-68 
Henry C. Warmoth.... Republican........... 1868-71 
John McEnery.......: Democrat and Liberal 

Republican. Not rec- 
ognized by President 

ya ; or Goneress 2), oe). - 1873 
William Pitt Kellogg... ‘‘ Custom House ’”’ Re- 

publicdny pa esa o 1873-77 
Stephen B. Packard.... Republican claimant; 

’ : not recognized. ..... 1877 
Francis T. Nicholls..... Déniocrats +. . Eee he: 1877-80 
LowsiA, Wiltasnonn $2. 3 rea ee ee pen. ae 1880-81 
Samuel D. McEnery... OF ae or eee 1881-88 
Francis T. Nicholls..... Oona,  s, Boae 1888-92 
Murphy J. Foster...... Anti-Lottery Democrat. 1892-1900 
William W. Heard..... Democrat, eo kee 1900-04 
Newton C. Blanchard... Pig agg Pee 1904-08 
Jared Y. Sanders...) 2. ORIEL AO 1908-12 
farther E. Hallirases . : TV SRRG Cave tints iclare) 1912-16 
Ruffin G. Pleasant..... “207 ORT AT 1916-20 
John M. Parker 7.4... Rategeta St aah acct ie as 1920- 


The following are the names of the principal 
authors who have written on Louisiana: His- 
tory: Le Page du Pratz, Villiers du Terrage, 
Martin, Gayarre, Fortier. Description: Darby, 
Stoddard. Botany: Rafinesque, Chapman. 
Ornithology: Audubon. Literature: Fortier. 
History and Development of New Orleans: 
Cable, King, Castellanos. 

For official information consult reports of 
State officers published at Baton Rouge and of 
Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C. 

Population.— The census figures from 1810, 
when it was first counted separately as the 
Territory of Orleans, are as follows: (1810) 


LOUISIANA 


76,556: (1820) 152,923; (1830) 215,739; (1840) 
352,411; (1850) 517,762: (1860) 708,002; (1870) 
726,915; (1880) 939,946; (1890) 1,118,587 ; 
(1900) 1,381,625; (1910) 1,656,388. In 1920 it 
was 1,798,509. The foreign born whites were 
44,871, of whom 16,264, or over one-third, were 
Italians, 5,147 Germans, 4,182 French and 2,000 
Irish. The colored population was 700,257, or 
38.9 per cent of total, a relative decrease since 
1890 of over 12 per cent, due to the higher 
death rate among the negroes. Louisiana was 
seventh in absolute number of colored inhabi- 
tants and sixth in relative number, being sur- 
passed by Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, North 
and South Carolina. The legislature is for- 
bidden to create new parishes with less than 
625 square miles and 7,000 inhabitants, or divide 
an old parish so as to leave either portion less 
than these magnitudes, There are no large cities, 
except New Orleans with 287,104 people, in 
1900, and in 1910 over 339,075, in 1920, 387,219; 
the great Mississippi port, and destined to a 
much larger growth. Shreveport, the next, on 
the upper Red River, had 43,874; Baton Rouge, 
the capital, on the Mississippi, 21,872. Among 
the others above 5,000 are New Iberia, Lake 
Charles, Monroe, Alexandria, Minden, Bogalusa, 
ae ned Gretna, Houma, Lafayette and Morgan 
ity. 

Sociology.— Owing to the preponderance of 
population and the general importance of 
New Orleans it has been found useful to locate 
these institutions usually found at the State 
capitol. The Supreme Court sits in the newly 
built Law Courts, in which is the State Library. 
The two most important libraries in the State 
are the Howard Memorial Library for refer- 
ence and the New Orleans Public Library for 
circulation established, which provide for the 
public of New Orleans the use of nearly 200,000 
books. There are published in the State 117 
newspapers, of which the New Orleans Times- 
Picayune is the most important daily. The 
literature of the State consists of two groups 
of writings: the one in French covering the 
period between 1835 and 1855, including those 
of Gayarra and Rouquette, and a brilliant series 
of works in English prose and poetry by Town- 
send, King, Davis, Fortier, Ficklen, etc., which 
have been produced in the last 30 years of the 
19th century. 

WILLIAM BEER, 
Librarian, Howard Memorial Library, New 
Orleans. 


LOUISIANA, Mo., city, in Pike County, 
on the Mississippi River, and on the Chicago 
and Alton and the Chicago, Burlington and 
Quincy railroads, about 85 miles northwest 
of Saint Louis. It is situated in an agricultural 
region, and is the trade centre for a large ex- 
tent of country in both Missouri and Illinois. 
Its chief industrial plants are flour and lumber 
mills, button factories, brick yards, tools, baskets 
and lime works, shoe, stove and tobacco fac- 
tories, wagon and carriage factories. Nearby 
are large quarries and extensive nurseries. 
The trade is chiefly in its manufactured articles, 
dairy and nursery products, grain, fruit and live- 
stock. There is a good public library. Pop. 
about 4,060. 


LOUISIANA, Code of. In the history of 
law in the United States the first important 


LOUISIANA — LOUISIANA 


experiment with a code in the United States 
was made in Louisiana, which State, originally 
a French colony afterward ceded to Spain, 
again returned to France, and subsequently ac- 
quired by the United States from France, has 
had many changes of law. After the United 
States acquired Louisiana there arose a strong 
demand for a code, owing to the great con- 
fusion of laws. In 1806-08 a code was adopted, 
but only to supersede the ancient laws when 
they conflicted with it. A complete civil code 
was adopted for the State in 1824, which had 
for its basis the Code Napoléon, although some 
provisions of the common law were injected 
into it. The Louisiana code was the founda- 
tion for a later code prepared for the State of 
New York under the guidance and supervision 
of David Dudley Field. This code, although 
published, and having formed the foundation 
for many of the codes adopted by the various 
States, was never accepted by the legislature 
of New York. See Cope. 


LOUISIANA, District of. See ORLEANS, 
TERRITORY OF. . 


LOUISIANA CREOLES. This appella- 
tion belongs exclusively to persons of French 
and Spanish descent born in Louisiana: not- 
withstanding the prevalent error to the contrary 
according it to Louisiana-born children of any 
European blood. Though often misrepresented, 
the creoles of Louisiana, as a matter of fact, 
are intelligent, brave and generous, and are, 
by no means, inferior in the matter of educa- 
tion; they are also in the enjoyment of the 
highest social privileges. The women of true 
creole lineage are world-famed for grace and 
beauty. The creoles have furnished Louisiana 
some of its ablest governors, its most distin- 
guished military men, its eminent writers, its 
leading professional men, financiers and mer- 
chants. In 1904 they held a number of the 
most exalted offices in the State, and were 
likewise fully represented in all branches of 
high and meritorious effort. Very many of the 
creoles now in Louisiana are descended from 
high and noble families in France and Spain, 
and they treasure the lofty traditions of their 
ancestry. The expression “creole negro” is of- 
ten used, and its employment has perhaps con- 
tributed to the false impression which some 
entertained that the Louisiana creole, truly such, 
must be, or is, of negro blood. The term un- 
der immediate consideration simply means that 
the negro to whom it is applied, or his progeni- 
tors, has been reared under a creole master. 
So far as the true creole families are con- 
cerned, they have been jealous of their Cau- 
casian lineage and careful to maintain the 
purity of their blood. The word “creole” is 
often used to designate the origin of certain 
products of the field and farm, such as creole 
chickens, eggs, butter, etc. The meaning of 
this is that the products thus named are strictly 
from creole portions of the State of Louisiana. 
A certain debased idiom of the French em- 
ployed among negroes, and, to some extent, 
among creole children and lower whites, is 
popularly called “creole” It has figured in 
literature in the shape of short stories, proverbs, 
etc. The better element of creole adults speak 
and write the French language in its purity. 
The majority likewise have a correct and fluent 


PURCHASE EXPOSITION 685 


use of the English language. An effective an- 
swer to the aspersions, by some sought to be 
cast upon the character of the olden creoles, 
is the following citation from the Chevalier 
Guy Soniat du Fossat, a distinguished officer of 
the French army who was in New Orleans in 
1751. In his ‘Synopsis of the History of Loui- 
siana, etc.,> he gives the following: 

“Creoles are defined to be ‘the children of 
Europeans born in the colony.? They, in gen- 
eral, measure about 5 feet 6 inches in height; 
they are all well shaped, and of agreeable 
figure; they are lively, alert and agile, and, 
notwithstanding the great heat of this climate, 
are laborious. They are born with ambition, 
and an honest self-esteem. They are endowed 
with a natural disposition for all sciences, arts, 
and exercises that amuse society. They excel 
in dancing, fencing, hunting and in horseman- 
ship. Nature has favored them with a pene- 
trating and active mind, and they are capable 
of being easily instructed. The lack of teachers 
renders their education somewhat incomplete, 
and it must be said, in all justice, that among 
the many qualities which they possess are polite- 
ness, bravery and benevolence. They are good 
fathers, good friends and good kinsmen. 

“The women, besides having the qualities 
above enumerated, are agreeable in figure and 
seldom deformed. They make good mothers, 
and are devoted to their husbands and their 
children, and in their marital relations seldom 
are they unfaithful. I must also add that the 
stranger arriving in this wild and savage coun- 
try will be surprised to see in this capital, as 
exists in all countries of Europe, brilliant as- 
semblies where politeness, amiability and gayety 
reign supreme.” . 
BUSSIERE ROUEN, 


Officer d’Académie, Secrétaire perpetuel de 
PAthénée Loutsianats. 


LOUISIANA PURCHASE, The. See 
UNITED STATES — LOUISIANA PurRCHASE, THE. 


LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSI- 
TION, an international exposition held in 
Saint Louis, Mo., 30 April 1 Dec. 1904, to 
commemorate the 100th anniversary of the pur- 
chase from France of the Louisiana. A tract 
of 1,142 acres in Forest Park was selected for 
the site. The plan included 15 large exhibition 
buildings, of which the main group were laid 
out in the form of a fan. The apex of the 
fan was formed of the four great Art Palaces, 
of which one in brick and stone survives as 
a memorial. These were from designs by Cass 
Gilbert. E. L. Masqueray designed the Hall 
of Sculpture, the Palace of Agriculture and the 
Palace of Transportation. The Palace of Edu- 
cation was designed by Eames and Young in 
reformed classic style. Carrére and Hastings 
designed the Palace of Manufactures in Cor- 
inthian. Other groups were the Palace of 
Electricity by Walker and Kimball, the Palace 
of Machinery by Widman, Walsh and Bois- 
selier, the Palace of Forestry, Fish and Game 
by E. L. Masqueray, the United States Govern- 
ment Building, housing exhibits by the various 
departments of the national government. In 
addition to these there were about 500 other 
buildings on the grounds, built by foreign gov- 
ernments, the States and Territories or for 
special exhibits. The French building was a 


686 


reproduction of the famous Grand Trianon of 
Versailles. There were 250 groups of decora- 
tive sculpture and over 1,000 single figures, 
erected under the supervision of A. Saint- 
Gaudens, J. Q. A. Ward and D. C. French. 
The landscape effects comprised a six-acre rose 
garden, sunken gardens and a colossal floral 
clock. There were several waterfalls and 
miniature lagoons on which were to be found 
Venetian gondolas and other watercraft. At 
the northern end of the grounds there was a 
street about one mile in length. Along it were 
leased various amusement concessions. It was 
known as “The Pike” Perhaps the most in- 
teresting and important were the anthropo- 
logical exhibits of aboriginal tribes, including 
the Philippine Division which represented 
all the important native tribes, with exhibits 
of their domestic life, arts, industries, etc. 
Of the total recorded admissions, 19,694,855, 
12,804,616 were paid. 


LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, 
the head of the public school system of Loui- 
siana, is located at Baton Rouge, La. The 
organization of the institution was authorized 
in the State constitution of 1845. It was to 
be supported by the income from the sales of 
the “seminary” land grants. In 1855 the legis- 
lature provided for the organization of the 
institution and its location near Alexandria, La. 
In 1860 it was opened as the Louisiana State 
Seminary under the superintendency of W. T. 
(later General) Sherman. From 1863 to 1865 
the institution was closed on account of the 
Civil War. In 1865 it was reopened under the 
presidency of Col. David French Boyd, who 
was for many years afterward: president of 
the institution. Owing to the destruction of 
the buildings by fire the seminary was removed 
to Baton Rouge in 1869. In 1870 the name was 
changed to Louisiana State University and in 
1877 it was merged with the Louisiana Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College, which three 
years earlier had been organized in New Or- 
leans under the “Morrill” Act of Congress 
(1862) which made grants of public lands for 
the support of agricultural and mechanical col- 
leges in each State. Since the merger the name 
of the institution has been Louisiana State Uni- 
versity and Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege. The university is now located on the 
grounds of the old United States military post 
on the banks of the Mississippi River which 
were donated to the institution by act of Con- 
gress in 1904. The campus contains over 200 
acres. 

The university is organized into fae follow- 
ing schools and colleges: the College of Arts 
and Sciences; the College of Agriculture; the 
College of Engineering; the Audubon Sugar 
School; the Law School and Teachers College. 
The Law School offers a three- -year course 
leading to the degree of LL.B.; the Audubon 
Sugar School has a five-year course, in which 
agriculture and engineering are combined, 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science; 
the College of Engineering and the College of 
Agriculture each offers several four-year courses 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science; 
the four-year courses in the College of Arts 


and Sciences and Teachers College each leads. 


to the degree of bachelor of arts. All of the 


LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY — LOUISVILLE 


courses offered by the university are based upon 
the uniform admission requirement of four 
years of high school work. A model high 
school for observation and practice is attached 
to Teachers College. There is no preparatory 
department. The total enrolment for 1915-16 
was 1,797, distributed as follows: In regular 
four- or five-year courses, 783; in the Law 
School, 66; in the Summer Session, 603; in 
the Farmers’ Short Course, 358. The total in- 
come for the session 1922 from State and 
Federal grants and other sources was $460,000. 
In 1922 the staff of administration and instruc- 
tion numbered 99: the student enrollment was 
1,271, while the institution’s total property value 
was $2, 000,000. A military department is main- 
tained as required by Federal and State law. 
Graduate courses of one and two years in length 
are offered leading to the master’s degree. The 

institution is coeducational. . 


LOUISVILLE, loo’is vil or loo-i-vil, Ky., 
the capital of the county of Jefferson, and the 
principal city of the State of Kentucky, is 
situated opposite to the -falls of the Ohio 
River, on. the southern shore of the river, on 
the Louisville and Nashville, the Southern, the 
Chesapeake. and Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio 
Southwestern, the Pennsylvania and other rail- 
roads, 110 miles south of Cincinnati. 

Falls of the Ohio.— The falls of the Ohio 
River are caused by a ledge of Devonian rocks, 
rich in corals and other fossils, which were 
lifted from the bottom of the Silurian Sea, in 
which they were formed, and left here thou- 
sands of feet above their place of formation. 
In ancient. geological times this wall of rock, 
in the form of an anticlinal axis, dammed up 
the water 25 feet and formed a lake a mile 
wide and several miles in length, above the 
dam, while the water below rushed down the 
other side of the axis, at the rate of a dozen 
miles an hour, until it was lost in a seething 
whirlpool below. When the river was low, it 
was dangerous to attempt to conduct a boat 
over these falls, but when it was high, on ac- 
count of the narrowness of the stream below 
and its width in the lake above, the excess of 
water filled the narrower stream below to a 
level with the wider one’ above and _ vessels 
passed over the falls as if they had not been 
there.. In 1830 a canal two miles long was, fin- 
ished around the falls, on the Kentucky side, 
and on the 5th day of .December the steam- 
boat Uncas passed through it. The canal has 
since been enlarged and improved so as to meet 
the wants of the largest boats and is always 
used in going over the falls in low water. 

Plan of Louisville— The plan of Louis- 
ville as originally laid out by John Corbly, in 
the spring of 1779, consisted of one range of 
streets. parallel. with the river and another 
range cutting them at right angles. The streets 
parallel with the river and:running east and 
west bore names such as Water, Main, Market 
and Jefferson, while the cross streets were 
known by numbers, such as One, Two, Three, 
etc. This pkan was adhered to until additions 
to the original boundary made it necessary or 
gave an excuse for laying out new. streets 
differently. In some of the additions the streets 
now run in all directions. Broadway as orig- 
inally laid out is 120 feet wide; Main, Market 


LOUISVILLE 


and Jefferson each 90 feet, and the other streets 
with a few unimportant exceptions 60 feet in 
width. In 1813 the paving of streets began. 
Previous to this time they were mud holes in 
winter and dirt-piles in summer. That part of 
Main street from Third to Sixth was paved 
after the McAdam style. There are now in 
the city about 200 miles of streets and as many 
miles of alleys paved with vitrified brick, 
asphalt, granite or boulders, and a few with 
broken stone after the McAdam fashion. 

Original Area of Louisville.— The original 
tract of land given to Louisville for a site by 
the legislature of Virginia contained 1,000 acres. 
The land cost the State of Virginia nothing 
because it was confiscated from Dr. John Con- 
nolly, an adherent of the British during the 
War of Independence. The legislature simply 
took the land from Connolly and gave it to 
Louisville. The city has since added many 
other tracts of land to the original until its 
external boundary now embraces 27 square 
miles. 

Dwelling-houses.—The first dwelling-houses 
built in Louisville were 16 by 20 log cabins 
with board roof and puncheon floor where 
there was any floor at all, but in many in- 
stances the native earth was the floor. Louis- 
ville is to-day distinguished for no one thing 
more than for the handsome and comfortable 
dwelling-houses of her citizens. 

Business Houses.— The few rude dwellings 
were promptly followed by business houses 
equally rude if indeed the cabin used for a 
dwelling was not at the same time used for a 
shop or manufactory. Michael Humble so soon 
as the town was laid out erected a cabin near 
the fort at Main and Twelfth streets in which 
he made and mended guns and wrought out of 
metal the few things that were used. Joseph 
Cyrus had next to him a shop in which he 
made spinning-wheels and looms and every- 
thing that was carved out of wood. George 
Vensonier followed next with a tailor’s shop 
and Henry Duncan with a hat-shop. A little 
further up town, between Fifth and Sixth 
streets, Daniel Brodhead had a store in which 
every kind of article used in the community 
was sold over the same board counter. These 
were humble beginnings at manufacturing, but 
they continued -to increase until now, accord- 
ing to the census, we have in Louisville 800 
manufacturing establishments which turn out 
manufactured articles valued at $101,000,000 
annually. Our pioneers who were used to log 
cabins for all purposes could not conceive of 
the necessity of the modern establishments if 
they were to behold them now in use, built of 
stone or brick, some covering whole squares 
and others ribbed ,with steel ascending into 
the clouds. The public buildings of the city 
have proportionately increased in dimension 
and style until they have become real orna- 
ments. The courthouse with its severe classic 
features, the city hall in its Gothic outlines, 
the custom-house in its blended styles of archi- 
tecture, the sky-scrapers at the corner of 
Fourth and Main, and Main and Market, some 
of the great tobacco warehouses on Main 
street amd many of the manufacturing estab- 
lishments and stores in different parts of the 
city are fine specimens of architecture adapted 
to the wants of business, The Galt House on 


687 


the corner of Main and First is one of the 
finest hotels in the country and a new hostelry 
has just been erected on Fourth street which 
ascends high into the air and meets every want 
of the guest. A new jail has been erected on 
the site of one of the early churches which 
will not only rob the prison of some of its- 
horrors, but will be an ornament to the city. 
The great department stores by furnishing the 
purchasers with every want have revived the 
fashion of pioneer times when every article 
which was for sale was sold under the same 
roof and made shopping a delight rather than 
a burden. The building of the American Na- 
tional Bank on the corner of Third and Main 
and that of the Louisville Trust Company at 
Fifth and Market are palatial business houses, 
well suited to the purposes for which they were 
erected as well as ornaments to the city. 

Education.— Louisville as an educational 
centre is surpassed by but few cities. The 
University of Louisville with its law and med- 
ical departments, the Female High School, the 
Male High School, the Manual Training School 
and the Normal School, which are colleges of 
a high order, the ward schools where children 
are trained free of cost for the higher depart- 
ments, the medical colleges, the: theological 
seminaries, the musical societies, the Catholic 
institutions and the educational associations in 
some of which the sciences are taught, ail 
together offer advantages to students in almost 
every branch of knowledge. The Male High 
School, the Female High School, the Normal 
School and the Manual Training School, like 
the ward schools, are free institutions entirely 
supported by the city. 

Charitable Institutions.— Hospitals, asy- 
lums and homes are almost as numerous in 
Louisville as schools. The Children’s Free Hos- 
pital, where afflicted little ones are cared for, 
the Kentucky Institute for the Blind, where 
the sightless are taught to read and write, and 
51 other institutions maintained for different 
purposes are prepared to meet almost every 
form of infirmity. 

Churches.-— There are 265 churches in 
Louisville, representing nearly all denomina- 
tions. The principal denominations are the 
Baptists, the Methodists, the Presbyterians, the 
Christians, the Episcopalians, the Catholics and 
the Lutherans, but there are also Unitarians, 
Evangelists, Jews, and those who call them- 
selves Non-Sectarians, Scientists, Seventh-Day 
Adventists, Social Settlements, Spiritualists, 
Swedenborgians, United Brethren and The- 
osophists. Some of the houses of worship, like 
the cathedral of the Assumption, the Warren 
Memorial, the Third Avenue Baptist and the 
Fourth Street Christian, are fine specimens of 
ecclesiastical architecture and capable of seat- 
ing large congregations. 

Banks.— There are 14 banks and banking 
institutions in Louisville with a combined cap-, 
ital of about $7,000,000 and a surplus of half 
as much more. If the trust companies and 
title companies which necessarily do a good. 
deal of banking business are added to the banks 
the capital and surplus of all combined will 
exceed $15,000,000. A farm loan bank was 
established here in 1916. Bank clearings are 
about $750,000,000 yearly. 

Finances.— The finances of Louisville will 


688 


compare favorably with those of any other 
municipality. According to the last published 


report of the assessors the assets of the city | 


amounted to $17,442,552 and the liabilities to 
$8,836,129. If the liabilities therefore are de- 
ducted from the assets, a balance of $8,616,422 
will remain in favor of the city. The city, 
moreover, besides owning this large amount of 
property in its own name has an income from 
taxes sufficient to meet all of its fixed liabili- 
ties and current obligations. The property 
within the city limits owned by individuals is 
assessed at over $207,000,000. The charter 
only allows 95 per cent of this amount~to be 
considered in providing for current expendi- 
tures to be expended by the city during the 
year. The annual revenue from all sources 
exceeds $11,250,000. The tax rate averages 
about $1.79 for all purposes. This amount is 
distributed through the different departments 
of the city so as to provide for every liability 
and at the end of the year balances are gen- 
erally left in different departments which are 
again distributed. 

Largest Industries.— The largest industries 
are tobacco, cement, wagons, plows and leather. 
More leaf-tobacco is handled here than in any 
part of the world. The quantity of hydraulic 
cement and plows and wagons and leather made 
here is also enormous. The Board of Trade 
gives the following figures for 15 leading 
articles : 


Agricultural implements — pounds............ 40,000 ,000 
‘Boots-atid:- shoes *—— Casesie oie me cet os aha iota avons 114,000 
Dry goods’ and notions —icases./96% ......t6d sda 678 ,000 
Flouri=Darrels! copia Gas coacity ste oe eees eS 710,000 
Burniture' —— poundSie-can <2. ei eceee are Salat ae 30,000,000 
Hardware = Casesitcn. thats «a aie kre nie eee eae 985 ,000 
Fine: leather—pounds. Sigs: 22 he Sse 11,500,000 
Saddleryq— PACKAGES heyecd ie cece eewentevahuait 255,000 
Stoves and stove castings — pounds........... 29,500,000 
Soap! ——Pownelsa see aint, c'. Mataeneteretnn. Stble rs 27,000,000 
Manufactured tobacco — pounds. :............ 52,000,000 
White lead and paints — pounds.............. 17,500,000 
‘Wagons —-— POURS be inn na clon ga le eee mente ere 35 ,900 ,000 
Whisky =—'Darrelse Sates afl d cian ee eae ee oreo ~. 365,000 

15,000,000 


Woolen goods — pounds............ceeeeeeeee 

Water.— The city owns the works which 
supply the citizens with water. A filter, cost- 
ing $3,000,000, has been added to the plant. 
The water is sold to the citizens at a price 
much lower than they could obtain it in any 
other way. 

Light.— The citizens have choice of three 
kinds of light furnished by different companies: 
these are electricity, artificial and natural gas. 
Natural gas is also much used for heat on ac- 
count of its cleanliness and convenience. 

Street Railways.—- Street railways on which 
cars run by electricity reach every part of the 
city and extend into the suburbs and to dis- 
tant neighboring towns. There are over 300 
miles in operation. 

Steamboats.— Steamboats with headquar- 
ters at Louisville, in spite of the interference of 
railroads, are yet seen upon the Ohio and other 
Western waters, and afford cheap rates of 
freight. There are not, however, so many 
floating palaces upon the Western rivers as 
there were before railroads came into use, but 
there are yet a few which prevent the Ohio 
and its glories of old from being forgotten. 

Board of Trade and Commercial Club.— 
There is a board of trade which keeps an eye 
on the interests of Louisville, and a com- 


-_~-~ 


LOUISVILLE 


mercial club which helps in the work. Any 
enterprise which looks to the interests of the 
city can be brought before either or both of 
these associations and secure recognition and 
help if deemed worthy. Both of them have 
done valuable work in behalf of the city. 

Newspapers.— There are five daily news- 
papers, three issued mornings and two even- 
ings. Many weekly, semi-weekly, monthly and 
periodical sheets are also issued. The Courier- 
Journal and Herald appear mornings and the 
Times and Post evenings. 

Libraries.— The only. public library in the 
city is the Louisville Free Public Library, suc- 
cessor to the Polytechnic Library, which was 
in turn successor to the Public Library of Ken- 
tucky. It has some 177,000 volumes on its 
shelves, and its present equipment is due to 
the generosity of Andrew Carnegie. The 
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary has a 
valuable library at the corner of Sixth and 
Broadway, and there are several other smaller 
collections which have something of a public 
character. There are also several large li- 
braries in the city which belong to private 
citizens, and one of these, which has upon its 
shelves some 50,000 volumes, is one of the 
largest private collection in the country. 

Sewers.— The sewerage system of Louis- 
ville is extensive. The early engineers were 
disposed to do all the draining of the city 
toward “Paddy’s Run,” a probable survivor of 
the Ohio when its channel was farther to the 
south. This system, however, had to be aban- 
doned when it was found that Paddys Run 
would itself have to be drained as the city 
enlarged. The present sewerage system termi- 
nates in the Ohio River, where it should have 
gone at first. 

Fire Protection.— The fire department of 
the city, under a chief, several assistants and 
firemen, has a modern equipment of steam 
engines, chemical engines and all the necessary 
accompaniments of water-towers, hooks and 
ladders, etc. It is kept up at an annual ex- 
pense to the city of about $320,000. 

Police.— The police force is maintained at 
an annual cost of about $436,000. The mem- 
bers are arranged after somewhat of a mili- 
tary grading, and consist of one chief with the 
rank of colonel, one assistant with the rank of 
major, captains, lieutenants, sergeants, cor- 
porals, chief of detectives, detectives, special de- 


‘tectives, district detectives, mounted men, sta- 


tion-keepers, wagoners, patrolmen and a secre- 
tary. 

Parks.— The parks of Louisville have only 
been established in recent years. The present 
system was organized in 1891, and lands pur- 
chased for an eastern, a southern and a west- 
ern park. There was no use for a northern 
park, as the river was on that side. The west- 
ern, known as Shawnee Park; consists of com- 
paratively level land and embraces 180 acres; 
the eastern, named Cherokee Park, has. 409 
acres of gently rolling land cut into picturesque 
ravines by Beargrass Creek; and the southern, 
called Iroquois Park, contains 676 acres of land, 
partly level, but mostly hilly, with some of its 
eminences nearly 300 feet into the air. The 
park commissioners purchased of the Dupont 
estate 18 acres known as Central Park, which, 
added to Baxter and Boone squares, will en- 


‘ LOUISVILLE 


large the intramural part’ of the system and 
meet the wants of those who cannot enjoy the 
suburban parks. The parks were named after 
the three Indian tribes who once asserted own- 
ership over the land. 

History— In 1773 Dr. John Connolly lo- 
cated 2,000 acres of land, to which he was en- 
titled for military service in the French and 
Indian War, on the south side of the Ohio 
River, immediately opposite the falls. This land 
was surveyed for him by Capt. Thomas Bullitt, 
and on 10 Dec. 1773 Lord Dunmore executed a 
~ deed to him for it. Connolly then conveyed to 
Col. John Campbell one-half of this land, and 
the two undertook to establish a town thereon, 
which Bullitt had laid out in the original sur- 
vey. In 1774 they advertised lots for sale, but 
Indian disturbances arose and no one came to 
buy the lots. To the Indian troubles difficulties 
between Great Britain and her colonies suc- 
ceeded, and increased until actual war was on 
between them. Connolly, as an adherent of 
England, was arrested by the patriots and 
thrown into prison, and Campbell fell into the 
hands of hostile Indians on his way from the 
Falls to Fort Pitt. Under such adverse condi- 
tions, with both proprietors in prison, the 
projected town at the Falls came to an end, 
and was probably forgotten by all except the 
unfortunate projectors. 

In the spring of 1778, while Gen. George 
Rogers Clark was floating down the Ohio with 
his boats loaded with soldiers for the conquest 
of the Illinois country, he felt the necessity of 
some safe place in which he could discipline 
his raw recruits. When he reached an island 
in the midst of the Falls, afterward known as 
Corn Island, and saw the rapid waters dashing 
around it, he concluded that was the place he 
wanted, and that no deserter could make his 
escape from this island. Hence he landed on 
this island, on 27 May 1778, and immediately 
went to work to erect cabins for some 20 fam- 
ilies of emigrants who came on his boats, and 
a blockhouse for his soldiers and supplies. He 
was opposed to these families coming on his 
boats, but Wwas glad they had come, as he could 
leave the supplies he could not take with him 
in their care on the island and thus take with 
him every soldier. At the end of a month he 
thought his raw troops had been disciplined 
enough to make them reliable soldiers and 
moved off with them down the river to Fort 
Massac, leaving the emigrants on the island, 
while the sun was in a full eclipse. The fam- 
ilies thus left on the island became the founders 
of Louisville. So far as has been ascertained, 
there were about 50 in number, consisting of 
men, women and children and one negro. They 
remained on the island until the news came 
that General Clark had conquered Kaskaskia, 
Vincennes, etc., and put an end to the Indian 
raids that came from the British posts there 
to prey upon the helpless families of the Vir- 
ginia border. Then, by order of General Clark, 
they built a fort on the main shore and moved 
into it in time to celebrate their. first Christ- 
mas in the wilderness with a dinner and a 
dance. 

The interest attached to the subject among 
the descendants of these founders of Louis- 
ville, who are numerous, will justify the record 
of their names here for the preservation of 

vot. 17 —44 


682 


their memories. So far as has been ascer- 
tained they were the following: 


James Patton, his wife, Mary, and their three daughters 
Martha, Peggy and Mary. 

Richard Chenowith, his wife, Margaret, and their four 
children, Mildred, James, Jane and Thomas. 

John McManess, his wife, Mary, and their three children, 
John, George and James. 

John Tewell, his wife, Mary, and their: three children, 
Ann, Minnie and Jessie. 

William Faith, his wife, Elizabeth, and their son, John. 

Jacob Reager, his wife, Elizabeth, and their three children, 
Sarah, Mariah and Henry. 

Edward Worthington, his wife, Mary, his son, Charles, 
and his two sisters, Mary (Mrs. James Graham) and Elizabeth — 
(Mrs. Jacob Reager). 

James Graham, his wife, Mary. 

John Doune, his wife, Martha, their son, John, and their 
colored man, Cato Watts. 

Isaac Kimbley, and his wife, Mary. ; 

Joseph Hunter and his children, Joseph, David, James 
Martha (Mrs. John Doune) and Ann. 

Neal Dougherty, Samuel Perkins, John Sinclair and 
Robert Tevis. 


The above-named persons who came to the 
Falls with General Clark and those who joined 
them as immigrants in the following spring 
held a public meeting 10 April 1779 and ap- 
pointed William Harrod, Richard Chenowith, 
Edward Bulger, James Patton, Henry French, 
Marsham Brashears and Samuel Moore trus- 
tees to lay out a town. These trustees met 
on 17 April 1779, and, having agreed upon 
a plan of the town, named it Louisville and 
employed John Corbly, a su-veyor, to lay it 
out and make a map of it. The plan of the 
town, aS mapped out by Corbly, consisted of 
nothing but one street running along the bank 
of the river and 12 cross-streets cutting in at 
right angles. 

On 1 May 1780, the legislature of Vir- 
ginia, in response to a petition of those 
who had laid out the town, confirmed their act 
and appropriated 1,000 acres of the land which 
had been forfeited from Connolly, for the 
benefit of the town. The same act of the legis- 
lature appointed nine trustees to manage the 
affairs of the town. 

The city continued under the government 
of trustees, either appointed by the legislature 
of Virginia or Kentucky or elected by the 
people, from 1780 to 1828. 

By the charter of 1828 Louisville passed 
from the government of trustees to that of a 
mayor and 10 councilmen. The first election 
under the charter occurred 4 May 1828, when 
John C. Bucklin was elected mayor. 

The city has greatly prospered since the 
adoption of this charter, although the charter 
itself was not of long duration. It was super- 
seded by the charter of 1851, which added to 
the governing power a board of 12 instead of 
10 aldermen, and increased the number of 
councilmen to 24. It also established the school 
board, the waterworks, the board of health, 
the board of police, the board of fire and the 
sinking fund. A third charter superseded the 
second in 1870, but the charter which added 
most to all departments of the city government 
was that of 1892. Under this charter a score 
of new departments or bureaus of the city 
were established. All of them report to the 
mayor and council, but it takes them all to 
conduct the affairs of the city. 

Population.— In the spring of 1779, joined 
by other immigrants, the 20 families of immi- 
grants who had come with General Clark laid 
out a town on the mainland and named it Louis- 


690 


ville, in honor of Louis XVI, king of France, 
who was then helping the colonists in their 
rebellion again Great Britain. By 1 May 1780 
these emigrants had increased possibly to 
100, and were at work building log cabins 
so as to free themselves from the confine- 
ment of the fort. By 1790 they had ‘prob- 
ably increased to 350, and in 1800, when the 
United States census for the first time recorded 
the population, but did not give it accurately, 
they had increased to 600. The population at 
present (1920) is 234,891. 

Consult Casseday, B., ‘History of Louis- 
ville, from its Settlement till the Year 1852? 
(Louisville 1852); Allison, Y. E., ‘City of 
Louisville and a Glimpse of Kentucky? (ib. 
1887) ; Powell, L. P., ‘Historic Towns of. the 
Southern States?’ (New York 1900); ‘The 
Book of Louisville and Kentucky (1915). 


LOUISVILLE AND NASHVILLE 
RAILROAD.- The Louisville and Nashville 
Railroad Company’s main lines extend from 
Cincinnati, Ohio, to Atlanta, Ga., via Lexington, 
Knoxville and Chattanooga; from Cincinnati 
to Memphis, Tenn., via Louisville and Guthrie ; 
from Saint Louis, Mo., to Pensacola, Fla., and 
to New Orleans, La., via Nashville, Birming- 
ham, Montgomery and Mobile, and to inter- 
mediate cities. 

The road was chartered on 5 March 1850, 
and the main line was opened to the public in 
November 1859. The company prospered, and 
from time to time other branches of the road 
were built and other systems absorbed, until 
at the close of the fiscal year ending 30 June 
1916 the company operated 5,041.61 miles of 
railroad, in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennes- 
see, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, 
North Carolina and Louisiana. It also owns 
a majority of the capital stock or is joint owner 
or lessee of 2,360.07 miles more railroad lines, 
comprised in the following roads: » Nashville, 
Chattanooga and Saint Louis Railway, the 
Birmingham Southern Railroad, the Georgia 
Railroad and its dependencies, the Atlanta, 
Knoxville and Northern Railway, and the Chi- 
cago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway, 
operated under separate organizations. If to 
this mileage be added that of 41 miles of roads 
operated by the Louisville and Nashville Rail- 
road, but whose earnings are not included in 
the earnings of the last-named railroad, and 
264.91 miles of branch lines owned but not 
operated by the Louisville and Nashville Rail- 
road, the grand total of mileage for the Louis- 
ville and Nashville system amounts to 7,642.38 
miles. 


The operating revenue for the fiscal year 
ended 30 June 1916 was $60,317,993, earned by 
the transportation of 11,925,101 passengers and 
35,488,688 tons of freight. The passenger 
travel averaged 44.40 miles, at a charge of 2.17 
cents per mile — aggregating in the year 529,- 
426,981 miles, and $11,488,086. The freight 
traffic averaged 183.49 miles per ton, at a 
charge of 0.686 cents per ton mile — aggregat- 
ing in the year 6,511,946,570 ton-miles, and 
$44,658,860. 

The operating expenses for the year were 
$39,790,481. After deducting taxes and uncol- 
lectible revenue, the total operating income was 
$18,265,906. Interest on funded debt amounted 
to $7,681,718, and the total non-operative in- 
come was $4, 456,167. The total net income 


LOUISVILLE AND NASHVILLE RAILROAD — LOUNSBURY 


from all sources was-$14,039,130, of which $13,- 
953,849 was transfered to profit and loss ac- 
count. The. dividend appropriations from sur- 
plus amounted to $4,320,000. 

The equipment of the system on 30 June 
1916 consisted of 1,042 locomotives, with an 
aggregate tractive capacity of 32,593,600 
pounds; 392 passenger cars; and 45,761 "freight 
cars, of which 20,368 were coal cars with 
an ageregate capacity of 894,462 tons. Bitu- 
minous coal constitutes the largest item of 
freight tonnage, amounting to 13,943,804 tons, 
or 40 per cent of all the freight handled. The 
operating revenue per mile of road was 
$11,964, and the operating expenses $7,892, 
making the net operating revenue per mile of 
road $4,072. 

The entire investment in the road and its 
equipment on 30 June 1916 was $271,683,491. 
Other investments of the company amounted 
to $35,026,729. The total stock outstanding on 
the date mentioned was $72,012,117, and the 
total long-term debt was $178,230,412. Accrued 
depreciation was placed at $31,538,865. The 
credit balance of the profit and loss account on 
the same date was $50,172,752. 

The Louisville and Nashville Railroad Com- 
pany owns but does not operate the Yellow 
River Railroad of Florida, a short line of less 
than 30 miles, operated independently. It also 
leases or operates the following roads, whose 
earnings are not included in the income ac- 
count of the lessee company: The Eastern 
Railroad of Alabama, about 20 miles of lines; 
the Elkton and Guthrie Railroad of Kentucky, 
about 11 miles of lines, and the Glasgow Rail- 
road of Kentucky, about 10 miles of lines. 

On 30 June 1916, $36,720,000 of the capital 
stock of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad 
was owned by the Atlantic Coast Line Rail- 
road Company. 


~LOULANGES CANAL. See CANADIAN 
CANALS. 


LOULE, 16-14, Portugal, town in the dis- 
trict “or Faro, 10 miles from the seaport of 
Faro;*/'It contains many interesting remains, 
including its old walls and towers of the Moor- 
ish period, the pilgrim church of Nossa Sen- 
hora da Piedade. Copper and silver mines 
are worked nearby. Basket-making is the chief 
industry, but there are also manufactures of 
leather, porcelain and esparto grass and palm 
products. Pop. 19,680. 


LOULE, lo-la’; Maroutis or, Portuguese 
nobleman and statesman: b. Lisbon, 1785; d 
1824. His early education was received in com- 
pany with John VI. In 1807 Loulé was given 
the title of Marquis and was placed in com- 
mand of the Portuguese army which formed 
part of the great force collected by Napoleon I 
in the Peninsular War. Loulé later joined John 
VI in Brazil and when that monorch returned to 
Portugal Loulé accompanied him. The Abso- 
lutists were antagonized by his loyalty to the 
king and by his liberalism and through devious 
means effected his assassination. 


LOUNSBURY, — lownz’ber-i, Thomas 
Raynesford, American scholar: b. Ovid, N. Y., 
1 Jan. 1838; d.9 April 1915. He was graduated 
at Yale in 1859: in 1862 he enlisted as a volun- 
teer in the Union army and served as Ist lieu- 
tenant of the 126th New York Volunteers. He 
was mustered out at the close of the war, and, 
after private tutoring for three years, became 


LOURDES — LOUTH 


in 1871 professor of English in the Sheffield 
Scientific School of Yale University. For 33 
~ years he was also librarian of the school. He 
retired from active service in June 1906. He 
was a member of the American Academy of 
Arts and Letters. He became well known as 
a student and critic of Chaucer and Shake- 


speare. He edited Chaucer’s ‘House of Fame? 
and ‘Parlement of Foules? (1877); ‘Works 
of Charles Dudley Warner? (1904); ‘Yale 


Book of American Verse? (1912), and is the 
author of ‘History of the English Language’ 
(1879) ; ‘James Fenimore Cooper? in ‘Amer- 


ican Men of Letters? series (1883); ‘Studies 
in Chaucer, his Life and Writings? (1892) ; 
“Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist? (1901); 
‘Shakespeare and Voltaire? (1902); ‘The 


Standard of Pronunciation, in English? (1904) ; 


‘The Text of Shakespeare? (1906) ; ‘The 
Standard of Usage in English? (1908); ‘Eng- 
lish Spelling and Spelling Reform? (1909) : 


“Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist? (1912). 


LOURDES, loord, France, town, in the de- 
partment of Hautes-Pyrénées, on the Gave de 
Pau, about 85 miles southeast of Bayonne. 
It is situated where seven mountain passes lead 
to favorite resorts in the Pyrenees. Nearby are 
valuable marble and slate quarries. Formerly 
Lourdes was famed for its chocolate and its 
fortified castle, which was considered impreg- 
nable in the days before the invention of fire- 
arms. Lourdes was then called the “key of the 
Pyrenees.» In the 18th century the castle was 
converted into a prison and became the Bastile 
of the Mountains. In the year 1858 Lourdes 
acquired new fame. A little peasant girl, about 
14 years of age, named Marie-Bernarde Soubir- 
ous (better known as “Bernadette”) reported to 
her parents, on 11 Feb. 1858, that she had seen 
a most beautiful lady in a grotto at the rocks of 
Massabielle, a part of the town. The pastor of 
the Roman Catholic church at Lourdes, and the 
priests of the neighboring towns, also the 
bishop of Tarbes, the diocese in which Lourdes 
is located, all gave the matter no attention un- 
til people from a distance began to visit 
Lourdes, and miracles were reported and scien- 
tists had begun observations and investigations. 
On 25 Feb. 1858 a spring appeared in a place 
where no water had been seen before. It was 
some days before the child gave a name to the 
lady; it was then Virgin Mary, under the name 
L’Immaculatée Conception. ‘The matter was 
then investigated by the. ecclesiastical authori- 
ties and pronounced a genuine apparition and 
many cures were said to be miraculous. The 
place has become noted for the large number 
of visitors, fully 600,000 annually. A magnifi- 
cent church, the Basilica of the Rosary, has 
been erected at the grotto, in which there is a 
great collection of votive offerings, and the 
flags of all nations show that pilgrims from 
the countries of the whole world have visited 
the place. The prosperity of the town is de- 
pendent on the pilgrims. Pop. about 8,805. 

Consult Benson, R. H., ‘Lourdes? (London 
1914); Bertrin, Histoire critique des événe- 
ments de Lourdes? (2d ed., Paris 1905); Bois- 
saire, ‘Lourdes histoire médicale? (ib. 1891) ; 
Estrade, J. ‘Appearances of the Blessed 
Virgin Mary at the Grotto of Lourdes? (New 
York 1913); Saint John, ‘The Blessed Virgin 
in the 19th Century? (1902); Zola, E, 
“Lourdes? (Paris 1894). 


691 


LOURENCO, Marques. See Lorenzo. 


LOUSE, a small parasitic insect of a 
family (Pediculide) of doubtful affinities, but 
usually considered to be Hemiptera, much de- 
graded through long-continued parasitism. The 
lice are all of small size, have soft, much flat- 
tened bodies with thin integument, the ab- 
domen enlarged, the thorax indistinctly seg- 
mented and without the slightest trace of 
wings, and the short legs terminated with 
strongly hooked, stout claws. The mouth-parts 
are adapted for sucking. There is a short 
proboscis provided with hooks, from the centre 
of which, when fixed in the skin of the host, 
protrudes an extremely delicate tube. The 
head is also provided with a pair of short, 
three- or five-jointed antenna, and small simple 
eyes. Probably on account of their disgust- 
ing habits the lice have been but little studied, 
and beyond the fact of their parasitism very 
little is known of their habits. They feed ex- 
clusively upon blood, which is secured by 
wounding the host’s skin, fixing the proboscis 
by means of its hooks, and ‘inserting the 
delicate tube above mentioned in the wound. 
A suction-bulb in the head propels the blood 
through the long writhing cesophagus into the 
bilobed stomach. Lice never leave their host 
except to pass to another, and the eggs, as well 
as all stages of the young, are found with the 
adult. Only six genera and less than 50 species 
have been described, but probably many others 
remain undiscovered. They are found on 
mammals exclusively, each species of mammal 
commonly harboring a peculiar species of louse. 
Man is more richly endowed, having three 
species: the head-louse (Pediculus capitis), the 
body-louse (P. corporis) and the crab-louse 
(q.v.). The two first mentioned are very 
closely alike and are said to vary according to 
the different races of men which they infest. 
Human lice are of course associated with filth, 
and are found only upon neglected children 
and persons of uncleanly habits. A very re- 
markable louse is found on the seal, and is 
consequently aquatic. 

The bird-lice (q.v.), or Mallophaga, are en- 
tirely distinct from the true lice. 

Consult Piaget, ‘Les Pediculines?; Giebel 
and Nitzsch, ‘Insecta Epizoica? ; Ealand, (Tn- 
sects and Man? (New York 1915). 


LOUSEWORT, the plants of the genus 
Pedicularis, of the family Scrophulariacee, 
which are low, usually pubescent, perennial 
herbs, with chiefly pinnatified leaves and spikes 
of purplish yellow, two-lipped flowers. The 
species are few in North America, the most 
common being P. canadensis, sometimes called 
wood-betony. 


LOUSIAD, low’zi-ad, The. An_heroic- 
comic poem in five cantos by John Wolcott 
(1785), in which the author ridiculed the home 
life of George III. The poem, according to the 
author, was suggested by the presence of a 
louse on a dish brought to the king’s table. 
An order went forth immediately to shave the 
heads of the royal scullions. 


LOUTH, lowth, England, market town and 
municipal borough of Lincolnshire, on the 
river Lud and on the Grimsby branch of the 
Great Northern Railway, 141 miles north of 
London. A canal connects it with the Humber. 
The town contains the fine old church of Saint 


weve 


692 


James, a town hall, corn exchange, a grammar 
school, commercial school, a hospital, several 


almshouses, Thorpe Hall and the ruins of a | 


It has manufactures of agri- 
cultural implements, iron foundries and rope 
and brick-making establishments. There are 
municipal markets and a cemetery. Louth, ac- 
cording to the Domesday Book, was a 'bor- 
ough held by the bishop of Lincoln from Saxon 
times. It was surrendered to Henry VIII. In 
1536 the Lincolnshire Rebellion broke out here. 
The town was incorporated under Edward VI 
in 1551 and a new charter was granted in 1830. 
Pop. 9,880. Consult Goulding, Richard W., 
‘Louth Old Corporation Records? (Louth 
1891). 


LOUVAIN, loo-van (Flemish, Leuven; 
German, Lowen), Belgium, city in the province 
of Brabant, on the Dyle, 15 miles east by north 
of Brussels. It was surrounded by earthen 
ramparts, which have been converted into pleas- 
ant promenades, which form almost a perfect 
circle, diameter nearly two miles. There are 
many buildings of historical interest, among 
which are the Hotel de Ville, one of the rich- 
est and most beautiful Gothic buildings in the 
world, elaborately and exquisitely decorated in 
every part of its exterior by sculptures of sub- 
jects taken, for the most part, from the Old 
Testament ‘(restored 1842, injured by lightning 
1890) ; the collegiate church of Saint Peter, al- 
most opposite the Hotel de Ville, built at the 

end of the 14th century, an edifice of vast ex- 
~ tent, which was rich in works of art, particu- 
larly a fine ‘Holy Family? by Matsys. The 
educational institutions were numerous, among 
them the university, which had a number of 
American students who were studying for 
the priesthood. It had an attendance of nearly 
3,000 students and a library of 120,000 volumes, 
specially rich in examples of 15th and 16th 
century printed books. There are also a col- 
lege, an academy of fine arts, two normal 
schools for the training of teachers, several 
secondary and elementary schools. There are 
hospitals, homes for orphans and other chari- 
table institutions. It has a number of manu- 
factories, the most important of which are the 
tanneries. For a general trade the town is 
well situated, having ample communication 
both by railroad and the Louvain Canal. The 
name of Louvain first appears in history about 
the end of the 9th century. It was surrounded 
with walls in 1115, but was afterward much en- 
larged. The dukes of Brabant inhabited the 
castle till the 13th century. At the beginning 
of the 14th century Louvain was the capital of 
Brabant, contained 200,000 inhabitants and had 
an extensive and flourishing trade in the man- 
ufacture of broadcloth and all kinds of woolens. 
The populace, jealous of the privileges of the 
nobles, revolted in 1382, and being overcome 
by Duke Wenceslaus and subjected to severe 
oppression, emigrated in great numbers to Eng- 
land and thus caused the decay of the town. 
During the European War Louvain was taken 
by the Germans on 19 Aug. 1914. After six 
days of peaceful occupation the Germans ad- 
vanced beyond the city, but were driven back 
by the Belgian troops about Malines. Return- 
ing to Louvain, the German troops under the 
command of Major von Manteuffel, began to 
devastate the city. At midnight the houses 


Cistercian abbey. 


LOUVAIN 


were set in flames, while rifle and machine-gun 
fire swept the streets. The German version 
stated that the fighting was the outcome of a 
plot among the civilian population; the Bel- 
gians declare that a detachment of German 
troops, driven back from Malines, was fired 
upon in mistake by the Germans occupying 
Louvain. On the 26th fire and destruction con- 
tinued; the university with its library were set 
on fire, also the church of Saint Peter and 
many houses. Citizens were shot and others 
taken prisoners and compelled to go with the 
troops. Many of the civilians hid in cellars, 
but the soldiers fired down through the grat- 
ings. On 27 August orders were given that 
everyone should leave the city; it was going to 
be bombarded. The exodus began in the morn- 
ing; streams of men, women and children 
passed along the roads——in opposite directions 
— leading to Malines and Tirlemont. Groups 
of prisoners with tightly-bound hands were led 
by long ropes. About 1,000 refugees were 
brought back to Louvain on 28 August and 
placed in a large building on the cavalry 
exercise ground. “These prisoners were prac- 
tically without food from early morning on the 
26th until midnight on the 29th. Of the corpses 
seen on the road some had their hands tied be- 
hind their backs, others were burnt, some had 
been killed by blows, and some corpses were 
those of children who had been shot. 

On the way from Rotselaer to Wespelaer 50 
bodies were seen, some naked and carbonized 
and unrecognizable» (Bryce Report). A 
crowd of men, women and children from 
Aerschot (q.v.) were marched to Louvain and 
exposed to rifle and machine-gun fire. One 
batch of prisoners comprised 27 ecclesiastics, 
of whom Father Eugene Dupiéreux, aged 23, 
was executed in the presence of his colleagues 
for having in his pocket a piece of paper on 
which was written: “The Germans have in- 
vaded Belgium with fire and sword . 

when Omar destroyed the library of Alex- 
andria, none believed that such vandalism 
would ever be repeated. It was repeated in 
Louvain . such is the Germanische kul- 
tur of which they boasted so much” Father 
Schill, S. J., a native of Luxemburg, was com- 
pelled to read the document — which was in 
French — and translate it into German. Con- 
sult Massart, Jean, ‘Belgians under the Ger- 
man Eagle? (London 1916); Morgan, J. H., 
‘Official Investigation on German Atrocities? 
(London 1916): ‘An Eye-Witness at Louvain? 
(per Father Thurston, S. J., London 1914) ; 
Toynbee, A. J., ‘The German Terror in Bel- 
gium>? (New York 1917). See War, Evro- 
PEAN: INVASION OF BeLctuM. Pop. 42,123. 


LOUVAIN, University of. An institution 
for higher education situated at Louvain, Bei- 
gium. It was founded in 1425 and was richly 
endowed. At one time it had 28 constituent 
colleges, including the Collegium Trilingue, 
founded in 1517 for the study of Hebrew, 
Greek and Latin. In the 16th century the uni- 
versity was attended by 6,000 students and was 
one of the first scientific institutions of Eu- 
rope, celebrated especially for its department 
of Roman Catholic theology. The university 
played an important part in the reformation 
from within of the Catholic Church in the 
16th century. Some of its faculties were trans- 


L’OUVERTURE — LOVAGE 


ferred to Brussels in 1788, but during the 
French Revolution the university was sup- 
pressed and although it was reconstituted in 
1817 it has not regained its past glory. The 
present foundation dates from 1834-35 when 
the Belgian bishops re-established the univer- 
sity on its present basis. In 1913 it had 2,855 
students and a library of 250 incunabula and 
120,000 volumes. In August 1914 the univer- 
sity and library were razed by the German 
hordes pouring over the border to attack 
France. All the work of the university was 
suspended at Louvain, but the leading British 
universities made generous offer of their facili- 
ties to the homeless faculties of Louvain and 
to such of its students as were able to continue 
their course. Consult Gill, H. V., ‘Louvain 
and its University? (in Irish Monthly, Vol. 
XLII, Dublin 1914). 


L’OUVERTURE, Toussaint. 
SAINT L’OUVERTURE. 


LOUVOIS, Francois Michel Le Tellier, 
fran-swa mé-shel lé tél-€-4 loo-vwa, MaArQuis 
or, Minister of War to Louis XIV: b. Paris, 18 
Jan. 1641; d. 16 July 1691. He was early made 
a royal councillor through the influence of his 
father who was War Secretary. After 1666 
he had the whole management of the Ministry 
of War and soon exercised great power under 
the king and over the army. His extensive 
knowledge, his decision, activity, industry and 
talents, rendered him an able minister; but he 
was too lavish of the blood and treasure of 
France and he pandered to the vanity and pas- 
sion for military glory of his master. Justly 
appreciated, Louvois must be considered as the 
evil genius of the showy but disastrous reign 
of Louis XIV. The war of 1672 against Hol- 
land was begun at his instigation. The vic- 
tories of Turenne in 1674 and 1675 were gained 
by a disobedience of the orders of the Minister 
of War; but the devastation of the Palatinate 
“was commanded by him. On the death of Col- 
bert (1683), of whom he had been the enemy, 
his influence became still greater; he opposed 
Louis’ secret marriage with Madame de Main- 
tenon; and to a large extent he was respon- 
sible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
(1685), the dragonnades, and the consequent 
flight of so many peaceful and industrious Cal- 
vinists. The encroachments of France had 
united the European powers in the League of 
Augsburg. Louvois would have the king com- 
mence operations against the allies at once, but 
the growing influence of Madame ae Mainte- 
non was sufficient to prevent this. In 1688. how- 
ever, the French forces took Philipsburg on the 
Rhine, and on the order of Louvois the Pala- 
tinate was reduced to a wilderness in midwin- 
ter (1689). Louvois’ scheme of army organ- 
ization lasted till the empire; but he undid the 
constructive work of Colbert and destroyed 
the commerce of France. . Consult Rousset, 
“Histoire de Louvois? (Paris 1872); Michel, 
' “Louvois et les protestants?. (ib. 1870). 


LOUVRE, loovr, The, an old royal palace 
at Paris, on the north bank of the Seine, a 
splendid quadrangular edifice, with a court in 
the centre, completed by Napoleon. The origin 
of its name and the time of the erection of the 
oldest part of it are unknown. It is only known 
that Philip Augustus, in 1214, built a fort and 
a state prison in this place, that Charles V, 


See Tous- 


693 


during the years 1364-80, added some embellish- 
ments to the building and brought his library 
and his treasury thither. From the great 
donjon tower in the centre of the castle the 
great fiefs of France took the feudal oath. 
Francis I erected that part of the palace which 
is now called the old Louvre. Henry IV laid 
the foundation of the splendid gallery which 
connects the Louvre on the south side with the 
Tuileries; Louis XIII erected the centre, and 
Louis XIV, according to the plan of the physi- 
cian Perrault, the elegant facade toward the. 
east, together ‘with the colonnade of the Louvre, 
which is still the most perfect work of archi- 
tecture in France. At a later period Louis 
XIV chose the palace built by him at Versailles 
for his residence. After Napoleon had taken 
possession of the Tuileries he began a second 
gallery, opposite to the former, by which the 
two palaces would have been made to form a° 
great whole, with a large quadrangular. court 
in the centre; only 600 feet of it were completed 
at the time of his abdication, and it remained 
uncompleted till 1857, when the work, in an 
improved and extended form, was finished. It 
was greatly injured by the communists in May 
1871, the Richelieu pavilion, containing the 
magnificent library, being burned. A great re- 
construction was made between 1900 and 1902. 
The Louvre was set apart by the Convention 
as a museum for the national collections in 
science and art and was first called Le Musée 
National. It contains the museums of paint- 
ings, drawings, engravings, bronze antiques, 
sculptures, ancient and modern, tapestries, fur- 
niture, together with special collections of an- 
tiquities and an ethnographical collection. The 
collection of paintings is the largest in the 
world, French being best represented, and 
Dutch masters next.* There are works by 
Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Rubens 
and Van Dyck. Since 1895 the Louvre has 
been given the right to buy and sell like a 
private individual, and a society exists for 
the purpose of helping the museum to 
buy works of importance. In 1909 the Museum 
of Decorative Arts was transferred from the 
Palais de I’Industrie to the Louvre. 


LOUYS, loo’é, Pierre, French ‘novelist and 
poet: b. Paris, 1870. He was educated at the 
Lycée of Janson de Sailly and at the Sor- 
bonne. In 1889 he founded the review, La 
Conque. He came into prominence in 1896 
with the publication of the novel ‘Aphrodite. 
Ten years later it was produced as an opera. 
The scene is laid in Alexandria at the begin- 
ning of the Christian era. Louys’ ‘Chansons 
de Bilitis, roman lyrique’ purports to be a 
Greek translation. Its subject matter is objec- 
tionable. Other works are ‘Astarté? (1892) ; 
‘La femme et le pantin? (1898); ‘Les aven- 
tures du roi Pausole? (1900); ‘Sanguines? 
(1903) ; ‘L’Archipel? (1906) ; ‘Psyché? (1909), 
and a translation from Lucan, ‘La vie des 
courtisanes? (1894). 

LOVAGE, an umbelliferous plant of the 
genus Levisticum, native to the south of 
Europe, sometimes cultivated in gardens, and 
notwithstanding its strong and peculiar odor, 
used as a salad plant. Its roots and seeds are 
aromatic, acrid and stimulant, and a liquor 
called “lovage” is made from them. The Scot- 
tish lovage is a native of the sea-coasts and 


694 


has become naturalized in maritime New Eng- 
land. It is eaten, both raw and boiled, by the 
Shetlanders. The flavor is aromatic, but acrid 


and very nauseous to those unaccustomed to it. | 


LOVAT, lo’vat, Simon Fraser, 12th Baron, 
Scottish chieftain: b. 1667; d. London, 9 April 
1747. He was educated at King’s College, 
Aberdeen, and in 1699, on the death of his 
father, assumed the title of Lord Lovat, to 
which on the death of the 10th Lord Lovat his 
father had acquired a disputed claim. In con- 
sequence of proceedings taken in 1698 against 
him and his clan, in which he.was declared 
guilty of treason, he went to France. He 
afterward obtained a pardon and returned to 
Scotland. Being summoned before the High 
Court of Justiciary in 1701 for an outrage done 
to the Dowager Lady Lovat, whom he married 
by violence, he failed to appear, and was out- 
lawed. In 1715 he was asked by the Jacobites 
of his clan to espouse the cause of the Pre- 
tender, but inducing them to support the gov- 
ernment he received in reward the estate and 
title of Lovat, the other claimant of which had 
been involved in the rebellion. In 1740 he was 
the first to sign the association for the sup- 
port of the Pretender, and on the breaking-out 
of the rebellion, in 1745, sent his eldest son 
with a body of his clan to join the Pretender, 
while he remaining at home asserted his loyalty 
to the house of Brunswick. It was only after 
the prince’s success at Prestonpans that he al- 
lowed his real sympathies to be shown. He 
was arrested after Culloden, found guilty of 
treason and was executed on Tower Hill, in 
the 80th year of his age. Consult Burton, 
‘Life of Simon, Lord Lovat? (London 1847) ; 
and Mackenzie, W. C., ‘Simon Fraser, Lord 
Lovat: His Life and Times? (ib. 1908). 


LOVE, Court of. See Court or LOVE. 
LOVE-APPLE. See Tomato. 


LOVE-BIRD, one of the very small par- 
rots of the genus Agapornis, not larger than 
sparrows, which show extreme affection for 
one another, two or more sitting as close as 
possible to one another, and cooing and caress- 
ing in a manner most delightful to watch. 
They are common as cage-birds all over the 
world, are pretty in color and fond of being 
petted. They are to be treated and fed in the 
cage in the same way as canaries. The true 
love-birds are African, but dealers give the 
same name to various other diminutive tropical 
species of similar habits. See Parrots and the 
books cited there. 


LOVE FEASTS, religious meetings held 
quarterly by the Wesleyan and other sects. 
Love feasts are retained in avowed imitation 
of the ancient Agape. See AGAPE. 


LOVE LIES A-BLEEDING. See Ama- 
RANTHUS. 


LOVEDALE, South Africa, an important 
educational and mission station about 40 miles 
west-of King William’s Town and 650 miles 
northeast of Cape Town. It was founded in 
1841 by the Free Church of Scotland (now the 
United Free Church). Besides a general edu- 
cation, it trains teachers for native schools, and 
gives technical instruction in printing, book- 
binding, telegraphy, carpentering and other use- 
ful arts and crafts; its success has been most 
creditable. 


LOVAT — LOVEJOY 


LOVEJOY, Arthur Oncken, American 
professor: b. Berlin, Germany, 10 Oct. 1873. In 
1895 he was graduated at the University of 
California, and subsequently studied at the uni- 
versities of Harvard and Paris. In 1899-1901 
he was assistant and associate professor of 
philosophy at Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity; from 1901 to 1908 professor of philosophy 
at Washington University, Saint Louis. In 
1908-10 he held a similar chair at the Univer- 
sity of Missouri, and since 1910 has been pro- 
fessor of philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 
1907-08 he was lecturer in philosophy at 
Columbia University. Professor Lovejoy is 
Fellow of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science; was president in 
1909 of the Western Philosophical Associa- 
tion, and in 1915 served as secretary of the 
American Association of University Professors. 
He is a contributor to the Journal of Philoso- 
phy, the Journal of Ethics, the Hibbert Journal, 
Mind, the Monist, the Nation, etc. 


LOVEJOY, Elijah Parish, American 
abolitionist: b. Albion, Me., 9 Nov. 1802; d. 
wlll, 7 Nov. 1837. He was graduated at 


Waterville College in 1826, and at the Prince- 


ton Theological Seminary in 1833, and was or- 
dained to the ministry, but soon after assumed 
the editorship of the Saint Louis Observer, a 
Presbyterian paper of considerable influence. 
His utterances on the slavery question did not 
begin to appear in the Observer until he had 
been for some time in charge of its columns, 
and his first references to that subject were 
marked by moderation. But, stirred by the 
lynching of a negro murderer by burning, he 
published an editorial which incensed the pro- 
slavery part of the community. Hostility was 
so violent that he removed the paper to Alton, 
Ill, where a mob threw his press into the 
river. He was presented with another by 
Alton friends, and 8 Sept. 1836 published the 
first issue of the Alton Observer. He soon 
took a bolder anti-slavery stand, and began to 
call for the organization of a State abolition 
society. Again, in August 1837, he was mobbed, 
his office wrecked and the press destroyed, and 
when a new press was bought the ruin was 
again repeated. The fourth press was set up 
in a warehouse under an armed guard; but 
during the night of 7 Nov. 1837 a score or two 
of men attacked the building, disregarded 
Lovejoy’s warning, were fired upon and one 
of the assailants was killed. An attempt was 
then made to set the warehouse on fire, and 
when Lovejoy was preparing to shoot the in- 
cendiary, he himself received a mortal gunshot 
wound. The mob then took possession of the 
place, and once more Lovejoy’s press was de- 
stroyed. The whole country was excited by 
these events; public feeling was manifested in 
various ways; but the most significant effect of 
the tragedy was a more distinct arraying of 
forces for the “irrepressible conflict” which had 
already begun. Consult J. C. and Owen Love- 
joys ‘Memoir? (New York 1838); May, 
‘Some Recollections of Our Anti-slavery Con- 
flict? (Boston 1869); Tanner, Henry (one of 
the defenders of the warehouse), ‘The Martyr- 
dom of Lovejoy? (Chicago 1881); Garrison, 
‘William Lloyd Garrison? (New York 1885), 
and Martyn, ‘Wendell Phillips — the Agitator? 
(1890). 


LOVEJOY — 


LOVEJOY, Owen, American abolitionist: 
b. Albion, Me., 1811; d. 1864. He was a 
brother of E. P. Lovejoy (q.v.) ; was educated 
at Bowdoin College, and in early life he re- 
moved to Alton, Ill. Entering the ministry of 
the Congregational Church, he preached and 
lectured against slavery. with a power that 
roused his hearers and carried wide conviction. 
At Princeton, Ill, where he began a pastorate 
in 1838, he became conspicuous for the earnest- 
ness of his -anti-slavery addresses, and for 
his persistence in holding anti- slavery meetings 
in defiance of legal and official prohibitions. 
In 1844 he was elected to the legislature, and 
resigned his pulpit. Elected to Congress in 
1856 he participated in its most exciting de- 
bates until the time of his death. He was with 
his brother Elijah at Alton, Ill, 7 Nov. 1837, 
and was a witness of his tragic death. 


LOVEJOY, Owen Reed, American soci- ‘ 


ologist: b. Jamestown, Mich., 9 Sept. 1866. In 
1891 he was graduated at Albion College, Mich- 
igan. From 1891 to 1898 he was minister of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church and from 1899 
to 1904 served as pastor of a Congregational 
church at Mount Vernon, N. Y. In 1904 he 
became assistant secretary and three years later 
general secretary of the National Child Labor 
Committee. He is a member of the American 
Association for Labor Legislation, the Ameri- 
can Economic Association, the American Polit- 
ical Science Association, the National Confer- 
ence of Charities and Corrections, the New 
York Academy of Political Science, ete. ube 
has published bulletins and papers on uniform 
child-labor laws, child labor in the glass indus- 
try, etc. 


LOVELACE, Francis, American colonial 
governor: b. Hurley, Berkshire, England, about 
1618; d. England, about 1675. He was a 
younger son of the Ist Baron Lovelace; was 
an adherent of the royalist cause during the 
Puritan uprising and during the Common- 
wealth. In 1668 succeeded Richard Nicolls as 
governor of New York. He encouraged trade 
and the fishery interests and permitted re- 
ligious freedom, but oppressed the inhabitants 
by heavy taxation and became very unpopular. 
During his temporary. absence from the town 
in 1673 the Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor 
and the citizens speedily surrendered willingly. 
Lovelace was permitted to return to England, 
and it is believed that he died there about two 
years afterward. 


LOVELACE, Richard, English lyrical 
poet: b. Woolwich, Kent, 1618; d. London, 
1658. He was educated at Oxford, entered the 
army and became a captain. He joined the ex- 
pedition to Scotland in 1639. He spent his 
fortune in support of the royal cause; was im- 
prisoned in 1642 for petitioning for a restora- 
tion of the rights of the king. After entering 
into the French service, in 1648, he returned 
to England and was imprisoned until the king’s 
death. His destitute condition at this time is 
in marked contrast to accounts of his hand- 
some person and splendid appearance earlier 
in life. He died in great poverty. His poems, 
which are light and elegant, were published in 
1659 under the title of ‘Lucasta.». The best 
known of his lyrics are ‘To Althea, from 
Prison? and ‘To Lucasta, on Going to the 


LOVEMAN 695 


Wars.’ Lovelace, who for spirit and gallantry 
has been compared to Sir Philip Sidney, also 
wrote ‘The Scholar? (1636), a comedy, and 
“The Soldier? (1640), a tragedy. An edition 
of his poems, edited by W. C. Hazlitt, was 
published in 1864. 

LOVELAND, liv’land, Colo., city in Lari- 
mer County, on the Colorado and Southern and 
the Great Western railroads, 60 miles north of 
Denver. The city has a Carnegie library, hos- 
pital, the Loveland Canon, Estes Park, also 
beet-sugar mills, canning factories, brick-yards, - 
gypsum mills and a co-operative condensing 
plant. The electric-light plant and the water- 
supply system are municipally owned. Pop. 
(1920) 5,279. 


LOVELL, James, American patriot: b. 
Boston, Mass., 31 Oct. 1737; d. Windham, Me., 
14 July 1814. He was a son of John Lovell 
(q.v.), was graduated from Harvard in 1756 
and taught in the Boston Latin School under 
his father in 1757-75. In 1771 he delivered the 
first anniversary-oration on the so-called “Bos- 
ton Massacre.” He was imprisoned by Gen- 
eral Gage and carried to Halifax, but was ex- 
changed in November 1776, and sat in the Con- 
tinental Congress, 1776-82. He was collector 
of the port of Boston, 1788-89, and its naval 
officer, 1790-1814. He failed to appreciate 
Washington’s qualities as leader and supported 
the Conway Cabal to place General Gates in 
supreme command. 


LOVELL, John, American educator: b. 
Boston, Mass., 16 June 1710; d. Halifax, N. S., 
1778. He was graduated from Harvard in 
1728. The next year he was appointed usher 
in the Boston Latin School and was its master 
from 1734 till the siege of Boston caused its 
suspension, 19 April 1775. He was a rigid dis- 
ciplinarian, but nevertheless genial and popular, 
and many of his pupils were leaders of the 
Revolution. In 1743 he was the chosen orator 
at the dedication of Faneuil Hall. A loyalist 
in his sympathies he went to Halifax on the 
evacuation of Boston by the English troops and 
died there. A portrait of him by Smybert is in 
Memorial Hall at Harvard University. 


LOVELL, Mansfield, American soldier: 
b. Washington, D. C., 1822; d. 1884. In 1842 
he was graduated at the United States Mili- 
tary Academy; was commissioned lieutenant 
of artillery and saw active service against Mex- 
ico. He was wounded at. Monterey. He re- 
signed from the army in 1854 and entered civil 
life, becoming in 1858 superintendent of street 
improvements and deputy street commissioner 
of New York. On the outbreak of the Civil 
War he became a major-general in the Con- 
federate army; was attached to the Department 
of the South with New Orleans as headquar- 
ters. He surrendered that city to Farragut. In 
the later phases of the war he served in Mis- 
sissippi, Georgia and South Carolina. For 
some few years after the war he retired to a 
plantation near Savannah, but subsequently 
served as assistant to John Newton in deepen- 
ing the ship channel at Hell Gate in the East 
River, New York. 

LOVEMAN, Robert, American poet: b. 
Cleveland, Ohio, 11 April, 1864; d. Hot Springs, 
Ark., 10 July 1923. He received an academic 
education at Dalton, Ga., and thereafter traveled 


696 


and studied abroad. He was a frequent con- 
tributor to magazines, and his verse is marked 
by simplicity and earnestness. He published 
“Poems? in 1889, 1893 and 1897; ‘A Book ot 
Verse? (1900); ‘The Gates of "Silence, ” with 
“Interludes of Song? (1903); ‘Songs from a 
Georgia Garden”; ‘Echoes from the Gates of 
Silence? (1905); ‘The Blushful South and 
Hippocrene? ; ‘On the Way to Willowdale’. 


LOVER, Samuel, Irish painter, novelist 
and poet: b. Dublin, 24 Feb. 1797; d. Saint 
Helier, Island of Jersey, 6 July 1868. He first 
devoted his attention to painting, and in 1828 
became a member of the Royal Hibernian 
Academy of Art. He afterward wrote novels, 
which he illustrated himself, dramas, operettas 
and songs which he set to music of his own. 
In 1844 he gave a series of public entertain- 
ments called Irish evenings, which he repeated 
in the United States and Canada in 1846. 
Among his works are ‘Legends and Stories of 


Ireland? (1831); ‘Rory O’More? (1837) ; 
“Songs and Ballads? (1839) ; ‘Handy Andy’ 
(1842); ‘Treasure Trove? (1844). . The 
Angels’ Whisper?; ‘Rory O’More?’; ‘Molly 


Bawn? and the ‘Low-backed Car are among 
his most popular songs. His works in six vol- 
umes, with introduction by O’Donohue, were 
issued in New York in 1900, and with intro- 
duction by Roche, in Boston, 1902. 


LOVE’S LABOUR’S LOST (circa 1590) 
is the most obviously experimental of Shake- 
speare’s plays and for that reason is reckoned 
his earliest unaided work (that it was actually 
earlier than ‘The Comedy of Errors,? which 
was written under classic guidance, cannot be 
asserted). It has one of Shakespeare’s two or 
three most original plots and technically one of 
the worst, though it is distinctly entertaining. 
The central situation is the converse of that in 
Tennyson’s ‘Princess?: for the sake of study 
a company of young gentlemen have bound 
themselves to absurd regulations against com- 
munication with women. Around the inevi- 
table shattering of these self-imposed vows the 


author puts together a loose succession of 


scenes quite lacking in coherence, but sug- 
gested by all the varied ideas which at the time 
happened to be in his mind; his recollection from 
Stratford of the comicality of the country par- 
son, schoolmaster and yokel; his almost naive 
admiration of the superficially brilliant London 
lords and ladies; and his yet far from intelli- 
gent interest in foreign affairs. The chief fig- 
ures are leading personages in contemporary 
French history: the Princess of France (Queen 
Catherine de Medici), Henry of Navarre, two 
Huguenot generals associated with him (Longa- 
ville and Biron), and — bizarrely enough — Na- 
varre’s arch-enemy, the Duc de Mayenne (Du- 
maine). These veteran diplomats and war- 
riors are represented as sentimental young peo- 
ple of the most charming wit and volatility. 
Insouciance is the keynote; the play’s the 
thing; but nothing that happens really matters 
and the plot leads nowhere. This comedy is 
primarily interesting as a study in style. Lyly 
exerts the strongest literary influence and there 
is much echoing of his mannered prose, as well 
as of his artificial pictures of social life at 
court; but rhyming couplets, blank verse, 
quatrains, anapestic rhyme, hexameter, dog- 
gerel and various lyric measures are all experi- 


LOVER — LOW 


mentally employed. Naturally enough, greater 
maturity appears in the lyric than in the dra- 
matic portions, Masefield calls the final song 
(“When daisies pied and violets blue?) “the 
loveliest thing ever said about England” Un- 
consciously, but certainly, Shakespeare mirrors 
himself in his chief figure, Biron, and the com- 
edy is revelatory in the most important degree 
of the author’s mental tendencies at the begin- 
ning of his career. An admirable and promis- 
ing sanity appears in Biron-Shakespeare’s final 
renunciation of the flimsy brilliancies which so 
enchanted him: 


“ Taffeta phrases, silken terms precise, 
Three-pil’d hyperboles, spruce affectation, 
Figures pedantical; these summer-flies 
Have blown me full of maggot ostentation. 
I do forswear them — (V.ii, 406 ff.) 


The play enjoyed a lasting esteem on the Eliza- 
bethan stage. There is no question that the 


* text as we have it includes alterations and ad- 


ditions made when Shakespeare’s art had fur- 
ther developed — probably when the comedy 
was revived for performance before Queen 
Elizabeth herself on Christmas of either 1597 
or 1598 (consult Gray, H. D., ‘The Original 
Version of “Love’s Labour’s Lost, ete. 
Stanford Univ., 1918). Another court per- 
formance, before James I, was given by 
Shakespeare’s company at Whitehall early in 
January 1605. 
TUCKER BROOKE. 


LOVETT, Edgar Odell, American mathe- 
matician: b. Shreve, Ohio, 14 April 1871. In 
1890 he was graduated at Bethany College, 
West Virginia, and later studied at the univer- 
sities of Virginia, Leipzig and Christiania. In | 
1890-92 the was professor of mathematics at 
West Kentucky College; from 1892 to 1895 was 
instructor in astronomy at the University of 
Virginia. In 1897 he became instructor in 
mathematics, in 1898 assistant professor, in 
1900 professor at Princeton.. In 1905-08 he 
held the chair of astronomy there. In 1908 Pro- 
fessor Lovett was made president of Rice In- 
stitute, Houston, Tex. He is a contributor on 
geometry, mechanics and mathematical as- 
tronomy to various American and foreign 
journals, 


LOVETT, Robert Scott, American’ rail- 
way Official: b. San Jacinto, Tex., 22 June 1860. 
He was educated in the public schools and 
Houston High School, followed by private in- 
struction. In 1882 he was admitted to the bar; 
was attorney for the Houston, East and West 
Texas Railway Company in 1884-89, assistant 
general attorney of the Texas and Pacific Rail- 
way in 1889-91 and general attorney of this 
road in 1891-92, From 1892 to 1903 Mr. Lovett 
was general attorney and counsel for all 
Southern Pacific lines in Texas. From 1904 to 
1909 Mr. Lovett was general counsel for the 
Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific and 
affliated railroads, and from 1909 to 1913 he 
was chairman of the executive committee and 
president of these systems. In March ‘1918 he 
became director of the division of additions and 
betterments under the United States Railway 
Administration. 

LOW, Albert Peter, Canadian geologist: 
b. Montreal, 1861. He received his education 
at McGill University; began his connection 
with the Canadian Geological Survey in 188] 


LOW 


and was appointed geologist in 1891. From 
1892 to 1899 he made extended explorations of 
the Labrador Peninsula (Ungava). In 1900, at 
the Paris Exposition Mr. Low had charge of 
the Canadian mineral exhibit. In 1901-02 he 
discovered workable iron deposits in Hudson 
Bay and in 1903 was in charge of an Arctic ex- 
pedition which claimed the Arctic islands for 
Canada. In 1906 he was made director of the 
Canadian Geological Survey and in the follow- 
ing year Deputy Minister of Mines. In 1896 he 
was awarded the Gill prize by the Royal 
Geographical Society of England and _ has 
served as vice-president of the Geological So- 
ciety of America and of the Canada Forestry 
Association. 


LOW, A(lfred) Maurice, Anglo-American 
author and journalist; b. London, England, 1860. 
He was educated at King’s College, London, and 
in Austria. He has been chief American corre- 
spondent of the London Morning Post and 
writer on American affairs for the London 
National Review since 1896. He investigated 
certain phases of English labor legislation for 
the United States Department of Labor in 
1900, and English trade unions and industry in 
1903. He has written ‘The Supreme Sur- 
render? (1901); ‘Protection in the United 
States? (1904); ‘American Life in Town and 
Country? (1905); ‘A Short History of Labor 
Legislation in Great Britain? (1907); ‘The 
American People: A Study in National 
Psychology? (2 vols., 1909-11), and contribu- 
tions to leading English and Americans re- 
views. 

LOW, Charles Rathbone, English histo- 
rian and naval officer: b. Dublin, Ireland, 30 
Oct. 1837. He went to sea in 1853, has served 
in Asiatic and African waters and holds the 
rank of commander in the Indian navy. He is 
the author of numerous works, including ‘Tales 
of Old Ocean? (1860); ‘Land of the Sun? 
(1870) ; ‘History of the British Navy? (1872); 
“History of the Indian Navy? (1877): ‘His- 
tory of Maritime Discovery? (1899); ‘Her 
Majesty’s Navy? (1902); ‘Britannia’s Bul- 
warks? (1895) ; ‘The Epic of Olympas? (1897), 
rc. 


LOW, Mary Fairchild, American artist : 
b. New Haven, Conn., 1866. She studied in the 
School of Fine Arts, Saint Louis, the Academie 
Julien, Paris, and) with Carolus-Duran. In 
1888 she married Frederick MacMonnies, the 
sculptor, and in 1909 Will Hicok Low, the fig- 
ure and genre painter. She was awarded a 
medal at the Chicago Exposition of 1893, a 
bronze medal at Paris, in 1900, bronze medal at 
the Buffalo Exposition 1901, gold medal at Dres- 
den 1902, the Julia M. Shaw memorial prize of 
the Society of American Artists, New York 
1902, and.a gold medal at Rouen in 1903; her 
picture was bought by the city of Rouen and 
placed in the Museum of Fine Arts. In 1905 
she was awarded a gold medal at Marseilles and 
a gold medal at Rouen in 1911. Mrs. Low is an 
associate National Academician. Her works in- 
clude ‘Early Morning Flower Market: “Little 
Women; ‘Christmas Eve’; ‘Portrait of Will 
Hicok Low?; ‘Dogwood in Bloom,” ete. 


LOW, Sampson, English publisher: b. 
London, 1797 « d. 1886. He became manager in 
1837 of a fortnightly trade. journal styled The 
Publishers’ Circular, on which his ‘British 


697 


Catalogue? was afterward based and of which 
he became proprietor in 1867. He established 
the publishing house of Sampson Low & Co., 
in 1848. His various compilations include ‘In- 
dex to Current Literature? (1859-60) ; ‘Low’s 
Literary Almanac? (1873), etc. 


LOW, Seth, American educator and ad- 
ministrator: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 18 Jan. 1850; 
d. Bedford Hills, N. Y., 17 Sept. 1916. He 
was educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- 
stitute and at Columbia, graduating from the 
latter in 1870. He then entered his father’s 
tea and silk importing business as a clerk, and 
passing through all the intermediate grades be- 
came a junior partner in the firm in 1875. In 
1879 he and the other junior partners took full 
control of the business which was finally liqui- 
dated in 1888. He was early interested in pub- 
lic affairs, especially in charities, was prominent 
in the movement which resulted in abolishing 
the system of outdoor relief of Kings County, 
and was organizer and first president of the 
Bureau of Charities. He was also active in the 
Republican party, being president of the Young 
Republican Club in the Garfield campaign of 
1880; and though he resigned the presidency re- 
mained an active member of this club, which 
soon began agitation for the non- partisan ad- 
ministration of city affairs. In 1881 he was 
nominated for mayor of Brooklyn on an inde- 
pendent ticket, and elected; after an efficient 
administration he was re-elected in 1883, serv- 
ing another two years. His administrations 
were marked by reforms in the system of taxa- 
tion, and in the public schools, but more es- 
pecially by the introduction of the civil service 
system and non-partisan appointments in city 
affairs. In October 1889 he was offered the 
presidency of Columbia College (now Columbia 
University), which he accepted. While he was 
president, the undergraduate department was 
enlarged, the graduate schools and Barnard 
closely affiliated, the institution organized as a 
university and the site changed. He also gave 
the university $1,000,000 for the erection of a 
library building. He retained his interest in 
public affairs, was a member of the Rapid 
Transit Commission, and of the Greater New 
York Charter Commission, and an earnest ad- 
vocate of consolidation; he was also twice a 
referee in labor troubles, In 1897 he was an 
independent cancidate for mayor of Greater 
New York and was defeated, though polling 
over 150,000 votes. In 1899 he was a member 
of the United States delegation to The Hague 
Peace Conference. In 1901 he was nominated 
for mayor of Greater New York on a’Fusion 
ticket, and was elected. His administration o£ 
the next two years led to a reduction of the 
taxes, sweeping reforms in the police depart- 
ment and an enlargement of the public school 
system, and showed a strict adherence to the 
principles of business-like administration of 
public affairs which characterized his Brooklyn 
mayoralty. In 1903 he was again Fusion candi- 
date for mayor, but was defeated, a defeat gen- 
erally attributed not to any serious mistakes 
or faults in his administration, but rather to 
party questions and complications. From 1907 
until his death he was president of The 
National Civic Federation. In 1914 he was 
elected president of the Chamber of Commerce 
of the State of New York, which office he 


held until his death. In 1914 he was appointed 


698 


by President Woodrow Wilson chairman of 
The President’s Colorado Coal Commission. 
In connection with this appointment the great 
coal strike in Colorado was called off’ He 
was delegate-at-large and chairman of the 
Cities Committee of the New York State Con- 
stitutional Convention, 1915. 


LOW, Will Hicok, American painter: b. 
Albany, N. Y., 31 May 1853. He learned paint- 
ing at Paris under Gérome and Carolus-Duran 
(1873-77), and since 1890 has been Academician 
of the National Academy of Design, and is one 
of the founders of the Society of American 
Artists. He is classed among the most active 
and versatile of living American artists and has 
been alike successful in decorative wall paint- 
ings, stained glass (at which he worked with 
John La Farge, q.v.), portrait and book illus- 
tration in black and white. His strength as a 
designer and colorist has been recognized by 
the public awards made to his work and by the 
demand for his services on the part of private 
and public patrons and connoisseurs. He has 
also had charge of life classes in the schools of 
Cooper Union and the National Academy of 
Design. He delivered the Scammon lectures 
at the Chicago Art Institute in 1910. These 
were published later under the title, ‘A 
Painters’ Progress? (1910). The following are 
some of his best-known pictures: ‘Portrait of 
Albani? (1877); ‘Chloe? (1882); ‘My Lady? 
(Lotus Club, New York) ; ‘Aurora? (1894), 
Metropolitan Museum, New York; ‘Homage to 
Venus? (mural painting, Waldorf-Astoria, Ne 
York); ‘The Orange Vendor,> in the Art In- 
stitute, Chicago; ‘Christmas Morning, in 
Washington National Gallery. There are 10 
stained-glass windows by him-in Saint Paul’s 
Methodist Episcopal Church, Newark, N. J.; 
and mural painunes in Saint Paul’s Church, 
Albany, N. Y., and the Federal Building, Cleve- 
land, Ohio. He also installed a frieze in the 
Legislative Library at the New York State 
Capitol, and completed 20 mural paintings 
for the rotunda of the New York State Educa- 
tion Building, Albany, N. Y. He has published 
“A Chronicle of Friendships? (1908); and has 
contributed on art to the Century, Scribner's, 
McClure’s, etc. 


LOW CHURCH, a popular name given to 
a section of the Church of England whose 
opinions are opposed to those of the -High 
Church party, and are especially hostile to 
ritualism and sacerdotalism. 


LOW COUNTRIES. See Betcrum anp 
HOLLAND, 


LOW POTENTIAL SYSTEM. 
ELECTRICAL TERMS. 


LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after 
Easter, so called to emphasize the contrast be- 
tween the great feast of the Resurrection and 
the Sunday which ends the octave. In the Mis- 
sal (q.v.) and the Breviary (q.v.) the name is 
“Dominica in Albis,» because on this day the 
newly baptized wore their white robes for the 
last time. Mention is made of this custom in 
the Breviary hymn used in the vespers of Low 
Sunday, “Ad regias Agni dapes.» The name 
“Beloken Paschen,” close of Easter. is used fre- 
quently in Holland; and “Quasimodo,” the first 
word in the Introit of the Mass for the day, is 
the common name for this day in Germany and 
France. 


See 


LOW — LOWE 


- LOWDEN, Frank Orren, American pub- 
lic official: b. Sunrise City, Minn., 26 Jan. 
1861. In 1885 he was graduated at the State 
University of Iowa, and two years later re- 
ceived the degree of LL.B at the Union College 
of Law, Chicago. From 1887 to 1902 Mr. 
Lowden practised his profession in Chicago 
and in 1889 held the chair of law at North- 
western University. In 1906 Mr. Lowden was 
elected member of the 59th Congress for the 
unexpired term of R. R. Hitt, deceased.. He 
was re-elected to the 60th and 6lst Congresses 
(1907-11), and in 1916 was elected governor of 
Illionis for the term 1917-21. 


LOWE, Charles, English journalist and 
biographer: b. Balconnel, Forfarshire, Scot- 
land. He was educated at the University of 
Edinburgh and on the Continent, and was 
for 13 years Times correspondent at Berlin, 
returning to England in 1891. He published 
two biographies of Bismarck; ‘Bismarck’s 
Table Talk? ; ‘Alexander III of Russia? ; ‘King 
Edward VID; ‘Our Greatest Soldiers, etc. 


LOWE, Sir Hudson, British general: b. 
Galway, 28 July 1769; d. London, 10 Jan. 1844. 
He entered the army at an early age and saw 
much service in Europe; in 1813 was attached 
to the army of Bliicher, and took part in the 
invasion of France in the early part of the 
following year. Appointed in 1815 to the com- 
mand of the English troops which were to 
co-operate with the Austro-Sardinian army in 
Italy. He was the first to bring to England 
news of Napoleon’s abdication, in 1814, and 
was created K.C.B. in 1816. On the fall of 
Napoleon he was appointed governor of Saint 
Helena, and entrusted with the care of the ex- 
emperor. He returned to England in July 
1821, and was afterward on the staff in Ceylon, 
1825-30. He has been accused by the partisans 
of Napoleon for want of courtesy and for 
rigor and cruelty to his prisoner. It is, how- 
ever, freely admitted that Napoleon and _ his 
suite made a system of exaggerating their 
grievances, and even sedulously tried to pro- 
voke them, with a view to exciting sympathy in 
Europe and especially in England. Many of 
the grievances were puerile, as that Sir Hudson 
would not give Napoleon the title of emperor, 
which England had never recognized, and which 
he was forbidden by his government to use. 
Consult Forsyth, ‘Captivity of Napoleon at 
Saint Helena from Letters and Journals of Sir 
Hudson Lowe? (London 1853); O’Meara, ‘A 
Voice from Saint Helena: Napoleon in Exile’ 
(the work of the deposed emperor’s physician: 


ib., 1822); Rose, J. H., ‘Napoleonic Studies’ 
(ib. 1904) ; Lord Rosebery, “Napoleon: the Last 
Phase? ; Seaton, ‘Sir Hudson Lowe and 


Napoleon? (ib. 1898). 


LOWE, John, American rear-admiral: b. 
Liverpool, England, 11 Dec. 1838. He was edu- 
cated in his native city and Columbus, Ohio, 
and entered the American navy in 1861. He 
served through the Civil War and accom- 
panied the Greely Relief Expedition in 1884. 
He was the first naval officer of any nation to 
serve in a submarine torpedo-boat. This he did 
in 1898. He made the first report ever presented 
to the Secretary of the Navy upon that topic. 
He was promoted rear-admiral 11 Dec. 1900, 
and retired the same day. 


LOWE — LOWELL 


VISCOUNT SHERBROOKE, 
English politician: b. Bingham, Nottingham- 
shire, 4 Dec. 1811; d. London, 27 July 1892. 
He was educated at Winchester College and at 
University College, Oxford, and directly upon 
his admission to the bar in 1842 went to Aus- 
tralia, where he quickly attained prominence 
in political affairs. In 1843 he became a member 
of the Legislative Council of New South Wales, 
and made himself famous by his opposition to 
the land monopoly, as well as by the part he 
performed in the development of education and 
the regulation of finance. He also made effect- 
ual protest against the English practice of 
transporting convicts to Australia. Meanwhile 
he was not neglectful of his private affairs, 
but acquired great wealth, and returned to 
England in 1850 and became a leader writer 
on the Times. He sat for Kidderminster, 1852- 
58; Calne, 1859-67; and London University, 
1868-80. He was vice-president of the Board of 
Control 1852-55, and vice-president of the Board 
of Trade 1855-58; joint secretary of the Board 
of Control, and in 1859, under Palmerston, 
was placed practically at the head of educational 
affairs. In consequence of a mistaken vote of 
censure by the House of Commons in 1864 he 
resigned his office, but only to participate with 
ability more marked than before in the pro- 
ceedings of that body. The rejection of the 
Whig Reform Bill in 1866 was considered to 
have been largely due to his brilliant and power- 
ful speeches against it. As one of the Adul- 
lamites (q.v.) he received overtures from the 
government of Lord Derby, but although he 
called himself an outcast from the Liberal party 
he refused to leave it. In 1867 he made a 
number of speeches designed to justify his 
opposition to extension of the suffrage. His 
strong support of the resolutions for disestab- 
lishment of the Irish Church, in 1868, restored 
him to favor in the Liberal party; and in 
December of that year he became Chancellor of 
the Exchequer under Gladstone, giving up that 
office in 1873 to accept the post of Home Secre- 
tary, in which, however, his tenure was brief. 
His reforms as Chancellor of the Exchequer 
related especially to reduction of sugar duties, 
the replacing of assessed taxes by license 
duties and like readjustments. After the fall 
of the Gladstone ministry in 1874 Lowe took 
comparatively little part in public affairs. He 
was raised to the peerage as Viscount Sher- 
brooke in 1880. Consult Parkes, ‘Fifty Years 


LOWE, Robert, 


of Australian History? (1892); Martin, ‘Life 
of Lord Sherbrooke? (1893); Hogan, ‘Robert 
Lowe, Viscount Sherbrooke? (1893); also 
Hansard, ‘Parliamentary Debates.” 


LOWE, Thaddeus S. C., American in- 
ventor and scientist: b. Jefferson, N. H., 20 
Aug. 1832; d. 1913. He constructed balloons in 
1856 and 1858-59 in order to study atmos- 
pheric phenomena, and during the Civil War 
was chief of the aeronautic corps. He devised 
a system of signaling in 1862, and valuable in- 
struments for atmospheric. investigation, etc., 
constructed and operated in 1858 the largest 
aerostat ever built up to that time, invented a 
compression ice machine and made the first 
artificial ice in the United States (1865); and 
established the Lowe Observatory in the Sierra 
Madre Mountains, Cal. Other inventions by 
him were metallurgical furnaces for gas and oil 


609 


fuel 1869-72, and the water-gas apparatus 1873- 
75. After 1897 he put into operation the Lowe 
coke-oven system. 


LOWELL, 10’éi, Abbott Lawrence, Amer- 
ican educator ‘and author: b. Boston, 13 Dec. 
1856. He was graduated from Harvard in 
1877, from the law school of the university in 
1880, was a legal practitioner in Boston in 
1880-97, and from 1897 to 1899 was a lecturer 
at Harvard. In 1900 he was appointed there 
to the chair of the science of government, and _ 
in 1909 he became president of Harvard Uni- 
versity. He has thoroughly reorganized the 
financial affairs of the university. He is a trus- 
tee of the Lowell Institute since 1900, and of 
the Carnegie Foundation of the Advancement of 
Teaching, is a member of the American Acad- 
emy of Arts and Letters, of the British Acad- 
emy and honorary member of the Royal Irish 
Academy. He has received academic honors 
from the leading American and foreign uni- 
versities. 

Among his works are ‘Transfer of Stock 
in Corporations,” with Francis C. Lowell (1884); 


‘Essays on Government? (1889); ‘Govern- 
ments and Parties in Continental Europe? 
(1896); ‘Colonial Civil Service,’ with H. 


Morse Stephens (1900); ‘Influence of Party 
in England and America? (1902); ‘The Gov- 
ernment of England? (1908) ; ‘Public Opinion 
and Popular Government? (1914). 


LOWELL, Charles, American clergyman: 
b. Boston, 15 Aug. 1782; d. Cambridge, 20 Jan. 
1861. He was a son of John Lowell (1743- 
1802). He was graduated from Harvard in 
1800, studied theology at Edinburgh, Scotland, 
and from 1 Jan. 1806 until his death was pas- 
tor of the West (Unitarian) Church of Boston. 
His ill-health caused his absence in Europe and 
the East (1837-40), and in his later years his 
place in the pulpit was largely taken by his 
colleague, Cyrus A. Bartol (q.v.). He was an 
able orator and of strong anti-slavery views. 
A founder and member of the Society of 
Northern Antiquarians of Copenhagen, he was 
also secretary of the Massachusetts Historical 
Society and a corresponding member of the 
Archeological Society of Athens. He was the 
father of James Russell Lowell and Robert 
Traill Spence Lowell. Among his published 
writings are ‘Meditations for the Afflicted, 
Sick and Dying?; ‘Devotional Exercises for 


Communicants ; ‘Occasional Sermons? ; ‘Prac- 
tical Sermons? (1855). 
LOWELL, Charles Russell, American 


soldier: b. Boston, 2 Jan. 1835; d. near Middle- 
town, Va., 20 Oct. 1864. He was graduated 
from Harvard in 1854, at the beginning of the 
Civil War was manager of the Mount Savage 
ironworks, Maryland, on 20 April 1861 was 
made a captain in the 6th United States Cavalry, 
and during the Peninsular campaign, at the 
close of which he received the brevet of major, 
commanded a squadron of that regiment. 
Having been assigned to the personal staff of 
General McClellan, he distinguished himself at 
Antietam. In November 1862, he organized 
the 2d Massachusetts Cavalry, of which he be- 
came colonel on 10 May 1863. In the winter 
of «863-64 he commanded the advanced de- 
fenses of Washington, and subsequently he was 
in command of the provisional cavalry brigade 


hi: ‘ 


700 


under Sheridan in the Shenandoah, and, ulti- 
mately, of the reserve brigade, consisting of 


three regiments of United States cavalry, the 


2d Massachusetts and a battery of artillery. 
With this force he fought at Opequan Creek 
(Winchester) (19 Sept. 1864), and defeated 
General Rosser’s cavalry (9 October). In the 
battle of Cedar Creek (19 October), he suc- 
cessfully resisted the Confederate attack until 
the arrival of Sheridan, but later in the action, 
while leading the final charge, was mortally 
wounded. 

LOWELL, Edward Jackson, American 
author: b. Boston, 18,, Oct: 1845 3». d.= Gotuit; 
Mass., 11 May 1894. He was the grandson of 
Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) (q.v.). He 
was graduated from Harvard in 1867, was ad- 
mitted to the Suffolk County bar in June 1872, 
for a time practised law in Boston, but subse- 
quently devoted himself exclusively to literary 
work. He was a member of the Massachusetts 
Historical Society and a fellow of the Amer- 
ican Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among 
his writings are ‘The Hessians and the other 
German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the 
Revolutionary. War? (1884), recognized as 
standard; ‘The Eve of the French Revolu- 
tion? (1892) ; and the section on ‘The Diplo- 
macy and Finance of the Revolution? in Win- 
sor’s ‘Narrative and Critical History of Amer- 
ica? (1884-89), and numerous magazine and 
review articles. 


LOWELL, Francis Cabot, American 
’ manufacturer: b. Newburyport, Mass., 7 April 
1775 ;%d. Boston; 10; Age Visi” “Ee was grad- 
uated at Harvard in 1793 and entered on a 
mercantile career in Boston. During a visit to 
England he was seized with the idea of intro- 
ducing and successfully carrying out the manu- 
facture of cotton in America. In 1812 he be- 
gan his attempts to manufacture cotton cloth, 
an undertaking then rendered the more difficult 
by the fact that the war in progress with Great 
Britain prevented the importation of English 
machinery. He finally succeeded, by the aid of 
Paul Moody, a mechanic of Newburyport, in 
making a suitable loom, and with P. T. Jack- 
son, his brother-in-law, obtained a charter as 
the Boston Manufacturing Company, with 
$100,000 capital, and established at Waltham 
what is believed to have been the first mill in 
the United States to combine in one establish- 
ment the several operations necessary in manu- 
facturing finished cloth from the raw cotton. 
He was active in introducing into the tariff act 
of 1816 the clause imposing a minimum. duty 
on imported cotton fabrics. Jackson, subse- 
quent to Lowell’s death, bought a portion of 
Chelmsford and there located mills; and in 
1826 the town was incorporated as Lowell. 


LOWELL, Guy, American architect: b. 
Boston, 6 Aug. 1870. In 1892 he was gradu- 
ated at Harvard University and in 1894 at the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 
1899 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. ‘He 
began practice in Boston in 1900, was architect 
of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Cum- 
berland County Courthouse, Portland, Me., and 
the New Hampshire Historical Society Build- 
ing at Concord, N. H., and numerous educa- 
tional, commercial and residential buildings. 
From 1900 -to he was lecturer on- landscape 
architecture Massachusetts Institute of 


LOWELL 


Technology. In 1912 Mr. Lowell visited Rome 
and made careful studies of the architectural 
remains there, especially of the Coliseum. In 
the following year he submitted plans for the 
courthouse in New York City which were an 
adaptation of the Coliseum to modern business 
requirements. The plans were accepted, but 
construction has been delayed due to the very 
unsatisfactory state of the city finances during 
the so-called reform administration of Mitchel 
and the restrictions ‘on building operations 
while the country was energetically prosecut- 
ing the war. 


LOWELL, James Russell, American poet, 
critic and diplomat: b. Cambridge, Mass., 22 
Feb. 1819; d. there, 12 Aug. 1891. The Lowells 
were descended from Percival Lowell of Bris- 
tol, England, who emigrated to Massachusetts 
in 1639. Judge John Lowell, grandfather of 
the poet, contributed a clause to the Bill of 
Rights which effected the abolition of slavery 
in the State. One of the poet’s uncles, Fran- 
cis Cabot Lowell, was a leading promoter of 
manufactures in New England, and is remem- 
bered in the name of the city of Lowell. An- 
other uncle, John Lowell, founded the Lowell 
Institute of Boston. Rev. Charles Lowell, the 
poet’s father, b. 1782, was graduated at Har- 
vard in 1800, and after some study at the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh was settled over the 
West Church of Boston, and remained its pas- 
tor till his death in 1861. He married Harriet 
Spence, from a family of Spences in Ports- 
mouth, N. H., who were of Scotch origin. She 
was the sister of Robert Traill Spence, of naval 
fame, and is remembered as having the gifts 
of @ great memory, an extraordinary aptitude 
for language, and a passionate fondness for - 
ancient songs and ballads,» as also a lively 
sense of humor. There were five children, 
two daughters and three sons, of whom James 
Russell was the youngest. He was prepared 
for college by William Wells, an English 
schoolmaster, who gave him an excellent drill 
in the rudiments of Latin. But perhaps the 
best part of his early education was derived 
from the unrestricted use of books at home. 
His father had come into possession of the old 
Tory mansion, on the Watertown road, later 
called Elmwood, and its abundant library was 
well stocked with attractive authors. He en- 
tered Harvard College in his 16th year, grad- 
uating in the class of 1838. He was not dili- 
gent in the prescribed work of the course, but 
engaged mainly in desultory reading and in 
writing essays and verse for college societies 
and magazines. Because of cleverness thus 
shown, he was made class poet. But the poem, 
his first considered effort, was not delivered, 
as the author had been ordered to Concord, for 
a brief rustication, on account of some neglect 
of college rules. It was published the next 
year, under the title of “A: Poem Recited at 
Cambridge.» Lowell now entered the Harvard 
School of Law, took its degree in 1840 and 
attempted practice. But he was quickly drawn 
aside to literature, largely through the influence 
of Maria White, a young lady of Watertown, 
to whom he became engaged i in the latter part 
of the same year. The poetic gifts and moral 
enthusiasm of this young woman quickened 
Lowell’s nature, and gave his bent a purpose. 
In 1841 he collected some of his best poems 


JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL 


LOWELL 


into a volume called ‘A Year’s Life,’ and in- 
scribed it in covert language to his betrothed. 
Two years later he began, with Robert Carter, 
the publication of a literary monthly, called 
The Pioneer, with Hawthorne, Poe and Whit- 
tier among the contributors, but after three 
issues it was discontinued. In 1844 occurred 
his marriage with Maria White; and during 
the year were published an enlarged edition of 
the Poems, including ‘A Legend of Brittany,’ 
‘Prometheus,’ ~ ‘Miscellaneous Poems,’ and 
‘Sonnets, and a volume called ‘Conversations 
on some of the Old Poets.’ In 1848 he again 
published an edition of the Poems, with the 
addition of the Third Series, including several 
poems against slavery. Later in the year ‘The 
Vision of ‘Sir Launfal,> ‘A Fable for Critics? 
and ‘The Biglow Papers? came out, the last- 
named being a reprint of dialect poems fur- 
nished to the newspapers of the day. In noth- 
ing had Lowell been so effective as in these 
satires; nothing in the literature of those stir- 
ring times attracted more attention. In 1851 
he sailed for Europe, with his wife, who was 
in failing health, and spent a year, mainly in 
Italy, in study and travel. After their return 
Mrs. Lowell’s health did not improve, and’in 
1853 she died. A volume of her poems was 


printed, after her death, for private circulation.: 


In 1855, on the resignation of Professor Long- 
fellow, ‘Lowell was elected Smith professor of 
the French and Spanish languages, and profes- 
sor of belles-lettres in Harvard College. He 
spent two years in Europe, to prepare himself 
more fully, and in 1857 took up the duties of 
his chair. He married Miss Frances Dunlap, 
of Portland, Me., the same year. For the 
next 20 years his strength was taxed inces- 
santly, being devoted, outside of his service in 
his college, to editorial and critical rather than 
poetic writing. He was the first editor of The 
Atlantic Monthly, and continued in the posi- 
tion for two years. He had an editorial con- 
nection with the North American Review from 
1862 to 1873, and contributed to it many critical 
essays of unusual merit. In 1864 he reprinted, 
in ‘Fireside Travels,’ a few papers of less sub- 
stantial worth. In the lighter work of this 
busy period falls the ‘Biglow Papers,’ Second 
Series, which he began in 1862. These were 
reissued in 1867. In the next year appeared 
“Under the Willows, a collection of his poems 
written since 1848. In 1869 he published ‘The 
Cathedral,’ over which he had long worked, 
and in 1870 ‘Among my Books,” a reprint of 
some of his best essays on literary themes. In 
1871 followed ‘My Study Windows,’ of like 
contents, and in 1876 ‘Among my Books,” Sec- 
ond Series. In 1877 Lowell was called to take 
the post of Ambassador to Spain, and after 
three years at Madrid was transferred to the 
court of Saint James. Here he won the ad- 
miration not only of his countrymen, .but also 
of the more exacting English public, by his 
executive abilities and his social and oratoric 
gifts. He received public honors from Oxford, 
Cambridge, Edinburgh and Bologna, and in 
1883 was chosen lord rector by the University 
of Saint Andrews. His residence at Saint 
James terminated in 1885,,and the affliction of 
his wife’s death came to him, the same year, 
before return. He resumed to some degree his 
literary labors, after coming back to Cam- 
bridge. He published ‘Democracy, and other 


701 


Addresses? in 1887, and ‘Heart’s-ease and 
Rue,’ and. ‘Political Essays,’ in 1888. He pre- 
par ed the public address for the celebration of 
the 250th anniversary of the founding of Har- 
vard University, in November 1886, and deliv- 
ered a course of lectures on the Old English 
dramatists before the Lowell Institute in. the 
spring of the following year. In the year be- 
fore his death he revised and edited.a defini- 
tive edition of his writings in 10 volumes. Sup- 
plemental to these, ‘American Ideas for Eng- 
lish Readers, ‘Latest Literary Essays and . 
Addresses,’ and ‘Old English Dramatists,’ 
were issued posthumously in 1892. Lowell was 
first and chiefly a man of books, yet essentially 
without bookishness or pedantry. The most 
scholarly of all the group then making a name 
in literature, he was incapable of rigid applica- 
tion or of learning for learning’s sake. He 
confessed himself half mystic, half humorist, 
and could shift from the one to the other vein 
in a single paragraph. Inheriting traits and 
principles from the Puritan age, he failed of 
its discipline and conscious dignity. Because 
of his untactful and uncompromising attitude 
upon questions of the day, as slavery and civil 
service reform, he came to be regarded as an 
academic thinker and the typical “scholar in 
politics.» But he materially helped win respect 
for his class from the public of a later gener- 
ation, which has elevated a college professor to 
the presidency of the country. As ambassador 
at the court of Saint James and at Madrid, he 
proved himself less a classroom doctrinaire 
than a man of the world, an esteemed social 
figure and a facile speaker. Yet he had been 
thought of at home as too nearly what. the 
Englishman looks for in the typical American. 
He never lost the point of view of life, never 
lost sympathy with people, and was perhaps 
as wise in affairs as in the field of letters and 
esthetic criticism. This concord of opposite 
qualities is conspicuous in the ‘Biglow Papers, 
his most brilliant and least considered perform- 
ance, which has carried most influence and bids 
fair to be longest remembered of all his works. 
As a writer of prose he was often distin- 
guished, yet often wilfully whimsical or sensa- 
tional—he could speak of a landscape as 
“gagged with snow. His essays show more 
reading — which was wide except in its liter- 
ature of northern Europe—than originality, 
though he was gifted with deeper insight than 
any other of the New England school save 
Emerson, As a critic he sometimes lost his 
sense of perspective, as in his estimate of Mrs. 
Browning’s ‘Aurora Leigh.» In his .chosen 
field of poetry, Lowell’s work is uneven, often 
savoring of bookishness and formality in his 
lyric pieces, as ‘To a Dandelion» and ‘Beaver 
Brook.? While at times informal and unnoble 
in his higher strains, yet here and there at his 
best, as in “Prometheus? and ‘The Cathedral 
he has left “Gmmortal phrases” which no other 
American poet can parallel. An elaborate in- 
ternational centennial commemoration of his 
birthday was celebrated in New York City 19- 
22 Feb. 1919. See BrcLow PArers; COMMEMO- 
RATION ODE. 

Bibliography.— Lowell’s works were is- 
sued in a complete edition (Riverside edition, 
11 vols., Boston 1899). His letters were edited 
in two volumes by Charles Eliot Norton (New 
York 1894), Consult Brownell, W. C., ‘Amer- 


702 


ican Prose Masters? (New York 1909) ; Cooke, 
G. W. (compiler), ‘Bibliography of James Rus- 
sell Lowell? (Boston 1906); Greenslet, Ferris, 
‘James Russell Lowell: His Life and Work’ 
(ib. 1905); Hale, E. E.. ‘James Russell Lowell 
and His Friends? (ib. 1899); Howells, W. D., 
‘Literary Friends? (New York 1900) ; Hudson, 
W. H., ‘Lowell and His Poetry? (ib. 1912) ; 
James, Henry, ‘Essays in London and Else- 
where? (ib. 1893); Livingston, L. 5S. (com- 
piler), ‘Bibliography of the First Editions in 
Book Form of the Writings of James Russell 
Lowell (ib. 1914); Pollok, Gustav, ‘Interna- 
tional Perspective in Criticism? (ib. 1914); 
Reilly, J. J., “Lowell as a Critic? (ib. 1915) ; 
Richardson, C. F., ‘American Literature, 1607- 
18852 (ib. 1893-94); Scudder, H. E., ‘James 
Russell Lowell? (2 vols., Boston 1901); Sted- 
man, E. C., ‘The Poets of America? (11th ed, 
Boston 1892); Underwood, F. H., ‘The Poet 
and the Man: Recollections of James Russell 
Lowell? (ib. 1893) ; Wendell, Barrett, ‘Literary 
History of America? (4th ed, New York 
1907). 
L. A. SHERMAN, 
Of the University of Nebraska. 


LOWELL, John, American jurist: Db. 
Newburyport, Mass., 17 June 1743; d. Roxbury, 
Mass., 6 May 1802. He was graduated from 
Harvard in 1760, studied law, entered practice 
at Newburyport in 1762, represented that town 
in the general court in 1777 and Boston in 
1779, and was a delegate to the convention of 
1780 which framed the constitution of Massa- 
chusetts. He obtained the insertion in this 
document of the clause of the preamble which 
declares that “all men are born free and equal,” 
with the belief that slavery would thus be abol- 
ished in Massachusetts. The Supreme Court of 
the State upheld his contention in 1783, and 
thereby slavery in the State was abolished at 
his initiative. In 1782-83 he was a delegate in 
the Continental Congress, and in 1782 was ap- 
pointed by the Congress one of three judges of 
a Court of Appeals to hear appeals from courts 
of admiralty. In 1784 he was a member of the 
New York-Massachusetts Boundary Commis- 
sion. He was made by Washington in 1789 
judge of the United States District Court of 
Massachusetts, and by Adams in 1801 chief 
justice of the First Circuit of the United States 
Circuit Court. He was a founder of the 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780), 
and one of its councillors. He published an 
oration on James Bowdoin the elder in Vol. IT 
of the ‘Memoirs? of the American Academy; 
and a poem in ‘Pietas et Gratulatio? (1761). 


LOWELL, John, American publicist: b. 
Newburyport, Mass., 6 Oct. 1769; d. Roxbury, 
Mass., 12 March 1840. He was a son of John 
Lowell (1743-1802) (q.v.). He was graduated 
from Harvard in 1786. studied law, was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1789, retired from practice 
in 1803 and after travel in the East (1803-06) 
devoted his attention to literature. He wrote 
on agriculture and theology, but chiefly on 
politics. In various publications he attacked 
the War of 1812; and by his pen made himself 
a valuable aid of the Federalists. His interest 
in horticulture obtained for him the sobriquet 
of “the Columella of the New England States”: 
and he was the first in the United States to 
build extensive greenhouses on a scientific plan. 


LOWELL 


For many years he was president of the Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural Society. Among his 
pamphlets were ‘Peace Without Dishonor, War 
Without Hope? (1807); ‘Diplomatic Policy of 
Mr. Madison Unveiled» (1810); ‘Candid Com- 
parison of the Washington and Jefferson Ad- 
PESENAS, (1810), and ‘Mr. Madison’s War? 
(1812). . 


LOWELL, John, American merchant and 
philanthropist: b. Boston, Mass., 11 May 1799; 
d. Bombay, India, 4 March 1836. He was the 
son of F:' C. Lowell (1775-1817) (q.v.). He 
studied at Harvard (1813-15), became a success- 
ful merchant in Boston, was several times 
elected to the Boston common council and the 
State legislature of Massachusetts and collected . 
a large and valuable library. After 1830 he 
passed a large part of his time in travel in 
foreign lands. By the gift of about $250,000,— 
then the largest ever made in America ‘by an 
individual for the endowment of a literary in- 
stitution, with the exception.of Girard’s be- 
quest for Girard College—he established in 
Boston the Lowell Institute, to consist of 
regular annual courses of free public lectures. ° 
The institute was opened in the winter of 1839- 
40, and thas proved exceedingly successful. 
Consult Everett, ‘Memoir of John Lowell, Jr. 
(1840), and Smith, ‘History of the Lowell In- 
stitute? (1898). f 


LOWELL, Josephine Shaw, American 
philanthropist: b. West Roxbury, Mass., 16 Dec. 
1843; d. New. York. City, 12 Oct. 1905. She 
was educated in Boston, New York and in 
Europe, and during the Civil War she was con- 
nected with the work of the Sanitary Commis- 
sion, and subsequently with labors among the 
freedmen and with other causes of philanthropy 
and reform. In 1863 she married Col. Charles 
Russell Lowell, who was killed at Cedar Creek, 
Va., 1864. She was a founder of the Charity 
Organization Society of New York in 1881, in 
1886-89 was commissioner of the State Board of 
Charities of New York; and in 1899 was ap- 
pointed to the board of managers of the New 
York State reformatory for women. Among 
her writings are ‘Public Relief and Private 
Charity? (1884); ‘Industrial Arbitration and 
Conciliation? (1893). Consult Stewart, W. R., 
‘Philanthropic Work of Josephine Shaw 
Lowell> (New. York 1911). 

LOWELL, Maria White, American poet: 
b. Watertown, Mass., 8 July 1821; d. Cam- 
bridge, Mass., 27 Oct. 1853. She was the first 
wife of James Russell Lowell, whom she mar- 
ried in 1844. The best known of her poems are 
‘The Alpine Shepherd? and ‘The Morning 
Glory, which appeared in the collection printed 
privately at Cambridge in 1855. The death of 
Mrs. Lowell, occurring the same night that a 
child was born to Mr. Longfellow, called forth 
the latter’s poem beginning: 

“Two angels, one of life and one of death, 
Passed o’er our village as the morning broke.” 

Mrs. Lowell is known for her influence on 
her husband in the cause of abolition and for 
her own writings against slavery. 


LOWELL, Percival, American astrono 
mer: b. Boston, 13 March 1855; d. Flagstaff, 
Ariz., 13 Nov. 1916. He was a brother of Ab- 
bott Lawrence Lowell, and was graduated at 
Harvard in 1876. He went to Japan in 1883 


LOWELL — LOWER HELDERBERG 


and lived there and in Korea from time to time 
till 1893. He was counsellor and foreign secre- 
tary to Korean Special Mission to the United 
States in 1894. In 1894 he established the 
Lowell Observatory; undertook an eclipse ex- 
pedition to Tripoli in 1900 and in 1907 sent an 
expedition to photograpb the planet Mars. He 
received the Janssen medal of French 
Astronomical Society in 1904 for his researches 
on Mars. In 1908 he received a gold medal 
from La Sociedad Astronomica de Mexico. He 
made various discoveries on the planets Mer- 
cury, Venus, Saturn and especially Mars. In 
1902 he was appointed non-resident professor of 
astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. He was a Fellow of the American 
Academy of Arts and Sciences, and many other 
societies in America and Europe. He pub- 
lished ‘Chos6n? (1885); ‘The Soul of the Far 
East? (1886); ‘Noto? (1891); “Occult Japam 
(1894) ; “Mars? (1895); ‘Annals of the Lowell 
Observatory? (Vol. I, 1898; Vol. II, 1900; Vol. 
III, 1905) ; ‘The Solar System? (1903); ‘Mars 
and Its Canals? (1906); ‘Mars as the Abode 
of Life’ (1908); ‘The Evolution of Worlds? 
(1909) and various papers to learned societies. 


LOWELL, Robert Traill Spence, Amer- 
ican Episcopal clergyman; b. Boston, 8 Oct. 
1816; d. Schenectady; N. Y.;'12:Sept. 1891. He 
was a son of Charles Lowell (q.v.) and a 
brother of James Russell Lowell (q.v.). He 
was graduated from Harvard in 1833, for a 
time studied medicine in the Harvard Medical 
School, and later was in mercantile life at Bos- 
ton. In 1839 he began the study of theology; 
went to Hamilton, Bermuda; was there ordained 
deacon in 1842 and priest in 1843; and became 
inspector of schools for the colony and domes- 
tic chaplain to the bishop. In 1843-47 he was 
rector at Bay Roberts, Newfoundland, and dur- 
ing the famine of 1846 in that district rendered 
valuable service as chairman of the relief com- 
mittee. Having returned to the United States 
in. 1847, he was active in mission work among 
tthe poorer classes at Newark, N. J.; was rector 
of Christ Church, Duanesburg, N. Y., in 1859- 
69, head-master of Saint Mark’s School (South- 
boro, Mass.) in 1869-73, and professor of Latin 
language and literature in Union College in 
1873-79. He published ‘The New Priest in 
Conception Bay? (1858; revised in 1889), in 
which Bay Roberts appears as “Peterport”; 
‘Fresh Hearts That Failed Three Thousand 
Years Ago, and other Poems? (1860) ; ‘Anthony 
Brode? (1874); ‘Burgoyne’s March? (1877), 
written for the Saratoga County celebration at 
Bemis Heights, and ‘A Story or Two from an 
Old Dutch Town? (1878). 


LOWELL, Mass., city, county-seat of Mid- 
dlesex. County, at the junction of the Concord 
and Merrimac rivers, and on the New York, 
New Haven and Hartford and the Boston and 
Maine railroads, about 25 miles northwest of 
Boston. Lowell, formerly Chelmsford, was 
founded in 1822, by the “Merrimac Manufactur- 
ing Company,” and named in honor of Francis 
Cabot Lowell (q.v.). In four years it was in- 
corporated as a town, and in 1836 it was char- 
tered as a city known as the “Workshop of the 
World» . The city now has an area of over 14 
square miles. The city is noted for its great 
number of manufactories and its large annual 
output of manufactured articles. The power is 


7038 


obtained from the falls of the Merrimac which 
here descend 32 feet and from the~ Concord 
River; but 80,000 horse-power steam power is 
used, The “Proprietors of Locks and Canals” 
was organized early in the 19th century, for the 
purpose of obtaining and supplying power for 
cotton factories. The canal system was nearly 
completed in 1825, but the first canals were 
more like ordinary ditches; now they are walled 
and fitted with locks and bridges, all of the best 
construction and latest improvements. They 
are so well built that the annual amount spent 
for repairs is comparatively small. By means 
of this canal system of seven and one-half 
miles water power is furnished to many fac- 
tories in Lowell, then returned to the Merrimac 
to be used lower down the stream to turn the 
wheels for the mills in Lawrence. 

Some of the manufacturing establishments 
are woolen and cotton factories, hosiery and 
knitting mills, carpet and felt factories. bleach- 
eries, dyeing works, machine-shops, patent- 
medicine works, a cartridge factory and fur- 
niture factories. Lowell has many points of 
historic and scenic interest and a number of 
fine public buildings. The educational institu- 
tions are the State Normal School, the Rogers 
Hall School, the Lowell Textile School, Saint 
Patrick’s Academy, a high school, and public 
and parish elementary schools. The city has 
the Lowell Hospital,, Lowell General Hospital, 
Saint John’s Hospital, Saint Peter’s Orphanage, © 
Theodore Edson Orphanage, Ayer Home for 
Young Women and Children, Saint Patrick’s 
Home for Working Women and the Old Ladies’ 
Home. 

The annual amount of municipal expendi- 
tures is about $2,206,859.30; the principal items 
are for schools about $463,942; for hospitals, 
almshouses, etc., $120,000; for police depart- 
ment, $167,000; for the fire department, $193,000; 
for municipal lighting, $121,000; for water- 
works, $240,000. The waterworks were built in 
1873 at a cost of about $2,875,000. There are 
now about 130 miles of mains. The water- 
works are owned and operated by the city. 
Pop. 112,759, about 40 per cent of whom are of 
foreign birth. Consult Drake, ‘History of 
Middlesex County?; ‘Illustrated History of 
Lowell.’ 


LOWELL INSTITUTE, a Boston insti- 
tution founded with a bequest of $250,000 by 
John Lowell (1799-1836) for “the maintenance 
and support of public lectures, to be delivered 
in Boston, upon philosophy, natural history, the 
arts and sciences, or any of them, as the trus- 
tees shall, from time to time, deem expedient.” 
Edward Everett delivered the first lecture 31 
Dec. 1839, since when the leaders in philosophy, 
art and science of the English-speaking 
world have delivered regular annual courses of 
lectures. The institute is managed by a single 
trustee, who must be a member of the Lowell 
family of Massachusetts. Consult Smith, H. 
K., ‘History of the Lowell Institute? (Boston 
1898). 


LOWER CALIFORNIA. See Catiror- 
NIA, LOWER. 

LOWER HELDERBERG, in geology, a 
series of Pentamerous limestone of eastern 
New York, well developed in the Hudson Val- 
ley region and extending southward along the 
Appalachians to eastern Tennessee. The upper 


704 


part of the formation was called Scutella 
limestone by Vanuxem. The lower Helderberg 
includes also the impure limestones above the 
Encrinal limestone at Becrafts Mountain, near 
Catskill and southward. The upper Pentamer- 
ous is distinct at Schoharie and westward to 
the centre of New York State, where all the 
subdivisions merge together. In Tennessee, the 
limestones of this period abound in fossils and 
occur in Hardin, Henry, Denton, Decatur and 
Stewart counties. The maximum thickness is 
about 100 feet. In the Appalachian region in 
Pennsylvania the lower Helderberg, here of 
impure limestone, has a thickness of 100 feet or 
more in the middle belt, and 200 to 250 feet in 
the southeastern. Cement, lime and building 
stone are extracted from the series. See DE- 
VONIAN SYSTEM. 


LOWESTOFT, 10’stéft, England, munic- 
ipal borough, seaport, and summer resort of 
Suffolk, on the Great Eastern Railway, 117 
miles northeast of London. It is divided by the 
Waveney into the old town on the north and 
South Lowestoft. It contains the 14th century 
church of Saint Margaret, town and county 
halls, a hospital, two foundation schools, an 
esplanade and Bellevue Park. The fish trade is 
important. The harbor is 48 acres in extent 
and has a depth of 16 feet at high water. Its 
industrial establishments comprise boat and 
shipyards, motor works, flouring and oil mills, 
rope works, etc. Cromwell took the town in 
1643 and off the coast in 1665 the Dutch fleet 
was defeated by the Duke of York. In the 
18th century there existed flourishing manu- 
factories of china ware. Pop. 33,770. Consult 
Nall, ‘History of Lowestoft? (London 1866). 


LOWESTOFT PORCELAIN. One of 
the most interesting and prolonged controver- 
sies that was ever entered into by connoisseurs 
and collectors of “china” was concerning the 
term “Lowestoft” as applied to certain pieces 
of porcelain ware. William Chaffers, a former 
authority on ceramics, in his “Gallery” (1872) 
claimed that certain pieces of porcelain (now 
known to be “Canton ware”) were made and 
decorated in the English village of Lowestoft. 
His argument was based on a system of forced 
circumstantial evidence. Sir Augustus Wolla- 
ston Franks (the great expert) disclosed, in 
1878, the deception Chaffers had been innocently 
guilty of. Many pieces of this Oriental porce- 
lain, especially in America, are still termed 
“Lowestoft? ware of which there is docu- 
mentary evidence of their importation in Amer- 
ican ships from the port of Canton, some of 
these pieces, with the heraldic bearings of the 
original owners, even have the word “Canton” 
and date of make as well as a picture of the 
ship that brought the ware to this country 
figuring in their decoration. Excavations (in 
the years 1902-04) made on the site where the 
factory was that tradition stated made such 
ware finally disposed of the contention. 
“Wasters” (defective pieces and fragments) 
and some molds were unearthed which show 
clearly that all stages of porcelain making were 
carried on at this spot. Research among con- 
temporary literature and documents disclose the 
following interesting facts as to the history of 
this porcelain pottery: Hewlin Luson, of Gun- 
ton Hall, near Lowestoft, discovered in 1756 
some kind of china clay and set up “a tem- 


LOWESTOFT — LOWIE. 


. 


porary kiln and furnace” at Gunton and put 
practical potters from London at work there. 
In fear of successful competition, London 
manufacturers bribed the workmen to_ spoil 
each batch baked in the experiment. Such dis- 
couragement stopped the work. The chemist 
Robert. Brown in association with Philip 
Walker, Obed Aldred (bricklayer) and John 
Richmond started a kiln, next year, in Lowe- 
stoft (at Bell Lane). The same spoiling of the 
output by tampering with the workmen oc- 
curred. But the cause of the trouble was 
found out and precautions permitted success to 
attend later ‘efforts. Gillingwater’s contem- 
porary ‘History of Lowestoft? says they “have 
now established the factory upon such a per- 
manent basis as promises great success” and 
they “employ a considerable number of work- 
men, and siipply with ware many of the princi- 
pal towns in the adjacent counties.» The pieces 
and molds unearthed prove the following wares 
were produced: “fluted cups, basins, cream jugs, 
sauce boats, teapots (one with a ‘raised floral 
design dated 1761), cabbage jugs of Worcester 
pattern, openwork baskets,” also “birth plates” 
with a name and birth date inscribed across the 
piece, and souvenir pieces with the words: “A 
Trifle from Lowestoft” on them. A character- 
istic ware consisted of barrel-shaped mugs hav- 
ing a picture of a herring yawl painted on one 
side and a woman smoking a spit of herrings 
on the other. Proof is afforded by these 
wasters that forged marks of the factories that 
originated some of these wares were used; 
“Allen Lowestoft” is on some pieces. Lowestoft 
paste has creamy appearance sometimes hidden 
under a colored glaze making them look like 
Oriental ware; the glaze is mostly of pale bluish 
color, sometimes bluish green, at other times 
colorless. Pieces show fine execution. It is a 
soft paste, not hard as in Oriental ware. The 
painting is in feeble drawing of a style like that 
of Saint Cloud, besides close copies of Wor- 
cester, Bow, Caughley, Plymouth, Bristol; 
Dresden, etc., decoration. Floral decoration is 
in conventional sprays, and diaper, trellis, scale 
patterns occur. Under the present nomencla- 
ture such ware is termed “true Lowestoft” and 
the Canton, long disputed pieces of hard paste 
are known as “Sino- Lowestoft” or “pseudo- 
Lowestoft 

Bibliography.— Crisp, F. A., ‘Catalogue of 
Lowestoft China in the Possession of F. A. 
Crisp? (London 1907) ; Spelman, W. R., ‘Lowe- 
stoft China? (London 1905). 

CLEMENT W. CouMBE. 


LOWICZ, 1d’vich, Poland, town 50 miles 
southwest of Warsaw, on the Bzura. It con- 
tains an Abbey church, ancient chateau, mili- 
tary barracks, a gymnasium, and a monastery. 
Candles, flour, leather and soap are manufac- 
tured, No mention of the town is made prior 
to 1136. About 1350-it became the capital of a 
principality.. In the Great War of 1914-18 
Lowicz was occupied by the Germans, who 
heavily fortified it. In 1918 it became a part 
of the new Polish state. Pop. 14,500. 


LOWIE, 161, Robert Harry, American 
anthropologist: b. Vienna, Austria, 12 June 
1883. At the 1ge of 10 he was brought to the 
United States and in 1901 was graduated at the 
College of the City of New York and in 1908 
at Columbia University. In 1908-09 he was 


LOWNDES — LOYAL AMERICAN LIFE ASSOCIATION 


assistant in the department of anthropology ; 
in 1909-13 assistant curator, and since 1913 
associate curator at the American Museum of 
Natural History, New York. In 1917-18 Dr. 
Lowie was associate professor of anthropology 
at the University of California. From 1906 to 
1914 he conducted anthropological expeditions 
to the Indians of the northern plains, to Lake 
Athabaska in 1908, to the Plateau tribes in 
1914-15, to Hopi in 1915, 1916. Since 1912 he 
has been associate editor of the American An- 
thropologist and in 1912-13 was editor of Cur- 
rent Anthropological Literature. He is a Fel- 
low of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science and of many other 
learned societies. He has published ‘The As- 
sintboine» (1909); ‘Social Life of the Crow 
Indians? (1912) ; CSocieties of the Crow, Hi- 


datsa and Mandan Indians? (1913); ‘The Sun 
Dance of the Crow Indians? (1915) ; “The 
Age-Societies of the Plains Indians? (1916); 
“Culture and Ethnology? (1917). 
LOWNDES, lownz, Marie Adelaide 
Belloc, English author: b. 1868. She is a 


sister of Hilaire Belloc (q.v.) and was married 
to F. S. Lowndes in 1896. She has published 
“Life and Letters of Charlotte Elizabeth, Prin- 
cess Palatine? (1889); ‘King Edward VII 
(1901) ; ‘The Heart of Penelope’ (1904) ; ‘The 
Pulse of. Life? (1907); ‘The Uttermost Far- 
thing’ (1908); “When No Man Pursueth? 
(1970). SA Child’s History of the War? 
(1914) ; “Good Old Anna? (1915); ‘The Red 
Cross Barge? (1916). 


LOWNDES, Rawlins, American states- 
man:.b. in the West Indies 1722; d. 1800. His 
parents removed with him to Charleston when 
he was very young, and his career was ever 
after associated with that city. Having studied 
law he became an associate judge of the Colo- 
nial Court in 1766, and in that position opposed 
the Stamp Act. He assisted in outlining a new 
constitution for South Carolina in 17/6, and 
in 1788 became president of the State. He was 
subsequently a member of the State legislature 
and vigorously opposed the ratification of the 
Federal constitutions. 


LOWNDES, William, American legislator: 
b. Saint Barthomew’s, Colleton County, S. C., 
7 Feb. 1782; d. at sea, 27 Oct. 1822. He was 
taken to England when he was seven years of 
age, and sent for three years to an English 
grammar-school. On his return to Charles- 
ton he was graduated at Charleston College, 
studied law and was admitted to the bar in 
1804, but he soon abandoned his profession to 
attend to his plantation. In 1806 Mr. Lowndes 
was elected to the lower house of the general 
assembly of South Carolina, retaining his seat 
until 1810, when he was chosen a member of 
Congress as a Democrat, and re-elected five 
times successively, serving from 4 Nov. 1811, 
till 8 May 1822,-when failing health compelled 
his resignation. He was an earnest supporter 
of the War of 1812, and spoke frequently on 
matters pertaining to the army, the navy, the 
finances. the national bank, the Missouri Com- 
promise, the Spanish treaty and the tariff. His 
friends regarded him as a suitable candidate 
for the Presidency, and he was nominated by 
the legislature of South Carolina. His health 
having been benefited by a visit to England in 
1819, he decided to return to that country, and 

VOL, jb) =— 45 


_ biblical scholar: 


4 


705 


had embarked with his family from Philadel- 
phia, but did not live to complete the voyage. 
As a debater he occupied the front rank, in 
spite of a weakness of voice caused by diseased 
lungs, while his memory was remarkably re- 
tentive. It is said that Henry Clay expressed 
the opinion that Lowndes was “the wisest man 
he had ever known in Congress.” His portrait 
by Morse is in the Corcoran Gallery, Washing- 
ton. ‘Consult’ Ravenel; H.’ H. R., “Life and 
Times of William Lowndes? (Boston 1901). 


LOWRIE, low’ré, Walter, American legis- 
lator and philanthropist: b. Edinburgh, Scot- 
land, 1784; d. 1868. At the age of seven his 
parents brought him to America and settled in 
Pennsylvania. Through his own exertions he 
qualified himself. for the ministry. In 1811-18 
he was member of the senate of Pennsylvania 
and from 1818 to 1824 was United States sen- 
ator. He organized the congressional prayer- 
meeting and a total abstinence society. In 1836 
Mr. Lowrie became corresponding secretary of 
the Western Foreign Missionary Society and 
subsequently for over 30 years was correspond- 
ing secretary of the Presbyterian Board of 
Foreign Missions. 


LOWTH, Robert, English prelate and 
b. Winchester, Hampshire, 27 
Nov. 1710: d. ‘London, 3 Nov. 1787. Educated 
at Winchester School and Oxford University, 
he became professor of poetry in the latter in 
1741, and in 1750 archdeacon of Winchester. 
In 1753 he published his lectures on “The Sa- 
cred Poetry of the Hebrews, and became fa- 
mous as one of the first biblical critics of his 
age. Ecclesiastical preferments followed; and 
he was made successively prebend of Durham, 
bishop of Saint David’s (1766), of Oxford the 
same year and of London in 1777. In 1783 he 
declined the archbishopric of Canterbury. In 
1758 he published a life of William Wykeham, 
in 1778 he published ‘Isaiah, a New Transla- 
tion,’ with a preliminary dissertation and notes, 
which was highly commended. 


LOWVILLE, 1d’vil, N. Y., village, county- 
seat of Lewis County, on the New York Cen- 
tral and Hudson River railroad, about 100 
miles northwest of Albany and 60 miles north 
by west of Utica. It is situated in an agricul- 
tural section, and the industries of the village 
are connected chiefly with hop-growing and 
with farm and dairy products. Its trade is 
principally in hay, grain, vegetables and the 
noted Lewis County butter and cheese. The 
principal buildings are the town-hail, the 
county buildings, a clubhouse and the Lowville 
Academy. The academy library has about 5,000 
volumes. The waterworks are the property of 
the municipality. Pop. (1920) 3,127. 


LOYAL AMERICAN LIFE ASSO- 
CIATION. Incorporated in November, 1896, 
in Illinois as a fraternal beneficiary society. 
Home office in Chicago since October 1911; 
before that date in Springfield. Does life in- 
surance business, and operates actively in 25 
States. On 1 Jan. 1916 had over 600 local 
branches.- On same date this Association had 
13,000 policies outstanding with $13,500,000 of 
insurance in force, and has paid benefits in sum 
of $3,300,000. Has $400,000 in assets. Last 
annual valuation showed 101.24 per cent of 
solvency. Business in excellent condition. It 


706 


has a good form of representative government 
and ritualistic work that is patriotic, charming 
and instructive. As a- mascot it) uses the 
“Spirit of 76,..and, of. the best-known. and 
most-beloved. pictures in. America. -Its rates 
are based upon the well-known N. F. C. Table 
of Mortality with 4 per cent interest assump- 
tion. Annual valuations are made upon the 
same basis. It now. issues ordinary Whole 
Life Policies exclusively.. Its rates are from 
15 per cent to 40 per cent lower than old line 
rates for same kind of policy. Besides a death 
benefit, the Association voluntarily pays nine 
other benefits for injuries arising from acci- 
dent. Its low cost, liberal benefits and privi- 
leges' constitute a very attractive life insurance 
proposition. Just recently the Association has 
begun a national advertising campaign for 
agents and policyholders. The Association is 
conservatively managed. 


LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, Military Order of the, was the first 
society formed by officers in the Civil War, 
who were honorably discharged. 
are to cherish the memories and associations of 
the Civil War, to strengthen the ties of fellow- 
ship and sympathy, to relieve the widows and 
children of dead companions of the order and 
to advance the general welfare of the soldiers 
and sailors of the United States. On the day 
after the assassination of President Lincoln, 
Col. S. B. Wylie Mitchell, Capt. Peter D. Key- 
ser, M.D., and Lieut.-Col. T. Ellwood Zell met 
in Philadelphia to arrange for a meeting of ex- 
officers of the army and navy to adopt resolu- 
tions relative to the death of President Lin- 
coln. It was decided to effect a permanent or- 
ganization, and an adjourned meeting was held 
for this purpose in the hall of the Hibernia 
Fire Company in Philadelphia 3 May 1865. 
Eligibility to membership is as follows: Orig- 
inal companions of the first class — commis- 
stoned officers and honorably discharged com- 
missioned officers of the United States army, 
navy and marine corps, regular or volunteer, in- 
cluding officers of assimilated or corresponding 
rank by appointment of the Secretary of the 
War or Navy, who were actually engaged in 
the suppression of the Rebellion prior to 
15 April 1865, or who served under the Presi- 
dent’s call of 15 April 1861; or who, having 
served as non-commissioned | officers, warrant 
officers or enlisted men, during the War of the 
Rebellion, have since been or may hereafter be 
commissioned as officers in the United States 
regular or volunteer army, navy or marine 
corps. All midshipmen in the United States 
navy and all cadets of the United States army, 
who, while pursuing their course in the United 
States Naval Academy or the United States 
Military Academy, actually rendered service. 
Hereditary companions of the first class. The 
direct male lineal descendants, who shall have 
attained the age of 21 years, of deceased orig- 
inal companions of the first class, and of de- 
ceased officers not members of the order, but 
who were eligible as such, and whose direct 
descent shall in every case be traced anew from 
the original founder of the membership in the 
order, or from the deceased eligible officer, and 
not otherwise. Any original companion having 
no direct lineal male descendant may, by writ- 
ing, filed with the recorder of his commandery, 
nominate a companion of the second class from 


Its objects ; 


LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES — LOYALISTS 


among the collateral male members of his 
family, descending only from his own brother 
or sister, and the person so nominated when 
he shall have attained the age of 21 years shall 
become eligible to membership for life in the 
second class. Second class—the sons, and ‘if 
there be no sons, the grandsons, of living com- 
panions of the first class, whether original, in 
succession, or by inheritance, who shall have 
attained: the age of 21 years, shall be eligible 
to membership. Third class.— Companions of 
this class are those gentlemen who in civil life 
during the Rebellion were specially’ distin- 
guished for conspicuous and consistent loyalty 
to the national government and were ‘active 
and eminent in maintaining the supremacy of 
the same; and who, prior to 15 April 1890; were 
elected members of the order pursuant to the 
then existing provisions of the Constitution, 
the power to elect such having ceased at’ that 
date. There are State commanderies in Penn- 
sylvania, New York, Maine, Massachusetts, 
California, Wisconsin, Illinois, District: of Co- 
lumbia, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, 
Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, 
Indiana, ‘Washington, Vermont and Maryland. 
The total membership in 1917 was 6,914. 


LOYAL ORANGE INSTITUTION. 
See ORANGEMEN. 


LOYAL TEMPERANCE LEGION, 
organization of children founded in 1886, i 
the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, for 
the purpose of teaching children the evil effects 
of alcohol, tobacco and other narcotics. The 
graduates, who follow a systematic course of 
instruction, are organized into State legions, 
holding annual conventions. There are upward 
of 100,000 members in the United States. 


LOYALISTS, or TORIES, in American 
history, those persons who remained loyal to 
Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. 

The issue of independence divided the 
American colonies into two parties: Whig and 
Tory, or Patriot and Loyalist. No contempo- 
rary figures exist which enable the respective 
numbers of the two parties to be definitely 
stated. They varied from’ time to time and 
from colony to colony. The Loyalists main- 
tained that in the colonies as a whole they were 
in the majority. On the other hand, John 
Adams and others of the Patriot party held 
that the Loyalists constituted only a third of 
the population, and this estimate seems. to be 
generally accepted by historians. The propor- 
tion varied greatly, however; the Patriots werc 
clearly in the majority in New England and 
Virginia. In North Carolina the two parties 
were about evenly divided, in South Carolina 
the Loyalists were the more numerous, and in 
Georgia they were much more numerous. In 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
ware and Maryland the Loyalists were very 
strong, although probably in the minority. 
Pennsylvania seems to have had the largest 
absolute number of Loyalists. 

It is probably impossible to draw any de-- 
ductions from the distribution of racial ele- 
ments. -New England and Virginia, where the 
Patriots were strongest, were almost exclu- 
sively British in population (about 99 per cent 
and 94 per cent respectively), but so also was 
South Carolina, where the Loyalists were in 
the majority. New York, however, was 16 per 


LOYALISTS IN CANADA 


cent Dutch, and Pennsylvania was 26 per cent 


German, and in these States the Loyalists were 
very strong. The total free population of the 
colonies in 1780 is estimated at 2,453,000, and 
was distributed racially about as_ follows: 
British, 91.8 per cent; German, 5.6 per cent; 
Dutch, 2 per cent; all others, less than 1 per 
cent. 

The Loyalists took in all classes of the 
population. In New England the more sub- 
stantial and better educated citizens, office hold- 
ers and members of learned professions tended 
to be Loyalists; others were adventurers who 
adhered to England with the hope of gain or 
official preferment. The Loyalists probably 
contributed about 60,000 men to the military 
forces in America. 

In all the States severe laws were enforced 
against the Loyalists, and it is estimated that 
nearly 200,000 left the country during or at the 
close of the Revolution. Between 40,000 and 
50,000 Loyalists were said to have fled to Can- 
ada and settled mainly in the Maritime Provinces 
prior to 1786. Confiscation of Loyalist prop- 
erty was resorted to in all the States. In New 
York alone the sales of confiscated property 
brought over $3,500,000. Consult Flick, A. C., 
‘Loyalism in New York during the American 
Revolution? (New York 1901); Myers, T. B., 
“The Tories or Loyalists in America? (Albany 
1882); Ryerson, E., ‘Loyalists of America, 
1620-1816? (1880); Sabine, L., ‘Biographical 
Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revo- 
lution with an Historical Essay? (2 vols., Bos- 
ton 1864); Van Tyne, C. H., ‘The Loyalists 
in the American Revolution? (New York 1902). 
See AMERICAN LOYALISTS. 


LOYALISTS IN CANADA. In the 20th 
century it is easy to review without prejudice 
the motives and sacrifices of those Americans 
who chose to adhere to British allegiance when 
the 13 colonies declared themselves independent 
States. That the great majority of the Loyal- 
ists, or “Tories,” as they were called by their 
enemies, were sincerely devoted to the royal 
cause there can be no sensible doubt, and off- 
cial records recently brought to public notice 
present a pathetic picture of the sufferings and 
losses endured by the unfortunate supporters 
of British rule in the War of the Revolution. 
While as a result of that struggle the United 
States secured their independence, they also 
lost a host of valuable citizens who emigrated 
chiefly to Canada, where they established new 
homes and helped to strengthen Great Britain’s 
hold on that portion of her empire. The de- 
scendants of those emigrants compose a large 
and influential part of Canada’s population, and 
the names of men prominent in the politics, the 
professions and industries in the Dominion can 
be traced back to time-worn folios which tell 
the story of the plea of the poverty-stricken 
refugees for aid from the motherland. 

The migration of Loyalists to Canada began 
as early as 1774, before the actual clash between 
the colonies and British authority. This was 
due to the fact that families which found them- 
selves menaced and beset on account of their 
unpopular opinions saw no safe reftige nearer 
than Canada. The movement continued through- 
out the war, varying in degree with British suc- 
cess and defeat, until the surrender of Corn- 
wallis extinguished any remnant of hope in the 


707 


breasts of the royal adherents, who hastened in 
multitudes, by land and sea, to seek shelter and 
protection in the Canadian provinces. Many 
who tried to live down the past, trusting that, 
with hostilities over, their former attitude 
would be pardoned, if not forgotten, found 
their situation intolerable and followed in the 
footsteps of earlier refugees, and this went on 
until 1789, when the Loyalist migration ceased. 

The total number of Loyalists who settled in 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton and 
Prince Edward Island is estimated at not less- 
than 35,000, of whom about 30,000 went from 
New. York, although probably the homes of 
many of these had been elsewhere before they 
sought shelter in that final stronghold of the 
British. In 1791 the English-speaking popula- 
tion of Lower Canada had increased to about 
20,000, owing chiefly to the Loyalist arrivals, 
and in Upper Canada 10,000 Loyalists settled 
in 1783 alone; the next year the population had 
doubled and in 1791 it was estimated at 25,000. 
The province of Ontario may be said to owe its 
foundation to American Loyalists. 

The British government and the provincial 
authorities extended cordial and liberal aid to 
the exiles. ‘Those who were transported at the 
expense of the government received provisions 
for one year on leaving New York, and were 
supplied with rations regularly as long as their 
necessities continued. They also received cloth- 
ing, grants of land and assistance in stocking 
their farms, building homes and clearing and 
cultivating the land. Tools and arms were also 
distributed. 

The British Crown and Parliament took 
steps in July 1783 to compensate the refugees 
from the United States for injuries suffered 
through their loyalty and a commission con- 
sisting of five members was appointed to ex- 
amine into and classify the losses and services. 
The following were held to be entitled to com- 
pensation: (1) Those who had rendered serv- 
ices to Great Britain; (2) those who had 
borne arms against the Revolution; (3) uni- 
form Loyalists; (4) Loyalists resident in Great 
Britain; (5) those who took oaths of allegiance 
to the American States, but afterward joined 
the British; (6) those who armed with the 
Americans and later joined the British army or 
navy. 

Compensation was not allowed for antici- 
pated professional profits, losses in trade or 
through depreciated paper money, or losses 
caused by the British army, which were ac- 


‘counted as obligations of the British govern- 


ment outside the province of the commission. 
By the Treaty of Peace between the United 
States and Great Britain it was stipulated that 
Congress should earnestly recommend to the 
States the restoration of the rights and pos- 
sessions of “real British subjects,” and of Loy- 
alists who had not borne arms. The recom- 
mendation was without effect. Nevertheless 
the commission required evidence in support 
of the claim that property ‘had been confiscated 
and had not been restored. Notwithstanding 
the bitter feeling in the United States toward 
the Loyalists, the requisite evidence appears to 
have been readily supplied to claimants by 
American local authorities. 

Apart from the expenditures already noted 
in supporting and establishing Loyalists on 


706 


has a good form of representative government 
and ritualistic work that is patriotic, charming 
and instructive. As a- mascot it) uses the 
“Spirit of 76,..and. of. the best-known and 
most-beloved pictures in America. Its rates 
are based upon the well-known N. F. C.. Table 
of Mortality with 4 per cent interest assump- 
tion. Annual valuations are made upon the 
same basis. It now. issues ordinary Whole 
Life Policies exclusively. Its rates are from 
15 per cent to 40 per cent lower than old line 
rates for same kind of policy. Besides a death 
benefit, the Association voluntarily pays nine 
other benefits for injuries arising from acci- 
dent. Its low cost, liberal benefits and privi- 
leges constitute a very attractive life insurance 
proposition. Just recently the Association has 
begun a national advertising campaign for 
agents and policyholders. The Association is 
conservatively managed. 


LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, Military Order of the, was the first 
society formed by officers in the Civil War, 
who were honorably discharged. 
are to cherish the memories and associations of 
the Civil War, to strengthen the ties of fellow- 
ship and sympathy, to relieve the widows and 
children of dead companions of the order and 
to advance the general welfare of the soldiers 
and sailors of the United States. On the day 
after the assassination of President Lincoln, 
Col. S. B. Wylie Mitchell, Capt. Peter D. Key- 
ser, M.D., and Lieut.-Col. T. Ellwood Zell met 
in Philadelphia to arrange for a meeting of ex- 
officers of the army and navy to adopt resolu- 
tions relative to the death of President Lin- 
coln. It was decided to effect a permanent or- 
ganization, and an adjourned meeting was held 
for this purpose in the hall of the Hibernia 
Fire Company in Philadelphia 3 May 1865. 
Eligibility to membership is as follows: Orig- 
inal companions of the first class — commis- 
sioned officers and honorably discharged com- 
missioned officers of the United States army, 
navy and marine corps, eenlae or volunteer, in- 
cluding officers of assimilated or corresponding 
rank by appointment of the Secretary of the 
War or Navy, who were actually engaged in 
the suppression of the Rebellion prior to 
15 April 1865, or who served under the Presi- 
dent’s call of 15 April 1861; or who, having 
served as non-commissioned officers, warrant 
officers or enlisted men, during the War of the 
Rebellion, have since been or may hereafter be 
commissioned as officers in the United States 
regular or volunteer army, navy .or marine 
corps. All midshipmen in the United States 
navy and all cadets of the United States army, 
who, while pursuing their course in the United 
States Naval Academy or the United States 
Military Academy, actually rendered service. 
Hereditary companions of the first class. The 
direct male lineal descendants, who shall have 
attained the age of 21 years, of deceased orig- 
inal companions of the first class, and of de- 
ceased officers not members of the order, but 
who were eligible as such, and whose direct 
descent shall in every case be traced anew from 
the original founder of the membership in the 
order, or from the deceased eligible officer, and 
not otherwise. Any. original companion having 
no direct lineal male descendant may, by writ- 
ing, filed with the recorder of his commandery, 
nominate a companion of the second class from 


Its objects : 


LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES — LOYALISTS 


among the collateral male members of his 
family, descending only from his own brother 
or sister, and the person so nominated when 
he shall have attained the age of 21 years shall 
become eligible to membership for life in the 
second class. Second class—the sons, and ‘if 
there be no sons, the grandsons, of living com- 
panions of the first class, whether original, in 
succession, or by inheritance, who shall have 
attained’ the age of 21 years, shall be eligible 
to membership. Third class.— Companions of 
this class are those gentlemen who in civil life 
during the Rebellion were specially’ distin- 
guished for conspicuous and consistent loyalty 
to the national government and were active 
and eminent in maintaining the supremacy of 
the same; and who, prior to 15 April 1890; were 
elected members of the order pursuant to the 
then existing provisions of the Constitution, 
the power to elect such having ceased at that 
date. There are State commanderies in Penn- 
sylvania, New York, Maine, Massachusetts, 
California, Wisconsin, Illinois, District: of Co- 
lumbia, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, 
Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, 
Indiana, Washington, Vermont and Maryland. 
The total membership in 1917 was 6,914. 


LOYAL ORANGE INSTITUTION. 
See ORANGEMEN. 


LOYAL TEMPERANCE LEGION, an 
organization of children founded in 1886, by 
the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, for 
the purpose of teaching children the evil effects 
of alcohol, tobacco and other narcotics. The 
graduates, who follow a systematic course of 
instruction, are Organized into State ‘legions, 
holding annual conventions. There are upward 
of 100,000 members in the United States. 


LOYALISTS, or TORIES, in American 
history, those persons who remained loyal to 
Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. 

The issue of independence divided the 
American colonies into two parties: Whig and 
Tory, or Patriot and Loyalist. No contempo- 
rary figures exist which enable the respective 
numbers of the two parties to be definitely 
stated. They varied from’ time to time and 
from colony to colony. The Loyalists main- 
tained that in the colonies as a whole they were 
in the majority. On the other hand, John 
Adams and others of the Patriot party held 
that the Loyalists constituted only a third of 
the population, and this estimate seems to be 
generally accepted by historians. The propor. 
tion varied greatly, however; the Patriots werc 
clearly in the majority in New England and 
Virginia. In North Carolina the two parties 
were about evenly divided, in South Carolina 
the Loyalists were the more numerous, and in 
Georgia they were much more numerous. In 
New. York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
ware and Maryland the Loyalists were very 
strong, although probably in the minority. 
Pennsylvania seems to have had the largest 
absolute number of Loyalists. 

It is probably impossible to draw any de- 
ductions from the distribution of racial ele- 
ments. -New England and Virginia, where the 
Patriots were strongest, were almost exclu- 
sively British in population (about 99 per cent 
and 94 per cent respectively), but so also was 
South Carolina, where the Loyalists were in 
the majority. New York, however, was 16 per 


LOYALISTS IN CANADA . 


cent Dutch, and Pennsylvania was 26 per cent 


German, and in these States the Loyalists were 
very strong. The total free population of the 
colonies in 1780 is estimated at 2,453,000, and 
was. distributed racially about as_ follows: 
British, 91.8 per cent; German, 5.6 per cent; 
Dutch, 2 per cent; all others, less than 1 per 
cent. 

The Loyalists took in all classes of the 
population. In New England the more sub- 
stantial and better educated citizens, office hold- 
ers and members of learned professions tended 
to be Loyalists; others were adventurers who 
adhered to England with the hope of gain or 
official preferment. The Loyalists probably 
contributed about 60,000 men to the military 
forces in America. 

In all the States severe laws were enforced 
against the Loyalists, and it is estimated that 
nearly 200,000 left the country during or at the 
close of the Revolution. Between 40,000 and 
50,000 Loyalists were said to have fled to Can- 
ada and settled mainly in the Maritime Provinces 
prior to 1786. Confiscation of Loyalist prop- 
erty was resorted to in all the States. In New 
York alone the sales of confiscated property 
brought over $3,500,000. Consult. Flick, A. C., 
‘Loyalism in New York during the American 
Revolution? (New York 1901); Myers, T. B., 
‘The Tories or Loyalists in America? (Albany 
1882); Ryerson, E., ‘Loyalists of America, 
1620-1816? (1880); Sabine, L., ‘Biographical 
Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revo- 
lution with an Historical Essay? (2 vols., Bos- 
ton 1864); Van Tyne, C. H., ‘The Loyalists 
in the American Revolution» (New York 1902). 
See AMERICAN LOYALISTS. 


LOYALISTS IN CANADA. In the 20th 
century it is easy to review without prejudice 
the motives and sacrifices of those Americans 
who chose to adhere to British allegiance when 
the 13 colonies declared themselves independent 
States. That the great majority of the Loyal- 
ists, or “Tories,” as they were called by their 
enemies, were sincerely devoted to the royal 
cause there can be no sensible doubt, and offi- 
cial records recently brought to public notice 
present a pathetic picture of the sufferings and 
losses endured by the unfortunate supporters 
of British rule in the War of the Revolution. 
While as a result of that struggle the United 
States secured their independence, they also 
lost a host of valuable citizens who emigrated 
chiefly to Canada, where they established new 
homes and helped to strengthen Great Britain’s 
hold on that portion of her empire. The de- 
scendants of those emigrants compose a large 
and influential part of Canada’s population, and 
the names of men prominent in the politics, the 
professions and industries in the Dominion can 
be traced back to time-worn folios which tell 
the story of the plea of the poverty-stricken 
refugees for aid from the motherland. 

The migration of Loyalists to Canada began 
as early as 1774, before the actual clash between 
the colonies and British authority. This was 
due to the fact that families which found them- 
selves menaced and beset on account of their 
unpopular opinions saw no safe reftige nearer 
than Canada. The movement continued through- 
out the war, varying in degree with British suc- 
cess and defeat, until the surrender of Corn- 
wallis extinguished any remnant of hope in the 


707 


breasts of the royal adherents, who hastened in 
multitudes, by land and sea, to seek shelter and 
protection in the Canadian provinces. Many 
who tried to live down the past, trusting that, 
with hostilities over, their former attitude 
would be pardoned, if not forgotten, found 
their situation intolerable and followed in the 
footsteps of earlier refugees, and this went on 
until 1789, when the Loyalist migration ceased. 

The total number of Loyalists who settled in 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton and 
Prince Edward Island is estimated at not less’ 
than 35,000, of whom about 30,000 went from 
New York, although probably the homes of 
many of these had been elsewhere before they 
sought shelter in that final stronghold of the 
British. In 1791 the English-speaking popula- 
tion of Lower Canada had increased to about 
20,000, owing chiefly to the Loyalist arrivals, 
and in Upper Canada 10,000 Loyalists settled 
in 1783 alone; the next year the population had 
doubled and in 1791 it was estimated at 25,000. 
The province of. Ontario may be said to owe its 
foundation to American Loyalists. 

The British government and the provincial 
authorities extended cordial and liberal aid to 
the exiles. ‘Those who were transported at the 
expense of the government received provisions 
for one year on leaving New York, and were 
supplied with rations regularly as long as their 
necessities continued. They also received cloth- 
ing, grants of land and assistance in stocking 
their farms, building homes and clearing and 
cultivating the land. Tools and arms were also 
distributed. 

The British Crown and Parliament took 
steps in July 1783 to compensate the refugees 
from the United States for injuries suffered 
through their loyalty and a commission con- 
sisting of five members was appointed to ex- 
amine into and classify the losses and services. 
The following were held to be entitled to com- 
pensation: (1) Those who had rendered serv- 
ices to Great Britain; (2) those who had 
borne arms against the Revolution; (3) uni- 
form Loyalists; (4) Loyalists resident in Great 
Britain; (5) those who took oaths of allegiance 
to the American States, but afterward joined 
the British; (6) those who armed with the 
Americans and later joined the British army or 
navy. 

Compensation was not allowed for antici- 
pated professional profits, losses in trade or 
through depreciated paper money, or losses 
caused by the British army, which were ac- 


‘counted as obligations of the British govern- 


ment outside the province of the commission. 
By the Treaty of Peace between the United 
States and Great Britain it was stipulated that 
Congress should earnestly recommend to the 
States the restoration of the rights and pos- 
sessions of “real British subjects,” and of Loy- 
alists who had not borne arms. The recom- 
mendation was without effect. Nevertheless 
the commission required evidence in support 
of the claim that property had been confiscated 
and had not been restored. Notwithstanding 
the bitter feeling in the United States toward 
the Loyalists, the requisite evidence appears to 
have been readily supplied to claimants by 
American local authorities. 

Apart from the expenditures already noted 
in supporting and establishing Loyalists on 


708 


their farms, and which amounted in Upper and 
Lower Canada to probably $4,000,000, the Brit- 


ish government paid $9,448,000 on 1,680 claims, 


examined and allowed by the commission ap- 
pointed under the Act of 1783.’ This commis- 
sion sat in London. In 1785 two commission- 
ers were sent to Canada to examine claimants 
who had. failed, through ignorance, inability 
or other causes, to present their claims in Lon- 
don. This commission allowed $2,745,000 on 
1,401 claims. After the departure of the com- 
mission claims continued to be sent to Great 
Britain, where many more were. allowed. The 
claims ranged in amount from $60 to $777,000, 
and the sums allowed from $50 to $221,000, the 
latter amount having been granted to Sir John 
Johnson, the noted “Tory” commander. Every 
one of the 13 States—or 14, including Ver- 
mont — was represented in the number of claim- 
ants, aS follows: New York, 941; South Caro- 
lina, 321; Massachusetts, 226; New Jersey, 208; 
Pennsylvania, 148; Virginia, 140; .North Caro- 
lina, 135; Georgia, 129; Connecticut, 92; Mary- 
land, 78; Vermont, 61; Rhode Island, 41: New 
Hampshire, 31; Delaware, 9; total, 2,560. 

It is estimated that the British government 
expended in all about $30,000,000 during the 
Revolution and afterward in aiding Loyalists in 
America and Great Britain. Those who set- 
tled in Canada soon became self-supporting and 
as a rule prosperous. In 1789 it was decreed 
that all Loyalists should be “distinguished by 
the letters U. E. affixed to their names, alluding 
to their principle, the Unity of the Empire.» 
This distinction has fallen into disuse, although 
occasionally recalled when some eminent Ca- 
nadian of old Loyalist stock passes away. 


LOYALTY ISLANDS, a group in the 
Pacific Ocean, 60 miles east of New Cale- 
donia, of which French colony they form a de- 
pendency. They consist of the islands Uvea 
(Uea), Lifu’ and Maré, with many small 
islands. Total area, about 800 square miles. 
Water is scarce, but some fruits, vegetables and 
grains are cultivated. Copra and rubber are 
the chief exports. The inhabitants are of 
mixed descent, Melanesian and Polynesian, and 
nearly all Protestants. Pop. about 15,000. . 


LOYOLA. Saint Ignatius Loyola, founder 
of the Society of Jesus: b. 1491, at the Castle 
of Loyola, Azpeitia, in Guipuscoa, Spain; d. 
Rome, 31 July 1556. He was the youngest son 
of Beltran Yafiez de Ofiez y Loyola and Marina 
Saenz de Licona y Balda. Ifigo, as the child 
was baptised, after Saint Enecus or Innicus, 
abbot of Ofia, adopted the name Ignatius dur- 
ing this life in religion. 

I. Early Years, 1491-1521.—The youth of 
Ignatius was mostly passed in the chivalry 
and grandeur that surrounded the court of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, rulers of Castile and 
Aragon. He became an officer of the army, 
and commanded the Spanish forces during the 
siege of Pampeluna ‘by the French. So soon as 
their brave leader was wounded, the garrison 
surrendered, 21 May 1521. A cannon ball had 
lacerated the left and broken the right leg of 
Ignatius. Surgery was then primitive; so the 
shattered shin caused much trouble. It was 
set, broken and then reset; and a protruding 
bone was sawed off. In the end, the healing leg 
had to be stretched with weights. During days 
of enforced convalescence, the soldier called for 


LOYALTY ISLANDS — LOYOLA 


some light reading,— the tales of chivalry that 


then. had a vogue. None was to hand, at 
Loyola Castle; so the ‘Life of Christ? by 
Ludolph of Saxony and the lives of the saints 
were brought to the sick man. At first his 
interest was that of a knight in the tales of 
deeds done by heroes. Then his own knightly 
deeds began to stand out in bold relief and 
strange contrast over against the chivalry of 
the knights of Jesus Christ. He mused on 
the possibilities of imitation and rivalry. The 
heroism of each saint opened out to him a 
new. vista of life, and aroused the thought, 
“Why not I?” The truth came home that there — 
was a Captain, worth far more than any 
earthly leader; the battles fought by that Cap- 
tain were entirely different from those that 
the high-spirited Spaniard had been wont to 
esteem. The Kingdom of Christ loomed larger 
and larger. He saw that the principles’ of 
action of his whole life would have to be re- 
adjusted; they were selfward, and not fully 
Christward. 

II. Preparation for the New Knighthood, 
1522-34. So soon as health was _ restored 
Ignatius, with that singleness of purpose which 
was his characteristic, set out at once to be- 
come a knight of Jesus Christ in the King- 
dom whose dynamic power is Christ-love. He 
made a pilgrimage to Montserrat, put his soul 
right with God by a general confession, laid 
his sword and poniard at Our Lady’s ‘altar, 
spent the night there in a vigil at arms, received 
communion next morning,—the Feast of the 
Annunciation 1522,— gave his courtly raiment 
to a beggar, donned a sack-cloth tunic and 
started the war against self-love for ithe Reign 
of Christ on earth. A year of solitude, prayer 
and penance was then spent in a cavern, the 
“Santa Cueva,” just outside Manresa. The 
spiritual experiences of this year, its severe 
mortifications, scruples, extremes of consolation 
and desolation, wonderful graces, visions and 
miraculous interventions, were all formative of 
his character and of the system of asceticism 
which has become famous by the little book 
called “The Spiritual Exercises” Next year, 
1523, he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
to suffer the poverty, contumely and oppro- 
brium which were emblazoned on the standard 
of his King. The plan was foiled by well- 
meaning persons of authority in the Holy Land, 
who deemed that the presence of the enthusi- 
astic pilgrim would impede their work. So 
Ignatius returned to Barcelona. He now re- 
solved to draw others to the standard of 
Christ; and to that end began a course of 
studies that lasted 11 years. At 33 (1524) the 
intrepid patrician, in the garb of a poor man, 
took up the elements of Latin together with 
a class of mere schoolboys. In two years, 
1526, he matriculated at the University of 
Alcala. Here the Inquisition looked askance 
at the zealous student’s doctrine, imprisoned 
him for two months, and forced him to Sala- 
manca, 1527. Studies at this university town 
were equally impossible, because of citation and 
imprisonment by the Inquisition. So Ignatius 
betook him to the University of Paris, February 
1528. At Paris many trials came round from 
poverty and misunderstandings; but studies 
were successfully pursued, and much of value 
was learned in the science of education and 
that of the care of souls. Ignatius took his 


LOYOLA 


licentiate in theology in 1534, and his M.A, in 
1535. Ill health prevented him from. going up 
for the doctorate in theology. Meanwhile, a 
band of faithful followers were cathered. 
They were Blessed Peter Fabre and Claude Le 
Jay, Savoyards; Saint Francis Xavier, of Na- 
varre; James Laynez Alonso Salmerén and 
Nicholas Bobadilla, Spaniards; Simon Rodri- 
guez, a Portuguese; Jean Codure and Paschase 
Broet, Frenchmen. These 10 knights, all thor- 
oughly educated university men, formed, the 
nucleus of the Society of Jesus. . 

III. Founder of the Society of Jesus.— 
1534-56— On 15 Aug. 1534, the companions 
took the vows of poverty and chastity, at 
Montmartre, Paris, and founded the Society of 
Jesus. They also bound themselves to make a 
pilgrimage to the Holy Land after two years; 
or, if this were not feasible, to put themselves 
at the disposal of the Holy Father. Works of 
charity occupied them for several years. In 
1537, with permission of the Holy See, all were 
ordained to the priesthood. About this time, 
on his way to Rome, Ignatius had a vision of 
the Eternal Father directing him to companion- 
ship with Jesus, and saying: “Ego vobis Rome 
propitius ero.” This vision fixed the knight’s 
determination to call his society “La Com- 
pafiia de Jesus,» in keeping with the military 
idea of recruiting a body of picked knights, 
priests of singular worth and noteworthy edu- 
cation, who should be a select corps of trained 
watriors, named_.after its Captain, Jesus Christ, 
and ever ready at the beck of the Pope to 
go even to the utmost ends of the earth to 
spread the Kingdom of the Saviour. There were 
delays and difficulties at Rome. The plan re- 
ceived pontifical viva voce approval, 3 Sept. 
1539; and, on 27 Sept. 1540, the bull “Regimini 
militantis ecclesie” of Paul III established the 
Society of Jesus as a new religious order. In 
April 1541 Ignatius was elected the first general 
of the society. He and his companions made 
their solemn profession, the 22d of that same 
month, at Saint Paul’s outside the walls. 
Within a very short time, the new religious 
were sent on important missions to various 
parts of the world: Rodriguez to Portugal, 
where he founded a province; Xavier to India; 
Salmerén and Broét to Ireland; Fabre, Cani- 
sius, Bobadilla and Le Jay, to Germany. In 
1546 Laynez and Salmeron were papal theolo- 
gians at the Council of Trent; here also Le 
Jay, Covillon and Canisius represented various 
bishops. Ignatius remained at Rome, to draw 
up the constitution (Cf. art. Jesuits). What 
pains he took in this work, and how he was 
guided therein by extraordinary graces,— illu- 
minations of the reason, inspirations of the 
will and visions,— may ‘be established bya 
journal of prayer still extant, wherein are 
recorded the deliberations for 40 days upon 
one vital issue in the matter of religious pov- 
erty. Ignatius founded the Roman College in 
1551, and the German College at Rome in 1552, 
He died in 1556, the 16th year after the canoni- 
cal institution of the Society of Jesus. It had 
grown to a membership of about 1,000, divided 
into 12 provinces, and_ toiling in more than 
100 religious houses. The saint was beatified 
by Paul V, 27 July 1609; and canonized by 
Gregory XV, 22 May 1622, His remains rest 
under a beautiful altar, in the church of the 
Gesu, Rome, 


709. 


IV. “ The Spiritual Exercises.”—The spirit 
of Saint Ignatius was Pauline intrepid yet 
tender; motivated by two great principles,—love 
of Jesus Christ and zeal for the salvation of 
souls. These two principles were brought 
together in his motto: A. M. D. G, “Omnia 
ad Majorem Dei Gloriam” (All for ihe greater 
glory of God). It was this spirit, which 
breathed in “The Spiritual Exercises,” a method 
of asceticism, that is the very soul of the 
constitutions and activities of the Society of 
Jesus. This little ‘book is said to have con- . 
verted more souls than it contains letters. 
Certainly the results it has produced down the 
centuries cannot be exaggerated. The import- 
ance of its method is proved by the mere fact 
that 292 Jesuit writers have commented on the 
whole work. The purpose of the Exercises is 
definite and scientific upbuilding of the reason, 
will and emotions, by meditation and contem- 
plation on the fundamental principles of the 
spiritual life and by other exercises of the soul. 
First, God is rated rightly as the soul’s end 
and object. Reason is convinced that God is 
the end for which the soul is created, and all 
things else are only means to bring the soul 
to God; hence it follows that that is good 
which leads the soul Godward, and that is evil 
which leads the soul awayward from God. 
The soul’s awaywardness from God results in 
sin; so sin is studied both in itself and in its 
consequences to the soul. Secondly, Jesus 
Christ is put in His place in the soul, by medita- 
tions on His ideals and contemplations on His 
private and public life. The soul now aspires 
to the very height of enthusiastic and personal 
love to Him; and to the most self-sacrificing 
generosity in following the evangelical counsels. 
Thirdly, the high resolves of the soul are con- 
firmed by the imitation of Christ in His pas- 
sion. Lastly, the soul rises to a sublime and 
unselfish joy, purely because of the glory of its 
risen Lord; and leaps with rapturous exultation 
into the realms of unselfish and perfect love 
of God, such as Saint Paul evinced when he 
cried out: “To me, to live is Christ: to die 
were gain” (Philippians i, 21). See also article 
SPIRITUAL EXERCISES. 

Bibliography.— ‘Monumenta Historica So- 
cietatis Jesu’ (1894, 36 vols., especially the 
“Monumenta Ignatiana, 9 vols., containing the 
‘Autobiography? of Saint Tenatius) ; Astrain, 
“Historia de la Compafiia de Jesus en la Asis- 
tencia de Espafia? (Vol. I, 1902); Tacchi-Ven- 
turi, ‘Storia della Compagnia di Gest in Italia? 
(1909) ; Duhr, “Geschichte der Jesuiten in den 
Landern deutscher Zunge? (1907). More than 
130 lives of Saint Ignatius have been written; 
important are Ribadeneira (1572), Clair (1894): 
Bartoli (1650), Bouhours (1679), Stewart Rose 
(1891) and Thompson (1910). 

WALTER Drum, S.J., 
Late Professor of Scripture, Woodstock College, 
Maryland. 


LOYOLA, Martin Garcia Ofiez de, Span- 
ish cavalier, nephew- of Saint Ignatius Loyola: 
b. Guiptizcoa, about 1548; d. 1599. He joined 
the knightly order of Calatrava: came to Amer- 
ica, where, in 1572, he fought against the Inca, 
Tupac Amaru, whose niece he married and 
through her secured some of the Inca’s fortune. 
In 1592 he was made governor of Chile. The 
seven years of his administration were occupied 
with the campaign against the Arancanians, the 


710 


most redoubtable opponents of Spain in the 
New World. Loyola was slain by the Indians 
at Curalava. Consult Arana, Diego Barros, 
‘Historia generale de Chile? (4 vols., Santiago 
de Chile 1884-85). 


LOYOLA UNIVERSITY, Chicago, IIl., 
Saint Ignatius College, the Arts Department of 
Loyola University, was founded in 1869 in 
Chicago by the Rev. Arnold Damen,_ S.J., 
and fellow-priests of the religious order of the 
Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. It is the oldest 
and largest Catholic institution of higher learn- 
ing in Chicago. At the time of its foundation, 
Saint Ignatius College was in the suburbs of the 
city, but owing to the unprecedented growth of 
Chicago the college has long since become a 
down-town institution. Realizing the need of 
providing suitably for the future growth of 
the college, the board of trustees found it ad- 
visable to purchase in 1906 20 acres of ground 
on the north shore. On this site two buildings 
have been erected —the Loyola Academy and 
the Michael Cudahy Science Hall — the latter 
the gift of the man whose name it bears. 
Loyola University, which is a development of 
Saint Ignatius College, was incorporated in 1909. 
A department of law was opened in 1908 under 
the name of the Lincoln College of Law, which 
was afterward changed to the Loyola Univer- 
sity College of Law. The university was asso- 
ciated with the Illinois Medical College in 1909 
and since 1910 with the Bennett Medical Col- 
lege. In 1917 it purchased the Chicago-College 
of Medicine and Surgery and now conducts 
its medical department under that name. For 
several years an affiliation was maintained with 
the Central States College of Pharmacy, but 
in 1917 it was discontinued. A department of 
sociology was opened in 1913 and located in 
the Ashland Block in the loop district of Chi- 
cago has been unusually successful. A junior 
college in engineering is maintained. Two high 
schools. are under the control of the university 
authorities. Present enrolment is 1,170 in col- 
legiate and’ graduate studies; 850 in high 
schools. The institution is a member of the 
Federation of Illinois Colleges. 


LOYSON, Charles, sharl lwa-zon (known 
by his monastic name, PErE HyaciINTHE), French 
ecclesiastic: b. Orleans, 10 March 1827; d. 1912, 
He studied in the College of- Pau and the 
ecclesiastical college of Saint Sulpice, was or- 
dained priest in 1850, taught philosophy at the 
Seminary of Avignon and theology at that of 
Nantes, entered the Carmelite order, and be- 
came renowned as a preacher at Lyons, Bor- 
deaux, Nantes and Paris. But his unorthodox 
utterances soon drew the censure of ecclesi- 
astical authority, and his superiors prohibited 
him from preaching. He then left the Order, 
and refusing to remain silent he was excom- 
municated. In 1869 he visited the United 
States, where he was heartily welcomed. In 
1872 he married an American lady in London. 
He protested against the dogma of papal in- 
fallibility, attended’ the Old Catholic Congress 
in Munich, fraternized with Protestants, but 
repeatedly declared that he had no intention of 
leaving the Catholic Church. In 1873 he be- 
came pastor of an Old Catholic church at 
Geneva, and the founder of the Christian 
Catholic Church of Switzerland. In 1878 he 
opened in Paris an independent church, the 


LOYOLA UNIVERSITY — LOZNITZA 


Eglise Gallicane, holding communion with the 
Old Catholic and Anglican churches. Pére 
Hyacinthe traveled extensively and during a 
visit to the Orient in 1900-01 with his wife 
was welcomed by patriarchs of the Eastern 
churches. From 1901 he ministered again to 
Old Catholic and Protestant churches in Swit- 
zerland. Among his writings are ‘La société 
civile dans ses rapports avec le Christianisme? 
(1867); ‘La Réforme Catholique? (1872-73; 
extended, 1867); ‘Liturgie de l’Eglise Catho- 
lique- Gallicane> (4th ed., 1883); ‘Mon Testa- 
ment? (1893); ‘Christianisme et Islamisme? 
(1895) ; and he edited the iy en Catholique 
Francaise. Consult Houtain, ‘Vie du Pére 
Hyacinthe? (in Grande Ree Vols. LXXVII- 
LXXXII, Paris 1913). 


LOZADA, 1o6-sa'da, or LOSADA, Manuel; 
Mexican bandit and guerilla leader: b. near 
Tepic, about 1825; d. 1873. Lozada was a mes- 
tizo, with Indian, negro and white blood in 
his veins. He became a prominent leader 
among the Indians over whom his influence 
was very great. He resorted to banditry and 
with his followers forced tribute from the law- 
abiding citizens of the lowlands. When war 
broke out between the Conservative and Lib- 
eral factions Lozada allied himself with the 
former and during the French occupation of 
Mexico was an ardent supporter of Emperor 
Maximilian, by whom he was commissioned a 
general of ‘division. By Napoleon III Lozada 
was decorated with the ribbon of the Legion 
of Honor. While Maximilian was in power 
Lozada was virtual autocrat of Tepic. After 


_the fall of the empire he opposed Juarez and 


in 1872 led a force against Guadalajara. He 
was unsuccessful but managed to elude his pur- 
suers until the following year when he was 
taken and summarily executed. 


LOZANO, 16-tha’nd, Pedro, Catholic mis- 
sionary: b. Spain, date unknown; d. 1759, He 
became a member of the Society of Jesus, was 
sent on the South American mission and sub- 
sequently was. appointed professor at the Col- 
lege of Cordoba at Tucuman. Charlevoix’s 
histories owe much to the material furnished 
by Father Lozano, who published several works, 
including ‘La descripcién chorografica del ter- 
reno, rios, arboles y animales de las dilata- 
disimas provincias del Gran Chaco. Gualamba 
y de los ritas y costumbres de las innumer- 
ables naciones barbaras é infieles que la habitan? 
(Cordoba 1733) and ‘Historia de la Compafiia 
de Jests en la pers a del Paraguay? (2 vols. . 


Madrid 1754-55). 


LOZEAU, 106’z6, Albert, Canadian poet: 
b. Montreal, 1875. He was educated in the 
schools of his native city; became an invalid 
in his youth and has of necessity lived in 
retirement. His poetry is very popular in Que- 
bec and has been praised by several Parisian 
critics. It breathes the introspection caused by 
his detachment from active affairs. His works 
include ‘L’ame solitaire? (1907); ‘Billets du 
soir? (1911), and ‘Le miroir des jours? (1912). 
Consult Roy, Camille, ‘French-Canadian Litera- 
ture? (in “Canada and its Provinces,» Vol. VI, 
Toronto 1914). 


LOZNITZA, l6s’nit-sa, Serbia, town situ- 
ated on the Drina, 65 miles west-southwest of 
Belgrade. It was taken by the Austrians in 


LUALABA 


the War of 1914-18, the passage of the river 
being forced at this. point after a heavy bom- 
bardment. When the Serbian forces’ assumed 
the offensive and forced the Austrians out of 
Serbian territory Loznitza was the scene of the 
last stand of the invaders; they were finally 
obliged to evacuate the town but in their. re- 
treat set it on fire. See War, EUROPEAN — SER- 
BIAN CAMPAIGN. 


LUALABA, loo-a-la’ba, Central Africa, a 
head-stream of the Kongo River, which rises 
near Kabinda on the southern boundary of the 
Kongo Free State, receives several affluents 
such as the Lufira and Lubudi, passes through 
a hilly, forest and lake region, and after a 
course of about 650 miles, the last 250 of 
which are navigable, unites with the Luapula 
(q.v.). at Ankoro to form the Kongo. 

LUANG-PRABANG, loo’ang-pra’bang. (1) 
Native state of Indo-China under the protection 
of France. (See Frencu Inpo-CHINA). (2) 
The capital of the state of the same name, in 
Indo-China, situated on the Mekong at its 
juncture with the Nam-kan, 250 miles west- 
southwest of Hanoi. A pagoda on a hill is a 
feature in the city’s centre. There are several 
other pagodas, temples and a royal palace. The 
town is also the seat of a French resident- 
agent. Pop. 40,000 


LUAPULA, loo-a-poo’la, Central Africa, 
a river, the chief of the two principal head- 
streams of the Kongo. It rises as the Cham- 
bezi south of Lake Tanganyika, near Fwamba 
on the Stevenson Road, flows southwest through 
Lake Bangweolo whence it issues as the Lua- 
pula, flows northward through Lake Moero, 
then northwestward until it unites at Ankoro 
with the Lualaba (q.v.) to form the Kongo. 

~LUBANG, | loo-bang’, Philippines, the 
largest and only inhabited island of the group 
of the same name lying at the western entrance 
of the Verde Passage between Luzon and Min- 
doro, southwest of Manila. The island of Lu- 
bang is 17 miles in length from northwest to 
southeast; area, 51 square miles; area of group, 
76 square miles, The interior of the island is 
mostly mountainous, but the coasts are low. 
The chief town is Lubang on the north coast, 
which has considerable native trade; the only 
port safe for all vessels at all seasons. of _the 
year in Tilig, on the northeast coast. . Civil 
government was established in these islands in 
1901, and in June 1902 they were detached from 
the province of Cavite and annexed to. the 
province of Marindique. Pop. 3,000. 


LUBAO, loo-ba’6, Philippines, a pueblo of 
the province of Pampangas, Luzon, situated on 
the northwestern channel of Pampanga delta, 
five miles south of Bacolor. It is the trade cen- 
tre of an agricultural region cultivatine sugar, 
rice and indigo. Pop. 21,200. 


LUBBOCK, lib’6k, Francis Richard, 
American governor: b, Beaufort, S. C., 16 Oct. 
1815; d. Austin, Tex., 1905. After receiving 
an academic education Lubbock was engaged in 
business in South Carolina, in New Orleans and 
finally in Texas. Before the Civil War he 
held several minor offices and clerkships. In 
1857 he was elected lieutenant-governor and 
in 1861 governor. He refused re-election and 
as soon as his term expired Lubbock entered 
the military service as colonel on the staff of 


— LUBBOCK 


711 


President Davis.. He was captured with Davis 
in, May 1865 and imprisoned until. December. 
Lubbock then entered business, first at Houston 
and later at Galveston.. In 1878 he was elected 
State treasurer and was three times re-elected. 
He wrote a volume of reminiscences called: ‘Six 
Decades in Texas? (1900). 


LUBBOCK, John, lst Baron Avesury, 
British archeologist and man of. science: b. 
London, 30 April 1834; d. Kingsgaté Castle, 
near Ramsgate, Kent, 28 May 1913. He was 
educated at Eton and joined the banking 
business of his father, Sir John William Lub- 
bock (q.v.), in 1848, becoming a partner in 1856. 
He rose to great eminence in his profession, 
and was appointed to various honorable and 
responsible posts in connection with it. He en- 
tered Parliament in 1870 as’ member for 
Maidstone in the Liberal interest, and from 
1880 till 1900 sat for London University, from 
1886 as a Liberal Unionist. In 1900 he was 
raised to the peerage as Baron Avebury. He 
was a recognized authority ~on. financial and 
educational questions, and his name is asso- 
ciated with three notable measures of social 
reform — the Bank Holidays Act, 1881, which 
secured three national holidays to the workers, 
on Easter Monday, Whit Monday and the 
first weekday after Christmas Day. Each of 
these is often referred to as “Saint Lubbock’s 
Day.” He also instituted the Shop Hours Regu- 
lation Act, 1885, which limited the hours of 
young persons under 18, and the Shop Hours 
Act, 1904, which made it compulsory for every 
store to close for half-a-day once a week. He 
was at various times chairman or member of a 
number of royal commissions; the Common Com- 
mittee of Public Accounts; on the Advancement 
of Science; the Public Schools; Internatioual 
Coinage; the Gold and Silver Commission; and 
the Secondary Education Commission. _He was 
the first president of the Institute of Bankers 
and chairman of the Council of Foreign Bond- 
holders, He was an outstanding supporter of 
the principle of proportional representation. 
But he was still more distinguished as a man 
of science. His studies were chiefly directed 
toward the ancient remains and history of man- 
kind; and the habits of insects, particularly 
of wasps, ants and bees. Some of his books 
had enormous circulations and did much to 
promote popular interest in science, and they 
possessed the authority that is based on ex- 
haustive personal investigation. _A complete 
list .of his writings would make quite a for- 
midable catalogue. They may be divided into 
four classes: (1) Biology: ‘British Wild 
Flowers in Relation-to Insects? (1873); ‘Origin 
and Metamorphoses of Insects? (1873) ; ‘Fruits, 
Flowers and Leaves? (1886); ‘On Seedlings? 
(1892) ; “Buds and Stipules? (1899) ; “Notes on 
the Life History of British Flowering Plants? 
(1905); (2) Geology, Paleontology and Phys- 
ical Geography; ‘Prehistoric Man? (1865); 
‘The Origin of Civilization? (1870); ‘The 
Scenery of Switzerland? (1896); ‘The Scenery 
of England? (1902); the two latter of import- 
ance as explanations of how the present-day 
scenery has come to be what it is. (3) Econ- 
omics: ‘A History of Coinage? (1902); ‘Free 
Trade? (1904). (4) Miscellaneous: ‘Fifty 
Years of Science”? (Presidential address to the 
British Association, 1881); ‘The Pleasures of 


712 


Life? (1887); ‘Peace and Happiness? (1909) ; 
and a number of other essays and addresses, of 
which a very popular one was an attempt to 


specify the best 100 books in the world’s litera-. 


ture. These have frequently been published in 
sets and are known as “Lubbock’s Hundred 
Best Books.” 


LUBBOCK, Sir John William, English 
astronomer and mathematician: b. Westminster, 
London, 26 March 1803; d. 20 June 1865. He 
was. graduated from Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, in.1825;. became a banker; found an 
avocation in scientific studies; made particular 
investigations in physical astronomy and La- 
place’s theory of probability; and was the first 
vice-chancellor of London University (1837-42). 
Among his scientific writings are ‘An Ele- 
mentary -Treatise on the Computation of 
Eclipses and Occultations? (1835); ‘An Ele- 
mentary Treatise on the Tides? (1839); and 
Gheiys Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere? 


LUBBOCK, Stir Nevile, English banker: 
b. 31 March 1839; d. 12 Sept. 1914. A brother 
of the first Lord Avebury (q.v.), he was 
educated at Eton. He became governor of 
the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation; a 
director of- the Colonial Bank; vice- -president 
of the Royal Colonial Institute; and president 
of the West India Committee. He was created 
K. C..M. G. in 1899, 


LUBEC, loo’bék, Me., town in Washington 
County, four miles south of Eastport. Fishing 
is the sole industry of the inhabitants. Smoked 
fish and sardines are exported. The water-sup- 
ply system is the property of the municipality. 
Pop. 3,371. 

LUBECK, Germany, one of the three free 
city-states (see FREE Cities) and a constituent 
of the German confederation, situated on a 
low ridge at the confluence of the Wackenitz 
with the Trave, 38 miles northeast of Ham- 
burg and 12 miles from the Gulf of Litbeck, 
on the Baltic. It was anciently surrounded by 
walls and bastions, which have been leveled 
and converted into pleasant walks; but it is 
still entered by four gates and furnishes strik- 
ing specimens of the architecture of the 15th 
and 16th centuries. Among the buildings are 
the cathedral, a structure of red brick, begun 
in 1173, surmounted by two spires 416 feet high, 
and containing a finely carved choir-screen; the 
Marienkirche (Saint Mary’s Church), a fine 
specimen of early Gothic, the ZEgidienkirche 
(Saint Giles’ Church) and the Petrikirche 
(Saint Peter’s Church); the town or senate 
house, an ancient Gothic building; the Hospital 
of the Holy Ghost (13th century); the Hol- 


stein Gate, with its two lofty towers, etc. There . 


is a public library of about 130,000 volumes. 
Scholastic establishments include technical, 
architectural and naval schools. The city. has 
fine municipal waterworks, electric lighting and 
a system of electric street railroads connecting 
the suburbs. The manufactures are compara- 
tively unimportant, but the trade is extensive, 
especially with Hamburg, the Baltic ports and 
the interior of Germany. The Elbe-Trave 
Canal connects Lubeck and Lauenburg. Lu- 
beck possesses a territory of 116 square miles 
and includes the port of Travemtinde and sev- 
eral isolated portions in Holstein and Lauen- 
burg. It has a senate of 14 members and a 


LUBBOCK — LUBKE 


council of burgesses of 120 members. ‘It be- 
came an imperial free city in 1226, and about 
30 years later it became the head of the Han- 
seatic League. It is represented by one mem- 
ber in the Bundesrat and one in the Reichstag 
(q.v.). There is a court of first instance and 
a high court. Pop, of city about 116,599; of 
city and state about 130,000. The principality 
of Liibeck belongs to the grand duchy of Olden- 
burg and lies north of the state (pop: 41/300). 
Consult’ King, Wilson, ‘Three Free Cities: 
Hamburg, Bremen, Libeck? (London 1914). 


LUBIN, David, American agriculturist, 
founder of the International Institute of Agri- 
culture: b. Poland, of Jewish parents, 10. June 
1849; d. Rome, Italy, 1 Jan. 1919. He was 
taken to England when he was two years old. 
On his father’s death, David’s mother married 
again and they emigrated to America. He re- 
ceived a scant education and at an early age 
was placed in a jewelry factory in Attleboro, 
Mass. Finding slight opportunity of advance- 
ment there he drifted to California. . He 
reached Sacramento and after working at odd 
jobs he amassed sufficient funds to start a dry- 
goods store of his own. David dealt largely 
in overalls and thus came in contact with the 
farmers of California, and as he met them in 
person he learned something of their prob- 
lems and his keen mind was soon interested. 
He bought a farm and became a fruit grower, 
retaining also his dry-goods: business which 
had prospered. In his new vocation of farmer 
there came to him the idea of an international 
agriculturdl congress, whereby one side of the 
globe might learn what the other side was pro- 
ducing and how and at what cost. He began 
collecting statistics on the subject; studied 
plant life and domestic animals and made in- 
vestigations into their diseases and sought 
remedies therefor. In 1904 Mr. Lubin found 
support in Italy for his projected international 
agricultural congress. King Emmanuel saw the 
meed for such an institution and gave it his 
ardent support, giving a building for the con- 
gress and an annual income of $60,000. At the 
first gathering 40 nations were represented and 
Mr. Lubin was appointed the delegate from 
the United States by President Roosevelt. 
Mr. Lubin lived to see 53 nations taking part 
in the congress. He was responsible also for 
the introduction of the rural credits system 
in the United States and he brought about the 
passage of a measure in Congress for increasing 
the parcels post service for the benefit of the 
farmer, promoting direct selling and buying of 
farm produce through the mails. He also 
took a keen interest in farmers’ co-operative 
societies and granges and was interested in 
oceanic shipping. He introduced the national 
marketing proposal on the lines of the German 
Landwirtschaftsrat. In 1913 on the occasion 
of the meeting of the congress in Rome Mr. 
Lubin received a silver cup as a token of ap- 
preciation of his efforts in originating the or- 
ganization. Since that year he had lived in 
Rome much of the time. He published. ‘Let 
There be Light.?. See INTERNATIONAL: INSTI- 
TUTE OF AGRICULTURE. 


LUBKE, Wilhelm, vil’hélm lib’ké, German 
historian of art: b. Dortmund, Westphalia, 17 
Jan. 1826; d. Karlsruhe (Baden), 5 April 1893. 
He studied at Bonn and Berlin; held the chair 


LUBLIN 


of architecture at the Building Academy of 
Berlin in 1857-61; was professor of the history 
of art and archzxology at the polytechnic school 
at Ziirich 1861-66, at Stuttgart 1866-85 and at 
the high school in Karlsruhe 1885-93. Chief 
among his works are ‘Medieval Art in West- 
phalia? (1853), which at once gave him a high 
place among art critics; the ‘History of Archi- 
tecture? (‘Geschichte der Architektur,? 1855), 
the first popular manual of the subject, and a 
great success: ‘Outlines of the History of Art? 
(1860; 11th ed., 1891), translated into English 
by Clarence Cook, 1880; ‘History of the 
Renaissance in France? (1868); ‘History of 
the Renaissance in Germany? ( 1873) ; “Eccle- 
siastical Art in Germany? (Eng. trans. by 
Wheatley, 1876) ; “History of Sculpture? (Eng. 
trans. by Bunnet, 1878); “History of German 
Art? (1888); ‘Recollections? (1891). He was 
extremely versatile and previous to his work 
in art gave instruction in vocal and pianoforte 
music. 


LUBLIN, loo’blin, Poland, capital of the 
government of Lublin, on the Bistritza, about 
95 miles southeast of Warsaw. Lublin was, in 
the 12th century, a place of importance. The 
union of Poland and Lithuania was decreed at a 
diet which met here in 1568. There are at 
present some manufactures, chiefly woolen 
goods, agricultural implements and. leather. 
There is a jail with which is connected a gov- 
ernment cloth factory. It was the headquarters 
of the Russian 14th Army Corps. Lublin has a 
number of good educational institutions and a 
number of ancient buildings. Pop. 65,870, one- 
half. of whom are Jews. 


LUBLINSKI, loo-blin’ski, Samuel, German 
literary critic: 
18 Feb. 1868; 'd. Weimar, 26 Dec. 1910. He is 
the author of a number of dramas and a book 
attacking the naturalistic movement in the Ger- 
man literature of the last decade of the 19th 
century (‘Die Bilanz der Moderne,’ Dresden 
1904). 


LUBRICANTS, substances having a low 
degree of cohesion applied to solid surfaces 
rubbing against each other; the object being to 
reduce the friction at the points of contact. The 
theory as to lubricants is that they interpose 
an almost frictionless film between the sur- 
faces to which they are applied. The require- 
ments of a good lubricant, therefore, are a 
minimum of internal cohesion and_ sufficient 
body to resist being squeezed out of place by 
the pressure to which they may be subjected 
—as, for example, in the bearings of a heavy 
shaft. Other important qualities demanded 
are freedom from all corrosive ingredients and 
also from any component which has a tend- 
ency to absorb oxygen and become gummy. 
Lubricants for use in the cylinders of gasoline 
engines must possess the further qualifications 
of having a high flash point and a relatively 
very high fire point. 

The lubricants generally in use belong to 
the. group of oils and greases. Outside of 
these but one substance ranks with them in im- 
portance, and that is graphite. Although 
nearly all of the so-called non-drying oils and 
most of the greases have been used at one 
time or another as lubricants, it is now recog- 
nized that animal oils and fats are liable to de- 


— LUCANIA 


b. Johannisburg, East Prussia, » 


713 


compose with use, developing acids which are 
corrosive, and thus destructive to the bearings 
in which they are used; and oils of vegetable 
origin have a tendency to become gummy 
within a brief period. For all fine machinery, 
therefore, the preferred lubricants are the min- 
eral oils derived from crude petroleum. For 
many purposes, however, sperm oil, lard oil, 
whale oil, neatsfoot oil and tallow oil, among 
the animal oils, and olive oil, rape oil and cas- 
tor oil among the vegetable oils are in consid- - 
erable use, both alone and in mixtures with 
one another and with the various mineral oils. 
Solid tallow is also used in mixtures with vari- 
ous oils to form lubricating greases. Castor 
oil has proved of special value in lubricating 
the high-speed engines of the aeroplane and 
the racing automobile. Graphite, preferably of 
the “flake” type, is used on the finest of ma- 
chinery, usually in mixture with oil or grease. 

e fine lubricating oils are made. from 
crude petroleum by first distilling off the naph- 
thas and the illuminating oil, and then distilling 
the residue with superheated steam in a vac- 
uum. The lower temperatures give the lighter 
spindle oils, and the higher give cylinder oils 
of greater viscosity up to a buttery paste, called 
cup grease. These lubricants are graded to ex- 
tremes of nicety for the pressures under which 
they must work and the temperatures they 
must endure, and the manufacturers offer them 
in almost endless variety. Consult Archbutt, 
L., and Deeley, R. M., ‘Lubrication and Lubri- 
cants? (London 1912); Battle, J. R., “Lubricat- 
ing Engineer's Handbook? (Philadelphia 
1916); Hurst, G. H., ‘Lubricating Oils, Fats 
and Greases? (London 1911). 


LUCAN, li’kan (Marcus ANNZ&us Luca- 
Nus), Roman poet: b. Cordoba, Spain, 39 a.p.; 
d. 65. His father, a Roman knight, was the 
youngest brother of the philosopher Seneca. 
Lucan went to Rome when a child, and hav- 
ing early obtained celebrity, was forbidden by 
Nero, who himself aspired to literary honors, 
to recite in public. This induced Lucan to join 
the conspiracy of Piso. The plot was discov- 
ered, and Lucan, who is said to have informed 
against his own mother as accessory, was con- 
demned to death. He chose the death of Sen- 
eca, and had his veins opened. Of his poems, 
only his ‘Pharsalia? had come down to us, in 
which he narrates, in 10 books, the events of the 
civil war between Cesar and Pompey. The 
poem is unfinished, and as it appears to have 
been composed at different times, it is uncertain 
whether it was left unfinished by the. author 
or whether the latter part has been lost. In the 
earlier portions the liberal sentiments of the 
author are checked by deference to the emperor, 
in the latter he is inveighed against in unsparing 
language. The best editions are Burmann’s 
(Leyden 1740), Weber’s (Leipzig 1821-31) and 
those of Haskins (Cambridge, England, 1887), 
Hosius (Leipzig 1892) and Francken (Leyden 
1896-97). Lucan has been translated into Eng- 
lish by Rowe (1718) and by Ridley (2d ed., 
1905). Consult Butler, H. E., ‘Post- Augustan 
Poetry? (Oxford 1909). 


LUCANIA, 1a-ka’ni-a, Italy, a district of 
ancient Italy, southeast of Cambria and. bor- 
dering on the Gulf of Tarentum, corresponding 
nearly to the present province of Potenza and 
the eastern part of Salerno. The region was 


714 


almost wholly occupied by the Apennines, and 
covered with extensive forests. The Chones 
and the C£notrians were the ancient people of 
this section; but. before the introduction of 
Christianity into Italy, they had been nearly 
destroyed. Lucania became Roman territory 
about 300 B.c. 


LUCAS, Albert Pike, American painter 
_ and sculptor: b. Jersey City, N. J., 1860? He 
was educated at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 
Paris, under Hébert and Boulanger 1882-88, 
and subsequently was a pupil of Gustave Cour- 
tois and Dagnan Bouveret. Since 1889 he has 
exhibited regularly at the Paris Salon, also 
at leading expositions. He was awarded a 
medal at the Buffalo Exposition of 1901 and 
received an honorable mention at the Paris Ex- 
position of 1900. Mr. Lucas has painted por- 
traits of many prominent persons and is repre- 
sented in the National Gallery, Washington, and 
by a marble bust, ‘Ecstasy? in the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, New York. Among his paint- 
ings are ‘The Golden’ Madonna?; ‘October 
Breezes”; ‘Little Church on the Hil? ; ‘Walk- 
ing against the Wind. 

LUCAS, Captain Lord (AusEron THOMAS 
Herpert), English statesman and soldier: b. 
1876; d. November 1916. He lost a leg in the 
South African War while acting as correspond- 
ent of The Times. He afterward held various 
official posts— Under-Secretary at the War 
Office, Under-Secretary for the Colonies, and 
parliamentary secretary to the Board of Agri- 
culture, entering the Cabinet as president of that 
board in 1914. On the formation of the coali- 
tion government in. 1915 he abandoned politics 
and, notwithstanding his physical disability and 
the fact that he was much over the regulation 
age, joined the Royal Flying Corps and quickly 
gained his pilot’s certificate. He first served 
in Egypt, flying over the Turkish lines; after 
instructing recruits for some months in Eng- 
land he was sent to the western front. On 4 
November the made a flight over the German 
lines and failed to return. His death was re- 
ported in December. The barony of Lucas 
dates from 1663. 


LUCAS, Edward Verrall, English author: 
b. 12 June 1868. He was educated at Univer- 
sity College, was connected with the London 
Globe 1893-1900, and with the Academy -1896- 
1901. He published a populer ‘Book of Verses 
for Children» (1897), as well as other works for 
young readers, and then began an association 
with Punch. Biographer; essayist anthologist, 
editor, traveler, he brings to all his work 
sympathy, uncommon powers of observation 
and description, and a. genial, kindly humor. 
His works include ‘The Open Road? (1899); 
“Highways and Byways in Sussex? (1904); ‘A 
Wanderer in Holland? (1905) ; “A Wanderer in 
London? (1906); ‘Character and Comedy? 
(1907); ‘Over - Bemerton’s? (1908); ‘A 
Wanderer in Paris? (1909); ‘Old Lamps for 
New? (1911); ‘A. Wanderer in Florence? 
(1912); ‘Loiterer’s . Harvest? (1913); ‘A 
Wanderer in Venice? (1914); ‘Landmarks? 
(1914). He has edited'a notable edition of the 
works of Charles and Mary Lamb. 


LUCAS, Frederic Augustus, American 
museum director: b: Plymouth, Mass., 25 
March 1852. He was educated in the public 
schools and from 1871 to 1882 was assistant at 


LUCAS — 


LUCBAN 


Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Roches- 
ter, N. Y. From 1882 to 1904 he was succes- 
sively osteologist, assistant curator of the 
division of comparative anatomy and curator 
of the United States National Museum. In 
1904-11 he was curator-in-chief of the museums 
of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences 
and in the latter year was made director of the 
American Museum of Natural History. Dr. 
Lucas was member of the commission appointed 
to investigate the condition of the fur seal herd 
of the Pribilof Islands. He has written various 
papers on the anatomy of birds, fossil verte- 
brates and museum methods and the volumes 
‘Animals of the Past? (1901); ‘Animals be- 
fore Man in North America? (1902). — 


LUCAS, George J., American clergyman: 
b. Youghal, County Cork, Ireland, 22 May 1852. 
He was educated at Saint Francis Xavier’s Col- 
lege, New York City, Woodstock College, Saint 
Mary’s Seminary, Baltimore, the Catholic Uni- 
versity of America, Washington and the Ponti- 
ficial University, Rome. . Further. studies were 
made in Canada, England and Belgium: He © 
entered the Society of Jesus, but left it be- 
cause of his poor health. In 1889 he was 
ordained to the priesthood and from 1889 to 
1896 was curate successively at Scranton, Arch- 
bald and Dunmore, Pa. In 1896-1908 Father 
Lucas was rector of Saint Andrew’s Church, 
Blossburg, Pa.; from 1908 to 1912 of Saint 
Mary’s, Pittston, and after 1912 permanent 
rector of Saint Patrick’s Church, Scranton. 
Father Lucas is synodal examiner of the 
diocese of Scranton. He contributed to ©The 
Catholic Encyclopedia? and is the author of 
‘Agnosticism and Religion? (1895), which drew 
a commendatory letter from the Right Hon: 
W. E. Gladstone, one-time Prime Minister of 
England. The book is a refutation of the 
doctrines of agnosticism propounded by Herbert 
Spencer in his synthetic philosophy and is con- 
sidered the standard work on agnosticism from 
the Christian viewpoint in both continents. In 
March 1919 the Gladstone autograph letter to 
Dr. Lucas was placed in the collection of 
Vatican documents exposed for public view in 
the exhibition cases of the Vatican library. 


LUCAS, John Seymour, English artist: b. 
London, 21 Dec. 1849; d..8. May 1923, He 
studied with Gerard Robinson; and later. at 
the Royal Academy; first exhibited at the 
Academy in 1872; first made his mark by his 
‘By Hook or Crook, shown at Burlington 
House in 1875; and obtained recognition for 
the high technical. excellence of his work. He 
became a Royal Academician in 1898. Among 
his later canvases are ‘Fleeced?; ‘For the 
King and the Cause? ; ‘Intercepted Despatches? ; 
“Charles Before .Gloucester?>; ‘After Cul- 
loden” ; ‘The Call to Arms.. . 


LUCBAN, look-ban’, or LUGBANG,; loog- 
bang’, Philippines, pueblo of the province of 
Tayabas, Luzon, eight miles northwest of Taya- 
bas, the provincial capital. It is in the heart of 
a mountainous region, and in the surrounding 
country rice is grown on Sawas or terraces on 
the hillsides. It is on the main road, and has 
a profitable trade.’ The chief industries are the 
weaving of fine straw hats from the fibre of the 
buri palmleaf, and the manufacture of pandanus 
mats. Pop. 10,227. 


LUCCA — LUCENA 


LUCCA, look’ka (originally Lucas), Paul- 
ine, Austrian opera singer: b. Vienna, 24 April 
1841; d. there, 28 Feb. 1908. She was a pupil 
of Uschmann and Lewy, but being too poor “to 
pursue her studies joined the chorus of the 
Vienna Court Opera. She made her first ap- 
pearance in opera in 1859 as Elvira in Verdi’s 
‘Frnani? at Olmtitz; at once attained great 
success on the Continent; and later sang in 
London (1863-65) and New York (September 
1872). From 1874 to 1889 she was a member 
of the Vienna Opera. Illness impaired her 
voice and in 1889 she retired. Among her chief 
parts were those of Margeurite, in ‘Faust? ; 
Cherubino, in ‘Le Nozze di Figaro,’ and Zer- 
lina in ‘Fra Diavolo.» Auber was so struck. by 
her appearance as Zerlina that he gave her the 
pen with which he had written the opera. 


LUCCA, Italy, the capital of the province 
of Lucca, and former capital of the ancient 
Tuscan republic and duchy of Lucca at the base 
of the Apennines, near the left bank of the 
Serchio, 37 miles by rail northwest of Florence, 
and 26 miles from the Mediterranean. En- 
circled by walls flanked with bastions, it stands 
in a fertile plain surrounded by the Apennines, 
and has a striking appearance. It is entered by 
four gates and is well built. Lucca is an 
archiepiscopal see, and the seat of several im- 
portant courts and public offices. It contains 
numerous antiquities; one of the most interest- 
ing is the fish-market, the large oval of which 
is the Roman amphitheatre; while the buildings 
around it, though converted into modern dwell- 
ings, are in a great measure composed of the 
ruins of the amphitheatre, and exhibit huge 
solid arches, and masses of brick and stone, on 
their original sites. The principal edifices are 
the Duomo, or cathedral (begun 1204), with a 
magnificent facade, a Romanesque portico, 
stained glass of the richest kind and a famous 
life-size crucifix, carved, according to legend, 
by Nicodemus, and which is only exhibited four 
times a year; the church of San Michele (8th 
century), an ancient and imposing structure; 
the church of San Frediano, founded in 686, 
furnishing an interesting specimen of early 
Christian architecture, and adorned with fine 
mosaics, frescoes, and paintings; the ducal 
palace; academies of science; public. library 
with over 220,000 volumes; the Palazzo Borghi, 
now converted into a poor-house; and an aque- 
duct, carried from a distance into the city over 
459 arches. The manufactures consist chiefly 
of silk goods; and there are numerous silk 
mills; near by are extensive jute mills. The 
trade is almost confined to the above articles of 
manufacture, agricultural produce and. olive- 
oil, particularly the latter, which bears a high 
name, and is largely exported. 

First an Etruscan, then a Ligurian, town 
Lucca 177 B.c., ‘became a Roman colony. It be- 
came a episcopal see in 347. It followed the 
varied fortunes of northern Italy until about 
1115 it was made the seat of a republic. In 
1320 it fell under the dominion of Castruccio 
Castracani, who became Duke of Lucca, and 
after his death Lucca was sold to Florence. It 
purchased its liberty from Charles IV in 1369, 
and maintained its independence until the 
French occupation in 1799. In 1814 the Con- 
gress of Vienna recreated it a duchy. In 1847 
it was reunited to Tuscany, and it became part 


715 


of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. Pop. about 
76,160. 

The Bagni di Lucca, situated north of the 
city in the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the 
Serchio,, is celebrated for its warm springs and 
baa with temperatures ranging from 98° to 


Consult Del Carlo, ‘Storia popolare di 
Lucca? (2 vols., Lucca 1877); and Ross and 
Erichsen, ‘The Story of Lucca?’ (in ‘Medieval 
Town Series,’ New York 1912). 


LUCCOCK, George Naphtali, American 
clergyman: b. Kimbolton, Guernsey County, 
Ohio, 31 March 1857. In 1878 he was graduated 
at the University of Wooster and in 1881 at 
the Western Theological Seminary. In the 
latter year he was ordained to the Presbyterian 
ministry and for 10 years was engaged in home 
missionary work in Kossuth, Emmett, Dickin- 
son and Greene counties, lowa, and Westminster 
Church, Des Moines. In 1891-94 he was pastor 
at Bloomington, Ind., in 1894-1903 at Wash- 
ington, D. C., in 1903-17 at Oak Park, [l., and 
at the College Church, Wooster, Ohio, since 
February 1917. In 1910 Dr. Lucas was a dele- 
gate to the World’s Missionary Conference at 
Edinburgh and.is member of the commission of 
the general assembly charged with the prepara- 
tion of a new Intermediate Catechism. He is 
the author of ‘Christianity and War? (1917). 


LUCE, Auguste Siméon, French historian: 
b. Bretteville-sur-Ay, Manche, 1833; d. 1892. 
He received his education at the Ecole des 
Chartes in 1856-58. In 1858 he was appointed 
archivist of the department of Deux-Sévres 
and eight years later was made chief of the 
historical division of the National Archives. 
In 1882 M. Luce was elected member of the 
Academie de Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. 
In the same year he was appointed to the chair 
of historical sources of French history at the 
Ecole des Chartes and in 1883 received the cross 
of the Legion of Honor. His publications in- 
clude an edition of Froissart (1866-88) and ‘Le 
chronique du Mont-Saint-Michel> (1879-86) ; 
‘De Gaidone poemate Gallico Vetustiore Dis- 
quisitio Critica» (1860);  ‘Chroniques des 
quatre premiers Valois? (1862); ‘Histoire de 
Bertrand Duguesclin et de son époque? (1876; 
2d ed, 1883); ‘Jeanne d’Arc a Domrémy’ 
(1886) ; ‘La France pendant la guerre de Cent 
Ans? (1890). 


LUCE, Stephen Bleecker, American naval 
officer: b. Albany, N. Y., 25 March 1827; d. 
Newport, R. I., 28 July 1917. He was appointed. 
midshipman from New York in 1841; saw 
service in various waters and made the circuit 
of the globe; during the Mexican War was on 
the Pacific Coast; and in the Civil War was 
commander of the monitor Nantucket, and of 
the Sonoma, Canandaigua and Pontiac. He 
revived the naval apprentice system and later 
established it at Newport, R. I. He founded 
the Naval War College and was its first presi- 
dent, and in 1886-89 was in command of. the 
North Atlantic station. On 25 March 1889 le 
was retired. He was an associate editor of the 
‘Standard Dictionary,» and author of ‘Sea- 
manship? (1863-98), ‘Naval Songs? (1889) 
and ‘The Patriotic and Naval Songster. 


LUCENA, loo-tha’na, Spain, an Andalu- 
sian city in the province of Cordova, 37 miles 


716 


southeast of that city, in a picturesque hilly 
situation. It is well built, has a fine parish 
church, schools, benevolent institutions, a town- 
house, a magnificent “paseo” or public 
promenade, and in the neighborhood are medic- 
inal baths of repute. It manufactures linens, 
shoes, earthenware, glass, iron, copper and 
other metallic vessels, oil, vinegar, brandy, and 
is in a region noted for its wines, and for 
horse-raising. Pop. 21,029. 


LUCERNE, li-sérn’, (Fr. lii-sarné), Swit- 
zerland, the capital of the canton of Lucerne, and 
one of the three seats of the Swiss Diet, on an 
acclivity at the northwest end of Lake Lucerne. 
The Reuss, which issues from the lake and 
flows through the town, is crossed by five 
bridges, two of which are covered and orna- 
mented with curious medieval paintings, in- 
cluding a Danse Macabre. The town retains its 
feudal walls and watch-towers, and with: the 
neighboring mountains, including the Pilatus 
and Rigi, is noted for its picturesque features 
and scenic beauties, making it a much-frequented 
tourist centre. Lucerne is well-built, has regu- 
lar, clean streets, electrically lighted and tra- 
versed by street railroads, a town-hall, with val- 
uable stained glass of the 14th century, Jesuit 
college, now the government building; a 15th 
century parish church, with two slender towers; 
a Gothic Protestant church; Ursuline convent, 
with handsome church; a museum and cantonal 
library of 90,000 volumes; large town hospital, 
poorhouse, deanery, arsenal, a new International 
Museum of War and Peace, mint, casino, etc.; 
and besides the college or lyceum, several. -well- 
conducted educational establishments. The 
water supply is obtained. from springs on Mount 
Pilatus, 14 miles off. An interesting monument 
is the ‘Lion of Lucerne, designed by..Thor- 
waldsen, in memory of the Swiss guards who 
fell in Paris in 1792 while defending the Tuile- 
ries, and hewn out of the solid rock. Lucerne 
has some transit trade, but the manufactures 
are unimportant; it depends chiefly on the im- 
portant tourist traffic, accommodating annually 
250,000 visitors. Pop. about 41,500. Lucerne was 
founded in a.p. 750. It was at one time under 
the Austrian yoke; but it has belonged to-the 


Swiss Confederation since 1332, During the Ref- 


ormation period it was a stronghold of Catholi- 
cism, and such it has remained. Under the 
Helvetic Republic it was the seat of the central 
government, and it led in the Sonderbund War, 
but was captured by the Federals in 1847. 


LUCERNE, also called PURPLE ME- 
DICK, a leguminous forage plant (Medicago 
sativa); native to Europe, and extensively grown 
there, in the United States and other coun- 
tries of the temperate and semi-tropical zones. It 
is of the natural order Leguminose, and is often 
found in a wild state in Europe and western 
Asia. Lucerne has a. well-developed tap-root, 
often. three-fourths of an inch in diameter in 
old plants, with strong lateral roots which de- 
scend to a depth of several feet, where the sub- 
soil is open and adapted to the growth of the 
plant.. From the root-stock, which is perennial, 
many upright stems are sent up to a height of 
one to three feet, bearing trifoliate leaves, the 
leaflets of which are somewhat narrow, obovate, 
with dentate margins and projecting tips to the 
midribs. The flowers, which grow in racemes 
or clusters, are generally purple, though plants 


LUCERNE — LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR 


with pale yellow flowers are met with occasion- 
ally...The pod is a spirally coiled legume con- 
taining several greenish-yellow seeds about the 
size of those of red clover. Seed does not 
usually ripen well in Great Britain and in’ 
Europe the best comes from southern France. 
When fully established lucerne is one of the 
most valuable of all farm crops, yielding a 
highly nutritive green fodder. Since it rapidly 
deteriorates in feeding value when the flowering 
period commences, it should be cut just before 
the bloom appears. In America it is very gen- 
erally known by the Spanish name of alfalfa 


(q.v.). Hardy Siberian species are now being 
introduced in the Northern States and in 
Canada. 


LUCERNE, Lake of, or VIER-WALD- 
STATTERSEE (Lake of the Four Forest 
Cantons), Switzerland, the largest, and in many 
respects the most magnificent, Swiss lake, near 
the centre of the country, 1,433 feet above sea- 
level, surrounded by the cantons of Lucerne, 
Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden; area, 49 square 
miles. It is irregular in shape and divided into. 
reaches, separated by narrow straits, giving it 
the appearance of three distinct lakes. The ex- 
treme length from west to south through its 
centre is 2314 miles; greatest breadth a little 
over two miles; while the depth varies from 
300 to 702 feet. It presents every variety of 
lake scenery. In the upper reach, lofty moun- 
tain masses, including Pilatus and the Rigi, 
tower above the lake, and descend in sheer prec-: 
ipices to its very edge. It never freezes over. 
Owing to the violent storms which suddenly 
burst over the lake, its navigation is dangerous. 
Steamers ply regularly upon it. The Reuss 
River enters the lake at Fliielen and flows out 
of it at Lucerne. Cut out of the solid rock on the 
eastern. shore is the Axenstrasse, one of the 
most beautiful of lakeshore roads. At Brunnen 
the league was made (1307) that achieved Swiss 
independence;, and there are interesting tradi- 
tional memorials of William Tell. Over 20 
pleasure steamers ply the lake, carrying annu- 
ally over 2,000,000 passengers. 


LUCHAIRE, Achille, a-shél_ lii-shar, 
French historian: b. Paris, 24 Oct: 1846; d. 14 
Nov. 1908. He was professor in the Bordeaux 
faculty of letters; was made a professor at Paris, 
where in 1889 he obtained the chair of mediz- 
val history. In addition to studies of the Basque 
language, such as ‘Noms de lieux du pays 
basque? (1872), and ‘De lingua aquitanica? 
(1877), he published a comprehensive work on 
the Gascon dialects, “Etudes sur les Idiomes 
pyrénéens de la Région francaise? (1879), 
crowned by the Academy, and a number of his- 
torical narratives, such as ‘Institutions mon- 
archiques de la Fance sous les premiers Capé- 
tiens? (1884), and ‘Les communes francases a 
lépoque des Capétiens directs? (1890) ; “L’Uni- 
versité de Paris sous Philippe-Auguste? (1899) ; 
an exhaustive history of the Papacy in the time 
of Innocent III. in~ six volumes (1904-08) ; 
Social, ‘France at the Time of Philip Augus- 
tus> (Eng. trans., 1912). Consult. Imbert de la 
Tour, ‘Achille Luchaire? -in Revue des Deux 
Mondes (Vol. LII, 1909). | 

LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR, loo-ché’a 
déla’mér-moor, a tragic opera by Gaétano Doni- 


zetti; text by Salvatore Cammerano. First per- 
formed in Naples on 26 Sept. 1835. Though 


LUCIAN — 


based on Walter Scott’s romance, ‘The Bride 
of Lammermoor, the opera differs from the 
book and its English characteristics have been 
given an Italian atmosphere. Of the 64 operas 
composed by Donizetti the ‘Lucia di Lammer- 
moor’— his masterpiece—and two others, 
‘Lucrezia Borgia? and ‘The Daughter of the 
Regiment, are about the only ones ever per- 
formed nowadays. In the story Lucia, sister of 
Henry Ashton, Lord of Lammermoor, is in love 
with Sir Edgardo of Ravenswood, her broth- 
er’s mortal enemy. Although Lord Ashton had 
slain Edgardo’s father and burnt his castle, 
Edgardo is willing to forego his vengeance for 
the love of Lucia. The lovers swear eternal 
fidelity to each other and Edgardo departs for 
France on service. During his absence Lord 
Ashton shows his sister a forged document pur- 
porting to show that her lover has broken faith. 
Much against her will she agrees to marry Ar- 
thur, Lord Bucklaw, a wealthy suitor chosen by 
her brother. The wedding takes place, when Ed- 
gardo, arrives at the end of the ceremony — too 
late. Lucia loses her reason and kills her hus- 
band; Edgardo, desiring to see her once more, 
arrives to find her dead. He stabs himself and 
prays to meet his bride in heaven. 


LUCIAN, li’shi-an, Greek author: b. Sa- 
mosata, Syria, about 125 a.p.; d. Egypt toward 
the close of the 2d century a.p. He went to 
Antioch and devoted himself first to law and 
afterward to rhetoric, and traveled in several 
countries (among others, Greece, Italy, Spain 
and Gaul) as a professional orator. On re- 
turning home, probably about his 40th year, 
he abandoned the profession of rhetoric, which 
he seems partially to have resumed in his old 
age, and confined himself to philosophy and 
literature. He lived to an advanced age, and 


was at a late period of his life made procurator‘ 


of part of Egypt. The works of Lucian, of 
which many have come down to us, are narra- 
tive, rhetorical, critical, satirical, mostly in the 
form of dialogues.. The most popular are 
those specifically known as the ‘Dialogues, in 
which he derides the popular mythology and the 
philosophical secrets, particula ly his ‘Dialogues 
of the Gods? and ‘Of the Dead.’ These have 
given him the character of. the wittiest of an- 
‘cient writers. He seems not to belong to any 
system, attacks imposture and superstition 
freely and boldly where he finds them, but is 
devoid of inspiration. The Epicureans, who in 
this respect agree with him, are therefore 
treated with more forbearance. The Christian 
religion, of which, however, he knew little, and 
that only through the medium of mysticism, 
was an object of his ridicule. His writings 
were once largely studied as textbooks, but his 
diction is not of the best. (See DIALOGUES OF 
tHE DEAD). Among editions of his works may 
be mentioned Lehman’s (1822-29), F. Fritsch’s 
(1882-85), incomplete; and Sommerbrodt’s 
(1886-99), and Fowler’s (4 vols., 1905). The 
most complete English translation is by Howard 
Williams (1888, in Bohn’s series), and there 
are also renderings by Francklin (1781) and 


Tooke. Consult Allinson, ‘Saint Lucian: 
Selected Writings» (Boston 1905); Croiset,” 
“Essai sur la vie et les ceuvres. de Lucien? 


(Paris 1882); Harmon, in ‘Loeb Classical 
Library» (Vol. I text and translation, New 
York 1913); Hine, “Lucian the Syrian Satirist? 
(ib. 1900). 


LUCIFER 717 


LUCIFER. Of Vondel’s voluminous works 
the favorite with the Dutch is ‘Gysbrecht 
wan ainsrel, + but. ‘Luciter>, (1654). has a 
more universal interest because of its. start- 
ling subject matter, which combines the 
naiveté of the mediaeval religious play with 
ultramodern boldness of thought. Lucifer, the 
Stadholder of God, fearing the subjection of 
the archangels under man as a result of the 
Incarnation, revolts and is defeated. From 
revenge he tempts man and is plunged with 
all his hosts into eternal perdition where he | 
loses his original beauty to become the monster 
of popular tradition. The Catholic poet’s dedi- 
cation to Emperor Ferdinand III who “like 
Divine Majesty is seated in unapproachable 
light,” along with his political pasquinades, 
cause his drama to seem a political allegory 
rather than a religious play. In his preface to 
the printed work he claims he was “the more 
eager to bring Lucifer upon the tragic stage 
since he stricken at last by the thunderbolt of 
God is thrust down to Hell as a signal example 
to all thankless and ambitious persons who 
audaciously dare to rise up against consecrated 
powers and majesties and lawful authorities.” 
The pasquinade “To the Regicides” and “Pro- 
tector Werewolf” make of Cromwell the 
“dissembling Lucifer” who wrested the sword 
from his sovereign in order to raise the Hellish 
Host to the Engelsch-English or~ angels? 
throne. Vondel’s political satire, the drama 
“Pcelamedes,? nearly cost him his head in 1625. 
Since this includes Prince Moritz of Orange in 
its targets, it is not impossible that King 
Philip’s Stadholder William of Orange is also 
the. original of ‘Lucifer.’ 

The drama was produced at Amsterdam on 
2 and 5 Feb. 1654, and withdrawn in answer to 
the vehement protests of the Calvinistic clergy. 
It was printed in 1654 and 1661, but not once 
during the 18th century, though more than 20 
editions appeared in the 19th. It is written in 
Alexandrines in powerful and picturesque lan- 
guage often of Miltonic grandeur, but it lacks 
true’ dramatic quality, since all action of im- 
portance is narrated, not presented. 

George Edmundson has proved the indebted- 
ness of Milton to “Lucifer” for his ‘Paradise 
Lost,? the English poet stressing the fall of 
man, Vondel, the revolt of the angels. Edi- 
tion: Vondel’s ‘Werken,» J. van Lennep 
(Vol.) XVII, Leiden: 1894); Vondel’s. Treur- 
spelen,” J. van Vloten (Vol. I, Historical In- 
troduction, Schiedam 1875); Eng. trans., C. 
L. van Noppen (New York 1898); ‘Milton and 
Vondel,? George Edmundson (London 1885). 

Cart FE. Eccrrr. 

LUCIFER, li’si-fér, (1) in ancient as- 
tronomy, the morning star. A name given to 
the planet Venus when she appears in the 
morning before sunrise. When Venus follows 
the sun, or appears in the evening, she is called 
Hesperus, the evening star. (2) A name com- 
monly given to Satan, the prince of darkness, 
due to the Fathers of the Church having mis- 
interpreted the reference to Lucifer (the king 
of Babylon) in Isaiah xiv, 12 as being to Satan. 
(3) A term originally applied to matches tipped 
with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sul- 
phuret of antimony, which were inflamed by 
friction on a piece of emery paper. These have 
been superseded by a variety of mixtures con- 
taining phosphorus, 


718 


LUCIIDA, li-si'i-dé, or ESOCIDZA, the 
pike and pickerel family of bony fishes. These 
fishes have an elongated, somewhat compressed, 
powerful body, with rather small cycloid scales, 
an imperfect lateral line; the head and snout 
prolonged and depressed, the mouth large and 
lower jaw longest. The mouth is filled with 
strong teeth, and these fishes are the fiercest 
carnivores of the fresh waters. The family is 
widely distributed in northern waters, and may 
be traced back to the Miocene Age. See PIKE. 


LUCILE, li-sél’, an epic poem by Lorp 
Lytton. (Owen Meredith), published in 1860. 
The narrative was founded upon the French 
novel ‘Lavinia? by George Sand. 


LUCILIUS, li-sil'i-is, Gaius, Roman au- 
thor: b. Suessa, 180 B.c.; d. Naples, 103 p.c. He 
was grand-uncle to Pompey the Great on the 
maternal side. He served his first campaign 
against Numantia under Scipio Africanus, with 
whom he was very intimate. He is considered 
the inventor of the Roman satira, because he 
first gave it the form under which this kind of 
poetry was carried to perfection by Horace, 
Juvenal and Persius. His satires were superior, 
indeed, to the rude productions of Ennius and 
Pacuvius, but he in turn was surpassed by 
those who followed him. Horace compares 
him to a river which carries along precious dust 
mixed with useless rubbish. Of 30 books 
of satires which he wrote only 940 fragments 
have been preserved. In his lifetime these 
satires had an uncommon popularity. Consult 
the edition by Lachmann and Vahlen (1876); 
Miller, ‘Leben und Werke des Gaius Lucilius? 
(1876); Marx (2 vols., Leipzig 1904-05) ; 
Cichorius, ‘Untersuchungen zu Lucilius? (Ber- 
lin 1908); and for criticism of these two later 
editions Knapp, C. (in American Journal of 
Philology, Vol. XXIX, New York 1908). 


LUCIN CUT-OFF. A famous link in the 
Southern Pacific Railroad Overland route 
completed in 1903 across the centre of Great 
Salt Lake west of Ogden, Utah. At Lucin it 
joins the old line which circles far to the north 
around the head of the lake and climbs over 
several high ridges, one 680 feet high. It cuts 
off 44 miles and the new line is practically level 
for 72 miles. It consists partly of rock fill 
“and about 12 miles of trestles. 


LUCINA, lii-si’na, in Roman mythology, 
the goddess of light, a surname of Juno (ac- 
cording to some of Diana; according to others 
the name of a daughter. of Jupiter and Juno) 
derived from the root of luceo (I shine). Her 
festival was celebrated 1 March, on which oc- 
casion the matrons assembled in her temple, 
adorned it with flowers and implored a happy 
and brave posterity. 


LUCIUS, 1t’shi-is, 
popes, as follows: 

LUCIUS I: d. March 254. He succeeded 
Pope Cornelius on 23 June and by some au- 
thorities is said to have suffered martyrdom 
under Gallus, but this cannot be proved. 


LUCIUS II (GHERARDO CACCIANEMICI, ga- 
rar’do ka'’ché-a-na-mé’ché): d. 15 Feb. 1145, 
He was legate to Germany from Honorius II, 
supported Innocent II against the antipope, An- 
acletus II, and became chancellor of the Holy 
See. In 1144 he succeeded Celestine II, but 


the name of three 


LUCIIDA — LUCKNOW 


was unsuccessful in quelling revolts against the 
papal authority in Rome and while heading his 
troops to suppress a disturbance, was killed by a 
paving stone thrown from the mob. 


LUCIUS III (UBALDO ALLUCINGOLI, 00- 
bal’do al-loo-chén’g6-lé) ; d. Verona, 25 Nov. 
1185. He was the cardinal- bishop of ‘Ostia and 
became Pope 1 Sept. 1181. He was the first 
Pope elected solely by the cardinals. The Em- 
peror Frederick Barbarossa having claimed the. 
estates bequeathed to the papacy by Matilda of 
Tuscany, Lucius demanded their surrender. 
Frederick refused and the quarrel ended in the 
expulsion of Lucius from Rome.. He died an 
exile in Verona. 


LUCK OF EDENHALL, The. 
EDENHALL. 


LUCK OF ROARING CAMP, The, a 
celebrated short story of California mining life 
written by F. Bret Harte (q.v.), which was first 
published in the Overland Monthiy in 1869. 
The story attracted attention in the East and 
appeared in book form the following year. It 
is perhaps the most notable of the many short 
stories of Western life written by this author. 


LUCKENWALDE, lik’én-val’dé, _ Prus- 
sia, town in the province of Brandenburg, situ- 
ated on the Nuthe, 30 miles south of Berlin, on 
the Berlin-Dresden- Leipzig Railroad. It is an 
important industrial centre, its establishments 
including cloth and woolen manufactories, cot- 
ton, printing and dye works, metal and bronze 
works, foundries, machine shops, hat factories, 


See 


paper, piano and cardboard factories, etc. 
Pop. 23,500. 
LUCKNOW, India, former capital of 


Oudh, 666 miles northwest of Calcutta and 885 
miles from Bombay. It is situated on both 
banks of the Gumti, and is connected by the 
Oudh and Rohlkund line with the general In- 
dian railway system. The cantonment is in the 
southeast corner of the city. Lucknow has an 
imposing appearance at a distance which a 
nearer view fails to realize, but it has some 
beautiful open spaces, and has been called the 
“City of Parks”. The principal buildings are 
the Kaiserbagh Palace, built in 1850, now oc- 
cupied as government offices and forming a 
gorgeous pile of domes, pinnacles, terraces and 
fountains; the Imambara or holy palace, 
where Asuf ud Douelah - is buried, now an 
arsenal; the great mosque or Jama Masjid; 
and the Hoseinalad or small Imambara with the 
mausoleum of Mohammed Ali. -The Mar- 
tiniére College for half-caste children is a strik- 
ing building founded by Claude Martin, a 
French soldier who became a general in the 
East India Company. Other educational insti- 
tutions include Canning College, Colvin College 
and the Reid Christian College of the Ameri- 
can Methodist Mission, which has also estab- 
lished a high school for girls. Its chief manu- 
factures are of cotton, and chikan or em- 
broidery in silk or cotton on muslin; also brass 
and copper work, wood carving, pottery, paper 
making, printing, shoemaking and tobacco strip- 
ping, and there are extensive railway work- 
shops. A municipality was organized in 1864. 

Lucknow was founded by Lakshmana, 
brother of Rama Chandra. After the Moham- 
medan’ conquest it was occupied by Shaiks and 
Pathans. It rose to its highest splendor as the 


LUCKOCK — LUCY 


capital of the kingdom of Oudh, established 
during the decay of the Mogul Empire; but a 
selfish and sensual race of rulers imposed 
heavy burdens on the people; and the country 
fell under British control in 1856. Lucknow is 
associated with some of the most stirring in- 
cidents in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.), when 1,200 
men held out against 10,000 mutineers until re- 
lief came through re-enforcements brought by 
Havelock and Outram. The residency, the 
Secunder Bagh and the Alumbagh, where 
Havelock is buried, are interesting memorials 
of the siege. Pop. about 259,798. Consult 
Innes, ‘Lucknow and Oudh in. the Mutiny? 
(1905). 

Lucknow also gives its name to a division of 
the United Provinces as well as to a district 
and tahsil, The division is the westernmost 
of Oudh, and it lies between the Ganges on the 
southwest and the Gogra on the northeast, and 
contains six. districts. Area, 12,051 square 
miles. Pop. about 5,911,642.. In 1901 87 per 
cent of the population were Hindus and 13 per 
cent Mohammedans. The district is the small- 
est in the United Provinces, and comprises three 
tahsils. Area, 967 square miles. Pop. about 
764,411. In 1901 78 per cent were Hindus and 
over 20 Mohammedans. The tahsil, in which 
the city of. Lucknow is situated, has an area of 
360 square miles. 


LUCKOCK, Herbert Mortimer, English 
clergyman: b. Great Barr, Staffordshire, - 11 
July 1833; d. Lichfield, 24 March 1909. He 
graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge, was 
twice vicar of All Saints, Cambridge, and was 
rector of Gayhurst with Stoke-Goldington. 
Subsequently he was residentiary canon of Ely 
and principal of the Ely Theological College, 
and in 1892 became dean of Lichfield. Among 
his writings are ‘Tables of Stone?; ‘After 
Death”; ‘Footprints of the Apostles, and 
Characteristics of the Four Gospels. 


LUCRETIA, 1i-kré’shi-a, Roman matron 
of distinguished virtue, whose ill-treatment by 
Sextus Tarquin led to the destruction of the 
kingdom, and the formation of the republic of 
Rome. She was the wife of Collatinus, near 
relation of Tarquin, king of Rome. Sextus 
Tarquinius, who contrived to become a guest 
in the absence of her husband, whose kinsman 
he was, found means to reach her chamber in 
the middle of the night, and threatened, unless 
she gratified his desires, to stab her, kill a slave, 
place him by her side and then swear that he 
‘had slain them both in the act of adultery. 
The fear of infamy succeeded. She afterward 
summoned her husband, father and kindred, 
and after acquainting them with the affair 
stabbed herself to the heart. The story has 
been variously adapted by poets and romancers. 


LUCRETIUS, li-kré’shi-ts, Carus Titus, 
Roman author: b. probably Of Br c0Gs, 35 B.C. 
About his life almost nothing is known. He is 
supposed to have studied Epicurean philosophy 
at Athens. He is said to have been made in- 
sane by.a philtre, in his lucid intervals to have 
produced several works, and to have committed 
suicide in his 44th year. We possess of his 
composition a didactic poem, in six books, the 
“De Rerum Natura,’ in which he exhibits the 
cosmical principles of the Epicurean philosophy 
with an original imagination, and in forcible 
language. The work is in six books, revised by 


719 


Cicero, and is entire but, evidently, not com- 
plete. The theory of corpuscles and their prop- 
erties; the origin of the vital and intellectual 
principles; of the senses; of the world and 
the movements of the heavenly bodies; of the 
rise and progress of society; and of arts and 
sciences, with other expositions of. natural 
phenomena, are successively treated. Lucretius 
purpose was to free his readers from the fear 
of death which he believed to be bound up 
with the superstitions of the popular religion: 
As a work of art his poem has received the 
unanimous praise of critics for the skill with- 
which the most unyielding materials are. re- 
duced to a poetic diction full of life and sus- 
tained majesty. It has influenced the foremost 
English poets. (See DE REruM Natura). Con- 


sult Giussani, C., ‘Note lucreziane? (Turin 
1900) ; Masson, John, ‘Lucretius: Epicurean 
and. Poet? (2 vols., London 1907-09); Mallock, 
W.r Hs ‘Lucretius on Life and Death? (ib. 
1900); Wallace, W., ‘Epicureanism? (ib. 
1880) ; Zeller, E, ‘Stoics, Epicureans and 
Sceptics? (ib. 1880). 

LUCULLUS, 1a-kul’ts, Lucius Licinius, 


Roman soldier of the Ist century B.c. Whena 
young man he served with distinction in the 
Marsic War, and accompanied Sulla as questor 
into Asia, on the breaking out of the Mithridatic 
War, 88 Bc. He expelled Mithridates from 
Chios and Colophon and defeated him off Tene- 
dos. After peace had been concluded with Mith- 
ridates he remained in Asia till 80 p.c. In 79 
he was elected curule zdile, an office which he 
held in conjunction with his younger brother. 
Subsequently he held the office of pretor. On 
the conclusion of this magistracy he went to 
Africa, the administration of which province 
he conducted with ability and impartiality, and 
in 74 B.c. obtained the consulship with M. 
Aurelius Cotta. As consul he maintained the 
constitutional laws of Sulla. On the breaking 
out of the war with Mithridates he obtained the 
proconsulship of Cilicia and the command of 
the army. He vanquished the squadron. of 
Mithridates near the island of Lemnos, and 
this victory enabled him to drive all the other 
squadrons of Mithridates from the Archipelago. 
The generals of Lucullus subdued meanwhile 
all Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Lucullus, again 
at the head of his army, although overcome by 
Mithridates in a battle, soon acquired such 
advantages that he finally broke up the hostile 
army, and Mithridates himself sought protec- 
tion in Armenia. Lucullus now changed Pon- 
tus into a Roman province. Tigranes, king of 
Armenia, refusing to surrender Mithridates to 
the Romans, Lucullus marched against’ Armenia 
and vanquished Tigranes 69-68 B.c. Mithri- 
dates, however, contended with varying fortune, 
till Lucullus was prevented from effectively con- 
tinuing the war by the mutiny of his soldiers. 
Lucullus was deprived of the chief command, 
which was bestowed first on Glabrio, and after- 
ward on Pompey, and recalled 66 Bc. After 
a delay of three years he succeeded in procuring 
the merited recognition of his services in a 
public triumph. He laid out his gardens at 
Rome .with such splendor that they became 
proverbial, and Pompey called him the Roman 
Xerxes. 


LUCY, Sir Henry (William), 
journalist; b. Crosby, near Liverpool, 


a 
o0 


English 
5: Dec. 


720 


1845. He was for a time a member of the 
Shrewsbury Chronicle staff; in 1870-73 was 
connected with the Pall Mall Gazette (morning 
edition) ; and from 1873 with the Daily News, 
of which— with the exception of the period 
January 1886-July 1887, when he was editor-in- 
chief — he was the Parliamentary correspond- 
ent. He visited the United States in 1883, on 
his way around the world; an account of which 
journey appeared in the New York Tribune in 
the form of letters, subsequently collected as 
‘East by West? (1885). On the death of Tom 
Taylor (q.v.) Lucy continued the former’s ‘Es- 
sence of Parliament? in Punch as ‘The Diary 
of Toby, M. P.,? and as such proved himself 
a racy and entertaining writer on British pub- 
lic men. Among his books are ‘Men and Man- 
ners in Parliament? (1874); ‘A Diary of Two 
Parliaments? (1885-86), and on the same lines 
the diaries of the Salisbury, Home Rule, Union- 
ist and Balfourian parliaments (1892, 1895, 
1901, 1906); ‘Memories of Eight Parliaments? 
(1908); Sixty Years in the Wilderness? 
(1909, 1912) and ‘Nearing Jordan? (third 
series, 1916). He was knighted in 1909. He 
died Hythe, England, 21 Feb. 1924. 


LUCY, Sir Thomas, English landed pro- 
prietor: b. 1532; d. Charlecote, 7 July 1600. 
He was educated by John Foxe (q.v.), the 
martyrologist; and he foilowed the Puritan 
sentiments of his tutor. If*1552 he came into 
possession of. great estates in Warwickshire, 
in 1558-59 rebuilt the manor-house, which still 
exists, an excellent specimen of the Tudor 
style. He was knighted in 1565, and elected 
M.P. for Warwick in 1571 and 1584. His 
chief interest is in his alleged connection with 
Shakespeare (q.v.) whom he is said, in a 
story dating from the 17th century, to have 
prosecuted for deer-stealing. This story is 
now thought to be based on fact, though 
burdened with false details; and Shakespeare 
is believed undoubtedly to satirize him as 
Justice Shallow in ‘The Merry Wives of Wind- 
sor.» ' Consult’ Lee: Sir Sidney, ‘Life © of 
Shakespeare.” 


LUDDITES, in British history a name 
given to rioters in 1811-16, in Yorkshire, Lan- 
cashire and Nottinghamshire, in England, who 
attributed the prevailing distress to the intro- 
duction of machinery in manufactures, and did 
a great deal of damage in destroying it. For 
a time these counties were in a perpetual state 
of disturbance, but on the return of prosperity 
the riots ceased. 


LUDENDORFF, General Von, German 
soldier: b. Posen, Prussia, 1865. He. passed 
out of the War Academy in 1895 and was soon 
afterward appointed to the Great General Staff 
in Berlin, where his high mental attainments 
won him recognition and rapid advancement. 
A born soldier, strong-willed, endowed with 
an iron constitution and obsessed with but one 
idea — the perfection of the great fighting ma- 
chine of which he was a part — Ludendorff be- 
came by far the most dominant figure pro- 
duced on the German side during the war. 
At the end of 1912 he was chief of a depart- 
ment at the General Staff with the rank of 
colonel; in April 1914 he was promoted to 
major-general and placed in command of an 
infantry brigade at Strassburg. He was given 
another command shortly after the outbreak 


LUCY — LUDENDORFF 


of war, but before the war was a month old 
he was sent to East Prussia as chief of staff 
of the 8th army under Hindenburg. The 
impression prevailed that Ludendorff was re- 
sponsible for the recall of Hindenburg from 
his retirement to command the 8th army 
operating against the Russian invasion, and 
that Hindenburg had returned the compliment 
by asking for Ludendorff as his chief of staff. 
From this stage the two men worked together 
and it would be difficult to assert how much 
the chief of staff contributed to Hindenburg’s 
successes and made him for a time the idol 
of the German people. ‘According to some 
authorities, Ludendorff was the brain and Hin- 
denburg the arm of the German military 
power. The failure of Von Falkenhayn at Ver- 
dun in 1916 led to his being superseded by 
Hindenburg as virtual commander-in-chief, and 
Ludendorff became first quartermaster-general. 
It was also alleged that the shuffle of commands 
was a plot between the Kaiser and Falkenhayn to 
discredit Hindenburg and lower his enormous 
popularity by giving him free rein, in the cer- 
tainty that he would run his head against a wall. 
A more probable explanation was that if the 
bitter truth had at last to be told the German 
people, he alone could perform the task and 
carry the nation with him. Ludendorff, how- 
ever, was the principal power—a mysterious © 
personality that gradually overshadowed even 
the Kaiser. Silently and unobtrusively he ma- 
tured strategic plans, intrigues and press cam- 
paigns in his solitary and closed: office, making 
his calculations and solving his problems. As a 
strategist Ludendorff takes high rank among the 
master minds who planned the battles and troop 
movements on the battlefields of Europe. His 
task was by no means an easy one. He had, 
up to the middle of 1917 at least, to hold back 
millions of troops in the Eastern and Western 
Fronts. With the collapse of Russia, and the 
fading out of the battle line on the Eastern Front, 
his task was simplified somewhat although the 
entrance of the United States into the war was 
fast bringing to the Entente a preponderance in 
men and materiel. Well informed of the nature 
and extent of America’s effort, Ludendorff in the 
winter of 1917-18 made extensive preparations 
for a grand final offensive with the object of 
breaking the Allied lines in France before the 
weight of America’s effort could be brought to 
bear against him. This historic drive began 21 
March 1918 and for days proceeded according 
to schedule. Up to the middle of July the. 
strategic plans of lLudendorff still bore 
fruit, but at this very moment America’s 
participation in the conflict turned the tide 
and the end of the month saw the German 
armies in retreat. The morale of the Ger- 
man civilian population had meanwhile been 
undermined and Ludendorff found it increas- 
ingly difficult to maintain discipline at the 
front. He was among the very first mem- 
bers of the German High Command to recog- 
nize defeat as imminent. Already in Au- 
gust 1918 Ludendorff had launched peace 
kites and endeavored to persuade the Kaiser 
of the hopelessness of the struggle; it was he, 
also, who prompted the request by Germany 
for an armistice. When the inner history of the 
war is written on the German side, the genius of 
Ludendorff, his rise and his fall, will stand as 
one of the romantic episodes in the great con- 


LUDENSCHEID — LUDLOW 


flict. Consult ‘Ludendorff’s Own Story? (New 
York 1919). 


LUDENSCHEID, 1i’dén-shid’, Prussia, 
town in Westphalia, 20 miles southeast of 
Hagen and 32 miles northeast of Cologne. It 
is a manufacturing town, with cutlery and 
hardware works, musical instrument factories, 
watch, umbrella, cane and wire works, iron 
foundries, cotton-mills, etc. Pop. 32,300. 


LUDINGTON, Mich., city, county-seat of 
Mason County, on Lake ‘Michigan and Mar- 
quette River. It is the terminus of the Pere 
Marquette Railroad, about 85 miles northeast 
of Milwaukee, Wis., 130 miles northwest of 
Lansing and 61 miles from Manitowoc on the 
opposite side of the lake. It has regular 
steamer communication with the large ports on 
Lake Michigan and direct freight connection, 
by ferry, with Manitowoc, Wis. It was settled 
in 1851, incorporated in 1867 and chartered as 
a city in 1874. The principal industries are 
connected with the manufacture and shipment 
of salt and lumber. There are large lumber 
mills, game-board factories, watch-case, print- 
ers’ supplies, furniture and clothes-pin fac- 
tories. Lumber, grain, flour, salt and fruit are 
among the articles shipped to outside markets. 
The city has many guests in the summer 
months, attracted by the cool climate and op- 
portunities for fishing in the several lakes 
nearby. The Epworth League Training As- 
sembly has nearby grounds and _ cottages. 
There are also a students’ military camp, a 
Carnegie library, a courthouse, a station of the 
United States Weather Bureau, a clubhouse 
and park. The waterworks are owned by the 
city. Pop. (1920) 8,810. 


LUDLOW, _liid’l6, Edmund, English 
leader of the Republican party in the civil 
wars of Charles I and regicide: b. Maiden 
Bradley, Wiltshire, about 1617; d. Vevay, 
Switzerland, 1692. He was graduated from 
Trinity College, Oxford, in 1636; fought at 
Edgehill in 1642; in 1646 was elected to Par- 
liament from Wiltshire; and in December 
1648 was one of the chief promoters of 
“Pride’s purge” (q.v.). He was one of the 
judges who signed the death-warrant of 
Charles I, sat in the council of state in 1649- 
50 and was lieutenant- general of the horse in 
Ireland and a commissioner for the civil gov- 
ernment of that country in 1650-55. In 1656, 
upon the proclamation of Cromwell as lord 
protector, he declined to recognize Cromwell’s 
authority, or to give security to keep the peace. 
Having been allowed to go into retirement in 
Essex, he was elected to Parliament for Hin- 
don in 1659, and upon the recall of the Long 
Parliament became a member of the committee 
of safety (7 May), of the council of state (14 
May) and commander-in-chief of the Irish 


army, with rank of lieutenant-general (4 
July). He was impeached upon the Restora- 
tion (1660), surrendered, was allowed his lib- 


erty on providing sureties and escaped to 
Switzerland. His ‘Memoirs? (1698-99) fur- 
nish a good account of the opposition to Crom- 
well and of the factional troubles which over- 
threw the republic. Of this work.a new edi- 
tion edited by C. H.. Firth appeared in 1894. 


LUDLOW, Fitzhugh, American journalist: 
b. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 11 Sept. 1836; d. Ge- 
VOL. 17— 45 


721 


neva, Switzerland, 12 Sept. 1870. He was 
graduated from Union College in 1856, in 
1858-59 studied law in New York, in 1859 was 
admitted to the bar, but from 1860 devoted 
himself exclusively to literature. In 1860-61 
he was connected with the World and the 
Commercial Advertiser, for a time was dra- 
matic, art and musical critic of. the Evening 
Post, to which he long contributed, and held a 
similar post as critic on the Home Journal. 
He was also a frequent contributor to Har- 
per’s Monthly and other magazines. In 1863. 
he journeyed across the plains to Oregon and 
California, and in an article styled ‘Through 
Tickets to San Francisco,’ laid out a route for 
a Pacific railroad largely identical with that later 
followed. He was among the earliest con- 
tributors to Northern Lights of Boston, upon 
the establishment of that magazine. Among 
his works are ‘The Hasheesh Eater: Being 
Passages from the Life of a Pythagorean’ 


(1857); ‘Little Brother and Other Genre Pic- 
tures? (1867); ‘The Opium Habit? (1868) ; 
and ‘The Heart of the Continent: A Record 
of Travel? (1870). 

LUDLOW, James Meeker, American 
Presbyterian clergyman and author: b. Eliza- 


beth, N. J. 15 March 1841. He was gradu- 
ated from Princeton in 1861, from the Prince- 
ton Theological Seminary in 1864, entered the 
Presbyterian ministry and was pastor of the 
First Presbyterian Church of Albany 1 

and of the Collegiate Reformed Church of 
New York in 1868-77. His subsequent pas- 
torates were that of Westminster Church, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. (1877-85), and that of the 
First Presbyterian Church of East Orange, 
N. J., 1886-1909. In 1885 he declined the 
presidency of Marietta College (Ohio). Dr. 
Ludlow received honorary title of D.D. from 
Williams College, and that of L.H.D. from 
Princeton University. In 1909 he resigned his 
pastoral charge in East Orange, becoming by 
vote of the people pastor emeritus. He has 
since spent much time in Italy. Dr. Ludlow is 
a member of New York Authors’ Club; Amer- 
ican Historical Association; New Jersey His- 
torical Society; Long: Island Historical Soci- 
ety; Washington Society of New Jersey and 
many other social and scholarly organizations. 
For many years he has been a director-of the 
Union Theological. Seminary in New York. 
He is a frequent contributor to the periodical 
literature of the day. His works are ‘My 
Saint John? (1883) ; ‘Concentric Chart of His- 
tory? (1885); ‘Captain of the Janizaries,? 

a tale of Albania (1886); ‘A King of Tyre, ) 
a story of ancient Phoenicia (1891) ; ‘That P Ae 
gelic Woman? (1891); ‘History of the Cru- 
au E RS (1896) ; ‘Baritone’s Parish? (1897) ; 
‘Deborah, a story of the time of Judas Mac- 
cabeus (1901) ; ‘Incentives for Life? (1902) ; 
‘Sir Raoul,» a story of Venice and the Fourth 
Crusade (1905) : ‘Jesse Ben David, a story of 
the time of Christ (1907) ; ‘Judge West’s Opin- 
ion, a study in optimism (1908) ; ‘Discovery 
of Self, lectures to young men (1910); 
‘Avanti! a story of Sicily in 1860 (1913). 


LUDLOW, John Malcolm Forbes, Eng- 
lish social reformer and author: b. Nimach, 
India, 8 March 1821; d. 17 Oct. 1911. He was 
educated at the College Bourbon, Paris, be- 


722 


came a barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, London, in 
1843, and practised as a conveyancer till 1874. 
His interests, however, lay mainly outside his 


profession, Reforms in India and the Anti-Corn. 


law movement deeply interested him, and he 
was associated with the beginnings of the Chris- 
tian Socialist and industrial co-operative move- 
ments. He was chief registrar of Friendly So- 
cieties 1874-91, and. has published ‘Letters on 
the Criminal Code? (1847) ;. “The Master Engi- 
neers and Their Workmen? (1852): ‘British 
India: Its Races and Its History? (1852); 
‘Thoughts on the Policy of the Crown To- 
ward India? (1859); ‘Sketch of:the History of 
the United States from Independence to Seces- 
sion? €1862); ‘President Lincoln Self-Por- 
trayed? (1866) : “The War of American Inde- 
Res dtace (1876), etc. 


LUDLOW, Roger, American — colonial 
statesman: b. Dorchester, England, 7 March 
1590; d. Virginia, about 1665. He was by pro- 
fession a lawyer, came to Boston in 1630, was 
there assistant to the General Court of Massa- 
chusetts in 1630-34, in 1634 became deputy gov- 
ernor, but was defeated for the post of gov- 
ernor, removed with a Massachusetts colony 
to Windsor, Conn., and was, it is thought, the 
first practising lawyer in Connecticut. In 1639 
he was a member of the convention for prepar- 
ing a constitution, and the document is believed 
to have been drafted by him. In Connecticut 
also he was made deputy governor, and here, 
too, John Haynes, who had defeated him for 
the governorship in Massachusetts, was again 
victorious in the gubernatorial election. In 
chagrin Ludlow sought to evade his “evil gen- 
ius,” as he styled Haynes, by founding the 
town of Fairfield. Here he held each public 
office of any importance, was a commissioner 
to the New England congress and revised the 
laws of Connecticut (published 1672). The In- 
dians having threatened Fairfield, the citizens 
declared war against the Dutch, at whose 
instigation the savages were believed to be 
acting; and Ludlow was made captain of the 
forces. The New Haven General Court, how- 
ever, quashed this proceeding and punished 
Ludlow’s subordinate officers. Ludlow then 
(1654) withdrew in high dudgeon with all the 
town records to Virginia, where he quite dis- 
appeared. 


LUDLOW, William, American soldier: b. 
Islip, Long Island, N. Y., 27 Nov. 1843; d. Con- 
vent, N. J.,° 30 Aug. 1901. He was graduated 
from West Point in 1864, entered the engineer 
service, was chief engineer of the 20th corns in 
the Georgia campaign (July-September 1864), 
in 1864-65 was engineer of the army in Geor- 
gia, was assistant_engineer on Sherman's staff 
in the “March to the Sea” and in the Carolinas, 
and 13 March 1865 was brevetted lieutenant- 
colonel, U. S. A., for meritorious conduct in 
the Carolinas campaign. After various serv- 
ice, he was chief engineer of the Department of 
Dakota in 1872-76, engineer in charge of the 
Delaware River and harbor improvements and 
defenses in 1882-83, by authority of Congress 
chief engineer of the Philadelphia water de- 
partment in 1883-86, and was at different times 
in charge of lighthouse districts and engineer- 
ing work. In 1895 he became president of the 
Nicaragua Canal Commission and 13 August 
was promoted lieutenant-colonel of engineers 


LUDLOW — 


LUDWIG 


in command of the lighthouse depot. In 1893 
96 he was military attaché at the United States 
embassy in London. Commissioned. brigadier- 
general of volunteers 4 May 1898, he became 
engineer-in-chief of the American army in the 
field in the Spanish-American War, served in 
the Santiago campaign, was made major-gen- 
eral of volunteers 7 Sept. 1898, and from 13 
Dec. 1898 to April 1900 was military governor 
of Havana, in the rehabilitation of which city 
he took an important part. On 13 April 1899, 
he became brigadier-general of United States 
volunteers, and on 21 Jan. 1900 brigadier-gen- 
eral United States army. As president of the 
board of officers appointed for the considera- 
tion of the establishment of an army war col- 
lege, he visited France, England and Germany 
for purposes of study. In 1901 he was ordered 
to the Philippines as commander of the Depart- 
ment of Visayas, but immediately returned on 
sick-leave. He wrote ‘Explorations of the 
Black Hills and Yellowstone Country? and 
“Report of the United States Nicuaeuar Canal 
Commission.» 


LUDLOW, England, market town and 
municipal borough of Shropshire, on the Great 
Western and the London and Northwestern 
railways, at the junction of the Corve and 
Teme rivers. It is picturesquely situated and 
has many interesting remains of antiquity, in- 
cluding an ancient castle, an old city gate, and 
an ancient church and grammar school. The 
town was once a royal residence. Tanning and 
flour milling are carried on. The fortifications 
were dismantled in 1689. Pop. 5,925. Consult 
Clive, ‘History of Ludlow? (London 1841) 


-and Wright, ‘History of Ludlow? (ib. 1851). 


LUDLOW, Ky., city of Kenton County, 
situated on the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, 
Ohio, on the Cincinnati, New Orleans. and 
Texas Pacific Railroad. Its industrial estab- 
lishments include railway repair shops, sheet 
metal works, brass works, etc. The city is a 
residential suburb of Cincinnati. Pop. 4,160. 


LUDLOW, Mass., town in Hampden 
County, five miles northeast of Springfield, on 
the Boston and Albany Railroad and on the 
Chicopee River. It contains the Stevens Me- 
morial Institute, the Ludlow Hospital, Hub- 
bard Memorial Library and fine school build- 
ings. It manufactures carpet yarn, twine, web- 
bing, sacking, etc. Pop. (1920) 7,470. 


LUDWIG, loot’vik, Otto, German drama- 
tist and writer of short stories: b. Ejisfeld, 
Thtiringen, 12 Feb. 1813; d. Dresden, 25 Feb. 
1857. fiis *. edauer, Ernst Friedrich Ludwig 
(d. 20 Jan. 1825), was a well-known Central 
German jurist; his mother’s maiden name was 
Sophie Christiane Otto (d. 21 Nov. 1831). He 
attended the gymnasium at Hildburghausen 
(1828-29), as well as that of Saalfeld (1832- 
LIP Ie made an unsuccessful attempt to enter 
business with his uncle, Christian Otto (whom 
he later called “der dicke Herr? —the stout 
eentleman), and obtained his higher education 
chiefly by self- instruction, laying the founda- 
tions for a very extensive ‘musical culture. The 
scene of his studies was mostly a pretty little 
garden and lodge, belonging to him, just out- 
side the city of ,Eisfeld, where his friend Karl 
Schaller was his constant companion. One of 
the results of his musical studies was the opera 


LUDWIG 


‘Die K6hlerin> (performed privately at Eis- 
feld 1838), in recognition of the merits of 
which the Meiningen conductor, Grund, had an 
annual pension of 300 gulden conferred on Lud- 
wig for three years. In 1839 Ludwig went to 
Leipzig’ to pursue his musical studies, chiefly 
under the direction of Mendelssohn. Illness 
and a shifting of his mterest to literary studies 
prevented the successful prosecution of a musi- 
cal career: In 1840, Ludwig published his first 
short story, ‘Das Hausgesinde, which shows 
distinct traces of the influence of Kotzebue’s 
“Rehbock? and Lortzing’s ‘Wildschtutz.? After 
a return to Fisfeld in 1840, he was sent back 
to Leipzig, with a fresh supply of money, in 
1842. His literary production was now increas- 
ing. Before moving to Dresden, in 1843, he 
had begun a tragedy, ‘Der Engel von Augs- 
burg? ; a comedy, ‘Hans Frei? ; a prelude, ‘Die 
Torgauer Haide’; and two short stories. He 
passed the summers of 1844 and 1845 very 
pleasantly at Niedergarsebach near Meissen 
(became engaged there to Emilie Winkler, 
1844; married her, 1852). The winters of the 
succeeding years, until 1847, when, at Devrient’s 
wish, he settled finally at Dresden, were spent 


in. Leipzig. At Dresden he became one of a” 


literary and artistic circle that included. Karl 
Gutzkow, Langer, Oehme, Ludwig Richter, etc. 
It was here that he produced his most famous 
work, the tragedy ‘Der Erbforster? (first 
performance, Dresden, 4 March 1850). This 
tragedy deals with the sad fate of a simple man 
who believes that since he and his ancestors 
have always occupied a certain office, the of- 
fice has in a way become his property, ‘and who 
is disastrously disillusioned when he finds that 
the mere authority of his employer, who owns 
the forest on which he is employed, is suff- 
cient to throw him out of his life-position. The 
coloring is local, that of the Thuringian forest ; 
the appeal is universal, in that it reveals the 
economic dependence of every man on him who 
holds the purse-strings. In 1852 came another 
great play, ‘Die Maccabaer? (first perform- 
ance, Vienna, i Nov. 1852), of which there had 
been an earlier version, called ‘Die Macca- 
baerin,» a family tragedy in four acts, while 
the revised version had five. These two trage- 
dies are considered by German critics as plac- 
ing Ludwig almost on the same level with 
Hebbel (q.v.): they have great pith and vigor 
of speech and a tense, dramatic action. Lud- 
wig is almost equally well known, however, for 
his short stories: ‘Die Heiterethei und ihr 
Widerspiel? (written 1854, published at Frank- 
fort 1857), and ‘Zwischen Himmel und Erde? 
(written 1855, published Frankfort 1856). Un- 
fortunately for his own productiveness, Ludwig 
then turned to exhaustive studies of Shake- 
speare, which were so engrossing as to cripple 
entirely any creative impulses of his own. They 
were edited by Heydrich (Leipzig 1871; 2d ed., 
Berlin 1902). Physical illness gained upon him 
more and more and he finally found none of 
his plans capable of maturing in his hands. His 
friendly intercourse with Auerbach, Julian 
Schmidt and Lewinsky helped to soften the 
hardships of his declining years. Although he 
produced little that was great or even com- 
plete, there is an impressive spirituality about 
his sufferings as well as a grandeur in his tire- 
less strife to attain the highest ile sities of 


— LUECOCK 


723 


art. The ‘German Classics? (Vol. IX, New 
York 1914) contains translations of ‘The 
Hereditary Forester? and ‘Between Heaven 


and Earth.» Consult his ‘Ausgewahlte Werke? 
(2 vols., Leipzig 1896); ‘Werke? (3 vols., 
Leipzig 1896) ; ‘Werke? (6 vols., Leipzig 
1900) ; ‘Werke, with biography by Adolf 
Stern (6 Vols., Leipzig, n. d.); ‘Sammtliche 
Werke? (10 vols., ed. by Merker, Munich 
1912, unfinished). Consult also Treitschke, H. 
von, ‘Otto Ludwig? (Leipzig 1871); Schmidt, 
Julian, ‘Otto Ludwig? (in Westermanns Mo- 
natshafte, Vol. XX XV); essay by Bulthaupt in 
Dramaturgie des Schauspiels (Vol. IV, Olden- 
burg 1894). 
Jacop WITTMER HARTMANN. 


LUDWIG, Salvator von Toscana, lood’vik 
sal-va’t6r f6n tds-ka’na, ARCHDUKE oF AUS- 
tRIA, Austrian traveler: b. Florence, 4 Aug. 
1847. He was the son of Leopold II, Grand 
Duke of Tuscany. His principal writings, all 
illustrated by himself and most of them pub- 
lished anonymously, are ‘Levkosia, Capital of 
Cyprus? (1873) ; ‘Yacht Voyage to the Syrtes? 
(1874) ; “Los Angeles in Southern California? 
(2d ed., 1885); ‘The Caravan Route from 
Egypt to Syria? (1878); ‘The Balearic 
Islands, superbly illustrated (7 vols., 1869-91) ; 
‘Around the World without Intending It? (4th 


ed., 1886); ‘Paros and Antiparos? (1887) ; 
‘The Lipari Islands? (1893); ‘Helgoland 
(1900); ‘Summertime in Thiaki? (1903); 


‘Zante? (1904) ; Wintertime in Thiaki? (1905) ; 
‘Observations on Levkas? (1909); ‘Rock- 
bound Majorca? (1910); ‘Summer Dreams by 


the Seaside’ (1912); ‘Harbour of Port 
Palma in Majorca? (1913). 
LUDWIGSBURG, loot’viks-bérg, Wiairt- 


temberg, town, 10 miles north of Stuttgart, 
dating from 1704, when it was founded by 
Eberhard Louis. It contains a royal residence, 
a monument to Schiller and beautiful garderis 
and public squares. It contains also a cannon 
foundry, arsenal and military training school. 
Metal and ironware, pianos, organs, cottons, 
woolens, linen and wire are manufactured. 
Pop. 25,000. 


LUDWIGSHAFEN, loot’viks-ha’fén, Ger- 
many, city on the Rhine opposite Mannheim. It 
is a thriving commercial and industrial centre; is 
connected with Mannheim by a bridge over the 
Rhine, and has an improved harbor: Its chief 
items of trade are coal, iron and timber. Its 
industrial establishments include the Badische 
Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik, the largest chemical 


works in the world, fertilizer works, shoddy, 
flour, spirits, acids, cellulose, lumbet, bricks, 
pottery, textile, machinery, wagons, etc. Its 


commercial life dates from 1843. It became a 
city in 1859. In September 1921 an explosion at 
the Badische works cost 1,400 lives. Pop. 83,300. 


LUDWIGSLIED (‘The Song of Lud- . 
wig), an old High German poem written 
about 882 a.p. in Rhenish-Franconian dialect, 
to commemorate the victory of Louis III over 
the Normans at Saucourt (881). The Old 
High German readers of Wackernagel and 
Braune, as well as Miiller’s ‘German Classics? 
(Vol. ry New York 1900), have reprinted the 
poem, the author of which is unknown. 


LUECOCK, Naphtali, American Metho- 
dist bishop: b. Kimbolton, Ohio, 28 Sept. 1853; 


724 LUFFT 


d. Lacrosse, Wis:, 1 April 1916. He was a 
graduate of the universities of Pittsburgh and 
Syracuse and a former professor at Allegheny 
College, Meadville, Pa. 
prior to his death, he was elected bishop on the 
15th ballot at the quadriennial conference of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church. He published 
several religious works; the last of these, ‘Roy- 
alty of Jesus, a collection of sermons, ap- 
peared in 1906. 


LUFFT, luft, Hans, hants, German printer 
and publisher: b. 1495; d. 1584. He printed 
the first complete edition of Luther’s Bible in 
two quarto volumes at Wittenberg, in 1534. He 
also printed other works of Luther and more 
than 100,000 copies of the Bible were issued 
from his press. See Lotter FAMILy. 


LUFKIN, Tex., city and county-seat of 
Angelina County, on the Houston, East and 
West Texas, the Saint Louis Southwestern 
and other railroads, 120 miles northeast of 
Houston. It has wagon factories, sheet metal 
works, foundries, machine shops, railroad re- 
pair shops, bottling works, canneries, etc. 
There is also a fine high school building. The 
water-supply system is owned and operated by 
the municipality. Pop. (1920) 4,878 


LUGANO, loo-ga’nd, Switzerland, town, 
in the canton of Ticino, on the north shore of 
Lake of Lugano, about 15 miles northwest of 
Lake Como. Its principal edifices are several 
churches; one, Santa Maria degli Angiolo, con- 
tains a fresco of the ‘Passion,’ by Bernardino 
Luini, as well as a ‘Last Supper? and ‘Ma- 
dona and Holy Child? by the same artist; con- 
vents, a hospital and a theatre. The manufac- 
tures are chiefly spun silk and silk goods, choc- 
olate and fumiture. The transit trade is 
considerable. Till 1881 it was, alternately with 
Locarno and Bellinzona, the seat of the legis- 
lature of the canton of Ticino. It is the seat 
of a bishopric. A funicular railway runs to 
the top of San Salvatore (3,000 feet). Pop. 
13,262. 


LUGANO, Lake of (Latin, Ceresius La- 
cus), is partly in the Swiss canton Ticino and 
partly in Italy, between Lakes Como and Mag- 
giore, into the latter of which it discharges its 
waters. It .is of very irregular shape, a nar- 
row body which throws out arms in all direc- 
tions. Its. length is about 20 miles, its breadth 
about one and one-half, and its depth about 300 
feet. Its scenery is very wild and beautiful. 


LUGANSK, loo-gansk’, Russia, town in 
Ekaterinoslav, on the river Lugan, 240 miles 
east of Ekaterinoslav. It contains a meteoro- 
logical station, mineralogical museum, library, 
foundries, engine works, gun shops, candle 
works, leather mills and brick yards. Its indus- 
trial development dates from the establishment 
of a foundry here in 1795. Pop. 60,300. 


LUGO, loo’g6, Italy, capital of the province 
Ravenna, on the left bank of the Senio and on 
the Castelbolognese-Ravenna and the Lugo- 
Ferrara railways. It has an ancient castle, a 
lyceum, gymnasium, technical school, library, 
etc. Its industries consist of rope- -works and 
a lively trade in grain, wine, cattle, hemp and 


silk. Its annual fair, lasting from the Ist to 
i al tp draws great crowds, Pop. 
27,867. 


In 1912, four years | 


— LUISE 


LUGO, Spain, capital city of a province of 
the same name, on the left bank of the Mifio 
and on the Palencia-Corufia Railway. It was 
the ancient Roman city Lucus Augusti and has 
five churches, one of which is a Romanesque 
cathedral of the 12th to 18th century, a priests’ 
seminary, tannery, linen and hat factories and 
a considerable trade in cattle and pickled meat. 
The ancient fortified wall surrounding the 
town, with its towers, has been: turned into a 
promenade. Near the railroad station is a 
noted sulphur spring known since Roman days. 
Its population is about 35,726. 


LUGOS, 1u’gosh, Rumania, capital, ‘town 


of the county of Krass6-Szorény and junction 


of the Temesvar-Orsova and the Gattaja- 
Maros-Illye railways. The town consists of 
the German and the Rumanian sections divided 
by the Temes River. It has a Minorite mon- 
astery and a convent. The chief industries are 
wine-culture, silk mills, distilleries, linen fac- 
tory, etc. It is the seat. of Greco-Catholic 
bishop and has a cathedral, courthouse, high 
gymnasium, etc. It was here that the Turks 
(1695) were victorious over the imperial Gen- 
eral Veterani, and here also (1849) was the 
last resort of the fleeing Hungarian army and 
its government. 


LUINI, Bernardino, bér-nar-dé’'néd 1oo- 
é’né, Italian painter: b. Luino, on Lago Mag- 
giore, between 1475 and 1480; d. soon after 
1533. He was perhaps the most distinguished 
representative of the Milanese school, and be- 
tween 1500 and 1533 was active as a fresco and 
easel painter in Milan and other places of 
northern Italy. He began his studies as the 
pupil of Ambrogio Vorgognone, whose influ- 
ence is plainly seen in his ‘Pieta? (1510) in the 
church of Santa Maria della Passione at Milan, 
though the blandness and delicacy of the early 
Milanese school is in his work somewhat ani- 
mated and vitalized by the spirit he derived 
from the study of Leonardo da Vinci, under 
whose name some of his riper work has fre- 
quently gone. But though his frescoes are full 
of spiritual faces, and distinguished by the ten- 
derest coloring and the most lifelike movement, 
he never quite made his own the grandeur in 
composition and passionate energy which dis- 
tinguish the paintings of Leonardo. Most of 
his productions are found in Upper Italy. 
Many of his easel pictures are to be seen in 
the Ambrosiana (library), Brera (palace) and 
in private galleries at Milan; others in the ca- 
thedral at Legnano. In the Uffizi at Florence 
is his “Beheading of John Baptist.2 His chief: 
work is ‘The Enthroned Madonna with Saint 
Anthony and Saint Barbara? (1521), a mag- 
nificent fresco in the Brera. Other examples 
of this painter are now in the Palazo Sciarra 
at Rome, as well as in the Louvre, the National 
Gallery ‘of London and the Berlin Museum. 
Consult the studies by James Mason in Jack’s 
“Masterpiece in Colour” series; and C. C. Wil- 
liamson in ‘Great Masters in Painting and 
Sculpture? (London 1899). 


LUISE, loo-é’zé, Auguste Wilhelmine 
Amalie, queen of Prussia: b. Hanover, 10 
March 1776; d. Strelitz, 19 July 1810. She lost 
her mother in her sixth year, and was brought 
up in charge of her grandmother at Darm- 
stadt. In her 17th year she was married to the 


LUKE— LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO 


Crown Prince, afterward Frederick William III 
cf Prussia. On her husband’s accession to the 
throne she won all hearts by her beauty, grace 
and kindness of disposition. Her highest hap- 
piness was found in her husband and children, 
but she was also a queen who has left a deep 
impression on the annals of the Prussian court. 
In her travels with the king through the prov- 
inces she was constantly engaged in helping 
the poor and unhappy. * When the war of 1806 
broke out she accompanied her husband to 
Raumburg and, after the disaster of Jena, to 
Konigsberg and Memel, setting.an example to 
all by her unbroken fortitude. Before Tilsit 
she hoped to win from Napoleon more favor- 
able conditions for her beloved country and in- 
terceded with the conqueror in vain. She is a 
household name to this day in Prussia: the 
Luise foundation for the education of girls 
was established in her honor, as was the Order 
of Luise by her husband, the king (3 Aug. 
1814). It is the object of this order to honor 
patriotic and benevolent women of the Prus- 
sian nation. Consult Hudson, ‘Life and Times 
of Louisa, Queen of Prussia? (1874); and 
Adami, ‘Luise, Konigin von Preussen? (1888) ; 
and her correspondence with her husband, pub- 
lished in 1903. 


LUKE, author of the third Gospel and of 
the “Acts of the Apostles.” From the letters of 
Paul we learn that Luke was an honored 
fellow-worker, a physician by profession and a 
companion of. the apostle in imprisonment. In 
his own two historical works he furnishes. con- 
siderable information as to himself in addition 
to what Paul gives. It is plain that he was 
not a Jew by birth or religion, and it cannot 
safely .be asserted that before he became a 
Christian he had been one of the “devout” 
persons of whom he repeatedly speaks, usually 
meaning such Gentiles as attended the Jewish 
synagogues without, however, becoming fuil 
proselytes. The fact that he was a physician, 
which profession was at his time largely in the 
hands of Greeks, his facile grace in the use of 
the Greek language, and the personal character- 
istics revealed in his writings, taken together, 
render it sufficiently certain that he was of 
Hellenic descent. His name, however, is of 
Latin origin, as Lukas is to be reckoned a 
diminutive of Lucanus (other derivations, even 
if possible are less probable, especially as Lu- 
canus actually appears in the title of the Gospel 
in several Latin manuscripts), and the most 
plausible explanation of the situation is that he 
was the son of a Greek freedman of some 
wealthy Roman. From Eusebius we learn that 
he had at least a family connection with Syrian 
Antioch, which is confirmed by the way in 
which he speaks in Acts of that city. It is 
possible that he and Paul had earlier become 
acquainted at Antioch or even at Tarsus, and it 
is certain that they met at Troas where a per- 
sonal appeal from Luke to the apostle to work 
in Philippi may have preceded the vision which 
convinced Paul that it was the will of God 
that he should cross to Europe. It seems that 
Luke remained in Philippi after Paul and his 
company had gone on to other cities and pre- 
sumably for a time at least he practised his pro- 
fession in that city, as supposably he had done 
previously. Whether during the intervening 
years he was in any way associated with Paul 


~ 


725 


cannot be positively asserted, but it is certain 
that he rejoined him at Philippi on his way 
from Ephesus for his last visit to Jerusalem, 
and Luke is known to have been with him 
both in Jerusalem and at Czsarea, though we 
cannot be sure that he was constantly with the 
apostle. He certainly sailed from Czsarea with 
Paul and shared the fortunes of the voyage of 
which he has given such a marvelously vivid 
account. It appears that after the shipwreck on 
the coast of Malta he used his medical skill 
during the following winter for the benefit of 
the inhabitants of that island. We hear of 
him as with Paul during his first imprisonment, 
and again during his second, when Paul 
says “Only Luke is with me.” It may well be 
believed that Paul valued and encouraged 
Luke’s presence, not only for companionship, 
but also on account of the helpfulness of the 
“beloved physician” in medical advice to him. 
Tradition has busied itself with Luke’s career 
in later years, but we can be sure of nothing. 
It has been said: that he was a painter, the first 
Christian artist as well as the first. medical 
missionary, and an old painting attributed to 
him is still carefully preserved in Rome, but 
the story seems to have no substantial founda- 
tion. While the tradition that he died in 
Greece is the most probable of all the traditions 
which link themselves with his later years, yet 
nothing can be positively asserted as to where 
he spent those years or as to the date, place 
or manner of his death. For bibliography and 
connection of Luke with the third Gospel see 
article Lukr, Gospel According to. 
Davip Foster EsTEs, 
Professor of New Testament Interpretation, 
Colgate University. 


LUKE, Gospel According to. This Gos- 
pel, like Matthew, conforms in general to 
the outline of Mark, on which consequently 
it is generally regarded as dependent, but 
Luke contains a much greater amount. of 
narrative material independent of Mark than 
does Matthew. 

Contents.—The following is the general out- 
line of the book, after a brief prologue. I. The 
birth, infancy and childhood. stories. (i, 5-ii, 52). 
II. Preparation for the ministry of Jesus, 
including the preaching of. John and the Bap- 
tism and Temptation of. Jesus (ili, I-iv, 13). 
III... The early Galilean ministry (iv, 14-vii, 
50). IV. The later a eOTS in Galilee and its 
neighborhood (viii, 1-ix, 50). V. The Perean 
ministry (ix, 51-xix, 27). VI. The entry of 
Jesus into Jerusalem and His final public 
teaching there (xix, 28-xxi, 4). VII. The 
Eschatological Discourse (xxi, 5-38): VIII 
The closing scenes, last supper, agony in 
Gethsemane, trial, crucifixion, death, resurrec- 
tion and ascension (xxii, 1-xxiv, 53). .As com- 
pared with the other Synoptic Gospels are to 
be noted the long story of the Perean min- 
istry to which, except for the last few verses, 
there is no parallel in either Mark or Matthew, 
the much fuller treatment of the appearances 
of the risen Christ and the narrative of the 
ascension. Much narrative material is found 
in this Gospel only, as, for example, five 
miracles are recorded only here, and there is 
also much teaching of Jesus which is peculiar 
to Luke, e.g., of the 41 parables Luke has 28, 
of which 17 are found in it alone. The dis- 


728 


Palma 1315. After having been attached to the 
court of James I of Aragon and leading a 
dissolute life, he retired to a cell on his estate, 
where he lived as an ascetic. In 1272 he joined 
the third order of Saint Francis. Encouraged 
by visions, he came to believe himself appointed 
to refute Mohammed and convert the Moslems 
to Christianity, and studied Latin, Arabic and 
logic in preparation for this work. Three 
times he went to Tunis with a view to con- 
verting its inhabitants, was twice imprisoned 
and banished, and on his third attempt was 
stoned at Bugia, from the effects of which he 
died. His ‘Ars Demonstrativa Veritatis? was 
devised as an infallible and universal logical 
method to be used in making conversions, for 
the purpose of proving that the mysteries of 
faith were not contrary to reason. Lully be- 
lieved that his method was destined to supplant 
the scholastic logic of the Middle Ages. He 
endeavored without success to obtain aid from 
Pope Nicholas in establishing colleges for the 
study of Oriental languages. The Ars Lulliana 
consists mainly in categorizing ideas and com- 
bining them mechanically, by which means Lully 
thought to exhaust their possible combinations. 
The method was taught and commented on in 
some schools of little influence in Spain, France 
and Italy, but it is hardly necessary to say that 
it never took root or produced any direct 
effects. Lully’s works are very numerous and 
they were condemned as_ heretical by the 
Church. An incomplete edition is that begun 
by Galizinger (1721-42; Vols. VII and VIII 
never published). Consult Erdmann, ‘Grund- 
riss der Geschichte der Philosophie? (2d ed., 
1869) ; Zweiner, S. M., ‘The First Missionary 
to. the Mohammedans? (New York 1902). 


LUMBAGO from Latin lumbus, loin), a 
sudden and painful affection of the muscles of 
the back and tendinous attachments of the lum- 
bar region usually following some strain in 
bending or lifting, which is but the final cause 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE 
UNITED STATES, The. History.— The 
early history of lumbering i in the United States 
is substantially the history of the country’s 
settlement. Wood afforded the early settlers 
their building material and their fuel. Forest 
areas had to be cleared for cultivation and it 
was possible to use but a small part of the 
timber thus cut in the construction of pioneer 
homes. Trees were a hindrance to agriculture, 
of no value except as they afforded the bare 
necessities of life. Tremendous areas of tim- 
ber were destroyed without thought of use for 
the product, until the progress of colonization 
had reached the point’ where there was a 
demand for logs, heavy timber and framing 
for buildings in the non-agricultural commu- 
nities along the Atlantic Coast that later grew 
into towns and great cities: The early settlers 
had no tools more potent than the axe and 
the handsaw, but as the demand for building 
material grew the process of converting trees 
into a merchantable material passed through 
several evolutionary stages in which first water 
power and subsequently steam were applied. 

The early sawmills ranged in capacity from 


1,000 to 5,000 feet a day, board measure, and 
were operated principally in the white pine 
regions of the north Atlantic coast territory 
and in the Carolinas and: Virginia. The prod- 
uct was heavy material of the sort then used 
in. building and involved little production of 
thin. lumber, which was produced with. diffi- 
culty in these primitive establishments. . With 
the development of cities along the seaboard, 
however, a new source of demand arose in 
the shipbuilding industry, for which wood was 
the most important raw material. The>rise of 
shipping and the opening of many ports created 
a need for material for wharves and also af- 
forded a means of developing a trade in timbers 
with the West Indies' and Europe. Thus an 
industry gradually took form, its earliest tangi- 
ble appearance in Maine and New Hampshire, 
with Vermont, New York and Pennsylvania 
following closely as producers of white pine, 
the one product of the forests of those States 
that was deemed valuable. These early lum- 
bering operations were invariably located where 
streams were available for rafting logs to the 
mills. Unless the mill was situated on tide- 
water its function was limited to supplying: 
local demand and the scope of the operation 
was necessarily small. 

With the gradual opening up of the Canta 
States, the lumbermen again assumed the réle 
of pioneer, but the demand for lumber grew 
so rapidly that within a few years after the 
first commercial lumbering operation was estab- 
lished in what was then the Far West, Michi- 
gan and Wisconsin were producing great quan- 
tities of lumber needed in the prairie country. 
The first lumbermen to venture into the Lake 
States assumed that the supply of timber was 
inexhaustible and proceeded on that theory. 
Statistics covering production in Michigan, 
Wisconsin and Minnesota show that in 1873 
mills in these States manufactured slightly less 
than 4,000,000,000 feet, practically all of which 
was white pine. With some slight interrup- 
tions the output increased steadily until 1890 . 
when the maximum was reached with a total 
of 8,597,623,000 feet, after which pine produc- 
tion began a steady decline. 

With a rapidly increasing population, and a 
gradual lessening supply of white pine from the 
Lake States, it was natural that the industry 
should turn to the tremendous forest resources 
of the Southern States, where yellow pine of 
several varieties, cypress and many varieties of 
hardwoods were obtainable. Thus, as the saw- 
mills of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota 
finished with their white pine supply, the oper- 
ators, seeking other fields, found opportunities 
in the South and, in a few instances, on the 
Pacific Coast. Every timbered section of the 
country rapidly became of interest to investors 
because timber values. kept . moving -steadily 
upward. The transcontinental railroads opened 
great areas of the West and acquired extensive 
land: grants which were rapidly thrown on the 
market and seized by lumbermen and_ timber 
speculators who subsequently sold to lumber- 
men. And thus the industry spread wherever 
timber of merchantable character was obtain- 
able, acquiring national scope and in a number 
of the States leading all other industries in 
capital investment, people employed and wages 
pai 


During the earlier stages of the industry’s 
growth, the hardwoods, products of the “broad 
leaf trees, such as the oaks, maples, birches, 
elms, basswood, hickory, gum, etc., received 
little consideration. In the white pine sections 
of Michigan and Wisconsin, later to become 
famous for their maple and birch, these woods 
were ignored by. the early white pine manufac- 
turers, in most instances, but the development 
of innumerable uses for hardwoods resulted 
in the rapid growth of what has become prac- 
tically a separate branch of the lumber manu- 
facturing industry, producing hardwood lumber. 
This branch of the industry is even more widely 
scattered than the soft wood branch and has 
developed methods, practices and a trade termi- 
nology of its own. 

The most outstanding point of difference 
between the softwood and hardwood branches 
of the industry is to be found in the fact that 
the. most important use of the softwoods and 
the use on which the softwood branch is really 
based is as a structural material. For struc- 
tural uses, softwood lumber is ordinarily mar- 
keted, either rough or dressed, through lumber 
dealers who retail the commodity to building 
contractors and other consumers in substantially 
the same form in which it comes, from the 
manufacturer. Hardwoods, on the other hand, 
are marketed chiefly to woodworking industries, 
such as door and millwork establishments, im- 
plement and vehicle manufacturers, the furni- 
ture and musical instrument trades, etc. Thus, 
with hardwoods, there is usually a process of 
further manufacture after the lumber leaves the 
sawmill and before it is ready for use by the 
consumer. It seldom reaches its consumer des- 
tination through the medium of the retail lum- 
ber dealer. 

Timber Supply of the United States.— 
Foresters have disagreed sharply in their esti- 
mates of the actual amount of standing timber 
in the United. States, it having been demon- 
strated that the early estimates were far under 
the ‘mark and that the predictions of an im- 
pending timber famine which were given great 
prominence a few years ago were, for the time 
being, without foundation. In his book, ‘Lum- 
ber and Its Uses,» Royal S. Kellogg, lately of 
the United States Forest Service, gives the fol- 
lowing estimates as representing the minimum 
acreage and stand of timber: 


Area Stumpage 

ForrEsTtT REGIONS Million acres Billion feet 
MNottiterm .AsIOV.... SFA 90 270 
SMubhertis adnsrabo<awitasls a 150 630 
MOREL AN n= pisnara Grove Gat ae 130 300 
Rocky Mountain........... 100 300 
-ePeeiic assess steels 80 1,300 
“TRS le ed xan Zs 550 2,800 


_The same authority estimates the stand by 
principal species as follows: 


SPECIES Billion feet 

ee IS eo SR pe oe sce. Sono pp er path © Ta tua Svcs 650 
CRE IMMETIIC ipa T sh. c's cc's c cha cs Cog eye ne oat 475 
DOuGherar pines. OF. OES. ORR. 375 
Western, shemlock 4). fc ccs ved sods igen 150 
Ram WwOGCbernt Ot. Sis. lewnedeevcscces se 100 
WEStETID BOBUATS scotia ate rah ew elte oats ee 75 
Sugar pine........ ee 3 RUG SR Pe AOR on cs Oe 60 
DENSE Western SOLLWOOUS oy ores 0. eye revern pies cue 85 
AAG OAER Sree | Par ae 40 
Other Eastern softwoods.........0.0.2ee+005 190 
FIAPONGOOGS flies leet ade ible Ad Goel folds ooh ab 600 
CUA Meee ot ctu FES Oe > Es GLAS w= Saeco 2,800 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


729 


These estimates include all forest resources, 
publicly and privately owned. Of the publicly 
owned forests, largely embraced in the National 
Forest Lands held by the United States gov- 
ernment, accurate estimates of area are obtain- 
able. On 30 June 1922; the Forest Service, 
which is.a bureau of the Department of Agri- 
culture, estimated the aggregate area of the 
national forests at 156,837,282 acres. 

Aside from the national forests, practically 
all of the forest area in which lumbering 


operations are proceeding is being managed ~ 


without regard to reforestation, so that it might 
be assumed. that the life of the country’s pri- 
vately-owned forests may be determined by 
dividing the total timber supply by the rate 
of normal.timber cut and making proper al- 
lowance for the growth of the immature timber 
now standing. This method, however, fails to 
yield accurate results because it fails to. take 
into account a large amount of natural re- 
forestation which is bound to occur in cut-over 
areas that are not suitable for agriculture or 
stock-raising and that therefore afford an op- 
portunity for regrowth, and also, because it 
ignores the fact that many substitutes are being 
found for lumber and are tending to reduce 
the per capita rate of consumption more rapidly 
in proportion than the population fs increas- 
ing. 
If no precautionary measures should be 
taken during the next 25 years, it is not im- 
probable that the people of the United States 
would find themselves without an adequate tim- 
ber supply in 75 years and that by the end 
of a century all of the privately-held timber 
would have been cut. Private enterprise cannot 
be depended upon to engage in timber growth 
because the process of growing trees is too 
slow to appear attractive to investors and also 
because the various States have levied unrea- 
sonably heavy and unscientific taxation on. 
standing timber to such an extent that owners 
have been driven to rapid cutting rather than 
to conservation. It is probable, however, that 
the development of wider public knowledge of 
the problem.of timber supply which may. be 
expected as the result of the opening of schools» 
of forestry in many of the leading universities 
and the consequent increase in the influence of 
the professional forester will result in a de- 
mand for a forestry policy, put into operation 
through the Federal government, the purpose 
of which will be to insure against the ultimate 
timber famine which otherwise might be ex- 
pected. Such a policy necessarily will involve 
the co-operation of the States in arriving at 
an equitable and scientific method of taxing 
timber as a crop when cut, rather than on the 
present annual basis and will also necessitate 
more complete control over the protection from 
fire of those varieties of timber that are readily 
susceptible to fire damage and in which heavy 
fire losses occur practically every year. The 
Forest Service has demonstrated that timber 
can be protected against fire by two principal 
means: Education of the public to avoid care- 
lessness in the woods which each year results 
disastrously, and the installation of efficient pa- 
trol systems that discover fires in the incipient 
stages and control them before they become 
conflagrations. The extension of such methods 
to private holdings as well as to reforestation 
projects operating under subsidy or some other 


Lo 
is 


+ 


730 


form of governmental will 
eventually be necessary. 


Manufacturing Processes and Methods.— 


encouragement 


The processes involved in converting timber. 


into lumber fall into two principal divisions, 
Logging and Sawmilling. ‘In all sections ‘of 
the United States except the North Pacific 
coast these processes are commonly found as 
departments of a complete lumber manufactur- 
ing enterprise. In the States of Washington 
and Oregon, logging is frequently a separate 
business, and the sawmill buys its logs from 
logging contractors. 

The first essential of a lumbering enterprise 
is a supply of timber within reasonable distance 
of the manufacturing point. On account ‘of 
the bulky character of the taw material it can- 
not be hauled long distances for manufacture. 
The timber supply must be sufficient to amortize 
the plant investment in a reasonable term of 
years and the size of the plant. will depend, 
usually, on the amount of tributary timber. 
The average life of a sawmill ranges from 15 
to 30 years, depending on the locality and the 
character of the timber and plant. 

In the early stages of the industry the raw 
material was usually conveyed to the mill by 
floating the logs down a stream or by hauling 
over snow and ice-covered roads during the 
winter season. These methods are still prac- 
tised in.some places, but in the majority of 
lumbering operations a railroad for handling 
the log supply is part of the enterprise. This 
railroad consists of a. “main-line” which is 
of permanent character, and logging “spurs” 
which are projected into the timber and 
moved from time to time as the timber is 
taken out. 

Trees are felled by hand labor and are cut 
into log lengths by hand labor or by power 
drag saws.. They are then hauled to the rail- 
road or “tram” either by the use of oxen or 
mules’ or by the steam “skidder, a. machine 
operating on the railroad. track which by means 
of wire cables and grapples pulls the logs to 
the railroad right-of-way... There they are 
picked up by a. steam loader, which is a crane 
with swinging boom, and loaded. on.cars that 
are especially designed and equipped. to. handle 
logs. When a train of, these loaded cars. is 
made up, they are hauled to the mill and there 
dumped into the log pond or, if heavy hard- 
woods, “banked” or piled to await their entry 
to the mill,. Where a pond is employed, it 
facilitates handling and: sorting the logs, and 
also tends to clean them and keep them wet and 
in good condition for the saw. 

The sawmill itself is apt to vary in equip- 
ment from a‘ single circular saw, the simplest 
type, to one or more band saws with gang saws, 
resaws, edgers, trimmers and a variety of other 
high speed machines, and may range in capacity 
from a few thousand feet a day to» 1,200,000 
feet daily, board measure, which is the capacity 
of the largest mill in operation. 

The product of the sawmill is rough lumber 
and the manufacturing operation may stop at 
this point; on the other. hand, a planing mill 
may be operated as an accessory, its function 
being to surface or “dress” ‘that portion of 
the sawmill product that requires such treat- 


ment, the equipment of the planing mill con- 


sisting of high-speed power machines of vari- 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


ous types for turning out smooth- surfaced i fum- 
ber, moldings and like prodticts. 

The lumber as it comes from the saw is 
“green” or wet and must be dried before it is 
shipped to market. This is accomplished by 
piling it on the yard in such manner that every 
piece has adequate ventilation, allowing it to 
stay in pile until it is “air-dried, » or by putting 
it through the steam dry kiln, which by. sub- 
jecting it. to degrees’ of heat and moisture 
that are scientifically determined according to 
the wood and its thickness dries it rapidly. 
The process of kiln drying is a delicate one, 
because too rapid drying may cause “checking” 
or cracking of the lumber and may result in 
many defects and blemishes that greatly reduce 
the market value of the product. Particularly 
in the case of thick material, if the moisture 
is suddenly entirely dried out of the surface 
of the piece while its centre is still moist, 
the uneven shrinkage that results is bound to 
show and greatly to impair the value of the 
piece. 

Other equipment of the sawmill plant. may 
include shingle and lath mills that utilize mate- 
rial especially suited for such purposes and also 
short pieces and other waste from the sawmill 
in the manufacture of these minor products. 

In addition to ample storage yard space in 
which the lumber of the lower grades is piled 
and also the stock that is to -be air-dried, the 
plant will usually include storage sheds for the 
accommodation of a stock of dressed lumber 
and perhaps moldings, flooring and other prod- 
ucts of the planing mill. 

Because plants of this character are usually 
located in rather remote places, the larger estab- 
lishments usually include housing facilities for 
employees, fire protection equipment, a com- 
missary store doing a general merchandise busi- 
ness and often an electric-light plant. In many 
instances, also, schools, churches and other pub- 
lic buildings are provided and maintained by 
the operators. 

Where a_ mill is located on tidewater, it 
usually has dock and loading facilities for 
shipping its product to market by water, and 
thereby enjoys the advantage of low water 
freights. The great majority of the mills, how- 
ever, are dependent on the railroads for their 
shipping facilities and their markets are usually 
restricted to some extent by freight rates which 
make unduly long hauls prohibitive. Thus, the 
Douglas fir producers of the North Pacific 
coast are able to ship the large structural tim- 
bers which can be turned out of giant fir logs 
to all parts of the United States because they - 
have no competition for this trade, but. the 
common building lumber made by these same 
mills cannot be shipped by rail to the eastern 
part of the United States because the freight 
is so high that yellow pine from the Southern 
States can be sold at lower. prices. 

Grading and Inspection of Lumber.— 
Lumber is graded according to its strength, 
durability and, in the case of material Tomeecers 
tain uses, its external blemishes. Thus, in the 
case of a piece that will be used as a beam 
or joist, the appearance of the piece is of little 
consequence, but its strength is highly important 
and if it is to be used in a position. where it 
will be exposed to moisture and heat the ques- 
tion of durability under such exposure becomes 


persone, 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


equally important. But in the case of a piece 
of oak that is to be used for a drawer front 
or a table top, strength is of less consequence 
than a clear surface. 

The commonest of all the defects found in 
lumber is the knot, and it is apt to impair the 
grade and value of the piece in which it is 
found regardless of the use to which the mate- 
rial is to be put, since it affects both strength 
and appearance. A large knot in a_ partly 
rotten pocket may reduce the strength of the 
piece to the minimum, while a small tight 
knot may have little effect, as far as strength 
is concerned, but will deface the surface of the 
piece to such an extent that it cannot be used 
for an exposed part in a piece of fine furniture. 

Other important and common defects that 

affect the grading and value of lumber are 
checks, splits, pockets of foreign material, such 
as pitch in pine or sand in some hardwoods; 
various kinds of stain or discoloration; wind 
shake, which is a product of strains set up 
in the fibre of the wood when the tree is bent 
by heavy winds and takes the form of splits; 
- sapwood in a piece that is intended to be used 
where heartwood is specified; various kinds of 
rot and fungus decay, such as “red heart” in 
yellow pine and “peck” in cypress; “waney” or 
bark edges; warpage and twisting that affect 
the usefulness of the material; wormholes and 
like products of insect blights; discoloration 
from age and exposure, etc. 
- Each of the principal commercial woods is 
graded by fixed rules that establish certain 
grades and define the limits of each grade. 
These rules are made and maintained by asso- 
ciations of lumber manufacturers—also in- 
cluding in a few cases the wholesale distributors 
—and are usually enforced by means of an 
inspection force whose function is to settle dis- 
putes regarding grades and to make certain that 
the lumber inspectors employed at each mill 
are accurately and fairly interpreting the 
grades, as the lumber is sorted and marked 
when it comes from the mill. The associations 
maintaining grading rules and inspection serv- 
ice include Northern Pine Manufacturers’ 
Association, Minneapolis, Minn. (white and 
Norway pine) ; Southern Pine Association, New 
Orleans, La. (southern yellow pine); North 
Carolina Pine Association, Norfolk, Va. (short- 
leaf and loblolly pine from Virginia and North 
and South Carolina sold under the trade name 
“North Carolina pine”); West Coast Lumber- 
men’s Association, Seattle, Wash. (Douglas fir, 
western spruce, cedar and hemlock); Western 
Pine Manufacturers’ Association, Spokane, 
Wash. (western white and yellow pine, larch) ; 
Southern Cypress Manufacturers’ Association, 
New Orleans, La. (southern cypress) ; National 
Hardwood Lumbermen’s Association, Chicago, 
Ill. (all hardwoods). Each of these organiza- 
tions has established its grading and inspection 
service as standard for the particular wood or 
woods covered. 


Volume of Production.— The statistics of. 


the timber cut for the years 1915-1922 show a 
tremendous increase because of the great quan- 
tity of timber required for shipbuilding during 
the war and also the special woods required for 
airplane construction and also the quantity re- 
quired in the post-war period for house con- 
struction, The following table, compiled by the 


731 


United States Forest Service, gives statistics of 
the country’s lumber production 1899-1922: 


Quantity of lumber 


Baniber 
YEAR of active 
sawmills | Estimated 
reporting | Reported, ental €i$ 
Muth D. Mes oe gece nm! 

LOO St teckeneeeen,. 31,833 |° 35,084,166 [03s . 22565 Rs; 
LOGS So. » Same tae S 11,666 | 30,502,961 43,500,000 
TOOS Sot Sete enact: 31,231 | 33,224,369 42 ,000 , 000 
E9108) tence nies 231,934 | 40,018,282 44,500 , 000 
nA |S) a tet bed al w 5» 229,005 | 39,158,414 45,000,000 
LOTS ooh ata 221,668 | 38,387,009 44,000 , 000 
BO a Ta a theta AA a 2 227,506 | 37,346,023 40,500 , 000 
OT Sie ci Poy ton tns ah 216,815 | 31,241,734 38 ,000 , 000 
LO UO s. kan at terete 217,269 | 34,791,385 39,807,251 
LOTS. PMencsate eaete (euro t teaeee f!  apeeataeew zeae 33,193,000 
LOTR NEKO Raat An BOT EPR ere: [ee hae arate: avalehe 29,362,000 
i 8 lame bad De a QO AVEO > Gaict Hi'ed fists 34,552,000 
1 AL7A 0 Range rh lp abtia Se BES oa cll ole all I Be of (Pree a 29 ,873 ,000 
FS BPA is Sy pee Sochdiwds, Suri sntgnel EA. a indbniamhi ce Coc (Ps aura i 26,992,000 
WS DAP AR ARES th Boba MRS Bedi ekSaS gal Rs Sb pene ere 34,800,000 


1 Custom mills excluded. 

2 Mills cutting under 50 M feet excluded. 

8 Including mills which manufacture lath and shingles 
exclusively (1,500 estimated). 

4 Includes 4,543 mills cutting less than 50 M feet, and all 
cooperage, veneer, millwork, box, furniture, and other fac- 
tories cutting any lumber at all in 1909. 


The table on following page compiled by the 
Forest Service lists the principal woods in the - 
order of their commerical importance by reason 
of volume of production and affords a basis for 
comparison of production over a period of 17 
years. 

Characteristics of the Principal Commer- 
cial Woods.— For purposes of botanical class- 
ification, and also in commercial practice in 
the lumber trade, trees are divided into two 
principal classes, the Conifers or Softwoods, and 
the Broadleaf trees or hardwoods. The hard- 
woods are often referred to, also, as “Decidu- 
ous” but this term is unfortunate, since in fact 
some of the broadleaf woods are not deciduous. 
The terms “Hardwood” and “Softwood” have 
little relation to the actual hardness or soft 
character of the wood of any given variety. 
In fact some of the hardwoods are considerably 
less hard than the average of the softwoods. 

The woods whose characteristics are dis- 
cussed in the following paragraphs are those 
of chief importance from the standpoint of 
lumber production and commercial utility. No 
attempt is made to cover the tremendous range 
of minor woods. 

Softwoods or Conifers—Yellow pine, which 
leads all other woods in volume of prodtction, 
includes three important species, longleaf pine 
(Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (Pinus echi- 
nata) and loblolly pine (Pinus teda) and sev- 
eral of less commercial importance. Longleaf 
pine is characterized by its greater average 
strength, is usually very resinous, shows a high 
percentage of heartwood and typical pieces are 
very durable, even under exposure to moisture 
and other adverse conditions without preserva- 
tive treatment. It is a slow-growing timber 
and its strength and durability are practically 
proportionate to its density. It is particularly 
well adapted to the production of high grade 
structural timbers and construction lumber for 
use where strength and durability are required, 
or where hard wear is inyolved, as in the case 


732 LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


Quantity oF Eacu Kinp or LuMBER REPORTED 


KIND OF WOOD 1920 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 | 1910 1899 
—- | SS | | | SS | | he 
M feet b. m.| M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m. |\M feet b. m 
Totalinses Brie sony 33, 798,800}! 37 ,011, 656/37, 346 , 023/38, 387, 009|39, 158, 414)37 ,003, 207|40,018 , 282/2 35,084, 166 
Yellow pine......5..0.. 1,091,000} 14,700, 000/14,472,804]/14,839, 3631/14, 737 ,052|12 ,896,706|14, 143,471 0,657,676 
Dougias:firg. |i. 2.4%. 6,960,000] 4,431,249] 4,763,693] 5,556,096} 5,175,123] 5,054,243) 5,203,644) 1,736,507 
GARR AR es RT ee 2,500,000} 2,970,000] 3,278,908] 3,211,718] 3,318,952| 3,098,444) 3,522,098! 4,438,027 
Wihitesnine s.r eee 1,500,000} 2,700,000) 2,632,587| 2,568,636] 3,138,227| 3,230,584! 3,352,183] 7,742,391 
Hemlock: 2h. sae cath: 1,850,000} 2,275,000} 2,165,728] 2,319,982] 2,426,554) 2,555,308] 2,836,129] 3,420,673 
Spruces .bA..2) fae eaye 4 825,000; 1,400,000) 1,245,614] 1,046,816] 1,238,600] 1,261,728) 1,449,912) 1,448,091 
Western yellow pine 2,290,000} 1,293,985] 1,327,365; 1,258,528] 1,219,444) 1,330,700 1,562,106 945 ,432 
Gypress..t2" i cen Bie 625,000} 1,100,000} 1,013,013] 1,097,247 997,227 981,527 935,659 495 , 836 
aple RAR WER 875, 000 900, 000 909,763 901,487] 1,020,864 951,667] 1,006,637 633,466 
Red wumy.&.: 5 Ak Pee 850, 000 655,000 675,380 772,514 694,260 582 ,967 610, 208 285,417 
@hestautn ...4 des aynte- 475,,000 490, 000 540,591 505,802 554,230 529,022 535,049 206 , 688 
Yellow poplar.......... 350, 000 464,000 S19 e221 620,176 623,289 659,475 734,926] 1,115,242 
edwoodes .. hehen far. 476,500 420,294 535,199 510,271 496,796 489,768 543 , 493 360 0,167 
SICH ae A ERE Soe meee 260, 000 420,000 499 ,903 358 ,444 329,000 374,925 415 ,039 232, ‘078 
IB MICH AG AIC ee oe nn Be 405 , 000 415,000 430, 667 378,739 388 , 272 432,571 420,769 132,601 
GVAT CHAS OR Rod sk asks ute eiatee 390,000 375 ,000 358,561 395 , 273 407 ,064 368 , 216 382,514 50,619 
BECCHIR iG ides esede a were 325, 000 360,000 376,464 365,501 435,250 403 ,881 437,325 (3) 

Basswood 195,000 260,000 264,656 257,102 296,717 304,621 344,704 308 ,069 
HEN OP ERAT 2, Re ye 225,000 210,000 214,294 214,532 262,141 236,108 265,107 456,731 
ASHT dis )-boed. sine cele 170,000 190, 000 189 , 499 207 ,816 234,548 214,398 246 , 035 269,120 
Cottonwoodsernstiesienas 155,000 180,000 195,198 208 , 938 227,477 198 ,629 220,305 415,124 

Tupelo. cnet ak inks 180, 000 170,000 124,480 120,420 122,545} 98,142 92,071 3 

White fr 8s524..% Ronater 280, 000 125,048 112,627 88,109 122,613 124,307 1325327, @ 
Stigatipities « staass wastes 146,000 117,701 136,159 149 ,926 132,416 117 ,987 103,165 53,558 
HGKOr vise cient anes nb ean 150,000 100,000 116,113 162 ,980 278,757 240,217 2h2 202 96,635 

(Ralsam tin [Sr aes 85,000 100 , 000 125,212 93,752 84,261 83,375 74,580 3 
Wealnirtiso:tenen 6 ae vac cas 35,000 90,000 25,013 40,565 43 ,083 38 , 293 36,449 38,681 

Lodgepole pine......... 31,000 26,486 18,374 20,106 22,039 33,014 26,634 3 
DVCamore.. .. Sst. Nene 31,000 25,000 22,773 30,804 49 , 468 42 ,836 45 ,063 29,715 
Adirother kindspeiet ase osiecarme 47 , 893 55,624 85 , 366 82,145 69,548 68 , 428 2514,721 


1 Computed total 1915 production by kinds of wood. 2 Includes lumber cut in Alaska. 3 Not separately reported. 


of flooring. Longleaf pine is sometimes known 
as “Georgia pine,” “hard pine, etc., and. in 
the export trade as “pitch pine.” 

Shortleaf pine is a lighter wood, softer than 
typical longleaf, and typical specimens show a 
larger percentage of sapwood, which is always 
less durable than heartwood. It is more easily 
worked than longleaf and because it usually 
contains less resinous material is more suitable 
for finishing lumber, taking stains, paints and 
varnishes satisfactorily. It makes good flooring 
and the low grades are extensively used in the 
box. trade. 

Loblolly pine is the least valuable of the 
three principal varieties of yellow pine, being 
a variety of rapid growth seldom suited to uses 
requiring great strength, but yielding a good 
quality of interior finish. .It is extensively used 
for boxes and crates. It is characterized by 
coarse annular rings and small heart. 

The trade name “North Carolina pine” is 
used to describe a mixture of shortleaf and 
loblolly pines marketed. from the States of 
North and South Carolina and Virginia. The 
term “Arkansas Soft pine” covers a peculiarly 
soft variety of shortleaf pine manufactured in 
Arkansas and sold largely for finish. 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the 
most important product of the northwestern 
part of the United States, particularly Oregon 
and Washington, and also of British Columbia. 
In. respect: to supply it is the most important 
timber of the United States and in_ utility 
covers practically the same range as the yellow 
pines. Its most important use is in building 
construction, and eventually it will be the most 
important wood used in building. 

White pine, by virtue of its light weight and 
soft texture, is the most favored of all soft 
woods for uses where strength is not the chief 


factor, being used extensively in building con- 
struction and also in the manufacture of many 
articles requiring a wood that is soft, easily 

workable and free from pronounced grain, such 
as musical instrument parts, foundry patterns, 
etc. In addition to the common white pine of 
the Eastern and Lake States (Pinus strobus), 
Western white pine (Pinus monticola), which 
is frequently marketed as Idaho white pine, and 
the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) of Califor- 
nia and Oregon are legitimate members of the 
white pine family. 

Cypress (Taxodium distichum), which is 
produced chiefly in the South Atlantic and 
Gulf Coast States, is one of the most valuable 
of American woods for those uses requiring 
great durability under exposure to moisture. 
Heart cypress is practically immune from decay 
and is therefore favored for the construction of 
water tanks, greenhouses, in the manufacture 
of cross-ties, shingles, siding and for many 
other uses: involving a degree of durability 
found in no other American wood. 

Hemlock is of two species. Eastern hemlock 
(Tsuga canadensis) is produced chiefly in New 
York, New England, Pennsylvania, West Vir- 
ginia, Michigan and Wisconsin. Western hem- 
lock (Tsuga heterophylla) is found chiefly in 
the North Pacific coast section. The chief uses 
of hemlock are as a general utility building 
lumber and for boxes and crating. The wood 
of the eastern hemlock is light, not particularly 
durable under exposure without the protection 


-of paint or preservatives, but strong and serv- 


iceable. The western variety is more dense 
and possesses many characteristics similar to 
those of Douglas fir. 

Spruce as a trade term covers several species 
which are found widely scattered from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. The most im- 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


portant are Picea rubens, found chiefly in New 
England, New York and Pennsylvania and sold 
as “Eastern spruce”; Picea canadensis, native 
to the Great Lakes region, and usually termed 
“white spruce,” and the Sitka spruce (Picea 
sttchensis) found in the North Pacific coast 
territory. Spruce is one of the lightest, softest 
and most readily workable of American woods 
and therefore a rival of white pine for many 
uses. It also furnishes a large part of the 
domestic supply of pulp for paper manu- 
facture. 

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a Cali- 
fornia product noted for the great sizes to 
which it grows. It is a light, durable wood, 
used extensively in building, particularly for 
siding and shingles. It possesses the charac- 
teristic of resisting fire to an unusual extent. 

The various cedars, including many species, 
furnish the principal raw material of the shingle 
industry and the most satisfactory wood for 
the manufacture of pencils. The name “cedar” 
as it is understood in the lumber trade includes 
such species as the junipers and the arborvites, 
the Libocedrus, or incense cedar, and Chame- 
cyparis thyoudes, commonly known as white 
cedar. The junipers are more widely distrib- 
uted than any other American species. 

Hardwoods or Broadleaf Timbers.— Oak is 
the most important of the hardwoods in volume 
of production. Botanically there are more than 
50 oaks, the most important of which are the 
white oak (Quercus alba) and red oak (Quer- 
cus rubra). The oaks yield a wood that is 
very useful in building construction because of 
its varied and beautiful texture or “figure.” 
It is very hard and will withstand extreme 
wear, qualities that make it valuable in the 
manufacture of flooring, interior finish, furni- 
ture and cabinet work of many _ varieties, 
vehicles and agricultural implements, and in 
ship and boat building. The greater part of the 
production of oak centres in the Southern 
States, although the timber is found in practi- 
cally all parts of the country. 

Maple includes several species, the most im- 
portant commercially being the hard maple 
(Acer saccharum), also known as the “sugar 
maple.» This wood is found scattered widely 
through the Northern and Eastern States, but 
attains its greatest importance in Michigan. It 
is a strong, dense hardwood, the most important 
uses of which are for flooring, finish and furni- 
ture. 

Birch of several species is found chiefly in 
the Northeastern and Great Lakes States, the 
most important variety being the yellow birch 
(Betula lutea), produced in largest quantity in 
Wisconsin and Michigan. The wood is heavy 
and tough and is particularly suited to the 
manufacture of finish and furniture. It is ex- 
tensively used stained in imitation of mahogany, 
although it possesses characteristics that makes 
it very attractive when finished in the natural. 

Red gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is sec- 
ond to oak as a hardwood product of the South- 
ern States. It is moderately soft, possesses an 
attractive figure and is extensively used for 
finish and furniture. Properly stained it af- 
fords a good imitation of mahogany. Other 
important uses are for boxes, cooperage and 
vehicles. 

Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is produced in 
largest quantities in the Eastern States. It is 


733 


used chiefly in the production of interior finish, 
furniture, musical instruments and coffins. 
Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is 
found chiefly in West Virginia, Tennessee, Ken- 
tucky and scatteringly through the Southern 
States. It is one of the softest of the hard- 
woods, readily worked and finds its most im- 
portant outlets to market in the production of 
millwork, boxes and crating, furniture and 
vehicles. It was at one time the most important 
material used in the production of automobile 
bodies but was largely displaced by the de- 
velopment of satisfactory metal bodies. 
Among the other hardwoods of chief im- 
portance are included the elms, the chief species 
of which are the white elm (Ulmus americana) 
and the rock elm (Ulmus racemosa) which is 
also known as cork elm. The most important 
uses of elm lumber are in the manufacture of 
boxes and crating and in furniture of the 
cheaper varieties. Basswood (Tilia amen- 
cana), which has a very wide range of growth, 
produces a very soft lumber of straight grain 
that is used in the production of boxes, crating, 
millwork, wood novelties, trunks, etc. Tupelo 
gum (Nyssa aquatica) is found in the same 
localities as cypress and is used largely for 
boxes and crates. Cottonwood (Populus del- 
toides) is another southern product that is 
used chiefly for box and crating purposes. 
Black walnut (Juglans nigra), once the most. 
favored of American woods for furniture 
manufacture, has become comparatively scarce 
and is now manufactured chiefly from scattered 
woodlots. It is used in the production of fine 
furniture and in the making of gunstocks, for 
which it is preferred over all other woods. 
Manufacture of Imported Woods.— The 
manufacture of woods imported in the log has 
become an important annex to the hardwood 
branch of the lumber industry, the products of 
chief importance being mahogany and Circas- 
sian walnut. Mahogany as it is known in the 
trade includes Swietenia mahogani, from Cen- 
tral America and southern Mexico, and Khaya 
senegalensis, from Africa. Though the latter 
is not a true mahogany botanically, it pos- 
sesses characteristics that place it commercially 
ona par with the product from the American 
tropics. The chief uses of mahogany are for 
furniture and interior finish. Importers of ma- 
hogany also bring into the United States a 
considerable quantity of Spanish cedar, the 
principal use of which is for cigar boxes. Cir- 
cassian walnut is a wood of very pronounced 
figure used principally for interior finish and 
furniture. Re 
The Veneer Industry.— The manufacture 
of wood veneers is an important subsidiary 
factor of the lumber industry. Veneers range 
from the extremely thin material used in the 
production of fine furniture, piano cases, etc., 
to the thick veneers used in producing baskets 
and light boxes. Thin veneers are produced by 
“cooking” the log until it is very soft and 
slicing it. The heavier veneer stock is produced 
by sawing the log with a high-speed circular 
saw. Mahogany, Circassian and American wal- 
nut are the most important of the woods used 
in making thin veneers of fine furniture and 
finely figured mahogany logs suitable for the 
production of veneers bring extremely high 
prices. Since furniture veneers are apt to be 
but one-thirty-second of an inch in thickness 


734 


or even less and are usually soid by the square 
foot, a. single log. will produce enough, stock 
to cover a very large amount of surface. 

In some cases veneer mills are operated in 
connection with .sawmill plants, but generally 
veneer manufacture is a separate enterprise. 

Preservative Treatment of Wood.— In the 
early period of the lumber industry’s. develop- 
ment only those woods of most serviceable 
character were marketed, but with the expan- 
sion-of demand that has come in recent years, 
bringing with it the rapid extermination of the 
varieties that had first preference for’ com- 
mercial purposes, it has become necessary to 
develop means of utilizing practically all woods 
that grow to commercial-size. One of the prin- 
cipal difficulties with some of the timbers that 
have appeared in the markets in recent years 
is their lack of durability. On this account, 
the development of processes of wood preserva- 
tion by chemical treatment has become an im- 
portant adjunct to the lumber industry, deriv- 
ing a large part of its impetus from the desire 
of American railroads to get away from the 
expense of frequent renewal of cross-ties, 
poles and posts. It has been estimated that the 
average life of an untreated cross-tie is about 
seven years and that the same tie, properly 
preserved, will last 17 years. 

The most important agents used in preserv- 
ing wood are coal tar creosote, zinc chloride 
and mercuric chloride. Various methods. of 
applying the preservative include brush treat- 
ment, dipping in an open tank, application of 
the solution under pressure and the combina- 
tion of a vacuum to open the pores of. the 
wood and pressure to force the solution into 
them. Preservative salts that are soluble in 
water are of no value in the treatment of wood 
that is to be exposed to the elements and for 
this reason the creosoting processes have made 
most headway. Creosoting plants are in opera- 
tion in all parts of the United States and are 
the most influential factors in the practical 
conservation of America’s timber supply thus 
far developed. Before the European War a 
large part of the supply of creosote oil came 
from Germany. According to data gathered 
by the-American Wood Preservers’ Associa- 
tion, the consumption of creosote oil, domestic 
and foreign, and zinc chloride, 1910 to 1914, 
inclusive, was: 


‘Zinc 
chloride, 
Domestic Foreign made in 
creosote creosote 1D 
YEAR (gallons) (gallons) (gallons) 
p th 6 ania ae Bes 8 2 18,184,000 45,082,000 16,803,000 
LOU ee aie eee 21,511,000 51,517,000 16,360,000 
ADI ZEAE ae 31,136,000 52,531,000 20,752,000 
L913}, Secdeas hie s 41,700,167 66,673,192 26,466,803 
gS) eee 28,026,870 51,307,736 27,212,259 


Exports and Imports of Forest Products. 
—The export business is an important factor in 
the lumber trade of the United States. The 
growth of exports of sawed lumber from the 
United States is indicated by the following 
figures: 1870, $2,817,906; 1880, $5,086,880; 1890, 
$9,974,888: 1900, $17,731,696; 1910, $36,774,219; 
1913, $61,975,919; 1923, $119,772,940. 

The principal export markets for American 
lumber are western Europe, South and Central 
America, Mexico and the Orient. Extensive 
studies of these markets have been made by the 
Department of Commerce to encourage the de- 


LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 


velopment of a greater foreign business, made 
possible by the devastation of Europe’s forest 
resources during the great war. . 

As the result of this activity of the govern- 
ment and the enactment of the Webb bill, 
legitimating combinations for the development 
of foreign trade, a number of substantial ex- 
port corporations were formed after the close 
of the European War to develop this class of 
business. - 

Aside from a small quantity of valuable 
hardwoods, the greater part of the lumber im- 
ported into the United States comes from Can- 
ada. The volume of the import business has 
been variously affected by changes in import 
tariffs and by war conditions during the years 
1914-18. The following table indicates the 
value of wood and manufactures thereof im- 
ported from all sources during typical years 
from 1900 to 1923, inclusive: 


YEAR Value 

LODO ee Re. care ore at escsehccoststtne ee re ee $11,711,446 
190SFLOA Sad OVP EE he ORC Er an ee 16,707,735 
1910-2989 i. Bi? as 8 PS ee 27,489,155 
1 Sf ANSE ita Ree Recta SAT CMM reid De GEES See 24,414,943 
US eel ieee iis canner naniee dem Fig 27,851,295 
WOELG . PECG USES EL, ee 12,181,772 
1915tccty, eels sd Bae. Se 2a ae 4,456,846 
L91G <3. 2h faces snl eco, eee ee ee 4,583,269 
LOL Oe ee ees nosso ee eee 5,207,265 
1923 5.2 00. RAE) Pe. eee 


116,360,417 


Tendency of Lumber Prices.— The manu- 
facture of lumber in the United States, prac- 
tically from the beginning of the industry, has 
been characterized by extreme fluctuations in 
prices. No other industry is more sensitive to 
conditions affecting general business, a fact that 
is accounted for, to some extent, by the im- 
mediate association between lumber and the 
building business. When building is active the 
demand for lumber is proportionately active, 
but building is subject to extraordinarily diver- 
sified influences that induce violent fluctuations 
in volume. This fact, coupled with the inten- 
ive competition that has long existed within 
the lumber industry, is responsible for frequent 
periods of depression, in the course of which 
lumber prices at the mills have actually gone 
below the costs of production. 

In a general way the tendency of lumber 
prices is always upward, forced thus by eco- 
nomic influences. The lumber manufacturer is 
converting into a merchantable commodity a 
natural raw material representing a large in- 
vestment on which interest charges begin ac- 
cumulating as soon as the property passes into 
the hands of a private owner. In addition to 
interest on the investment, also, taxes paid on 
the property from the time the government — 
State or Federal — granted title up to the time 
of actual cutting are a charge that must be 
included in the cost of the product. The in- 
terest item is cumulative and the tax rate has 
shown steady increase in most sections of the 
United States. Consequently it becomes neces- 
sary for the producer to exercise care in com- 
puting the cost of logs entering the mill and 
this cost is ever increasing. 

Another factor that tends toward higher 
prices at the mills is the necessity of logging 
less accessible timber. When timber was more 
plentiful and the manufacturer was able to se- 
lect his supply at practically his own price, the 
operation could be conducted without regard to 


LUMBER STATE—LUMBRICOID 


conservation and the timber which presented 
serious logging difficulties could be passed. by. 
To-day, however, the less accessible timber is 
too valuable to be ignored and is taken, even 
though it cannot be delivered to the mill at the 
low cost possible with better located stumpage. 
Small logs, also, are handled at considerable 
higher cost in the woods and through the mill, 
but have become too valuable to be left in the 
woods as they once were. 

Still another potent factor in bringing about 
higher prices is the change that has come in 
labor conditions. Before the beginning of the 
European War wages paid in the lumber indus- 
try were low, as compared with wage scales in 
other large industries, and the hours of labor 
were long. In some sections 11 hours and in 
others 10 hours constituted a day’s work. One 
of the effects of the war was to reduce the 
working day throughout the Pacific Northwest 
to an 8-hour basis, and another was a general 
increase in wages, in many cases exceeding 100 
per cent, with little prospect of eventual return 
to former wage schedules. 

As the cost of lumber at the mills is com- 
posed chiefly of raw material cost, which shows 
constant increase, plus labor cost, which before 
the war was abnormally low, plus amortization 
of plant which proceeds more rapidly as the 
timber supply diminishes, it is an economic cer- 
tainty that, disregarding extraordinary fluctua- 
tions such as occurred during the war period, 
the price must show gradual increase until it 
reaches the point at which timber can be grown, 
converted into lumber and marketed ata profit. 
That point marks the limit of rise of lumber 
prices, from the standpoint of the lumber in- 
dustry, but in fact is arrived at by ignoring one 
particularly important factor — the competition 
of other materials that can be used in place of 
lumber. The economic forces that tend to force 
the price of lumber upward are absent or in- 
consequential-in the cases of most of the com- 
peting materials, but it is evident that lumber 
cannot find a market at prices materially in ex- 
cess of those applying on such competing ma- 
terials. Consequently the lumber industry is 
rapidly approaching the point at which it will 
be compelled to meet the problem of constantly 
increasing raw material and manufacturing 
costs on the one hand and a price limit fixed 
by competition on the other. The solution will 
have to be found in the more complete utiliza- 
tion of the raw material and in the manufacture 
and marketing of by-products of many varie- 
ties, It is estimated that waste through the 
leaving of potentially valuable raw material in 
the woods ranges from 20 to 40 per cent, but 
this waste is largely unavoidable and will con- 
tinue so until, by the development of mechanical 
and chemical processes, material now left in 
the woods can be profitably converted and 
marketed. 

What has been said about price tendencies 
relates to the prices prevailing at the mills. The 
cost of lumber to the consuming public, how- 
ever, is not subject to such extreme fluctuations 
as the mill price, for the reason that on the 
average it includes a large item of freighting 
cost, in which abrupt changes are not apt to 
occur. In the case of lumber hauled. a long dis- 
tance by rail, the freight charges may exceed 
the mill price of the material. The opening up 
of water transportation facilities, therefore, be- 


735 


comes an important influence tending to lower 
the cost of lumber to the consumer.’ On ac- 
count of its bulky character it can be shipped 
by water at a fractional part of the cost of rail 
transportation. The opening of the Panama 
Canal made possible the shipment of Pacific 
coast lumber to the Atlantic seaboard at freight 
rates that compare favorably with rail rates on 
pine from the Southeastern States, thereby cre- 
ating competition in Eastern markets that tends 
to hold prices down, to. the benefit of the con- 
sumer. The actual effects of the canal’s opera- - 
tion were greatly delayed because: of the 
scarcity of tonnage during and immediately after 
the close of the European War, but the begin- 
ning of 1919 brought Douglas fir. from the 
North Pacific coast into active competition in 
the Eastern markets. 

By-products of the Lumber Industry.—The 
most important of the by-products made from 
wood waste include paper of several varieties, 
fibre board, methyl (wood) alcohol, ethyl 
(grain) alcohol, charcoal, acetate of lime, 
pyroligneous acid and numerous tars and oils. 
Paper and fibre board are manufactured by 
mechanical and chemical manipulation of slabs, 
edgings and other saw-mill waste. Wood 
alcohol, acetate of lime, pyroligneous. acid and 
charcoal are products of destructive distillation. 
Grain alcohol is produced by a process involv- 
ing the extraction of the starch content from 
wood waste, its conversion into sugar and dis- 
tillation. In addition to these processes methods 
have been developed for recovering the turpen- 
tine and resinous contents from longleaf pine 
stumps, and for the manufacture of various 
fabrics from wood waste, including an imitation 
silk sold as “fibre silk 

The production. of tanning extracts from 
the bark of oak, chestnut, hemlock and other 
woods is an important means of utilizing what 
otherwise would be a waste product, but is 
carried on as a separate business, the lumber 
business furnishing the raw material. 

Careful surveys made by competent chem- 
ists have demonstrated that in connection with 
almost any large lumbering operating the com- 
plete utilization of the raw material through 
the development of suitable lines of by-products 
may be made to increase the profits of opera- 
tion to such a degree that the lumber price can 
be lowered materially, the by-products opera- 
tion thus carrying its proportionate share of 
the overhead cost of the business. It is not 
possible, however, for the individual operator 
of a small saw mill to undertake enterprises of 
such character, since they invariably. involve 
large investments in plant facilities, and the de- 
velopment of the by-products business is tend- 
ing in the direction of centralized plants that 
can utilize waste products from all mills in 


contiguous territory. 
_» Witrarp C: Howe, 
Editorial Director of “Lumber 


LUMBER STATE, a popular designation 
for the State of Maine, because of the large 
forests and the great number of its people en- 
gaged in lumbering. 


LUMBRICOID, ltim-bri’koid, from Latin 
lumbricus, intestinal worm, and the Greek exdo! 
form. One of the nematodes or round: worms, 
which are classed in four families: (1) as- 
carides, (2) strongylides, (3) trichotrachelides 


736 


and (4) filariz. In the first is the ascaris lum- 
bricoides, known at least 2,000 years; Aristotle 
naming them, but the Linnzan name being used 
at this day. Their appearance resembles an 
ordinary earth worm, the males being from 
four to six inches long and the females from 
10 to 14, even reaching 18 inches.. The mouth 
is three-lobed and both ends are pointed, the 
tail of the male having a double spiculum or 
penis. The female may contain 60,000,000 eggs 
according to some estimates. Development, it 
is believed, takes place after leaving the feces, 
and they endure adverse temperatures and con- 
ditions well. The mode of development is as 
yet not clear, nor its manner of entering the 
human system. Drinking water is generally 
supposed to be the source whence it finds its 
way to the intestine. It develops rapidly in the 
human intestine, but whether from embryo or 
after its escape from the egg is unknown. The 
middie part of the small intestine is where it 
locates, several together; sometimes in great 
numbers, even up to 1,000. It infests also the 
pig and beef; it is found in every country, but 
thrives best in warm climates, dryness not 
affecting its destruction. A year is supposed to 
be the limit of the existence of the Ascaris 
lumbricoides. Cobbold developed the egg to 
embryo stage in fresh water and sustained life 
three months, Eggs fed to animals had nega- 
tive effect. The presence of a few ground 
worms in the intestines probably create no 
symptoms, but when numerous they bring about 
itching of the nose, colic of the umbilicus, dis- 
tention of the epigastrium, lack of appetite, 
mucous or bloody evacuations and other symp- 
toms. 

Round worms find their way at times into 
the nose, larynx or eustachian tubes, and in 
subcutaneous tissue are discoverable in “worm 
abscesses.” Santonin and its compounds are 
the most successful remedy. 


LUMINIFEROUS ETHER. See eater 


LUMINOSITY OF ANIMALS is most 
familiar to us in the fire-fly and glow-worm, on 
land, and in what is called phosphorescence, at 
sea; with regard to the latter popular term, 
arising naturally from the resemblance to the 
wavering light of phosphorus, it may be said 
that the phenomenon has nothing to do with 
phosphorus. It appears in plants, especially in 
the mycelium of fungi and certain agarics, often 
causing rotten wood, decaying vegetables, etc., 
to glow in the dark. Bacteria on such objects 
are another source of “phosphorescence,” caus- 
ing the shining appearance of putrid fish. There 
appears to be no essential difference between 
the luminosity of plants and of animals, and it 
is believed by some that the power to produce 
it belongs to all creatures, although visible in 
only a few, mostly living in the sea. On land 
some myriapods and worms, and various in- 
sects or their larve and in the ocean a great 
number and variety of invertebrates, including 
mollusks (cephalopods), crustaceans and many 
fishes, manifest luminosity. “On a dark night,» 
says a writer, “the crest of every wave often 
seems to break in a pale glow, the wake of the 
vessel is a trail of light, and an oar dipped in 
the water seems on fire” The narratives of 
voyagers abound in descriptions of such phe- 
nomena seen at their best in the tropics, but 
observable even in Arctic waters. The origin 


’ chloride. 


LUMINIFEROUS ETHER — LUMINOSITY OF ANIMALS 


and nature of this light are not clearly known, 
although it has been extensively studied. It 
appears to be dependent on the presence of 
oxygen in an alkaline medium. This lumi- 
nescence is never manifested by fresh water, al- 
though so common among marine fishes, which 
are in contact with sodium chloride or calcium 
It is thought by some to be the prod- 
uct of the chemical action of oxygen on fatty 
constitutions in the cells, by others .of two 
special, substances, one an enzyme, the other an 
element of the blood that betrays itself as light 
when it flows into a luminous organ. Watasé 
considers the light-giving material a cell-secre- 
tion, not a product of a gland. Still another 
view is that the light is the effect of chemical 
action resulting in an electrical manifestation. 
The spectrum of the fire-fly shows greatest in- 
tensity in the central (green) part, and disap- 
pears before reaching either end of the solar 
spectrum — that is, it exhibits neither heat nor 
chemical energy. ‘Langley and Very, who. de- 
voted much effort to‘its investigation, called it 
the “most economical light known, and very 
near to the ideal of light without heat. The 
manifestation of such light may occur in three 
ways. In the minute protozoans (Noctiluca, 
etc.), which sometimes are met with in warm 
seas in such dense masses that the water is like 
a glowing broth, the light issues from a myriad 
of points, a diffuse illumination. along the 
muscle fibres. 

In a class that includes such mollusks as the 
pholads, and also the copepod crustaceans, the 
photogenic material is ejected as a liquid 
(slime) from the body, according to Watasé, 
and becomes luminous only by contact with the 
water, or, more strictly, with the oxygen mixed 
with it; and the same is true of luminous ter- 
restrial worms and annelids, but here the ‘ma- 
terial emanates as fine granules that glow when 
they encounter the air. A third class includes 
the more highly organized insects, squids, fishes, 
etc., which possess definite light-producing 
organs. 

The luminous insects with few exceptions 
are beetles of the pentamerous families Lampy- 
ride and Elateride. The former family is well 
represented in North America, and furnishes us 
with several species of fire-flies. The females 
of some species in this group are wingless, or 
nearly so, creep about among the herbage, and 
are called glow-worms; in other species it is 
the larve that are glow-worms. Their luminous 
organs are situated on the head or the ab- 
dominal segments or both, in positions varying 
with the species, and consist of cells just be- 
neath the cuticle, reached by nerves and sur- 
rounded by a wrapping of tracheal filaments, 
supplying air— the necessary oxidizing agent. 
Their light is usually given out in intermittent 
flashes, but in some species continuously, and in 
all, apparently, it is under nervous control. The 
most-famous of the fire-flies is the cucuyo of 
the American tropics (Pyrophorus noctilucus), 
one of the Elateride; but several other species 
equal its powers. This beetle is an inch and a 
half or more long, dull in color, and has on 
each side of its thorax an oval, whitish 
“lantern,” from which at will streams a bright 
light. Gosse (‘Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,’ 
1851) says that when this beetle was handled 
these spots would ignite gradually, “the centre 


LUMINOUS PAINT — LUMPSUCKER 


ot each tubercle first showing a point of light 
which in a moment spreads to the circumfer- 
ence and increases in intensity until it blazes 
with a luster almost dazzling” The color of 
the thoracic light is a rich yellow-green. Ina 
pitch-dark room this insect gives so much illu- 
mination as to cast a definite shadow of any 
object on the opposite wall, and when held two 
inches from a book the whole line may be 
read.” 

Gosse and the many others acquainted with 
these phosphoric beetles describe another light 
on -their abdomen, just behind the legs. 
“When fully illuminated, » the Beebes (‘Search 
‘for a Wilderness,’ 1910) tell us, “this area was 
brilliant and of a figure-of- eight shape. The 
light, however, was radically different from that 
of the thorax, being yellowish and candle-like, 
giving an illusive impression of an opening 
from the incandescent interior of the insect. 
In flight the abdominal searchlight comes into 
play, burning brightly with a strong yellowish 
glare.” In other species the glare is orange or 
reddish, and the insect races along like a rail- 
road train, with two green head-lights and a red 
tail-light. Beebe found that two or three ina 
glass tube answered the purpose of an electric 
flash-light. These and similar insects are worn 
in the hair, and otherwise adapted to the pur- 
pose of ornament by the Mexicans and Bra- 
zilians. 

One of the surprises of the early explorers 
of the depths of the ocean was that many of 
the tropical pelagic fishes had luminous organs; 
and for a long time it was believed that all of 
these came from the abysses where no particle 
of sunlight penetrated, and that thus the sty- 
gian depths were illuminated. Later investiga- 
tions have modified this view. The luminous 
fishes belong mainly to the families Stomiatide, 
Sternoptychide, Scopelide and Ceratide. All 
these are pelagic families and have species 
ranging from the surface to the deepest bot- 
toms (see DEEP SEA EXPLORATION). The exten- 
sive explorations of the ocean depths carried on 
in the Valdivia, the Michael Sars and other 
vessels in recent times show that light-organs 
are “specially characteristic of fishes belonging 
to the upper 500 meters in warm oceanic 
waters.” This is true of the crustaceans and 
cephalopods, in the latter case squids, living at 
intermediate depths. The light-organs in these 
animals are distributed in various parts of the 
body, and are highly complicated, eye- -like 
glands, each having not only a lens to increase 
its power, but a layer of black pigment in the 
rear, to act as a reflector. There is no doubt 
that this structure enables the fishes and squids 
to project the light in definite directions. The 
function and importance of these organs have 
been much discussed; and the purpose is still 
in question. “Is it in order to illuminate the 
surrounding water, to avoid foes, or to recog- 
nize their own kind?” asks Hjort (‘Depths of 
the Ocean,’ 1912). “The answers,” he replies, 
“would probably tend to show that the many 
different kinds of light-organs serve different 
purposes.» Brauer finds that their position is 
precisely the same in all individuals of any one 
species, and concludes that they replace, in the 
darkness of the depths, the specific color-marks 
or “recognition-marks” of surface or terrestrial 
animals. As it seems certain that this emission 
of light is intended to be seen, the relation be- 

VOL. 17 — 47 


he 


737 


tween them and the eyes of these fishes and 
other oceanic animals must be studied; but the 
data for this are defective and confusing. It 
appears that a remarkable coincidence exists 
between the development of light-organs and 
eyes in pelagic fishes. The Scopelidz, Sternop- 
tychide and Stomiatide, which live above 500 
meters, possess well- developed light-organs and 
eyes, while from 500 meters downward light- 
organs and eyes both decrease in size. Along 
the sea-bottom, however, the fishes have only 
eyes and no light-organs.» The eyes of the - 
bottom fishes (Macrurus) are large, as if to 
admit as much as possible of a scanty supply 
of light. In those depths all the invertebrate 
animals are aglow, clothed in a copious mucus 
that emits light; and it is believed that this il- 
lumination is sufficient to enable the big large- 
eyed bottom fishes to see what is about them. 
The situation is, nevertheless, full of puzzling 
contradictions. Consult books mentioned under 
Deer SEA EXPLORATION ; and fot the most recent 
discussion of the matter consult Murray and 
Hjort’s ‘Depths of the Ocean? (London 1912). 
ERNEST INGERSOLL. 


LUMINOUS PAINT, a paint containing 
phosphorus, which after exposure to strong 
light becomes luminous in the dark for a time. 
It is used for street signs, buoys, clock dials, 
etc. See also PAINT, PHOSPHORESCENCE. 


LUMMIS, Charles Fletcher, American au- 
thor: b. Lynn, Mass., 1 March 1859. He was 
graduated from Harvard in 1881, went to Los 
Angeles, Cal., there was an editor of the Daily 
Times (1885-87), and later became editor of 
the monthly Out West. He spent five years 
among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, 
studying their speech and customs. Among his 
writings are ‘A Tramp across the Continent? 
(1892); ‘The Land of Tiempo? (1893); ‘The 
King of the Broncos? (1897) ; ‘The Enchanted 
Burro? (1897); ‘The Awakening of a Nation? 
(1898), and the collection, ‘The Man who Mar- 
ried the Moon, and other Pueblo Indian Folk- 
Stories? (1894). 


LUMPKIN, Joseph Henry, American 
jurist: b. Oglethorpe County, Ga., 23 Dec. 1799; 
d. Athens, Ga., 4 June 1867. He was a brother 
of Wilson Lumpkin. He was graduated from 
the College of New. Jersey (now Prince- 
ton) in 1819, studied law in the office of Judge 
Cobb at Athens, was admitted to practice in 
October 1820, and practised at Lexington, Ga., 
until 1844. In 1824 and 1825 he represented 
Oglethorpe County in the State legislature of 
Georgia, and ‘in 1845 became associate. justice 
and soon after was appo‘nted chief justice of 
the Georgia Supreme Court. He was one of the 
chief organizers of the Lumpkin Law School of 
the University of Georgia, and occupied the 
chair of law in the school in 1859-61. He re- 
sumed the professorship in 1865, and retained it 
until his death. In 1833 he assisted in the com- 
pilation of the Penal Code of Georgia. Both as 
an advocate in criminal cases and as a judge he 
is described as exceedingly able. For many 
years he was prominent in the temperance 
movement. 

LUMPSUCKER, an extraordinary marine 
fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), of oval, ugly form 
and allied to the sea-snails (Liparis) and 
gobies. It is remarkable for the brilliant red 


d 


73E LUMPY JAW 


and purple colors which the male puts on in the 
breeding season in the spring, when it ap- 
proaches rocky shores on both sides of the 
northern Atlantic to deposit its spawn. This 
fish has the short ventral fins so united as to 
form a sucking disc by which it attaches itself 
to the bottom and holds on against waves and 
currents, while it preys upon small fishes, crus- 
taceans, etc. It is well known and eaten in 
Scotland under the name “cockpaidle.” 


LUMPY JAW. See Acrinomycosis. 


LUNA, loo’na, Alvaro de, Spanish poet, 
constable and leading spirit of the reign of 
John II: b. 1388; executed Valladolid, 22 June 
1453. A natural son of Alvaro de Luna, a rich 
Spanish noble, he was nephew of the famous 
“anti-pope” Benedict XIII and near relative of 
the Count of Morala and the Marquis of Vilu- 
efia.. He was sent to the court, while still a boy, 
by his uncle, the bishop of Toledo (1408). 
There he soon -became page to John II, who 
conceived a great affection for him; and he 
became a general favorite at court, especially 
among the ladies. While scarcely of age he 
began to exercise a strong influence at court 
partially through the liking of the king for 
him, and partially through the royal high 
majordomo, Juan Hurtado de Mendoza, son- 
in-law of the king. Luna followed the progress 
of John II from place to place and to his 
standard flocked young men of the highest rank 
to bask in the sun of the favorite of the sover- 
eign. The infante, Don Enrique, rose against 
the king and seized him and Luna; but the 
latter, with the help of friends, succeeded in 
freeing himself and the king (1420), whom he 
afterwards strove to make independent of the 
infante and the nobles who supported him. To 
‘this end he gathered about him a strong party 
which stood for the maintenance of royal 
power and fidelity to the ruling sovereign. The 
infante, Enrique, and his party. were driven 
from the court. The property of the most 


conspicuous of the followers of the infante - 


was confiscated, among these being the powerful 
hidalgo Ruy Lépez Dtvalos. This confiscated 
property was divided among the followers of 
the king; and, as the leader of these, Luna ob- 
tained. great wealth, including several castles 
and the title of Count San Esteban, to which 
was added that of high constable,.a position 
which gave him control of the royal forces and 
empowered him to look after the security of 
the sovereign’s person. Next to the king, he 
was, therefore, all powerful; so powerful indeed 
that he dared to imprison the infante.. In 1425, 
through the influence of his enemies, the king 
was forced to exile Luna from the court. But, 
during his absence of a year and a half, the 
unsettled condition of the country grew rapidly 
and steadily worse; and finally Luna was re- 
called, with great rejoicing. But civil war 
broke out between the different independent 
principalities of Spain. In the attempt to re- 
store order and to defend the interests of the 
king Luna took a very prominent. part. He 
made severai successful campaigns and captured 
a number of strongly fortified towns. In 1430 
a truce for five years was concluded. Luna at 
once set out on a war expedition against 
Granada, then a Moorish stronghold, and, de- 
feating the enemy several times, he reached the 
outskirts of the capital (Granada). When vic- 


— LUNA MOTH 


tory was in sight he was forced to retire owing 


to trouble in his own forces, and personal ill- 
ness. Again in 1431, with additional forces, he 
invaded Granada, conquered numerous towns 
and laid waste the land in the name of his 
sovereign, John II of Castile. Notwithstanding 
these brilliant military successes, Luna’s enemies 
at home constantly conspired against him for 
the next 20 years. After a while their hands 
were strengthened by the support of the second 
wife of John II, who finally succeeded in poi- 
soning the mind of the king against his favorite, 
who was finally arrested at Burgos, tried and 
condemned to be beheaded at Valladolid. 
Among his other great talents, Alvaro de Luna 
was a poet of no mean order and a great friend 
of the troubadours. His songs are graceful 
and harmonious and often beautiful. He has 
a good command of language and the quick and 
sensitive imagination of the poet. He was one 
of the most finished musicians of his age; and 
the touch of the musician is seen in his poetry. 
But his prose, which possesses the harmony of 
the poet, is stronger than his~ poetry. His 
‘Librode las claras € virtuosas mujeres? is a 
stout defense of the fair sex. The work is 
divided into three books. These treat, respec- 
tively, of the women of the Bible, the pagan 
women and the Christian women. The style of 
this work is simple; and the great number of 
references which it contains from sacred and 
profane history credit the author with a wide 
historical knowledge for his age. Consult 
Ticknor, ‘History of Spanish Literature? (New 
York 1854); ‘The Chronicle of Alvaro. de 
Luna? (Madrid 1784) ; ‘Chronicle of John ID; 

Quintana, José, ‘Vidas de espafioles célebres? 
(Vol. XIX, Biblioteca de Autores Espafioles). 


LUNA, Pedro de, pa’dr& da, anti-pope: b. 
Spain, 1334; d. Pefiiscola; Valencia, 1424. He 
was sprung from a noble family of Aragon, and, 
after entering the priesthood, became distin- 
guished as a canonist, and was appointed pro- 
fessor in the University of Montpellier. He re- 
ceived a cardinal’s hat in 1375 and was elected 
to Avignon as anti-pope in 1394) The conclave 
of cardinals annexed as a condition to his elec- 
tion, that he should resign if ever an opportu- 
nity occurred when, by so doing, he could put 
a stop to the schism. This he refused to do 
although he was deposed by the Council of Pisa 
(1409), and by that of Constance (1417). Ban- 
ished from Avignon, he retired to the fortress 
of Pefiiscola, near Valencia, where he spent the 
rest of his life in excommunication. 


LUNA, li’na (the moon), among the 
Greeks Seléné. Her worship is said to have 
been introduced among the Romans in the time 
of Romulus. She had a temple on the Aven- 
tine, one on the Capitol, a third on the Palatine. 


LUNA MOTH, one of the largest and 
most beautiful of the great American silkworm 
moths, Tropea luna. Its general color is deli- 
cate green, there is a purple brown band along 
the front edge of the fore wings and a pair of | 
richly colored ocelli upon each of both pairs of 
wings, the hinder pair of which terminate in 
long curving “tails.” The caterpillar grows to 
a length of about three inches and is pale blu- 
ish green with a pearl-colored head; it has a 
pale yellow stripe along each side of "the body, 
and a transverse yellow line on the back be- 


LUNACY — LUNDY’S LANE 


tween each two abdominal segments. It feeds 
upon leaves of forest trees, as the hickory, 
walnut, etc. The cocoon is formed of a very 
thin, leaf-like material with little silk, and is 
usually found upon the ground. 


LUNACY, LUNATIC, etc. 
ITY. 


LUNALILO, loo-na-lé’l6, William ee 
king of the Hawaiian Islands (1873-74) : 
1835: d. 3 Feb. 1874. He received a good fan 
cation and was liberal in his political views. His 
health failed soon after his ascending the throne 
and he paid inadequate attention to administra- 
tive business. 


LUNAR CAUSTIC. See Nitrate or Sr- 
VER. 

LUNAR TABLES, in astronomy, ponder- 
ous volumes of solid figures which are the nu- 
merical development and tabulation of the ana- 
lytical theory of the moon’s motions and per- 
turbations. See Moon. 


LUNAR THEORY, The, in astronomy, 
the deduction of the moon’s motion from the 
law of gravitation. See Moon. 


LUNAR YEAR. See YEar. 


LUND, Sweden, town, in the lan of Mal- 
mohus, on an extensive plain, about eight miles 
from the Sound and 24 miles east of Copen- 
hagen. It is a very ancient place, and was once 
surrounded with wooden fortifications, and had 
its warehouses filled with the merchandise and 
treasures. In the Middle Ages it was the lar- 
gest city in Scandinavia; the monarchs were 
elected kings of Scania on a hill in the imme- 
diate vicinity. The present town occupies a 
large extent of space, and is very irregularly 


See INSAN- 


built. It has an ancient Romanesque cathedral, 
one of the finest churches in Sweden, erected in 
1145. and. recently restored; a _ university, 


founded in 1688, attended by over 1,000 stu- 
dents, and occupying buildings erected. in 1878- 
82, while the old building contains the library 
(180,000 volumes), historical museum, etc. 
With the university are connected a zoological 
museum and a botanic garden. ‘The town 
boasts of a statue of Tegnér, and the house in 
which he lived, Sugar refining, glovemaking 
and iron-founding are among the industries, 
and there is a trade in agricultural produce. 
It was ceded by Denmark to Sweden in 1658. 
Pop. 20,423. 


LUNDY, Benjamin, American abolition- 
1st 2yb. Hardwick, Warren County, N. J., 4 Jan. 
1789; d. Lowell, La Salle County, IIl., 22 Aug. 
1839. His parents were members of the Soci- 
ety of Friends. At'19 he removed to Wheel- 
ing, then in Virginia, where he labored as an 
apprentice to a saddier. At this place, which 
was a centre of the slave trade in those days, 
his attention was first directed to the subject 
of slavery. He subsequently settled in business 
in Saint Clairsville, Va., where in 1815 he orig- 
inated an anti-slavery association, called the 
“Union Humane Society” and had a member- 
ship of nearly 500. Soon after a journal enti- 
tled The Philanthropist was commenced at 
Mount Pleasant, Ohio, to which Lundy con- 
tributed. He then visited Saint Louis, where 
he remained nearly two years engaged in a 
newspaper exposition of the slavery question. 
At Mount Pleasant, he commenced, in 1821, the 


739 


publication of the Genius of Universal Emanct- 
pation, the office of which was removed to Bal- 
timore in 1824. In 1825 he visited Haiti to 
make arrangements for the settlement of eman- 
cipated slaves and a few years later he made 
a second voyage there for the same purpose. 
His efforts for abolition aroused the bitter hos- 
tility of the slave-holding class and the slave 
dealers, one of whom assaulted Lundy in Balti- 
more in 1827. In 1828 he visited the Eastern 
States, where he formed the acquaintance of a _ 
number of prominent abolitionists, one of 
whom, William Lloyd Garrison, afterward be- 
came associated with him in editing his journal. 
Garrison and Lundy differed in their policies for 
bringing about abolition. Lundy favored colon- 
ization abroad while Garrison advocated imme- 
diate emancipation on the soil. In 1830-31 he 
traveled in Canada and Texas to obtain sub- 
scribers to his paper and to continue his obser- 
vation on the condition of the slaves. He con- 
tinued his literary connection with the Genius 
of Universal Emancipation as long as it was’ 
published, and was the first to establish anti- 
slavery periodicals and the delivery of anti- 
slavery lectures, and probably the first to into- 
duce the formation of societies for the encour- 
agement of the produce of free labor. Consult 
Armstrong, W. C., ‘The Lundy Family and 
Their Descendants. of Whatsoever Name’ 
(Nutley, N. J., 1902); Earle, ‘The Life, Trav- 
els and Opinions of Benj amin Lundy’ (Phila- 
delphia 1847). 


LUNDY’S LANE, Battle of, also called 
the Battle of Niagara, or Battle of Bridgewater, 
a severe engagement fought on Canadian soil 
near Niagara Falls, 23 July 1814, between Brit- 
ish and American forces. Two days after the 
defeat of the British under General Riall at 
Chippawa by Brigadier-General Scott 5 July 
1814, the American forces wunder General 
Brown, numbering about 3,000 men, crossed the 
Chippawa River and took post at Queenstown; 
Riall, after throwing a portion of his force into 
Fort George, retreated to a strong position near 
the head of Lake Ontario. Occasional skir- 
mishes took place between the outposts of both 
armies; but Brown, finding that he had no bat- 
tering cannon to besiege Fort George, and being 
unwilling to leave that fortress in his rear, fell 
back after a few days to the Chippawa. Here 
on the 25th he received intelligence that General 
Drummond, who had reached Fort George with 
British reinforcements, had crossed the Niagara 
River at Queenstown to attack Fort Schlosser, 
where the American supplies were deposited. 
Scott was at once detached with 1,200 men to 
make a demonstration at Queenstown, and 
about sunset unexpectedly came up with Riall 
and his whole force at the head of Lundy’s 
Lane. ‘The small American force received the 
full fire of the British infantry, and held their 
ground until the arrival of the main body of 
the American army. Fighting continued during 
the night. Scarcely an officer remained un- 
wounded in-the American ranks, and the men, 
faint with their exertions and tormented by 
thirst, were ready to sink with exhaustion. Un- 
willing, however, to relinquish the field, they re- 
plenished their ammunition from the cartridge 
boxes of their fallen comrades and foes, who 
covered the ground around the battery, and 
then calmly awaited the assault of the British, 


740 


After an hour’s pause the latter, reinforced by 
fresh troops from Fort George, advanced under 
General Drummond to the last assault. The 
conflict which ensued was more deadly than 
ever. At length the enemy, broken and foiled 
at all points, retired. Brown and Scott being 
now disabled by wounds, the command devolved 
upon Colonel Ripley, who, finding the enemy 
indisposed to renew the attack, drew off his 
troops to the camp. In this battle, the most 
obstinately contested perhaps ever fought upon 
the American continent, the British. force. of 
4,500 beside greatly. outnumbering their oppo- 
nents, had the advantages of position and prep- 
aration. Against these odds the troops. of 
Brown fought with an unparalleled valor and ob- 
stinacy which did much to disabuse the country 
of the idea, then prevalent, that American 
troops could not cope with the trained veterans 
of Europe. According to the official accounts, 
the American casualties amounted. to 571 
wounded, 171 killed and 110 missing; and the 
British to 559 wounded, 86 killed and 42 prison- 
ers. Ripley, finding his forces reduced to less 
than 2,000 effective men, retired to the neigh- 
borhood of Fort Erie, having first destroyed the 
bridge over the Chippewa and a portion of his 
stores. See CHIPPAWA, BATTLE OF. 


LUNEBURG, lu’né-boork, Germany, capi- 
ital city of the government district of the same 
name in the province of Hanover, on the navi- 
gable Ilmenau River. It contains many ancient 
dwellings but the well-laid-out gardens of the 
suburbs give the place a modern aspect. There 
are four churches including the Catholic, and 
a synagogue besides. The Michaelis Church 
dates from the 15th century, and the Johannis 
Church, with its five naves, belongs to the pur- 
est 14th century Gothic period. The Nikolai 
Church and its colossal central nave dates from 
the 15th century. Among its other notable 
buildings are the ancient courthouse in the 
market place, full of art treasures, the great 
structures of the Michaeli monastery (now a 
seminary), the old Kaufhaus, etc. Its indus- 
tries consist of lime-kilns, iron, cement, carpet, 
stoneware and dye works, a horsehair weaving 
factory, wax bleachery, etc. The trade is ably 
assisted by its Chamber of Commerce and con- 
sists of exports in wine, grain, lumber, hay, 
straw, wool, wax, etc. It is the junction of 
several railways. Among its other public build- 
ings figure the gymnasium and realgymnasium, 
the Evangelical teachers’ seminary trade school, 
museum, public library, etc. Documentary evi- 
dence of this town dates from 1228.and munic- 
ipal rights were conferred in 1247, As a mem- 
ber of the Hansa League in the Middle Ages 
the city had considerable prominence and great 
wealth. In the Thirty Years’ War the city was 
taken by Duke George of Brunswick-Ltneburg 
and fell to a relatively low estate and has since 
gone through the vicissitudes of Brunswick and 
Hanover. Its population, in 1910, was. 27,790. 
Consult Volger, (Urkundenbuch der Stadt Liine- 
burg? (Limeburg 1872-77); Bodemann, ‘Die 
alteren Zunfturkunden der Stadt Liineburg> 
(Hanover 1883). 


LUNENBURG, _ loo’nén-bérg, Canada, 


town, seaport, capital of Lunenburg County, in 


the province of Nova Scotia, and about 40 . 


miles west-southwest of Halifax. The first 
settlement was made by Germans, in 1753, and 


LUNEBURG — LUNGS 


it, still bears interesting marks of its origin. 
It has a large, safe harbor. The chief indus- 
tries are ship-building and fishing. Lunenburg 
is the chief seat of the deep-sea fisheries of 
Canada and it exports considerable fish and 
lumber to the West Indies. It is the seat of 
a United States consular agent. The settlement 
was raided by American privateers in 1782. 
Pop. about 2,681. . 

LUNEVILLE, 1i’na-vél’, France, city, in 
the department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the 
river Meurthe, where it is joined by the 
Vezofize, and junction of lines of the East Rail- 
way. It has a beautiful 18th century church 
(Saint Jacques), a great palace formerly’ be- 
longing to the dukes of Lorraine but now used 
as barracks and a lovely park. There are also 
a town-hall; war memorial erected 1870, statue 
of Bishop Gregory, a college library, museum, 
chamber of agriculture, etc. The chief in- 
dustries are glove, stocking, lace, yarn and 
textile factories, also potteries and brewery. 
Considerable trade is done in grain, wine and 
tobacco. It was the capital of a county im the 
10th century and fell into the possession of 
the duchy of Lorraine in 1344. When Stanislas 
Lesczynski, former king of Poland, came into 
the possession (1735) of Lorraine he made this 
city his residence. In history the city is noted 
for the Peace of Lunéville (1801) between 
Germany and the French Republic, by which 
Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine was 
apportioned to France, while Milan and Man- 
tua fell to the Cisalpine Republic, Venice and 
its district as far as the Etsch (Adige), Istria 
and Dalmatia with Cattaro were given over to 
Austria. As compensation for the loss of their 
territory on the left bank of the Rhine to the 
Imperial princes the ecclesiastical foundations 
were secularized and the free cities were an- 
nexed to such principalities. The city suffered 
greatly during the German invasion 1914-18. 
Pop. about 25,587. Consult Baumont, ‘Histoire 
de Lunéville? (Lunéville 1900) ; Sloane, W. M., 
ai) of Napoleon Bonaparte? (New York 

LUNGCHOW, or LUNGCHOWFU, 
China, walled city in the province of Kwangsi, 
located on the Tsokiang, at the confluence of 
the Sungchi-kiang and the Kaoping-ho, near 
the border of Tonkin with which much trading 
is done. It is on the trade route between 
Yiinnan and Tonkin and much import trading 
is done through its open port, amounting in 
1912 to 76,532 taels, with an export trade of 
7,303 taels. It has a population of about 20,000. 


LUNGFISH, a fish of the group Dipnot 
(q.v.), few existing species of which remain. 
These are mostly sluggish fishes of tropical 
fresh waters, whose respiratory organs are 
lung-like. See BarrRAMUNDA; CERATODUS; 
LEPIDOSIREN ; and ICHTHYOLOGY. 

LUNGS, the principal organs of respi- 
ration in air-breathing vertebrates. They are 
enclosed in the chest, an air-tight chamber 
which, mainly by means of the diaphragm.(q.v.), 
acts as a bellows and moves the air in and 
out of them. The purpose of the inhalation of 
air is to supply oxygen to the blood and to re- 
move carbon dioxide. There are two lungs, 
one on the left, the other on the right side of 
the chest, and between them and almost com- 
pletely covered by them are situated the heart 


LUNG-FISHES 


1 Australian Lung-fish or Barramunda 2 Amazonian Mud-fish or Lepidosiren 
3 African Mud-fish or Protopterus 


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LUNGS 


and the great blood-vessels springing from it, 
the cesophagus, the thoracic duct, etc. The left 
lung is the smaller of. the two, and both consist 
of a mass of ramified tubes, branches of the 
trachea, which unite them. The color of the 
lungs is pinkish white at birth, which changes 
to the mottled slate color of the adult lungs, 
and the still darker hue of the lungs of the 
aged. Through the walls of the lungs all the 
blood of the body passes, receiving oxygen and 
throwing off carbonic acid. The simplest lung 
imaginable would be an elastic membranous bag, 
well supplied with blood-vessels, and with -a 
pipe connecting it with the air; the most com- 
plicated lungs that exist are essentially of that 
construction, the purpose of the complications 
being merely the enlarging of the surface ex- 
posed to the air. 

In all air-breathing vertebrates, the atmos- 
pheric air reaches the larynx through the nasal 
and the buccal cavities, then passes into the 
trachea, and into its ramifications which are 
called bronchi or bronchial tubes, and from 
these tubes into membranous pouches named 
alveoli. The terminal twig of a bronchial tube 
is a small canal, in which are found many open- 
ings or orifices of very short tubes, which are 
the ultimate ramifications of the tube. The 
lung-substance is composed of the alveoli, the 
air-sacs, the small bronchi, blood and lymphatic 
vessels and nerves; the whole enclosed in a 
membrane that surrounds each of the lungs 
and is known as the pleura. The trachea or 
windpipe extends from the lower part of the 
larynx, of which it is the continuation, to the 
middle of the thorax, where it divides into the 
two large bronchi. It is situated in the middle 
line of the body, in front of the last cervical and 
the first five or six dorsal vertebre. In the 
back part of the trachea there are transversal 
muscular fibres of the unstriped variety. The 
fibrous tissue found in the trachea belongs to 
the two varieties of yellow elastic and white 
fibres. The mucous membrane is thin and in 
perfect continuity with that of the larynx and 
that of the bronchi. Its most remarkable fea- 
ture is that its epithelial covering is composed 
of ciliated cells having in high degree the vibra- 
tile movement. All along the trachea there 
are many mucous glands, and these are espe- 
cially numerous upon its back part. The cilia 
lash upward, and thus keep the passages free 
from mucus and remove foreign particles. As 
the passages become smaller they lose their 
cartilages, and the muscles form a continuous 
circular layer. The length of the trachea is 
from four to five inches. The average trans- 
versal diameter of this tube is between 9 and 
12 lines in adults. The anterior two-thirds 
of the trachea is cylindrical, the posterior third 
is a flattened wall. In the neck the trachea is 
covered by the skin and a few flat muscles; in 
the chest it is placed between the two lungs’ and 
covered by muscles, lymphatic glands and the 
bony and cutaneous walls of the thorax. The 
structure of the trachea is complicated. This 
tube is essentially composed of an internal layer 
which is a mucous membrane and an external 
one which is fibrous. Imbedded in these mem- 
branes are from 16 to 20 cartilaginous pieces, 
with the shape of a horseshoe, or of a ring one- 
third of which is missing. These incomplete 
rings are placed transversely at nearly equal 
distances one from the other; they give to the 


741 


anterior two-thirds of the trachea the cylindri- 
cal form. 

The essential parts of the lungs are the air- 
cells or air-sacs, in which the function of respi- 
ration is performed. They are estimated to be 
about 600,000,000, in number and to be about 
one-two hundred and fiftieths of an inch in 
diameter. They consist of somewhat elongated 
cavities, which communicate with a bronchial 
ramification by a circular opening, usually 
smaller than the cavity of the cell. The air- 
cells are arranged in groups and separated from 
each other by thin walls. Many small, shallow, 


cup-like depressions, separated from each other 
by portions of membrane, are found at the bot- 
tom and on the lateral walls of the air-sacs. 
These, the alveoli, have no communication with 


= 


BRONCHI 


each other except by their opening in the cavity 
of the air-sac. An epithelial layer exists in the 
air-cells and the alveoli. The walls of the air- 
cells are formed: of a thin membrane in which 
the blood and lymph-capillaries ramify. Minute 
openings lead from the air-cells into the lymph- 
spaces of the membrane. The membranous walls 
are partly formed of elastic tissue. It is this that 
gives. to the lungs their elasticity. At the root 
of the lungs the membrane known as the vis- 
ceral pleura is continuous with a membrane 
which lines the chest-cavity (the parietal 
pleura). The space between the two is the 
pleural cavity; it is in reality a large lymph- 
space, and communicates with the lymphatics 
of the pleura. Owing to the air-pressure within 
the lungs, the two pleure are closely pressed 
together, the lungs entirely filling the chest- 
cavity. 

The lungs are united with the heart and with 
the trachea by a part called the root, which, in 
each side, is composed of the large bronchus, a 
branch of the pulmonary artery, two pulmonary 
veins, and smaller vessels and nerves, the whole 
being almost completely covered by the pleura. 
Each lung is divided into lobes, two in number 
in the left one and three in the other. Each 
lobe is divided into lobules, which are arranged 
on the bronchial tubes like grapes on a bunch. 
Each lobule is surrounded by condensed areolar 


742 


tissue mixed up with yellow elastic tissue. 
Each lobule is a fair representation, on a small 
scale, of a whole lung, as it hangs upon a bron- 
chial tube, a branch of the pulmonary artery, 
branches of bronchial vessels and nerves. In 
the roots of the lungs the two large bronchi 
divide, the right into three, and the left into 
two bronchial tubes, one for each of the pulmo- 
nary lobes. The primary bronchial tubes are 
very short, and divide into two or three smaller 
tubes, each of which gives off two or three divi- 
sions. Before reaching their termination, the 
tubes branch off four or five times more. 

The weight of the lungs varies much accord- 
ing to age and sex. In adult men the two lungs 
weigh from 40 to 50 ounces, and in women from 
28 to 35 ounces, thus, being the lightest of the 
organs of the body. The ratio of the weight of 
the lungs to that of the body is as 1 to 30 or 40. 
The specific gravity of the lungs is very slight, 
and, unless the air has been expelled from the 
cavities of the bronchial tubes and of the 
alveoli, any part of the lungs dipped into water 
will rise and float. - 

As respiratory organs the lungs bear a cer- 
tain average relation to the physical proportions 
and condition of the individual. The average 
amount of air in the case of an individual five 
feet eight inches in height that goes in and out 
of the lungs at each inspiration and expiration 
is about 20 cubic inches; this is called the tidal 
air. This is only about one-seventh of the total 
capacity of the lungs, and as the ordinary adult 
takes about 18 breaths a minute, the air of the 
lungs would be renewed only about twice a 
minute if it were not for the diffusion of gases. 
By means of forced inspiratory movements the 
ingoing tide may be increased by 120 cubic 
inches; by means of a forced expiration the 
outgoing tidal air may be increased by 90 cubic 
inches. After the most forced expiration pos- 
sible there. always remain within the lungs 
about 90 to 100 cubic inches of air. So that if 
a person takes as deep a breath as possible, and 
then makes as forced an expiration as he can, 
he will drive out 120+20+90=230 cubic inches 
of air.. This is termed the respiratory capacity. 
Since the tidal air is only 20 cubic inches, and 
180 cubic inches remain in the chest after an 
ordinary expiration, it follows that the air di- 
rectly changed during the respiration is not that 
really within the lungs themselves, but is that 
within the nose, windpipe and larger bronchi, 
the pipes that result from the branching of the 
windpipe. Therefore the changes of the air 
within the essential parts of the lungs are the 
result of diffusion between it and the purer air 
of the bronchi, aided by the rush with which 
the tidal air flows in. The total amount of air 
inhaled daily by an average person at rest is 
estimated to be nearly 700,000 cubic inches, 
while if he is working the amount is of course 
much larger. This is a basis for the planning 
of the size and ventilation of schoolrooms and 
other public: places. 

The ordinary respiratory movements differ 
in the two sexes and at different periods of life. 


In young children the chest is altered in size . 


chiefly by the movements of the diaphragm, and 
the protrusion of the abdominal wall during 
inspiration is therefore very marked. In men 
also it is the diaphragm which is chiefly opera- 
tive, but the ribs are also moved. In women it 
is the movement of the ribs, especially the 


LUNGS, DISEASES OF 


upper ones, which is the most extensive. The 
respiratory rhythm is the relation of the acts of 
inspiration and expiration to each other as 
regards time. See ANATOMY; BREATHING AND 
HEALTH ; CIRCULATION; Lunes, DISEASES OF; 
RESPIRATION, 

SmitH Ey Jevrirre, M.D. 


LUNGS, Diseases of. The disorders to 
to which the lungs of man are subject form a 
long list of maladies, involving numerous com- 
plications. Of these the more important will 
be considered here. 

Congestion of the Lungs.—Pulmonary con- 
gestion (hyperemia) may be active or passive. 
In the majority of cases active congestion is a 
symptom or a condition associated with bron- 
chitis, pleurisy, pneumonia or tuberculosis, It 
may also be caused by the inhalation of irri- 
tating vapors. In rather rare instances it may 
result from violent exertion, or from, drunken- 
ness and exposure to great cold or heat, fol- 
lowed by cedema, possibly by death. As symp- 
toms this primary congestion presents an initial 
chill, a cough, rapid breathing, frothy, blood- 
tinged expectoration, harsh respiration with fine 
moist rales, and absence of fever unless there is 
coexisting inflammation. The disease may last 
only a few days and is almost impossible to 
distinguish from an abortive pneumonia. Pas- 
sive hyperemia may be mechanical or hypo- 
static. Mechanical congestion is due to the pres- 
ence of some obstruction to the return of the 
blood to the left side of the heart, such as 
emphysema or affections of the left ventricle, 
especially mitral narrowing or incompetency. 
Rarely it arises from pressure by tumors. The 
symptoms are cough, shortness of breath, blood- 
stained, frothy expectoration and possibly Spit- 
ting of blood (hemoptysis). Cases where there 
are intense dyspepsia, orthopneea, coughing and 
cyanosis are known as cardiac asthma. Hypo- 
static congestion (settling of blood to the low.. 
est parts.of the lungs) occurs in conditions of 
great debility attended by feebleness of the 
heart, and is favored by prolonged lying upon 
the back. There is, however, an uncomplicated 
passive congestion ‘which is ‘hard to recognize 
as it produces no physical signs. It is, how- 
ever, most common in long-continued typhoid 
fever, paralysis, prolonged unconsciousness, 
abdominal dropsy or tumors, and wasting dis- 
eases, especially tuberculosis and cancer. The 
physical signs are slight dullness over the bases 
of the lungs posteriorly, with weak or harsh 
and perhaps broncho-vesicular respiration, and 

moist rales. 

CEdema of the Lungs.— This condition — 
an effusion of watery fluid (serum) from the 


capillaries into the air-cells and their walls — 


is almost invariably a sequel of congestion or 
inflammation of the lungs and is so frequently a 
concomitant of congestion that it is hard to tell 
them apart. It may be local, surrounding a cir- 
cumscribed and usually inflammatory lesion; 
or general, due to causes in all respects similar 
to those which produce congestion, Pulmonary 
oedema occurs most commonly in connection 
with pneumonia, cancer, grave anemias, Bright’s 
disease, acute specific fevers with weak heart, 
valvular disease of the heart and apoplexy. 
The cedema may occur suddenly, especially in 
Bright’s disease, for the reason that toxic mat- 
ter which should have been excreted by the 


LUNGS, DISEASES OF 


kidneys is thrown back upon the lungs which 
thus have to do a double duty. Usually its on- 
set is gradual. The symptoms are increasing 
shortness of breath (dyspncea), blueness (cya- 
nosis) of fingers, lips and skin, cough and 
abundant watery, frothy, perhaps blood- 
stained, expectoration, without fever except 
from a causative inflammatory or febrile dis- 
ease. The physical signs are slight dullness 
over the bases, and weak, perhaps broncho- 
vesicular, breath-sounds, with many unusually 
liquid large and small rales. 

Embolism of the Lungs.— Foreign bodies 
(emboli) carried by the blood and lodging in 
the smaller arteries or capillaries of the lungs 
usually consist of disintegrated blood-clots 
(thrombi) ; less commonly of vegetations from 
diseased heart-valves, or masses of pathogenic 
germs. As a result of the cutting-off of the 
blood-supply to the lungs, circumscribed dark- 
red wedge-shaped areas of necrosis (hemor- 
rhagic infarctions) occur, this is practically 
equivalent to saying that certain portions of the 
lungs are already dead. Emboli may be non- 
septic (not containing disease-germs), originat- 
ing most commonly from chronic disease of 
the heart where the growths from the dis- 
eased heart break loose from it and are finally 
lodged in the lungs; or septic, arising from 
a gangrenous or suppurating focus in some 
part of the body. A non-septic infarct may 
in time be replaced by scar-tissue; if sep- 
tic, abscess of gangrene of the lung may re- 
sult. If the embolus is so large as to obstruct 
a main branch of the pulmonary artery, sudden 
death may take place. A complete stopping-up 
of a large blood-vessel always causes death, In 
occlusion of medium-sized branches there will 
be cough, spitting of blood, intense breathless- 
ness, fainting, perhaps coma and convulsions. 
When the smallest branches are involved there 
may be slight cough, hemoptysis and dyspneea. 
The spitting of dark frothy blood during the 
course of chronic disease of the heart is par- 
ticularly suggestive. If the infarction is very 
large the physical signs of a limited consolida- 
tion are present, followed, if the embolus is 
septic, by the evidences of pulmonary abscess 
Or gangrene. 


Pneumonia.— Two main varieties are rec- 


ognized, lobar pneumonia and broncho-pneu- | 


monia. 
Lobar Pneumonia.— This disease (called 
variously croupous pneumonia, pneumonitis, 
lung fever, inflammation of the lungs) is 
caused directly in the large majority of cases 


by the pneumococcus or Diplococcus pneu- 


mome@e (or lanceolatus) of Fraenkel. Expo- 
sure to cold and wet, alcoholism and debility 
from pre-existing disease predispose, but it is 
an important fact that half or three-quarters of 
all normal people’s mouths or throats contain 
the germ all the time. One attack renders a 
second more likely. Three stages are recog- 
nized in the pathological anatomy — congestion, 
red hepatization and gray hepatization. In. the 


first stage the lung is deep-red, rather firm,” 


does not collapse and the cut surface exudes a 
frothy, blood-stained, watery fluid. In the sec- 
ond stage the affected portion is dark-red, firm 
and sinks in water. It tears easily, the torn 
surface is granular and dry and the air-cells 
(alveoli) are filled with coagulated fibrin con- 
taining many red and some white blood-cells. 


743 


In the third stage the color becomes a mottled 
gray and the cut surfaces are moist. The exu- 
date in the alveoli undergoes softening and 
liquefaction and is either expectorated or car- 
ried away by the lymphatics. 

The symptoms of a typical case begin 
abruptly with a severe shaking chill and a 
sharp stabbing pain in the side, followed by a 
quick rise of temperature to 105° F. or above. 
The breathing is rapid because the patient feels 
that deep breathing will excite the cough, vary- 
ing from 40 to 60 or over, with an expiratory 
grunt and a dry, restrained and painful cough. — 
The cough is generally present though not al- 
ways and is one of the most painful symptoms, 
because it prevents sleep and accelerates ex- 
haustion. The face is flushed, there is often a 
circumscribed redness on the cheek of the af- 
fected side and the nostrils dilate with each in- 
spiration. A thick, tenacious, rusty or blood- 
stained expectoration appears. The pulse is 
rapid (100 to 120) and bounding. The tongue 
is coated, the bowels constipated, the urine 
scanty, high-colored, often slightly albuminous 
and as a rule strikingly deficient in chlorides.) 
The lips are often bluish and present herpetic 
eruptions (cold-sores). Delirium is frequently 
manifest. In the majority of cases there is an 
increased number of white cells in the blood 
(leucocytosis), the count ranging from 12,000 
to 50,000. The fever, having risen to its high- 
est point (as a rule within 24 hours), remains 
high, with remissions, for from 5 to 10 days, 
when typically it falls (by crisis) within a 
few hours (5 to 12) to or below the normal. 

Death may take place at any time during 
the disease. It is a very fatal malady in 
drunkards and in persons of 60 years or over 
(60 to 80 per cent); so also in infants under 
one year. Otherwise the younger the patient 
the better the outlook for recovery. The most 
common cause of a fatal result is the toxemia 
(blood-poisoning) due to the products formed 
by the causative germ, and to the heart-weak- 
ness arising therefrom. Meningitis as a com- 
plication is always fatal. Unfavorable symp- 
toms are the supervention of the “typhoid 
status,” very..high, fever, (105°. F.. or. over), 
marked cyanosis, severe dyspnea, rapid exten- 
sion of the disease to other lobes or to the 
opposite lung and increasing weakness of the 
heart with pulmonary cedema. 

In some instances of recovery the consolida- 
{ion may persist for from 8 to 10 weeks (de- 
layed resolution), during which there is fever 
of a remittent type. In rare cases lobar pneu- 
monia may terminate in abscess, gangrene or 
chronic fibrosis. Recurrences are frequent; 
third or fourth attacks are common and 8 to 
10 have been reported. Relapses are rare. 

Like other infections due to specific micro- 
organisms, lobar pneumonia may present strik- 
ing variations both in symptoms and character. 
Thus the fever may be slight or entirely absent 
in old persons and chronic alcoholics. The 
crisis may be as early as the third day. The 
fever may terminate by a gradual fall instead of 
by a sudden fall, especially in children. There 
may be a false crisis two or three days pre- 
vious to the final fall. The sputum may be 
of a red, rusty, yellow or dark-brown (“prune- 
juice”) color. Very seldom there is spitting of 
blood early in the disease. Pain is absent in 
deep-seated pneumonias when the pleura is not 


“ 


744 


involved. In children the pain is usually re- 
ferred to the abdomen; and abdominal pain, 
often severe, and generally due to involvement 
of the diaphragmatic pleura, is not uncommon 
in adults. An excessive amount of gas in in- 
testines is by no means rare. The pulse may 
be small and rapid, or full but soft and fol- 
lowed by serious weakness of the heart. A per- 
sistent absence of leucocytosis is, except in mild 
cases, a symptom of bad omen. Convulsions 
often initiate the disease in children, and in 
them the symptoms may closely resemble those 
of meningitis. Deafness not depending upon 
inflammation of the middle ear is not infre- 
quent. The delirium of lobar pneumonia, es- 
pecially in drunkards, may be active or mania- 
cal. 

The variations in the character of the dis- 
ease depend partly upon the site and extent of 
the local lesions, but matnly upon differences in 
the resisting power of the patient and the viru- 
lence of the pneumococcus. Among the atyp- 
ical cases are those occurring in old persons. 
In them the disease is often latent, there is no 
chill and but slight cough or expectoration. 
The general prostration is marked, while the 
physical signs are indefinite or obscure. In in- 
fants and young children the disease frequently 
begins at the apex (top) of the lungs, the tem- 
perature is high and convulsions, delirium, stu- 
bop and coma are often prominent symptoms. 
Not infrequently vomiting and diarrhcea are so 
severe and persistent that the pneumonia may 
be overlooked. Typhoid pneumonia is charac- 
terized by muttering delirium, dry brown 
tongue, teeth covered with sordes, twitching of 
the tendons (subsultus tendinum), and perhaps 
picking at the bed-clothes or grasping at im- 
agined objects in the air (carphologia)— symp- 
toms resembling those which may appear in a 
severe attack of typhoid fever. In drunkards 
the disease may begin gradually, the fever may 
not be high, the delirium is commonly of the 
violent type and the typhoid status often de- 
velops, ending in death by exhaustion. The lo- 
calization of pneumonia 1s variable. Most fre- 
quently the right lower lobe is attacked, and in 
double pneumonia both lower lobes are usually 
involved. When the consolidation steadily ad- 
vances from lobe to lobe it is called wandering 
or migratory penumonia. Cases presenting de- 
layed physical signs are very perplexing unless 
rusty sputum is present. The evidences of con- 
solidation may not appear until the fifth or even 
the eighth day of the disease, a fact doubtless 
to be explained by the consolidation beginning 
in the centre of the lung and extending slowly 
to the surface. 

Among the complications of lobar pneumo- 
nia, the most frequent is pleurisy, either serous 
or purulent (empyema). The ordinary dry 
pleurisy which covers the consolidated area, 
and which is responsible for the stabbing pain 
i pneumonia, cannot be considered a compli- 
cation. When the pleurisy, however, is so se- 
vere and extensive that it rivals or surpasses 
the pneumonia element it constitutes pleuro- 
pneumonia. When a pleurisy follows pneumo- 
nia an irregular, perhaps slight, rise of tem- 
perature persists, the physical signs of fluid 
in the pleura become manifest and leucocytosis 
continues. Endocarditis, usually affecting the 
left side of the heart, is the next most frequent 
complication, and it may be of the ulcerative 


LUNGS, DISEASES OF 


type. From 15 to 25 per cent of cases of the 
malignant form of the disease originate from 
pneumococcic infection. Symptoms are uncer- 
tain and sometimes absent. .A prolonged irregu- 
lar fever, with chills and sweating, is suspi- 
cious ; if evidences of embolism occur and men- 
ingitis is present, together with the develop- 
ment of a loud diastolic murmur not previously 
found, the diagnosis of ulcerative endocarditis is 
assured. Pericarditis, usually fibrinous or ser- 
ous, rarely purulent, occurs particularly in the 
double or left-side pneumonia of childhood... It 
is often latent or overlooked, Increased dysp- 
ncea, weak pulse and precordial pain may de- 
clare its presence. Meningitis, a very serious 
and fatal complication, is fortunately rare, and 
when occurring often coexists with malignant 
endocarditis. Marked cervical retraction, in- 
tense headache, delirium and coma indicate a 
basilar inflammation. Meningitis of the con- 
vexity is usually not recognized. Jaundice orig- 
inating in the poisoning of the blood by the 
pnuemonia germ is very common in some epi- 
demics of pneumonia. Middle-ear catarrh is 
not infrequent in children, parotitis is of occa- 
sional occurrence, so also are colitis and ven- 
ous thrombosis. Pneumonia and malarial fever 
may either precede or occur during an attack of 
pneumonia. Redness, swelling and pain in one 
or more joints may become manifest during or 
after the crisis of a pneumonia and the inflam- 
mation proceed to suppuration. The pneumo- 
coccus is found in the diseased joints (pneu- 
mococcic arthritis). 

The diagnosis of lobar pneumonia is as a 
rule readily made, most cases presenting dis- 
tinctive and unmistakable symptoms. The dis- 
ease may be overlooked in the very old or the 
very young, or in those already seriously ill. 
Hypostatic congestion can usually be distin- 
guished from pneumonia by the absence of 
rusty sputum, or of fever, and is commonly 
bilateral. In pulmonary cedema, cardiac dis- 
ease or nephritis usually coexist, and although 
dyspnea, cough and expectoration are present, 
there is no fever, the breath sounds are weak, 
there are numerous fine and coarse liquid rales 
on both sides of the chest and marked dullness 
and bronchial respiration are absent. In edema 
the sputum is fluid, frothy and not rusty. 
Acute bronchitis in children may simulate pneu- 
monia, but there is no chill, convulsions, dullness 
or bronchial breathing, the fever is not so high 
as in pneumonia and there are dry and moist 
rales over both sides of the chest. Broncho- 
pneumonia generally follows a bronchitis or an 
acute infection like measles. The fever is ir- 
regular, lasts for weeks and does not terminate 
by crisis. The sputum is streaked with blood 
rather than rusty. They physical signs con- 
sist mainly of dry and moist rales over both 
chests. If evidences of consolidation are found 
they lie in a vertical strip on both sides of the 


_ spine, while, on the other hand, in lobar pneu- 


monia they are quite as well and often better 
perceived on the sides of the chest. Pleurisy 
with effusion is very rarely mistaken for pneu- 
monia, except in children. In pleurisy there is 
seldom a chill, the fever is not so high and de- 
clines gradually, the cough is dry and there is 
no rusty sputum. . The affected side is dis- 
tended, vocal fremitus is absent, the line of 
dullness may shift as the patient ts moved, the 
voice-sounds are absent or diminished, or there 


LUNGS, DISEASES OF ; 745 


is egophony (a quavering quality of sound), 
and the respiratory murmur is absent or de- 
creased. Bronchial breathing, if heard, is dis- 
tant. The apex-beat may be displaced. Fi- 
nally puncture affords proof positive of the pres- 
ence of fluid. Acute pneumonic phthisis may 
exactly resemble lobar pneumonia until the 8th 
or 10th day, when the fever continues with pro- 
fuse sweats and the signs of softening (gurgling 
rales, amphoric or cavernous breathing) gradu- 
ally appear. The sputum becomes green and tu- 
bercle bacilli and elastic fibres are discovered in 
it. It may be impossible to distinguish between 
pneumonia presenting the typhoid status and 
typhoid fever complicated by pneumonia unless 
the case is seen from the outset, or rose-spots 
appear and a positive Widal reaction is present. 
™ The treatment of lobar pneumonia involves 
careful attention to the details of nursing. The 
room should be especially well ventilated in 
order that the air of the chamber should con- 
tain the maximum natural pércentage of oxy- 
gen. The freshest cold air that can be secured 
will aid the injured lung in doing its work as 
perfectly as possible. The patient is best kept 
cn a roof or balcony except when it is neces- 
sary to expose some part of the body. Too 
much bed-clothing and the swathing of the 
trunk in cotton, both-too often seen, tend to 
keep the fever higher than it would otherwise 
be, and add to the discomfort of the patient. 
If it is not possible to keep the patient in the 
open air, it may be necessary to administer oxy- 
gen, which is sometimes given for 20 minutes 
at'a time, by means of a needle placed under 
the skin. Absolute rest in the recumbent posi- 
tion together with the use of the urinal and 
bed-pan is, with rare exceptions, to be insisted 
upon. The regular free giving of water is of 
great importance, although in some cases a 
glassful of water, where circulation is irregu- 
lar, has been found too great a load upon it. 
The diet should be that usually given in fever, 
comprising milk, clear or diluted, flavored or 
snot, perhaps peptonized, plain ice cream and 
junket: broths ot beef, mutton, chicken, oysters 
or clams; tea, coffee or weak cocoa; grape or 
orange juice, lemonade, ginger-ale and fruit- 
ices; albumin water, egg lemonade; and if nec- 
essary one of the proprietary liquid foods, It is, 
however, very important that the patient should 
not be overfed, but that he should be given a 
diet as high in protein'as he can stand. It has 
been found that milk, unless easily digested, 
may form curds which become quite dangerous. 
~The medicinal treatment depends so much on 
the character of the individual case and the in- 
tensity of the. special symptoms that it is not 
practicable to describe it here in detail. There 
is aS yet no specific ——a remedy which cures or 
tends to cure a particular disease — for lobar 
pneumonia. While; some physicians have ex- 
perimented with a serum in the treatment, of 
this disease, it cannot yet be said that alto- 
gether satisfactory results have been obtained, 
possibly because of the fact that the pneumo- 
coccus contains no true toxin, as does the bacil- 
lus of, for example, diphtheria. Sodium sali- 
cylate and carbonate of creosote, the latter es- 
pecially, have given apparent good results. One 
or two initial doses of quinine, say seven or 
eight grains of the sulphate, are highly recom- 
mended. An initial dose of calomel does good 


ie 


4 


we 


service. Side-pain is to be relieved, preferably 
by mustard poultices, or the ice-bag; if nec- 
essary by the smallest efficient doses of mor- 
phine or Dover’s powder. The use of oxygen 
is desirable except in the milder cases. Deli- 
rium and restlessness may need the use of tri- 
onal, veronal, bromides, chloral, camphor, hyo- 
scine hydrobromate or morphine. For very 
high fever frictions with cold water are desir- 
able. The cold tub may or may not be advis- 
able, but its use is as a rule not to be com- 
mended. For weakness of the heart — the main 
channel through which life runs away in this 
disease — strychnine, caffeine, ammonia and 
wine or spirits are most useful. In addition 
may be required digitalis, nitroglycerine, spar- 
teine, strophanthus, camphor and musk. Treat- 
ment and prophylaxis by vaccination have also 
been tried, but with unsatisfactory results. 

Broncho-pneumona.— This (called also 
capillary bronchitis, lobular pneumonia, catar- 
rhal pneumonia) is arf inflammation of the ter- 
minal bronchi. and their communicating air- 
cells, due to the presence of two or more varie- 
ties of micro-organisms. Those most com- 
monly found are the Pneumococcus lanceola- 
ius, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus 
aureus et albus, and the germs of diphtheria 
and influenza (la grippe). It is noteworthy 
that the high mortality of the epidemic of Span- 
ish influenza in the winter of 1918-19 was due 
largely to the secondary pneumonia which su-_ 
pervened in most of the cases. The disease 
may come suddenly during good health, or may 
be secondary to some pre-existent disease. It 
attacks especially the very young (under five), 
the very old or the debilitated of any age. It 
is most common among those who live in un- 
sanitary surroundings. The primary cases are 
usually due to cold and exposure. The second- 
ary cases follow acute bronchitis, measles, 
whooping-cough, diphtheria, scarlet fever, ery-) 
sipelas and small-pox. They may succeed the 
inhalation of food or drink while the patient 
is unconscious; or operations on the mouth or 
nose; or any accident or disease which permits 
germ-containing particles _ to enter the bron- 
chial tubes. 

The pathology of the disease involves the 
presence of small areas of consolidation around 
the bronchioles and small patches of collapsed 
lung (which can. be inflated) due to occlusion 
of the bronchi. The terminal bronchioles and 
the air-cells are filled with an exudate com- 
posed of leucocytes and degenerating epithe- 
lium. The bronchial walls also contain num- 
bers of leucocytes. In the majority of instances 
both lungs are involved. 

The symptoms, if the disease is primary, be- 
gin abruptly with a chill and a rapid rise of 
temperature, thus resembling lobar pneumonia. 
A low temperature, that is, not above 100° is 
an indication of low vitality in the patient. Of 
such patients about 75 per cent die. The best 
temperature indication is one which rises grad- 
ually to 103° or 104° and as gradually subsides, 
If on the other hand there are sharp rises and 
falls, pus is indicated and the prognosis is less 
favorable. If there is a pre-existing bronchi- 
tis of the larger tubes the onset is less abrupt 
and there is rarely a distinct chill. The char- 
acteristic symptoms are cough, dyspneea, rapid 
respiration (40 to 80) with an expiratory moan, 


746 


rapid pulse and perhaps cyanosis. A fatal re- 
sult is to be expected if the cyanosis continues 
for more than a day or so. As the disease af- 


fects both lungs, the physical signs are bilat- | 


eral. There are numerous sibilant and sonor- 
ous rales, at first and perhaps all through the 
disease, without evidences of consolidation. If 
areas of consolidation sufficiently numerous 
and confluent exist, there will be slight or even 
decided dullness, broncho-vesicular or bron- 
chial respiration, and increased vocal fremitus 
and bronchophony. These signs are commonly 
found at the bases posteriorly and on either side 
of the spine. 

The type of the disease varies. In certain 
cases (suffocative catarrh) the dyspnoea and cy- 
anosis steadily increase, the cough lessens, the 
respirations become rapid and shallow, and the 
rales larger and moister. The patient is 
drowsy but restless, and death ensues from 
weakness and overdistention of the right ven- 
tricle. The fever in some instances, especially 
in children, may be of a remittent type and 
lead. to a mistaken diagnosis of malaria. The 
primary form in infants and young children 
sets in abruptly with chill and high fever and 
bears a close resemblance to lobar pneumonia; 
in adults it may begin like a severe acute bron- 
chitis, but the fever, cough and dyspncea are 
more marked than in a bronchitis and the spu- 
tum is tenacious and rusty. The secondary 
form begins as a bronchitis, often of slow de- 
velopment, with increase in the fever of the 
primary disease (for example, measles), cough, 
dyspncea and rapid breathing. 

The duration is variable. Cases of great 
severity, especially in children, may prove fatal 
in from three to six days; the common type 
ending in recovery endures from one to three 
weeks; exceptionally the disease may be pro- 
tracted to six or eight weeks, rarely even to 10 
or 12 weeks. Death may occur at any time. 
The fever gradually declines. 

In the diagnosis of the disease the cardinal 
symptoms are fever, cough, dyspneea, rapid res- 
piration and bilateral physical signs. Its differ- 
ential diagnosis from lobar pneumonia has been 
stated in the description of the latter disease. 
From the broncho-pneumonic form of pulmo- 
nary tuberculosis the distinction may be ex- 
tremely difficult. A tuberculosis family history, 
progressive emanciation, the finding of tubercle 
bacilli in the sputum and the occurrence of the 
signs of softening, will declare for tuberculosis. 

With regard to the prognosis, it is to be 
remembered that broncha-pneumonia is always 
a grave disease. The primary cases usually re- 
cover; the fatality is greatest in the secondary 
forms. In children among the well-to-do the 
mortality varies from 10 to 30 per cent; in hos- 
pitals and among the very poor, from 30 to 70 
per cent. Inhalation’ broncho-pneumonia is 
usually fatal because of its frequent termina- 
tion in abscess or gangrene. 

Concerning treatment, the utmost importance 
should be attached to prophylaxis, for instance, 
the prevention of the spread of an ordinary 
bronchitis of the larger tubes to the terminal 
bronchi, especially in children. Perhaps the 
most important measure of prevention is to 
keep the patient in an even temperature of 68° 
to 70° F. during the day and about 10 degrees 
colder at night and to avoid all depressing 
agencies, as overfatigue, improper food, etc. 


LUNGS, DISEASES OF 


The disease, having declared itself, requires in 
the main the same management as a lobar pneu-) 
monia. Opiates, however, should rarely be em— 
ployed. Local counter-irritation of the chest, 
poultices, wet compresses and_ frictions with 
stimulating liniments constitute a much more 
important element of the treatment than in lo- 
bar pneumonia; so also perhaps do the so- 
called expectorants, such as the ammonium 
preparations. If the child is unable to expel 
accumulated mucus the use of an emetic (ipe- 
cac, alum) may be desirable. 

Pneumonoconiosis.— This is a chronic 
pneumonia due to the inhalation of dusts inci- 
dent to various employments, and giving rise to 
anthracosis, or coal-miner’s disease; chalicosis, 
stone-cutter’s phthisis, or grinder’s rot; -sidero- 
sis, caused by the inhalation of: metallic par- 
ticles by metal-workers; and there is a fourth 
form of dust associated with disease, viz., the 
organic dust caused in flour milling, in the 
manufacture of tobacco and of various textiles. 
There is much evidence of late, however, that 
the particles of dust never reach the lungs, and 
that the dust diseases of the lungs are caused 
by pathogenic germs which are swallowed. The 
symptoms and signs are those of chronic bron- 
chitis with emphysema and fibroid changes. In 
the later stages the lungs may become tuber- 
culous. The prognosis is favorable in the aris 
stages upon quitting the obnoxious work; 
advanced cases grave, although the disease = 
essentially chronic. -Dust diseases are best con- 
trolled by prophylactic measures, among which 
appropriate legislation is of the utmost im- 
portance. 

Atelectasis.— Collapse of the lungs — par- 
tial or entire disappearance of air from the air- 
cells — may be congenital, occurring in the new- 
born as a result of weakness or some form of 
obstruction in the air passages. The acquired 
variety is due variously to obstruction of the 
smaller bronchi by mucus; to compression of 
the lung by large effusions or tumors in the 
chest; to respiratory paralysis; or to great ab- 
dominal distention. It is sometimes a result of 
whooping cough. 

Emphysema.— The lungs in this disease 
contain an abnormal amount of air. The com- 
mon form—hypertrophic emphysema — is 
characterized pathologically by distention of 
the air-cells and thinning of their walls. The 
lungs are large, pale and do not collapse, Many 
of the pulmonary capillaries are obliterated, 
thereby causing obstruction in the pulmonary 
circulation with compensatory hypertrophy of 
the right ventricle. 

The predisposing cause is a congenital weak- 
ness of the lung structure; the exciting cause is 
increased intrapulmonary tension due variously 
to chronic or severe cough, heavy lifting, glass- 
blowing or using wind-instruments. 

The symptoms come on insidiously, often in 
early life. These are dyspncea, perhaps only on 
exertion; cough, ultimately becoming chronic; 
frequent attacks of bronchitis or spasmodic 
asthma, and cyanosis, with subnormal temper- 
ature and cool skin. 

When the right ventricle: fails there are 
swellings of the feet and other evidences of 
general venous congestion. The physical signs 
are usually distinctive. Inspection shows the 
short broad barrel-shaped chest of emphysema, 
with its vertical movement, poor expansion and 


LUNGWORT — LUNT 


prolonged expiratory motion. 
a marked epigastric pulsation. The apex-beat 
is not seen. The percussion note is hyper- 
resonant, even slightly tympanitic. The normal 
limits of pulmonary resonance are extended in 
every direction. The characteristic ausculta- 
tory finding is that of a low-pitched, often 
wheezy, greatly prolonged expiratory sound. 
The inspiration is short and weak. Bronchitic 
rales, at times in great frequency, are often 
heard. 

The course of the disease is essentially pro- 
gressive and chronic. It is incurable, although 
the patient may live to old age. Death may 
occur from intercurrent pneumonia or phthisis, 
or from heart failure. 

The treatment is that of chronic bronchitis 
(q.v.). When practicable, the subject should 
live in a warm equable climate in order to avoid 
recurrent acute bronchitis. The bowels should 
be kept regular, and the diet carefully super- 
vised to avoid abdominal distention. Inhala- 
tions of oxygens and appropriate treatment by 
compressed and rarified air may be helpful. 
Strychnine, iron and digitalis are of much serv- 
ice when judiciously employed; so also are the 
arsenic and iodine compounds. 

Abscess of the Lung.—An acute sup- 
purative inflammation caused by pus-producing 
organisms. ‘The pus collections may be single 
or multiple. The organisms may reach the 
lung by way of the bronchi, as in an inhalation 
pneumonia, or by infective emboli (see EMBOL- 
ISM), or by direct extension, as from a puru- 
lent pleurisy. Very rarely it is a sequel of an 
ordinary broncho-pneumonia or lobar pneu- 
monia. 

The symptoms are chills, high and irregular 
fever, sweats and leucocytosis. In time the 
physical signs of cavity are manifest. ‘The 
sputum is yellow or green, of an offensive, but 
not putrid, odor, and contains particles of lung 
tissue and elastic fibres. 

The prognosis is usually hopeless. There 
are occasional recoveries in the cases following 
pneumonia (except of the inhalation type), or 
the penetration of external abscesses into the 
lung. If the abscess is single and accessible, 
operation may be successful. 

Gangrene of the Lung.—A result of in- 
fection of a necrotic portion of lung by the 
bactenia of putrefaction, conjoined with an ab- 
normal vulnerability of the tissues. Diabetes 
and long continued fevers predispose; pneu- 
monia (particularly inhalation-pneumonia), tu- 
berculous cavities, new growths, embolism and 
abscess are the most frequent antecedent con- 
ditions. 

The symptoms are irregular, generally mod- 
erate, fever, with rapid pulse, cough, dyspncea 
and prostration. The physical. signs, when 
present, are those of cavity. The characteristic 
symptom is the excessively fetid odor of the 
breath and sputum. The latter contains frag- 
ments of lung tissue, elastic tissue, blood pig- 
ment and numerous bacteria. If allowed to 
stand the sputum separates into three layers — 
the uppermost frothy, the middle watery, the 
lower with a heavy greenish-brown sediment. 

The prognosis in the majority of cases is 
bad. Small, strictly circumscribed areas may 
become encapsulated, the broken down tissue 
discharging by way of the bronchi. In accessi- 
ble cavities surgical interference may succeed. 


Usually there is 


747 


New Growths in the Lung.— The most 
common forms are carcinoma and sarcoma, 
usually bilateral and secondary to cancer else- 
where. Associated lesions are pleurisy, enlarge- 
ment of the tracheal, bronchial and cervical 
glands; perhaps also pulmonary gangrene. The 
symptoms may be latent. Ultimately cough, 
pain and dyspnoea appear. The physical signs 
are variable, depending largely upon the pres- 
ence or absence of pleural effusion. According 
to the size and location of the growth, pressure 
symptoms will be present, for example, hoarse- 
ness from pressure on the recurrent laryngeal 
nerve; or distention of the veins and swelling 
of the face, neck and arms from the pressure 
of the growth on the venous trunks in the 
chest. 

The diagnosis depends largely upon the 
presence of malignant growths elsewhere, or 
upon the history of the previous removal of 
such growths. The disease ends fatally with a 
duration varying from six weeks to two years. 
It has been found that 9 per cent of cancers, 
whether in the lung or in the pleura, may be 
operated upon, and while the successful opera- 
tions have not been many, some progress has 
been made along a path only recently traversed 
in surgery. See also CONSUMPTION; CONSUMP- 
TION, PREVENTION OF. 

GLENTWORTH REEVE Butter, M.D., 
Author of ‘Diagnostics of Internal Medicine. 


LUNGWORT. ‘The name of several 
plants supposed to have medicinal value in re- 
spect to diseases of the lungs. One is a lichen 
(Sticta pulmonacea) growing on the trunks of 
trees in moist subalpine regions. In Siberia it 
is used as a substitute for hops. Other such 
plants belong to a genus of borages (Pulmon- 
aria). The narrow-leaved lungwort is P. 
angustifolia, and the common lungwort P. 
officinalis ; the former is wild. . These are Euro- 
pean; but an American borage, the blue-blos- 
somed Virginia cow-slip (Mertensia virginica), 
is called lungwort in the Southern States and 
used by compounders of simples. A near rela- 
tive is the sea-lungwort (Mertensia maritima). 
Another lungwort is one of the hawkweeds 
(Hieraciun pulmonarium). Bullock’s or cow’s 
lungwort is the common mullein (Verbascum 
thapsus). 


LUNN, George Richard, American legis- 
lator: b. Lenox, Iowa, 23 June 1873. He was 
graduated at Bellevue College 1897 and in 1901 
at the Union Theological Seminary, in 1901 he 
was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and 
from 1901 to 1904 was associate pastor of the 
Lafayette Avenue Church, Brooklyn, from 1904 
to 1909 of the First Dutch Reformed Church of 
Schenectady, N. Y., and since 1909 of the United 
People’s Church of the same city. In 1912-14 
Mr. Lunn was mayor of Schenectady, the first 
Socialist mayor elected in New York State. He 
was re-elected for the term 1 Jan. 1916 to 
31 Dec. 1917 and in 1917-19 was Member of 
Congress from the 30th New York district. 
His administration in Schenectady was marked 
by great efficiency and by many much-needed 
reforms. As Member of Congress Mr. Lunn 
was one of the foremost and most progressive 
members of the Hous-. 


LUNN HEMP. See Firre. 


LUNT, Orrington, American merchant and 
philanthropist: b. Bowdoinham, Me., 24 Dec. 


748 


1815; d. Chicago, 6 April 1897. After working 
in his father’s store he was made partner at 
21, but removed (1842) to Chicago, where he 
carried on a general commission business, start- 
ing in the grain trade in 1844 to become wealthy 
by 1862, when he retired and traveled, to re- 
gain his lost health, through Europe and Asia 
for two years. For some years then he was 
president and treasurer of the board of water- 
works at Chicago and was elected (1855) di- 
rector of the Galena and Chicago Union Rail- 
road. He founded the Northwestern Univer- 
sity and established the Orrington Hunt Li- 
brary Fund. From the organization of the 
university he was its secretary and treasurer 
and for many years acting president of the 
executive board, being made its president in 
1895. Among the numerous other philanthropic 
works in which he became deeply and actively 
interested was the Garrett Biblical Institute, 
which he founded; the Chicago Orphan Asylum, 
the Relief and Aid Society of Chicago, etc. 


LUPERCALIA, 1li-pér-ka'li-a, an ancient 
Roman festival celebrated annually in honor of 
Lupercus, an ancient pastoral god of the Ital- 
ians, afterward identified with the Arcadian 
Pan, who protected the flocks against wolves 
and gave them fertility. The festival dates 
from the earliest period of the history of 
Rome; it was held on the Lupercal, where 
Romulus and Remus were supposed to have 
been nurtured by a she-wolf. The day of cele- 
bration was 15 February, which was originally 
the last month of the Roman year. 


LUPINE, a genus of annual and perennial 
herbs and a few shrubs’ (Lupinus) of the 
family Fabacee. The species, of which there 
are about 100, are sparsely represented in the 
Mediterranean region and in the eastern United 
States, but very numerous in the Western and 
Pacific Coast States. They have usually digitate 
leaves; pea-like showy blue, yellow or white 
flowers in terminal racemes, and flattened pods 
containing several large seeds. Several of the 
species have been long used for forage, for 
human food and for green manuring. Many 
others are grown for ornament. They thrive 
especially well upon light, dry soils deficient in 
lime, and are said to fail upon wet and limy 
soils. They are readily propagated by means of 
seed, or the perennials by -division, but these 
cannot be satisfactorily transplanted when once 
established. The most important species .are 
the blue lupine (L. hirsutus), the white lupine 
(L. albus) and the yellow lupine (L.. luteus), 
all of Old World origin. The plants are rich 
in nitrogenous. matter and are thus especially 
useful for stock-food as well as green manure. 
Like clover, peas and beans they can obtain 
free nitrogen from the air by means of their 
root tubercles. The ripe seeds are rich in 
proteid substances and but for their bitter prin- 
ciple would probably be more popular as human 
food than they are even"in Europe, where their 
consumption is enormous. The bitterness may 
be removed by long soaking in water. In 
America, though gaining in popularity as soil 
improvers and forage crops, the plants are sel- 
dom grown except for ornament. 


LUPOT, 1t’pd, Nicolas, most famous of 
French violin makers: b. Stuttgart, 1758; d. 
Paris, 1824. He was one of the third genera- 
tion of a family of well-known violin makers 
and has been called the “French Stradivarius.» 


LUPERCALIA — LURAY 


He produced fine instruments quite early in his 
career, as those made by him at Orléans (Rue 
d’Illiers) before his 20th year are considered 
bargains now in'Paris at 500 francs. He moved 
to Paris in 1794, setting up shop (1798-1803) 
at Rue de Grammont, next removing to Rue 
Croix des Petits Champs, at which place he 
produced the famous Italian copies. He favored 
the Stradivarius form for his copies, but made 
some instruments on Guarnerius lines. His au- 
tograph was placed on many of his creations 
or copies. One of his tours-de-force was the 
making of several quintets of two violins, 
two tenors and a bass, aiming at giving them 
true unity of tone and appearance. They are 
highly prized and priced by connoisseurs. 
From 1,000 to 1,200 francs is considered a low 
price for any of his instruments dated between 
1805 and 1824, ’cellos fetching as high as 2,000 
francs. Experts claim his weakest point to’ have 
been his varnish, which is usually thick, semi- 
opaque and lumpy. 


LUPUS, a generic term used to describe 
several varieties of chronic localized infiltrations 
of the skin. The most common of these are 
Lupus erythematosus and Lupus vulgaris. The 
former occurs in slightly elevated, scaly, red 
patches, varying in size, which show a strong 
tendency to the production of atrophic scars. 
It is most common on the face, ears and scalp, 
more rarely occurring on the hands and feet. 
It begins in several isolated or grouped red 
spots little larger than a pin-head and having a 
thin scale. These spots increase in size by 
peripheral extension, while the surface is partly 
covered by the grayish scales or thin scar tis- 
sue. The color is characteristic and is viola- 
ceous. They may remain small, or may grow 
large enough to cover the side of the face. 
Practically nothing is known of the etiology. 
The comparatively small patches have little 
effect on health, but the disseminated variety 
may cause death. 

Lupus vulgaris is a chronic disease of the 
skin, due to its invasion by the tubercle-bacillus ; 
characterized by one or more brownish- red 
lumps or patches that tend to- absorption, ulcer- 
ation and scar formation. The disease usually 
begins in childhood, the most frequent site be- 
ing the face, particularly the cheek and nose. 
There may be one or more such spots, but they 
show no tendency to symmetrical development. 
After a time slightly scaly patches will form by 
the coalescence of the tiny red spots. Some- 
times the disease has a slow course, for years 
remaining quiescent; in other cases it suddenly 
takes on a rapid growth. The erythematous 
form is treated by superficial caustics. Lupus 
vulgaris being a tubercular disease, hygiene is 
of great importance, and the X-rays and other 
powerful rays seem to exert a curative in- 
fluence on the growths. 

LURAY, 1li-ra’, Va., town, county-seat of 
Page County, on the Norfolk and “Western 
Railroad, about 100 miles north by west of 
Richmond and the same distance west by south 
of Washington. . It is situated in a beautiful 
valley almost surrounded by mountains; nearby 
are a number of mineral springs and the cele- 
brated Luray Cave (q.v.). A spring which 
flows through the town furnishes water power. 
It manufactures flour, lumber, wagons, car- 
riages and some agricultural implements. It 
has flour mills and a large tannery, also can- 


LURAY CAVE— LUSIADS 


neries and woodworking plants. The Luray 
College for Young Ladies is located here. The 
waterworks are the property of the municipality. 
Pop. 1,381 


LURAY CAVE, in Page County, Va., is 
near the town of Luray, and on the Norfolk 
and Western Raitroad. This cave was discov- 
ered by Andrew J. Campbell and companions in 
August 1878. It is in the limestone belt of the 
Shenandoah Valley, on the western side of the 
Blue Ridge, and extends under the low spurs 
of some of the mountains. The area explored 
underlies about 100 acres. Electric lights have 
been installed, and they enable one to see the 
numerous stalactites, the tiers of galleries, 
nearly 300 feet in height, the various rooms or 
cavities, the colors from white to yellow, brown 
and red, and the marks which indicate the 
action of water for.ages. Many of the columns 
are over 50 feet in height and are hollow; when 
struck they give out bell-like notes. Many peo- 
ple visit this cave each. year. 


LURGAN, litr’gan, Ireland, town in the 
county of Armagh, 15 miles by rail to Armagh. 
It has a handsome parish church, Roman Catho- 
lic chapel, college, courthouse, bridewell, work- 
house, three banks, etc. Here are located great 
manufactures of linen cambrics, muslins, 
damasks, lawns, etc., and its weekly market has 
an important trade in agricultural products. 
Pop. about 12,553. 


LURIA, ioe ré-a, Isaac Ben Solomon, 
Jewish mystic: Jerusalem, 1534; d. Safed, 
1572. He was Poiaa “Ashkenazi” (the Ger- 
man) on account of his descent. He received a 
thorough education and in 1559 became a spice 
merchant in Cairo, trading under the name of 
Isaac Luria. He contracted an early marriage 
the while continuing his studies. After two 
years of married life he went into seclusion to 
study the ‘Zohar, the Kabbalistic Bible. 
Luria claimed to have received visits from 
Elijah during his meditations, in the course of 
which he built up a mystic system of great 
beauty. In 1566 he went to Safed where he 
became the centre of a group of disciples of 
his mystic cult and where he was held in great 
esteem by the populace, being commonly re- 
puted a miracle worker. Luria wrote nothing 
but Hayyim Vital collected much oral material 
from his disciples from which he produced sev- 
eral works including the famous ‘Ez Hayyim’ 
(6 vols., 1784). See JEws AND JUDAISM — THE 
CABALA. 


LURTON, Horace Harmon, American 
jurist: b. Newport, Ky., 26 Feb. 1844; d. 12 
July 1914. He entered (1859) Douglas Uni- 
versity, Chicago, but on the outbreak of the 
Civil War enlisted in a Tennessee regiment. 
Ill health caused his discharge (1862) when he 
had been serving as sergeant-major. Later he 
took part in the battle of Fort Donelson where 
he was taken prisoner but escaped and served 
during the “Morgan raid” to be again captured 
in Ohio, remaining a prisoner till the end of 
the war. He next studied law at Cumberland 
University, Lebanon, Tenn., where he was grad- 
uated in 1867. Practising law at Clarksville 
under different auspices and partners he became 
(1875) chancellor of the sixth chancery . divi- 
sion of Tennessee. In 1886 he was elected 
justice of the Supreme Court of Tennessee and, 
in 1893, was made chief justice, Two months 


749 


later President Cleveland appointed him circuit 
judge of the sixth United States Judicial Cir- 
cuit. In these later offices he had shown re- 
markable juridical talent, acting on the lines 
of human justice backed by courage. In 1898 
he accepted from Vanderbilt University the 
chair of professor of constitutional law, re- 
taining it till 1910, when President Taft ap- 
pointed him associate justice of the Supreme 
Court. 


LUSHAIS, loo-shiz, a people native to 
the eastern border of Bengal, in Assam and 
Upper Burma, living in the little explored, 
wooded hills. They are divided into several 
clans under chieftains and have an organized 
military system. Those who have become more 
or less subjected to English rule are often called 
Kuki (“hill-men”). The men are tall, strong 
and well-built; the women, aided by wooden 
or ivory discs, draw their upper lips to won- 
derful size. All work is done by the women 
but they are held in some respect. These na- 
tives are brave hunters, herd cattle, sheep and 
swine and make cotton textiles, weave baskets, 
etc. They were continually making looting 
raids on British settlements but were subjected 
to influence at last in 1872. Their religion 
appears to extend to devotional exercises in 
time of trouble, to immediately fall into disuse 
when prospering. They are nature worship- 
pers. Consult Lewin, ‘Wild Races of South 
Eastern India». (London 1870); Soppit, C. A., 
‘Short Account of the Kuki Lushai Tribes on 
the Northeast Frontier? (1887). 


LUSIADS, The. ‘The Lusiads) (Os 
Lusiadas”?) by Camoens (Luis de CamGes, 1524 
or 1525-1580), published in 1572, is the great 
Portuguese national epic and is by far the out- 
standing masterpiece of Portuguese literature, 
as also one of the great epics of the modern 
world. More than possibly any other epic it 
may be called national in that the poet’s at- 
tempt is to picture the great glory of his 
people, the pleasantness and beauty of his na- 
tive land and the generous deeds of her princes 
on land and sea. It is an epic in 10. cantos 
containing altogether 1,102 eight-line stanzas of 
the same verse form as Ariosto’s ‘Orlando 
Furioso.». Even more striking than the Italian 
model is the influence of Virgil in the celestial 
machinery of the poem and the frequent refer- 
ence to classical mythology. The poem is, how- 
ever, by no means imitative; for the funda- 
mental conception and its working out are 
vigorous and original. Unlike the ‘/Eneid, it 
deals not with the exploits of one hero, but 
with the Portuguese nation. 

The story is told, however, iirough the per- 
son of an immediate hero, Vasco da Gama, and 
it deals with his great voyage of 1497-98 to 
India. After a spirited and serious invocation 
of 18 stanzas, the expedition is described as 
well on its way. Meanwhile the gods and god- 
desses of Olympus are holding conclave to 
determine the fate of the adventurers. The 
chief disputants are Venus, who was much af- 
fected toward the Portuguese, and Bacchus, 
who feared that, should the Portuguese succeed 
in reaching India, his renowned name would 
be “buried in the dark vase of the water of 
oblivion” Venus prevails, and the Portuguese 
are hospitably. received at Mozambique and 
Mombasa and other towns on the east coast 
of Africa. At Melinde, Vasco da Gama, in the 


750 LUSITANIA 


third and fourth cantos of the epic, relates the 
story of the Portuguese nation from the time 
of the hero, Viriatus, and the Lusitanian shep- 
herds, who fought against the power of Rome, 
through the stirring days of Aljubarotta, down 
to the voyage to India. Most of the deeds are 
martial, as the account of the heroism of 
Alfonso Henriques, the sacrifice of Egas Moniz 
and the chastising of the Saracens by Sancho. 
The loveliest and best-known episode is the 
tale of Inez de Castro. The famous story 
shows the gentle, more pathetic side of the 
poem, the tenderness of the poet for his na- 
tive land. The stanzas in which da Gama 
relates the leavetaking at Lisbon show with 
impressive dignity the sadness of such a scene, 
and the old man who addresses his warning 
from the sea-shore typifies the spirit of the 
Portuguese people who, like other unambitious 
folk, are unable to see good of such lust for 
fame and glory. 

In the fifth canto, da Gama continues his 
narrative, confining himself to the story of 
the voyage. Escaping from various snares of 
the natives, they double the Cape of Storms 
(now the ‘Cape of Good Hope). The tem- 
pestuousness of the sea and the savage aspect 
of the land is personified to the mariners by 
the giant Adamastor. This derelict Titan, in- 
corporated forever in the rocky headland, rails 
at them as they pass and foretells the unending 
series of disasters which shall follow them and 
other mariners from their audacious voyage. 
The sultan of Melinde, pleased with the story 
and the martial aspect of the Portuguese, dis- 
misses them with pilots to show the way to 
India. Bacchus, however, has not done with 
them. He succeeded in persuading A©olus and 
Neptune to harry them between Melinde and 
Calicut. Their journey is beguiled by half- 
legendary tales of Portuguese honor or of 
Portuguese adventure, and they reach Calicut 
in safety. 

The seventh and eighth cantos tell what hap- 
pened in India. The ruler of Calicut gives 
them leave to trade and visit, and his wonder 
at the armament of the Portuguese, and his 
curiosity with regard to their banners and en- 
signs, gives Paulo da Gama an opportunity to 
recount the warlike deeds of his countrymen. 
This he does in spirited language and with no 
repetitions of the story told by his brother at 
Melinde. The nabob, however, is corrupted by 
Bacchus, with the result that the Portuguese 
have a narrow escape from treachery. Then 
the fleet, well laden with merchandise, explores 
the coast further to the east and finally turns 
back toward Lisbon. 

In the last cantos Venus, well pleased with 
the success of her beloved race, places in their 
path the Isle of Love, where the ships anchor 
and where the crews receive joyous welcome. 
The song of a siren foretells the future of a 
glorious nation, and the goddess Tethys, leading 
Vasco da Gama to the top of a high moun- 
tain, points out the lands of the earth and 
prophesies the share that the Portuguese shall 
have in them, naming to him the great men 
who shall follow and make worthy his dis- 
covery. There follows the closing address to 
the unfortunate king, Dom Sebastian, in a pas- 
sage of great dignity, earnestness and patriot- 
ism, a fitting close of a great poem. 


The management of the poem evidently rests 
on an anachronism: the constant use of pagan 
and classical gods furnishes the movement of 
the epic, while at the same time the facts are 
those which the poet has observed for himself 
or taken from history, and the morality and 
religion are contemporary. The episodes, how- 
ever, are combined with unusual skill, and 
serve to show a complete and general picture 
of the spirit which animated the nation. Alto- 
gether the poem is, as Hallam said, the first 
successful attempt in modern Europe to con- 
struct an epic poem on the ancient model and 
it is also the work of a man in whom the love 
of the fatherland was unfailing. 

In style, the epic is regarded by native 
critics as the best model in the language. At its 
best, it is direct, reserved, swinging, sometimes 
brilliantly emphatic: at its worst, prolix and 
without humor. Like the Portuguese style, it is 
accumulative,— that is, it works by massings 
and repetitions, rather. than by swift epigram, 
terseness, spontaneity and the single phrase. 

The. influence of ‘The Lusiads? has been 
great in Portugal and elsewhere. In Portugal 
it was followed by many epics dealing with 
the deeds of the Portuguese, of which the 
‘Lisboa Edificada> of Gabriel Pereira de 


Castro and the ‘Naufragio da Sepulveda? by 


Jeronymo de Cortereal are good examples. 
The epic period lasted for 30 or 40 years in 
Portugal, and the form has had several recur- 
rences both in Portugal and Brazil in the 18th 
and the 19th centuries. Outside of Portugal, 
‘The Lusiads» has been translated over 80 
times into as many as 15 different languages. 
There are at least nine published versions in 
English, ranging from that of Sir Richard 
Fanshaw in 1665, to that of Sir Richard Bur- 
ton in 1880, the most ambitious and sympa- 
thetic of all. The most accurate translation in 
almost all respects, the best for the reader who 
wishes to follow the Portuguese with an almost 
line for line English version, is that of J. J. 
Aubertin. The reader should refer to the Vis- 
conde de Juromenha’s ‘Vida de Luis de 
Camoes? (in Vol. I of the authorized edition 
of the ‘Obras?); to Theophilo Braga’s ‘His- 
toria de CamGes’; to Oliveira Martin’s ‘Ca- 
moes, Os Lusiadas e a Renascenca em Portu- 
gal>; and, in English, to Sir R. F. Burton’s 
“Camoens: his Life and his Lusiads. 
WILLIAM T. BREWSTER. 


LUSITANIA, | lii-si-ta’ni-a, Spain, the 
name of an ancient region of Hispania, the 
boundaries of which appear to have varied 
at different times: (1) on south by the Tagus 
and the ocean on the north and _ west; 
(2) bounded on the north by the Douro; 
(3) one of the three provinces in which 
Augustus divided the Iberian Peninsula, and 
lying south of the Tagus. The inhabitants 
were warlike and brave, lived upon plunder and 
were rude and unpolished in their manners. 
The Romans had great difficulty in conquering 
them, being frequently defeated by Viriathus, 
chief of the Lusitanians, who was captured by 
treachery and put to death, about 140 B.c., Lusi- 
tania shortly afterward coming under Roman 
control. 


LUSITANIA, British Cunard liner, tor-~ 
pedoed and sunk by a German submarine 
10 miles off Old Head of Kinsale, on the south- 


i i Pte 


LUSK — LUTHER 


western coast of Ireland, at 2.05 p.m. on Friday, 
7 May 1915. The Lusitania was built by the 
firm of John Brown and Company and launched 
on 7 June 1906, at Clydebank. The length of 
the vessel was 785 feet; breadth, 88 feet; depth 
to the boat-deck, 80 feet; maximum draught, 
37 feet, and a height to the mast-head of 216 
feet; gross tonnage, 40,000. She was fitted to 
carry 2,800 passengers, besides the crew. The 
Lusitania and her sister ship the Mauretania 
were built by the Cunard Steamship Company 
under special agreement with — and subsidized 
by—the British government. The funda- 
mental condition of that agreement was that 
the vessel should be “capable of maintaining a 
minimum average ocean speed of from 24 to 
25 knots in moderate weather.” Fulfilment of 
that condition restored to the British that 
supremacy of speed on the Transatlantic serv- 
ice (“the blue ribbon”) which had passed to the 
Germans some years before. Fitted with tur- 
bine engines, at her speed test the vessel 
averaged 25.35 knots over a 24-hour run. The 
maiden voyage, from Liverpool to New York, 
was made in September 1907, and in November 
the vessel established a record by making the 
journey from Fastnet to New York in 4 days, 
18 hours, 40 minutes. The cost of the Luisi- 
tanide was about $9,000,000; depreciation, main- 
tenance and other charges were estimated at 
about $150,000 a month, and the expenses of 
each voyage to’. New York and back was ap- 
proximately $150,000. During the first nine 
months of the war the vessel crossed the ocean 
with almost her accustomed regularity. On 6 
Feb. 1915 the Lusitania arrived at Liverpool 
flying the American flag and with a number 
of American passengers aboard. The German 
submarine “blockade» of .the British Isles 
opened on 18 Feb. 1915. (On 1 May, the day 
the Lusitania was scheduled to sail from New 
York, an advertisement appeared in the leading 
journals of the United States emanating from 
the German embassy at Washington warning 
Americans against traveling on British ships. 
The Lusitania left New York on that day, com- 
manded by Captain W. H. Turner, with a crew 
of over 600 and 1,250 passengers, among them 
188 Americans. Her cargo was valued at 
$740,000, and consisted of copper articles, brass, 
furs and small-arms cartridges, but no guns, 
high explosives nor loaded shells. The vessel 
was not armed. She sank in about 21 minutes 
after being struck by the first torpedo. The 
total death roll amounted to 1,154 (755 of them 
being passengers, of whom 114 were Americans, 
and in addition there were 35 infants). The 
German claim that the Lusitania carried guns 
was disproved by American officials of the port 
of New York who inspected the ship before 
her departure. The Federal District Court of 
New York, in a decision written by Judge J. M. 
Mayer and filed 24 Aug. 1918, held that the 
vessel was unarmed and carried no explosives 
of any kind (Current History, New York, Octo- 
ber 1918). As a result of the tragedy, a diplo- 
matic controversy developed between the 
United States and Germany. See War, Euro- 
PEAN. 


LUSK, Graham, American physiologist: 
b. Bridgeport, Conn., 15 Feb. 1866. He was 
graduated (1887) at Columbia | University, 
studied at Munich and was appointed (1891) 


751 


instructor of physiology at Yale University, then 
successively assistant professor (1892-95), and 
professor (1895-98). He was (1898-1909) pro- 
fessor of physiology at the University and 
Bellevue Hospital College, and. professor of 
physiology at Cornell University Medical Col- 
lege, New York, from 1909. He has acted as 
scientific director to Russell Sage Institute of 
Pathology and has written ‘Elements of the 
Science of Nutrition» (1906); ‘The Funda- 
mental Basis of Nutrition» (1914), besides con- 
tributing to numerous scientific journals. 


LUSK, William Thompson, American 
physician: b. Norwich, Conn., 23 May 1838; 
d. New York, 12 June 1897. He entered Yale 
in 1855 but failing sight caused him to leave 
in a year for treatment of the eyes in Europe. 
He next (1858) took up the study of medicine 
at Heidelberg and after two years studied at 
Berlin for one year. On his return to America 
he served (1861-63) in the army, going to the 
front on the staff of Gen. I. I. Stevens, and 
(1863) resigned at request to take command of 
a regiment recruiting in New York City, but 
accepting instead the appointment of adjutant- 
general, with rank of captain, under Gen. Dan- 
iel Tyler. He was cited for conspicuous gal- 
lantry on several occasions. Resigning in 1863 
he entered Bellevue Medical College, New York 
City, where he was graduated. After studying 
in Europe he settled at Bridgeport, Conn., and 
practised medicine (1865-66), then removed to 
New York City. From 1869-71 he was profes- 
sor of physiology and microscopic anatomy at 
Long Island Medical College, delivering lec- 
tures at Harvard Medical School. In 1871 he 
accepted the chair of obstetrics and diseases of 
women at Bellevue Hospital Medical College 
which he held till his death. In his latter 
years he was coeditor with Dr. James B. Hun- 
ter of the New York Medical Journal. Among 
his many works he wrote ‘Science and Art of 
Midwifery? (5th ed. 1897), which has been 
translated into many languages. 


LUSKA, Sidney. See Hartanp, HENRY. 
LUSTRATION, in ancient Rome, a cere- 


mony of solemn purification or consecration of 
the Roman people,.by means of an expiatory 
sacrifice, which was performed after every 
census. The sacrifice consisted of a bull, a 
sow anda sheep or ram. The ram was ded- 
icated to Jupiter, the swine to Ceres and the 
bull to Mars. As this lustration took place at 
the end of every five years, lustrum came to 
signify a period of five years. 


LUTE, a stringed musical instrument for- 
merly much in use. It originally contained six 
strings, but the number was gradually increased 
till it reached 24. The lute consists of four 
parts, namely, the table; the body, constructed 
of nine convex ribs; the neck, which has as 
many frets or divisions; and the head or cross, 
in which the screws for tuning it are inserted. 
In playing this instrument the performer strikes 
the strings with the fingers of the right hand, 
and regulates the sounds with those of the left. 
The notes of the lute are generally written 
on six lines, and not on five. There were 
formerly various kinds in use. 


LUTETIA. See Parts. 


LUTHER, Martin, German religious re- 
former; b. Eisleben, Saxony, 10 Nov. 1483; 


752 


d. there, 18 Feb. 1546. Hans Luther, his father, 
a miner in very humble circumstances, removed 
with his family to Mansfeld in 1484, and in the 
course of time was appointed to a seat in the 
council. Martin. was educated in the deepest 
respect for religion, and under the severest 
discipline, his parents practising the most aus- 
tere lives of virtue and piety. At 14 he was 
sent to the school at Magdeburg, whence he 
removed in 1499 to Eisenach. At first he ob- 
tained his support by singing songs at the door 
like many other poor scholars; but was soon 
taken under the care of a benevolent lady 
named Ursula Cotta. At school he made rapid 
progress in Latin and in other studies; in 1501 
he entered the University of Erfurt, where his 
mental ability soon won him distinction among 
his fellows. In 1505 he received the degree of 
master. He was orginally destined by his 
father for the law, but circumstances at this 
time turned his attention to religious truth, and 
he began the study of divinity. Then to the 
surprise and regret of his father came the 
young man’s “great renunciation” and his de- 
termination -to enter the monastery of the 
Augustines at Erfurt in 1505. Luther regarded 
himself as an unprofitable servant, tortured 
himself with bitter reproaches and was attacked 
by a severe fit of sickness, during which one of 
the elder brothers consoled him and promised 
him the forgiveness of his sins through faith 
in Jesus Christ, a doctrine which Luther after- 
ward declared brought a new light into his 
soul. He was also much encouraged by Stau- 
pitz, the provincial of the Order, who perceived 
his great talents and encouraged him to con- 
tinue this theological studies. Staupitz himself 
had a singularly clear gospel conception of the 
cardinal doctrines of faith, repentance, the love 
and holiness of God, and it is no doubt true 
that Luther owed much of his “insight” into 
truth and the opportunity to give it expression 
to the kindly vicar-general. It is also well to 
remember in considering the life and work of 
Luther that some of his best and most cherished 
works — the Epistles to the Romans and the 
Galatians, his edition of Tauler’s ‘Theologia 
Germanica,? and the exposition of the Seven 
Penitential Psalms were conceived while he was 
a member of his Order; as late as 1516 even, 
the year before his renunciation, he emphasized 
in a sermon the cardinal principle, “The Church 
cannot err in proclaiming the faith, only the 
individual within ther is liable to error 

In 1507 he was ordained priest, and in 1508, 
by the influence of Staupitz, Luther was called 
by Frederick of Saxony to the chair of philcso- 
phy at the newly-founded University of Wit- 
tenberg. He lectured on the Aristotelian phi- 
losophy at the university as well as in the mon- 
astery, and at the same time began his activity 
as a preacher. In 1510 he made a journey to 
Rome on business of his order. In 1512 he 
took the degree of doctor of theology. It was 
shortly after this, in 1514, that Leo X issued 
a bull, granting an indulgence to all who should 
_ contribute to the rebuilding of Saint Peter’s 
Church at Rome. Tetzel, a Dominican friar, 
was chosen by the cardinal archbishop of Mainz, 
who, iointly with the guardian of the Fran- 
ciscan friars, was named commissary of the 
indulgence for Saxony and the north of Ger- 
many, to preach the indulgence through this 
district. It was the preaching of Tetzel which 


LUTHER 


was the occasion of the beginning of the Ref- 
ormation. Tetzel was preaching at Juterbogk, 
a few miles from Wittenberg, when, on the 
eve of All Saints’ day, 31 Oct. 1517, Luther 
affixed his 95 theses to the door of the Scholss- 
kirche, challenging the Dominican friar. 
Though carefully guarded in their wording, 
Luther’s propositions were clearly contrary, in 
some respects, to the current doctrine. The 
sixth thesis denied the power of the keys, and 
maintained that the Pope can only declare a 
sin to be forgiven by God; the 36th, that 
through true contrition a Christian is freed 
from all guilt and punishment; the 66th spoke 
not of abuses, but said of indulgences in gen- 
eral that they were nets to catch money with; 
but the 7lst declared anathema to him who 
would reject indulgences altogether. It is 
clear that Luther at this time had no concep- 
tion of the Reformation as a movement in op- 
position to the Catholic Church, nor any idea 
of denying the supremacy of the chair of Saint 
Peter, but was worked into a fury by abuses 
which he thought the ecclesiastical authorities 
were not sufficiently active in regulating, and 
his zeal carried him to the breaking point with 
the ancient Church. His propositions were 
condemned as heretical as soon as they ap- 
peared. Hoogstraaten, a Dominican of Co- 
logne, Eck at Ingolstadt, and Prierias, an officer 
of the Roman court, immediately made replies 
to his theses; but neither argument, invectivé, 
the summons to Rome, which he did not obey, 
nor the mild counsels of Cardinal Cajetan at 
Augsburg in 1518, and of the nuncio Militz at 
Altenburg in 1519, were sufficient to induce him 
to recant. His replies were made with great 
boldness and determination, and even after his 
dispute with Eck at Leipzig in 1519, he still 
maintained the invalidity of indulgences and of 
the supremacy of the Pope. He appealed from 
the decision of Cardinal Cajetan to the Pope, 
and from the Pope to a general council. 

In the year 1519, at Leipzig, occurred the 
famous public disputation between Luther and 
Carlstadt on the one side and Eck on the other, 
upon the questions at issue. The result was 
barren. Both sides claimed the victory and the 
contestants parted unchanged in their respec- 
tive attitudes. The Leipzig disputation only 
precipitated a long and bitter controversy, and 
Luther remained as determined in his opposi- 
tion as ever. Militz tried once more to make. 
peace, and met Luther for a second time at 
Liebenwerde. But the conference was again 
without fruit. Luther’s position had now 
grown more and more radical, though as yet 
there was no formal, complete and definite rup- 
ture with Rome. The controversy by this time 
had spread throughout all Germany, and 
princes and people were arrayed in bitter fac- 
tions over the issue. Early in 1520 Luther ap- 
pealed to Charles V, who had succeeded the 
Emperor Maximilian. He also addressed let- 
ters to the bishops of Mainz and Merseburg to 
enlist them in his cause. The bishop of Mainz, 
in his reply, treated the questions at issue as 
of a trivial and frivolous character, and the 
bishop of Merseburg repudiates Luther’s posi- 
tion and exhorts him to submit. Among his 
friends at this time were Willibad Pirkheimer 
and Albrecht Dirrer, though they did not follow 
him when the formal break with Rome came. 
Ulrich Von Hutten encouraged and urged him 


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14 


LUTHER 


forward. Franz von Sickingen and Sylvester 
von Schaumberg declared their readiness to put 
a number of armed knights in the field for him, 
should it be necessary. Two notable books 
now appeared from Luther’s pen defining his 
attitude: ‘To the Christian Nobility of the 
German Nation,» and the ‘Babylonian Captiv- 
ity. In the former he proclaims the universal 
priesthood and declares against any especially 
instituted priestly order. He also contests the 
right of the Pope to interpret the Bible, which 
he declares to be free to everybody. He like- 
wise inveighs against the Pope’s exclusive right 
to summon a general council. In the ‘Baby- 
lonian Captivity» he altogether repudiates the 
doctrine of indulgences, holds that the papacy is 
nothing but Babylon, and reduces the sacra- 
ments to three only — “Baptism, Penance, and 
Bread» The latter work was in preparation 
when the bull of excommunication against 
Luther arrived in Germany. 

The attitude of Luther was more and more 
one of outspoken opposition to the Pope and to 
the doctrines of the Church itself, and so far 
had his opposition now advanced that the Ro- 
man authorities decided to proceed to extreme 
measures to crush it. In October 1520, there- 
fore, the memorable bull excommunicating 
Luther and his friends was published at Leip- 
zig. His writings were burned at Rome, Co- 
logne and Louvain. The answer to the papal 
bull was characteristic of Luther. At Witten- 
berg, 10 Dec. 1520, he burned the bull of ex- 
communication and the decretals of the papal 
canon. By this act he dissolved all connection 
with the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. 
Frederick, the elector of Saxony, doubted 
whether he should protect him. But the Ger- 
man noblemen, Hutten, Sickingen, Schaum- 
burg, whom he called upon to defend the new 
opinions, hailed him as the champion of reli- 
gious liberty and offered him the protection of 
their fortresses and their arms. On 28 January 
Charles V opened the Diet of Worms and com- 
manded Frederick to bring Luther with him to 
appear before that body to answer for his con- 
duct. Frederick demurred, on the plea of his 
fear for the safety of his protégé. When, how- 
ever, Luther’s opinion was asked, he declared 
that he was ready to appear, and that not even 
illness would hold him back. In the meantime 
Charles had revoked his command in order to 
allow the 60 days to pass granted by the bull 
of excommunication. Another papal bull was 
issued, however, after the burning of the first, 
in which Luther was definitely declared a here- 
tic, and an interdict put upon all places har- 
boring him. Summoned a second time, before 
the Diet, he expressed his willingness, if he 
were granted a safe conduct, which was ac- 
corded him by the emperor. He was met by 
about 2,000 persons on foot and on horseback 
at the distance of a league from Worms. When 
the palatine sent a messenger to warn him of 
his danger he answered, “If there were as many 
devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the 
roofs of its houses I would go on. Before 
the emperor, the Archduke Ferdinand, 6 elec- 
tors, 24 dukes, 7 margraves, 30 bishops and 
prelates and many princes, counts, lords and 
ambassadors, Luther appeared, 17 ‘April, in the 
Imperial Diet, acknowledged all his writings, 
and on the following day made his defense be- 
fore the assembly. The conclusion of his 

VOL. 17— 48 


753 


speech has been transmitted from generation 
to generation as follows: “Let me then be re- 
futed and convinced by the testimony of the 
Scriptures or by the clearest arguments, other- 
wise I cannot and will not recant, for it is 
neither safe nor expedient to act against con- 
science. Here I take my stand; I can do no 
otherwise, so help me God! Amen.” Whether 
or not this is historically correct (and its form 
is certainly very doubtful) makes little differ- 
ence: the fact is beyond question that he did 
stand firm and refuse to yield or recant. Fred- 
erick the Wise conveyed him privately to the 
Wartburg to save his life. Luther took advan- 
tage of this retirement to translate the New 
Testament into German. But this seclusion con- 
tinued only 10 months. When informed of the 
disturbances excited by Carlstadt on the sub- 
ject of images he could no longer endure re- 
straint, notwithstanding the new  outlawry 
which the emperor had issued against him at 
Nuremberg; and at the risk of provoking the 
displeasure of the elector he hastened to Wit- 
tenberg through the territory of George, Duke 
of Saxony, who was one of his most bitter 
enemies. The sermons which he delivered for 
eight successive days after his return (in 
March 1522) to quell the violence of the en- 
raged insurgents in Wittenberg are patterns of 
vigorous and popular eloquence. 

Amidst these disputes and attacks his plans 
for a total reformation of the Church were 
matured. In 1523 at Wittenberg he began to 
revise the liturgy, and in 1524 laid aside his 
cowl. In 1525 Luther married Katharina von 
Bora, who some years previously had left the 
cloister and joined the reformed religion. He 
prepared, from 1526 to 1529, a new church serv- 
ice, corresponding to his ideas of the doctrines 
of the gospel, under the patronage of the elec- 
tor and with the aid of Melanchthon (q.v.) and 
other members of the Saxony Church. His 
larger and smaller catechisms, to be used in 
schools, were also of great service. An unsuc- 
cessful effort was made in 1529 at Marburg, in 
a conference between Luther and Zwingli, the 
Swiss reformer, to bring the German and Swiss 
movements into harmony. But Luther’s per- 
emptory refusal to accept Zwingli’s views upon 
the question of the Lord’s Supper precluded 
any possibility of agreement. The Reforma- 
tion (q.v.) spread rapidly, and the Augsburg 
Confession, the earliest symbol of Lutheran 
Protestantism, was drafted by Melanchthon 
from articles prepared by Luther. During all 
these years he waged a ceaseless polemic against 
Rome, and made strenuous efforts to’ establish 
harmony among German Protestants. The in- 
tolerance which he manifested toward the 
Swiss reformers, because their views differed 
from his own in regard to the Lord’s Supper, 
shows that he was not yet ready to grant that 
liberty to others which he demanded for him- 
self. He was in this matter the chief cause 
of the separation which took place between the 
Calvinists and the Lutherans. The rapidity 
with which the Reformation advanced after the 
Confession of Augsburg in 1530 rendered the 
papal bulls and the imperial edicts against 
Luther ineffectual. In 1537 Luther wrote the 
Schmalkaldic articles; he gave no heed to the 
ambassadors of Brandenburg and Anhalt, who 
were sent in 1541 by the Diet of Ratisbon. to 
make him more submissive to the Church, and 


54 LUTHER 


in 1545 he refused to participate in the Coun- 
cil of Trent. 

In his controversies with his foes and op- 
ponents Luther’s spirit was oftentimes savage, 
biting, coarse, displaying almost uncontrollable 
anger and sometimes unjustifiable hatred. The 
occasional asperity which he showed in: the 
defense of his faith, however, by no means 
diminished the merit of his constancy; and an 
apology may easily be found for the frequent 
rudeness and coarseness of his expressions in 
the prevailing mode of thinking and speaking; 
in the nature of his undertaking which required 
continual conflict; in the provocations by which 
he was perpetually assailed; in his frequent 
sickness; and in his excitable imagination, evi- 
dent from the days of his novitiate. The same 
excitability of temperament will serve to ex- 
plain those dreadful temptations of the devil 
which disquieted him. That age regarded the 
devil with horror as a personage ever active; 
and those devoted to the cause of God felt 
themselves constantly obliged to resist attacks 
of the evil one. Luther himself says, “I was 
born to fight with devils and factions. This 
is the reason that my books are so boisterous 
and stormy. It is my business to remove ob- 
structions, to cut down thorns, to fill up quag- 
mires, and to open and make straight the paths; 
but if I must necessarily have some failing 
let me rather speak the truth with too great 
severity than once act the hypocrite and con- 
ceal the truth” No one can behold without 
astonishment his unwearied activity and zeal. 
The work of translating the Bible, which might 
well occupy a whole life, he completed, with 
some assistance from Melanchthon and other 
friends, between 1521 and 1534. This transla- 
tion takes the same place in Germany as the 
King James version does in England and the 
United States with regard to the religious 
life and literature of the people. Luther 
equaled the most prolific authors in the number 
of his treatises on the most important doctrines 
of his creed. After the year 1512 he preached 
several times every week, and at certain pcriods 
every day; he officiated at the confess‘onal and 
at the altar; he carried on an extensive corre- 
spondence in Latin and German on various 
subjects with men of rank and of distingu’ shed 
literary attainments and with his private friends. 
He gave advice and assistance wherever it) was 
needed and interested himself on behalf of 
every indigent person who applied to him. In 
company he was lively, and abounded in sallies 
of wit and humor preserved in his ‘Tischreden? 
(‘Table-Talk? ). Luther was no stranger to the 
elegant arts. His excellent hymns such as ‘Ein’ 
feste Burg, SAus tiefer Noth, are well known. 
His fondness of music, too, was such that he 
would often relax his mind with composition, 
with singing and playing on the flute and lute. 
Luther kept up his tremendous activities until 
the close of his life. Just before his last tour- 
ney to Eisleben, where he was summoned hv 
the Count of Mansfeld to settle a disntute, he 
wrote in a letter to a friend’ the following 
description of his condition: “Aged, worn out, 
weary, spiritless, and now blind of one eye, 
TY long for a little rest and quietness; yet I 
have as much to do in writing and preaching 
and acting as if I had never written or preache 
or acted. I am weary of the world, and the 
world is weary of me: the parting will be 


- 


easy, like that of a guest leaving the inn; I 
pray only that God will be gracious to me in 
my last hour, and I shall quit the world without 
reluctance.» His wife died in 1552. 

The 400th anniversary of the birth of Luther 
was commemorated with special observances 
throughout Protestant countries in the year 
1883. The Tercentennial Commemoration of 
the Reformation ‘begun by Luther at Wittenberg, 
on All Saints’ Eve, 31 Oct. 1517; had been cele- 
brated in 1817, and the Protestant world had 
been looking forward with increasing anticipa- 
tion to the Quadricentennial Commemoration in 
1917. The event, however, was overshadowed 
by the Great World War which had been raging 
for three years from August 1914. Neverthe- 
less the event had wide, if subdued, recog- 
nition in many countries. As expressed by a 
prominent New York Lutheran divine, “With- 
out any spirit of hostility to the Roman Catho- 
lic Church, but with a cheerful recognition of 
its conscientious devotion and labor of love and 
sacrifice for the cause of Christ. . . . the 
idea of the observance is to study the causes, 
the necessity and the generic truths of that 
epochal event, so as to emphasize anew -their 
vital significance. It is done out of fealty 
to the word of God and with the conviction 
that the principles enunciated by the reformers 
are essential to a true church, and to a scrip- 
tural Christianity». From Wittenberg, on the 
anniversary day, 31 Oct. 1917, rejecting peace 
proposals, the German Evangelical League, howe 
ever, launched a manifesto in which militant 
sayings of Luther were forcibly applied to the 
current events of the war. It read in part 
as follows, “We especially warn against the 
heresy promulgated from America that Chris- 
tianity enjoins democratic institutions, and that 
they are an essential condition for the estab- 


lishment of the kingdom of God on earth. As_ 


Luther said, ‘The freedom of a Christian does 
not depend on forms of government; these are 
shaped by historical developments and the ac- 
cumulated experience of nations.» The Quad- 
ricentennial Commemoration gave rise to a 
great quantity of magazine literature, Protestant 
and Catholic, on the influence of Luther on 
modern history, which may be studied with 
advantage as throwing greater light on the civi- 
lizing trend of the four centuries since Luther's 
inception of the Reformation, and the remark- 
able Catholic: revival known as the Counter- 
Reformation. Consult Butler, N. M., in ‘Cele- 
brating 400 years of Protestantism? from New 


York Times, 23 Sept. 1917; and for further 


articles ‘Luther, Martin,» and ‘Reformation’? 
(in Cumulative Index of Periodical Literature, 
New York 1917), and New York Times Index 
(New York 1917); also bibliography attached 
to this article. 

No great historic character has been more 
of a “problem” to friend and foe alike than 
Luther. Historians without number have utterly 
failed. rightly to understand or satisfactorily 
to interpret the reformer and his strenuous and 
eventful life. No man has-been more violently 


assailed, and none has had warmer defenders. 


He has been pictured as an inspired personality, 
an extraordinary genius, a national hero, the 
“prophet: of a new religious point of view 
and the creator of a new ethical ideal”; the 
chosen of God; the deliverer of the Church; 
the champion of conscience and individual free- 


- 


LUTHER COLLEGE —LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 


dom; the creator of a national literature; and 
again he has been bitterly assailed as a raving 
monk; a barbarous writer and demagogue; 
a child of the devil; the insane monk; a cor- 
rupt and shameless sensualist; false to his vows 
and hypocritical and deceitful in his life. For 
this reason. the writer has endeavored to limit 
this sketch simply to a faithful and suggestive 
outline of the history of Luther’s life, believ- 
ing that a fuller understandine must be sought 
in the larger study afforded by extended 
sources relating to the man, and the time and 
nature of his activities. See CHristIAN Doc- 
TRINE, DEVELOPMENT OF; REFORMATION; COUN- 
TER-REFORMATION; and related references. 
Bibliography.— Luther’s works are partly 
in German, partly in Latin. Of earlier editions 
the most complete is that by Walch (1740-53) ; 
and of later, the Erlangen-Frankfort editions 
(German writings 1826-57; Latin writings 1829- 
86); and that published at Weimar (1883 et 
seq.). There are separate collections of his 
letters and his table-talk. Of accounts of his 
life may be mentioned those by Meurer (3d 
ed., 1870); Kostlin, J. (4th ed., 1889), Eng- 
lish translation (1883); and Peter Bayne 
(1887). Consult also Beard, ‘Martin Luther 
and His Reformation in Germany; Tulloch, 
‘Leaders of the Reformation? ; Lindsay, ‘Lu- 
ther and the German Reformation? (1900) ; 
McGiffert, A. C., ‘Martin Luther: The Man 
and His Work? (New York 1911); Bohmer, 
H.,.. ‘Luther. in. Light. of ..Recent.. Research? 
(New York 1916). For Roman Catholic view 
of. .Luther, .consult ,Evers,:.M., ‘M. Luther, 
Lebens und Charakterbild? (1883-91) ; Verres, 
‘Luther? (1884) ; Janssen, ‘History of the Ger- 
man People? (1900), ‘Luther and His Protest- 
ant Biographers? (in American Catholic Quar- 
terly Review, pp. 582-601, New York 1901). 
GEORGE Epwin RINEs. 


LUTHER COLLEGE, situated at De- 
corah, Iowa. It was founded in 1861 under 
the auspices of the Synod of the Norwegian 
Lutheran Church in America. There is a 
_ preparatory department, besides the regular col- 
legiate department. The degree of A.B. is con- 
ferred. In 1916 the value of the productive 
funds was $279,000; the annual income amounted 
to $35,000; the library contained 26,000 volumes. 
The students numbered 207 and the faculty 17. 
For boys only. President, Rev. Christian Key- 
sér Preus. Total number of graduates up to 
and including 1916, 697. 


LUTHER LEAGUE OF AMERICA, 
The, a society organized in 1895 at Pittsburgh, 
Pa., with the object of linking together the 
Lutheran young people who are laboring for 
the good of the Church by means of many 
individual societies of various names and styles 
of organization, each within its own immediate 
church. The constitution declares that its ob- 
jects shall be “to encourage the formation of 
the young people’s societies in all Lutheran 
congregations in America, to urge their affilia- 
tion with their respective State or Territorial 
leagues, and with this league to stimulate the 
various young people’s societies to greater 
Christian activity and to foster the spirit of 
loyalty to the Church.” The fundamental prin- 
ciples are federation and co-operation, and it 
is non-synodical in character. The total mem- 
bership is over 100,000. These are comprised in 


755 


25 States, 14 of which already have permanent 
State organizations, and five foreign countries. 
A monthly journal, The Lutheran League Re- 
view, is published in New York. Consult the 
‘Luther League Handbook? (New York) and 
Bacon and Northrop, ‘Young People’s So- 
cieties? (ib. 1900). . 


LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. 
Early History.— The first Lutherans in Amer- 
ica came from Holland during the Thirty 
Years’ War on account of religious oppression, 
and settled in the colony of New Netherlands. 
The exact year of their arrival is not known; 
some seem to have come with the very first 
settlers in 1623, but they are mentioned in 1643 
as living in Manhattan (New Amsterdam—New 
York). A congregation was established in 1648. 
The recognized religion of the colony being 
strict Calvinism, the Lutherans were treated 
very harshly, especially by the governor, Peter 
Stuyvesant. Their children had to be brought 
to Calvinistic preachers for baptism, and they 
were fined and imprisoned even for holding 
informal services for the reading of the Bible. 
They applied to their home church for a pastor 
of their own faith and John Ernest Gutwasser 
(Goetwater) was sent them in 1657, but was 
sent back by the authorities in 1659. They ob- 
tained religious freedom only with the capture 
of the city by the English in 1664. In the fol- 
lowing years ministers were sent to them from 
Amsterdam, Holland, but sometimes long va- 
cancies occurred, and they were obliged to apply 
to the Lutheran Swedes on the Delaware for 
spiritual ministration. Prominent among their 
ministers in the 18th century was the German, 
Justus Falckner (1703-23), the first Lutheran 
minister ordained in America, who also served 
the Lutherans on both sides of the Hudson 
as far up as Albany; W. C. Berkenmeyer, also 
a German, and M. Knoll. Gradually the con- 
gregations turned from the Dutch to the Ger- 
man and English languages. 

Distinctively Lutheran settlements were 
made by the Swedes alone the Delaware, where 
Wilmington is now situated, beginning with 
1638. Reorus Torkillus was their first pastor. 
He was succeeded by John Campanius, who was 
the first to begin mission work among the 
North American Indians, and who translated 
Luther’s Catechism into the Delaware language. 
His labors enabled William Penn, in after 
years, to carry out his pacific policy toward the 
Indians. Campanius also dedicated the first 
Lutheran church in the new world on the island 
of Tinicum, near Philadelphia. As. most of 
the Swedish pastors returned to Sweden after 
some years, and as the Swedish was replaced by 
the English language, the congregations gradu- 
ally fell away from their mother church and 
entered into communion with those of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. 

The great influx of German Lutherans took 
place in the first half of the 18th century, after 
the first German colony, under the leadership of 
Pastorius, had arrived in 1683 and founded 
Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia. In 
Germantown. the first German Lutheran service 
was conducted in 1694 by Rev. H. B. Koester, 
and in Falckner’s Swamp (New Hanover, 
Pa.), near Philadelphia, the first German 
Lutheran church was in existence in 1704. 
This first German Lutheran congregation was 


756 


served by Daniel Falckner, the older brother of 
Justus Falckner. In New York the leader of 
the immigrants was Joshua Kocherthal, a 
Lutheran minister from the Palatinate, arriving 
on New Year’s day 1701. The Palatinate had 
been ravaged with fire and sword under Louis 
XIV of France, the inhabitants were obliged to 
flee in order to save their lives and many of 
these fugitives found a temporary refuge in 
England, where Queen Anne arranged for their 
emigration to America. In 1710 not less than 
11 ships came to New York carrying some 3,000 
immigrants. They settled in the.Catskill Hills 
on the banks of the Hudson; later on many of 
them went westward and moved into the 
Schoharie Valley. All were served by the inde- 
fatigable and faithful Kocherthal. In 1734 the 
Lutheran Salzburgers, driven from their homes 
in Austria through persecution, settled in 
Georgia not far from Savannah.. Their settle- 
ment was named Ebenezer, and their pastors 
were Bolzius and Gronau. Gradually groups of 
German Lutherans were found along the whole 
Atlantic Coast. In Pennsylvania alone some 
60,000 Lutherans were settled about the year 
1750, for whose spiritual wants there was, at 
first, no adequate provision. Several of these 
Pennsylvania congregations joined in sending a 
delegation to London (Court-chaplain Ziegen- 
hagen), and to Halle in Germany (Prof. A. H. 
Francke), representing the needs of the immi- 
grants and asking for able clergymen. These 
negotiations finally resulted in the coming to 
America of Henry Melchior Muehlenberg, the 
pious and indefatigable so-called “patriarch of 
the Lutheran Church in America” He arrived 
in 1742, served the congregations that had called 
him, organized new congregations far and 
wide, built churches (Saint Michael’s, Philadel- 
phia) and in every possible way was active for 
the Church. He was followed by a number of 
educated and faithful men from Germany 
(Kurtz, Kunze and others), and thus an era of 
great activity began among the scattered 
Lutheran churches, their number being con- 
tinually increased through the coming of more 
immigrants, and the Lutheran Church attain- 
ing considerable influence. 
Synodical Organizations One of the 
most important things done by Muehlenberg 
was the founding of the first Lutheran synod in 
America, the still existing “Evangelical Lutheran 
Ministerium of Pennsylvania and adjacent 
States.” It took place 26 Aug. 1748, and Ger- 
man and Swedish pastors participated in the 
organization. Before Muehlenberg’s death 
(1787) the second Lutheran synod was organ- 
ized through the efforts of his son, Rev. F. A. C. 
Muehlenberg, and his son-in-law, Rev. J. C. 
Kunze (1786), and in the following decades 
other bodies were formed: the North Carolina 
Synod (the mother of all the southern synods), 
in 1803; the synod of Ohio in 1818; the Ten- 
nessee Synod in 1820. Throughout the 19th 
century such synodical organization took place, 
partly in consequence of branching off from 
the older synods, sometimes also in opposition 
to them, but chiefly on account of the rapid 
and remarkable expansion of the Church 
through the coming of immigrants from 
Europe, especially to the Western States. The 
entire number of synods now in existence is 62. 
The internal condition of the Church, however, 


, pole: 


LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 


in the closing years of the 18th and in the first 
decades of the 19th century, was not a good 
The ravages of two wars left their 
marks; the problem of transition from German 
to English worship was not always solved in 
the right way; but above all the rationalistic 
and unionistic tendencies in the European 
churches bore their fruits also in America and 
left the Lutheran Church in a deplorable state 
of desolation. The founding of the Missouri 
Synod (Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Mis- 
souri, Ohio and other States) in Chicago, 26 
April 1847, had a most significant influence on 
the external and internal development of the 
Lutheran Church in the United States. In 
1839 a colony of Saxon Lutherans numbering 
about 700 souls had come to America, having 
left their native land on account of the bad 
condition of their home church, showing itself 
in the opposition to the Lutheran Confessions 
and the prevalence of rationalism, and had 
settled in Saint Louis and in Perry County, Mo. 
Their leader was Martin Stephen and with him 
came a number of earnest and devout pastors 
and candidates. When their leader was found 
to be a deceiver he was excommunicated, and 
C. F. W. Walther, one of those younger pas- 
tors, a man of remarkable ability as theologian, 
preacher, author and church organizer, came to 
the front. In 1844 he began to edit the semi- 
monthly church paper Der Lutheraner, which 
rapidly became the organ for confessional 
Lutheranism. About the same time Pastor F. 
Wyneken had come to America and had spent 
some years in serving the scattered Lutherans 
in Indiana and Michigan. Not being able to 
take care of the great number of them he 
returned to Germany and interested the home 
churches in the work. Especially Pastor W. 
Loehe of Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, took a very 
active part in preparing an 1 sending ministers 
to America; and these three parties, the Saxon 
immigrants ’ (Walther, Loeber, Keyl, Fuerbrin- 
ger and others), the Loehian pastors (Sihler, 
Craemer and others) and Wyneken, combined 
and organized the Missouri Synod, which has 
ever stood for strict confessionalism and 
through its testimony has had decided influence 
for good upon the whole Lutheran Church, 
also in foreign countries, although it severed . 
all connection with the German state churches 
and upholds and emphasizes the principle of 
absolute separation of church and_ state. 
Through the untiring labors of its pastors in 
home mission work, and through the attention 
given to the training of the young in parish 
schools, it has become by far the largest 
Lutheran synod in America, consisting at 
present of 23 district synods and extending over 
practically every State of the Union, to Canada 
and even to Brazil and Argentina. About the 
same time (1839) another band of German 
Lutherans had left Prussia on account of the 
Prussian Church Union between the Lutheran 
and Reformed churches (1817) and under the 
leadership of J. A. Grabau organized the 
Buffalo Synod in 1845. Some years later 
(1854) the Iowa Synod was founded, also by 
German missionaries sent by Loehe, after the 
Missourians and Loehe had parted on account 
of doctrinal differences. Finally, the Scandi- 
navian Lutherans must be mentioned. Even 
before the middle of the 19th century a tide of 


LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 


Scandinavian immigration had set in, leading 
in the course of time to synodical organization. 
The most prominent was the Norwegian 
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of North America, 
founded in 1853 by H. A. Preus, J. A. Ottesen 
and others. A controversy on the doctrine of 
predestination led*to a separation and to the 
forming of the United Norwegian Lutheran 
Church in America, in 1890. Prior to this 
the Norwegian Hauge Synod had been or- 
ganized through the influence of E. Eielsen, 
originally a lay preacher and adherent of 
Hauge, a theologian of pietistic tendency. The 
largest Swedish Lutheran body, the Augustana 
Synod, was founded in 1860. Besides these, 
the Danes, Finns and Icelanders have their own 
synods. The Slovak Evangelical Augsburg 
Confession Synod, organized in 1902, is in 
sympathy with the Missouri Synod. 

General Bodies.— Most of the 62 Lutheran 
synods in the United States are combined in 
larger “general organizations.» The oldest of 
these is the General Synod of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church in the United States of 
America, formed in 1820 through the efforts of 
the Pennsylvania ministerium, at that time the 
largest Lutheran synod in America. The Gen- 
eral Synod aimed at a union of all Lutherans, 
but, when the Pennsylvania Synod withdrew in 
1823, it comprised for some years only a number 
of smaller English synods. Gradually it grew, 
the Pennsylvania Synod again united with it 
and in 1860 it embraced 26 synods. However, 
during the Civil War the synods south of the 
Potomac withdrew, and in 1866 the Pennsyl- 
vania Synod again severed its connection on 
account of the liberal and unionistic standpoint 
of the general body. The General Synod had 
formally declared that it stood on common 
ground with the Union Church of Germany 
and did not consider the distinctive doctrines 
separating the Lutheran and Reformed churches 
essential. It was more intent on fraternal re- 
lations with other denominations than on union 
with Lutherans of strict confessional princi- 
ples. (S..S. Schmucker and the “Definite Plat- 
form”). The withdrawal of the Pennsylvania 
Synod soon led to the organization of the 
General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran 
Church in North America in Fort Wayne, Ind., 
20 Nov. 1867, under the leadership of C. P. 
Krauth, C. F. Schaeffer, G. F. Krotel, W. J. 
Mann and others. The confessional basis was 
stated to be the doctrines of tle Unaltered 
Augsburg Confession in its original sense. A 
number of Lutheran synods, English and Ger- 
man, joined this General Council, .also the 
Swedish Augustana Synod, not, however, the 
Missouri Synod, nor the Ohio Synod, because 
the General Council, though more confessional 
than the General Synod, did not take a definite 
standpoint on the so-called “four points”: 
chiliasm, altar and pulpit fellowship, and Shee 
societies. The Iowa Synod _ maintained ~ 
friendly attitude toward the General Counsell 
but did not join it. In 1872 the Evangelical 
Synodical Conference of North America was 
formed by the Missouri Synod, the Ohio Synod, 
the Wisconsin Synod (founded in 1849 by 
Muehlhaeuser and others, joined the General 
Council, but withdrew in 1869). the Minnesota 
Synod ‘(founded in 1860, joined the General 
Council, but withdrew in 1871), the Illinois 


157 


Synod and the Norwegian Synod. It was 
founded on a strict confessional basis as laid 
down in the Lutheran Confessions, and became 
at once the largest general organization in 
America; and although the Ohio Synod left 
this general body in 1881 on account of a con- 
troversy over the doctrines of election and con- 
version, and also the Norwegian Synod severed 
its connection in 1883 on account of internal 
troubles, the Synodical Conference is still the lar- 
gest general body. In 1886 the Southern synods 
which had withdrawn from the General Synod 
at the time of the Civil War formed a new 
general body, The United Synod of the 
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South, com- 
prising eight smaller synods. The jubilee year 
of the Lutheran Reformation (1917) developed | 
two important combinations, The three Norweg- 
ian synods mentioned above joined and formed 
the Norwegian Lutheran Church of America; 
and the General Synod, now more confessional 
than formerly, the General Council, and the 
United Synod in the South took action and 
formed a union called The United Lutheran 
Church in America, which action was formally 
ratified 15 Nov. 1918. The synods of Wiscon- 
sin, Minnesota and Michigan, which had 
formed what may be called a general organiza- 
tion in 1892, have rearranged their organiza- 
tion into a general body consisting of six, dis- 
trict synods, but retaining their membership in 
the Synodical Conference. 

Church Polity.—According to Lutheran 
principles the congregation is the unit of church 
organization, the source of all authority exer- 
cised by the Church and the final court of ‘ap- 
peal. Congregations combine and _ organize 
themselves into synods for conducting the 
Church work on a larger scale and for the sake 
of mutual assistance and oversight; but the 
synods have no power except that which 
the congregations confer upon them; they are 
purely advisory bodies. It must be said, how- 
ever, that while these principles are conceded 
by most Lutheran organizations, not all bodies 
conform to them in practice, some of them out- 
side of the Synodical Conference allowing 
synods a greater power and placing greater 
weight upon their decisions. 

Church Worship.— Because the Lutheran 
churches in Europe always had great diversity 
in their forms of public worship the Lutheran 
Church of America shows no uniformity in this 
respect, the different bodies having at first 
followed the usages of their mother churches 


to }; aye greaterjsors less |,.degree../ ,However;: a 
greater uniformity has been brought about 
since the so-called “Common Service,» based 


upon the consensus of the Lutheran liturgies 
of the 16th century, was prepared by a com- 
mittee representing the General Synod, the 
General Council, and the United Synod in the 
South. This form of service is used also by a 
number of congregations in other Lutheran 
bodies, especially after they had introduced the 
English language in their services. 

Church Work.—All the church bodies 
named are very active in various forms of 
educational, missionary and benevolent work. 
They maintain a high standard of ministerial 
education and have founded a large number of 
theological seminaries. They have their own 
colleges and academies preparing their men for 


758+ 


the theological courses and giving a general 
education. They prosecute intensively home 
mission work, conducting such work also among 
the Indians and negroes in the United States, 
and maintain foreign mission fields in the dif- 
ferent parts of the globe. The American 
Lutheran Church is indeed a polyglot church 
proclaiming the gospel in no less than 20 lan- 
guages. All of the larger bodies have their own 
publishing houses for the printing of their 
church papers and the dissemination of Lutheran 
literature. The statistics of 1917 report 27 
theological seminaries, the largest-among them 
being Concordia Seminary at Saint Louis, Mo. 
(Missouri Synod, 344 students); Concordia 
Seminary at Springfield, Ill. (Missouri Synod, 
127 students); Augustana Seminary at Rock 


Island, Ill. (Augustana Synod, 101 students) ; 
Norwegian Seminaries, combined in 1917, at 
Saint Paul, Minn. (88 students); Lutheran 


Seminary at Mount Airy, Philadelphia (Gen- 
eral Council, 58 students) ; Lutheran Seminary 
at Maywood, Chicago (General Council, 52 
students); Wartburg Seminary at Dubuque, 
Iowa (lowa Synod, 48 students); Lutheran 
Seminary at Wauwatosa, Milwaukee, Wis. 
(Wisconsin Synod, 42 students); Wittenberg 
Seminary at Springfield, Ohio (General Synod, 
38 students) ; Lutheran Seminary at Columbus, 
Ohio (Ohio Synod, 38: students) ; Theological 
Seminary at Gettysburg, Pa. (General Synod, 
34 students); Luther Seminary at Saint Paul, 
Minn. (Ohio Synod, 30 students). The num- 
ber of Lutheran colleges in 1917 was 41; of 
academies 58, a number of them coeducational; 
of ladies’ colleges 7. The General Synod con- 
ducts foreign mission work in India and 
Liberia; the General Council in India, Burma, 
Japan; the Missouri Synod in India and China; 
the different Scandinavian bodies in India, 
China, Natal, Madagascar; the Ohio Synod in 
India. Missions among the American Indians 
are conducted by the Scandinavians, the 
Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Synod; 
among the negroes by the Synodical Confer- 
ence and by the Ohio Synod. The statistics 
for 1917 enumerate 66 orphanages, 46 homes 
for the aged, 7 homes for defectives, 9 dea- 
coness mother-houses, 50 hospitals, 18 immigrant 
and seamen’s missions, 12 miscellaneous insti- 
tutions, 13 home finding and children’s friend 
societies. There are 13 official Lutheran pub- 
lishing houses, the more important ones being 
located in Philadelphia (General Synod and 


General Council); Saint Louis (Missouri 
Synod); Rock Island (Augustana Synod) ; 
Minneapolis (Norwegian Synod); Chicago 


(lowa Synod) ; Columbus, Ohio (Ohio Synod) ; 
Milwaukee (Wisconsin Synod); Columbia, S. 
C. (United Synod in the South). The number 
of Lutheran periodicals goes well into the 
hundreds. 

General Statistica’ The Lutheran Church 
is the fourth largest denomination in the United 
States coming after the Roman Catholics, 
Methodists and Baptists. The statistics here- 
with given are obtained from official sources and 
are published in the ‘Lutheran Church Year 
Book? for 1918. The several bodies are ar- 
ranged according to the year of their organiza- 
tion. The latest developments in the organi- 
zation of general bodies mentioned above must 
not be overlooked in the following tables. 


LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 


n 

3 

2 

Z| 2 3 

GENERAL SyNoD—1820 RS 8 oy 

gfe bo 

Bp | 8 

Ori) a oO 
Synod of Maryland. . .n0:.. 1820 115 131 
Synod of West Pennsylvania. }1825 93 158 
Bast OhiosSynods. . tin. 1836 53 72 
Allegheny Synod... :....... 1842 72 153 
Synod of East Pennsylvania. .|1842 145 150 
OyVNOC OL Wiiainiee: = ees 1844 44 54 
Pittsburgh Synoden).. 372k 1845 90 125 
Wittenberg Synod.......... 1847 59 78 
Olive Branch Synod.. .|1848 34 48 
Synod of Northern Illinois. . . 1850 55 61 
Synod of Central Pennsylvania 1853 50 92 
Synod of Jowa .iuaileass ys cigs 1855 36 32 
Synod of Northern Indiana. .|1855 46 Wie. 
Synod of Central Illinois..... 1867 25 31 
Susquehanna Synod......... 1867 52 81 
Synod df Kansas 2h. 4. wht o hES68 44 46 
Synod of Nebraska......... 1871 49 54 
Wartburg Synod... 22. 2.4: 4/1876 48 52 
Synod2of:Califomnia. J avatt 1891 42 30 
Rocky. Mountain Synod..... 11891 24 23 
German Synod of ak. hy 11891 90 il ba 8 
Synod of Southern Illinois. . .|1900 11 17 
Synod of New York......... 1908 146 143 
Synod of West Virginia......|1912 15 38} 
Total—24 Synods........].3... 1,438 1,857 

GENERAL COUNCIL—1867 
Ministerium of Pennsylvania. |1748 408 580 
Ministerium of New York... |1773 157 155 
Pittsburgh Synods. 22e4% 6 1843 157 192 
Téxas-Ov fod Fiwaslok see 1851 9 14 
District Synod of Ohio...... 1857 55 92 
Augustana Synod...!....... 1860 720} 1,225 
Lutheran Synod of Canada. . |1861 42 74 
Chicago: Synodis.c hee ae 1871 50 64 
English Synod of the North- 

west ye aks SAE FEE 1891 45 53 
Manitoba Synod............|1897 31 58 
Paciic, Synod ots, sedans a ort 1901 20 24 
Synod of New York and New! 

Bnglands< © i849 ae ae 1902 65 56 
Nova: Scotia Synod....:4. 015 1903 8 26 
Synod of Central Canada... .|1909 Ts ah 16 

Total—14 Synods... 1,779| 2,631 
SYNODICAL Gonage ate 
1872 
Synod of Missouri, Ohio and 

other: States eth. ona Kays 1847| 2,743) 3,094 

Synod.of Wisconsin... ..... + 1850 315 362 
Minnesota.........{/1860 48 75 
Michigan . 22 UR 1860 43 58 
Nebraskas x . 2h. 0% 1904 22 wht 

Slovak: Symodinnt ou <.tiegees aeae 1902 3Q))- 2.79 

Total—6 Synods........].... 3,201] 3,689 
UNITED SYNOD—1886 

Synod of North Carolina... .]1803 51 76 

Tennessee Synod........... 1820 56 135 

Synod of South Carolina..... 1824 53 75 

Synod. of Virewdas encore as 1829 30 58 

Synod of Southwestern Vir- 

CIA . Are OES BOn 1842 29 70 
Mississippi Synod. . be uA bSSS, 6 10 
Synod of Georgia... .A¥ «anf «,. 1860 22 31 
Holston ynOte aot te 1861 10 29 

Total—8 Synods........]. 257 484 

- INDEPENDENT SYNODS 
Joint Synod of Ohio and other 

States: dares t ereper Me 1818 685 916 
Buffalo, Synod 685s) onda $ thee 1845 36 49 
Eielsen’s Synod (Norwegian) .|1846 6 26 
Synod of Iowa and other States|1854 576] 1,056 
Danish Lutheran Church... /|1871 74 112 
Icelandic Synod...;..%,....)48 1885 16 55 
Suomi Synod (Finnish). .... 1890 40 151 
United Danish Lutheran 

Ghureh put vedt JASE.) 143 185 
Lutheran Free Church (Nor- 

WEGISU cetacean. erates 1897 198 420 
Norwegian Lutheran. Church 

of Americar. bobprio?): 1917) 1,247] 3,378 
Other bodies and independent 

ftoneregationss 44 pe cma. I ee rire! 2st 

Total—10 Synods.. “3,113 3,113 “6,605 _6,605 


Summary total—62 Synods..|.... 


Members 


Communicant 


36,335 
38, 783 
12,909 
25,730 
43,266 
10, 686 
26,711 
17,318 
7,342 
12,496 
12,598 
5,465 
9,679 
4,955 
20,320 
6,362 
8,544 
10,030 
5,346 
2,139 
10, 439 
2,172 
30,142 
4,305 


364,072 


161, 486 


56,795 
37,631 
1,171 
153151 
191,390 
14,410 
8,753 


12,372 
4,760 
1,849 


21,367 
. 3,029 
1,813 


531,978 


20,536 
300,000 
33,925 


692,119 


“9,788 15, 266|2,448, 412 


_— = — = 


LUTHERANISM 


Bibliography.— Of the large literature only 
a small selection is given. The sources are, as 
a rule, mentioned in the general works, 

Histories of the Lutheran Church in Amer- 
ica: Grebner, A. L., ‘History of the Lutherans 
in America? (German, Vol. I, up to 1820; Saint 
Louis 1892); Hazelius, E. L., ‘History of the 
American Lutheran Church 1685-1842? (Zanes- 
ville 1846); Jacobs, H. E, ‘History of the 
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United 
States» (Vol. IV of the American Church 
Series,” New York 1893; trans. into German by 
Fritschel, G. J., with additions, Guetersloh 
1896); Neve, J. L., ‘Brief History of the 
Iutheran Church in Arerica? (Burlington 
1916; German ed., Burlington 1915). 

Histories of Individual Bodies: Bergh, J. A., 
‘The Norwegian Lutheran Church in North 
America? (Norwegian; Minneapolis 1914); 
Bernheim, G. D., ‘History of the German Set- 
tlements and of the Lutheran Church in North 
and South Carolina» (Philadelphia 1872); 
Deindoerfer, J. D., ‘History of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Synod of Iowa and other States? 
(German; Chicago 1897); Finck, W. J., 
‘Lutheran Landmarks and Pioneers in America? 
(Philadelphia 1913); Henkel, S., ‘History of 
the Evangelical Lutheran ‘Tennessee Synod? 
(New Market 1890); Hochstetter, C., ‘History 
of the Evangelical Lutheran Missouri Synod? 
(German; Dresden 1883); Nicum, J., ‘History 
of the Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of 
New York and Adjacent States? (German; 
New York 1888); Ochsenford, S. E., ‘Docu- 
mentary History of the General Council of the 
Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America? 
(Philadelphia 1912); Peter, P. A., and Schmidt, 
W., ‘History of the Joint Synod of Ohio and 
other States? (Columbus 1900); Schmauk, T. 
E., ‘History of the Lutheran Church in Penn- 


sylvania 1638-1820? (Philadelphia 1903); 
Spaeth, A., Jacobs, H. E., and Spieker, G. F,, 
‘Documentary History of the Evangelical 


Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania and 
Adjacent States 1748-1821> (Philadelphia Haass 
Biographies: Guenther, M., ‘Walther, C. 
W., A Biography? (German; Saint Louis 1850) : 
Mann, Weg .je “ite and Times °of .H: M. 
Muehlenberg? (Philadelphia 1877); Spaeth, A., 


‘Charles Porterfield Krauth? (2 vols., New 
York 1898; Philadelphia 1909). 
General: Bente, F., ‘What hinders’ the 


Union of the Lutheran Synods in America?? 
(German; Saint Louis 1917): Jacobs, H. E., 
and Haas, J. A. OW; ‘Lutheran Cyclopedia’ 
(New York 1899) ; Lenker, > Ne 


All Lands? (Milwaukee 1894; German ed., 


Sunbury 1901); Morris, J. ca ‘Bibliotheca 
Lutherana” (Philadelphia 1876) ; ‘The Distinc- 
tive, Doctrines and Usages of the General 


Bodies of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in 
the United States? (Philadelphia 1893; new 
ed., 1914). See LuTHERANISM. 
Lupwic E. FUERBRINGER, 
Professor of Theology, Concordia Theological 
Seminary, Saint Louis, Mo. 


LUTHERANISM. The first of the 95 
theses which Martin Luther affixed to the door 
of the castle-church of Wittenberg on 31 Oct. 
1517, read as follows: “Our Lord and Master, 
Jesus Christ, saying, Repent ye, would have the 
whole life of believers to be repentance.” This 
academic act has been generally looked upon as 


. 


from the beginning, of 


“Lutherans in’ 


759 


the inaugural act of the Lutheran Reformation, 
so much so, that 31 October is to this day cele- 
brated by Lutherans in all lands as the Festival 
of the Reformation. And the thesis quoted 
above is perhaps the most concise exhibition of 
Lutheranism extant. The thesis is, as a whole 
and in all its parts, a positive doctrinal state- 
ment. Doctrine, positive doctrine, is, and was 
first importance, the 
groundwork, the very life, of Lutheranism.. 
The first and foremost task of the Lutheran 
Church is the promulgation and maintenance of 
sound doctrine. Preaching, in the Lutheran 
Church, is not primarily exhortation but teach- 
ing, and doctrinal preaching is considered the 
chief element of Lutheran public worship. 
Even the better part of Lutheran hymnology is 
preponderatingly doctrinal. The great bulk of 
Luther’s voluminous writings is doctrinal, and 
no other church has so extensive a doctrinal 
literature as the Lutheran Church. Even its 
controversial theology partakes of this char- 
acter. It is trie, the Lutheran Church in all its 
best periods was eminently an ecclesia militans 
(a militant church); but the subjects at issue 
were again doctrinal. Perhaps the most mas- 
terful polemical work in Lutheran, if not in all 
Protestant theology, Chemnitz’ ‘Criticism of 
the Decrees of the Council of Trent? (Examen 
Concilu Tridentini), is also one of the richest 
storehouses of doctrinal theology. 

But doctrine is knowledge communicated. 
Teaching presupposes or implies a master and 
a disciple or a number of disciples. And of the 
Master Luther says in his thesis: “Our Lord 
and Master Jesus Christ No councils nor 
synods, no traditions of the Church, no Fathers, 
early or late, not Luther himself, not any of 
these, nor all of these together, must be ac- 
knowledged as empowered to establish articles 
of doctrine which every disciple is bound to 
accept. For the Master is also the Lorp. He 
comes with authority: His teaching is not 
human but divine. Christian doctrine is not 
a product of evolution, nor of human specu- 
lation, nor of self-consciousness of the Church, 
but the truth of God set forth by the Foun- 
tain of divine truth, who has said, “I am 
the Truth” He is the one and only au- 
thoritative teacher in the Church. There is no 
such thing as an evolution or perfectibility of 
Christian doctrine. Here the ancient avto¢ én 
“He hath said it,» is in its place. Here man 
has no alternative but either to accept or to 
reject. Here to add or to modify is to adulter- 
ate, and to take away or to yield is to deny. 
Such is the Lutheran concept of the primary 
source of Christian doctrine. 

But the means also whereby such communi- 
cation of divine knowledge to man is effected is 
indicated in Luther’s thesis when he says: “Our 
Lord and Master Jesus Christ, saying, Repent 
ye.” Here he refers to an express dictum of 
Holy Scripture. Christ and the Spirit of Christ 
taught man in the 16th century and teaches 
man in the 20th century in and through the 
written Word. Not by awaiting direct revela- 
tions, not by following the traditions of the 
Church or the definitions or decrees of its rep- 
resentatives, are we disciples of Christ, but 
by searching the Scriptures which were written 
aforetime for our learning. What is clearly 
taught in Scripture, that and that only is Chris- 


760 


tian doctrine. That the Bible is the only and 
sufficient source of Christian doctrine is the 
formal principle of Lutheranism. 

The material principle of Lutheranism, the 
cardinal doctrine, around which all other doc- 
trines radiate, because it is the central doctrine 
of Scripture, is also indicated in the thesis. 
Luther there describes the subjects and disciples 


of their Lord and Master Christ as believers. 


According to the Lutheran concept of Christian- 
ity and the Christian Church it is faith that 
constitutes a Christian and a member of the 
Church of Christ, which is simply the whole 
number of all believers. Christianity, as. dis- 
tinguished from all other religions, is that re- 
ligion according to which salvation is not,by 
works of righteousness which we have done, 
but by what God has done in Christ, reconciling 
the world unto Himself. And faith is simply 
the acceptance of this reconciliation. Not as a 
work of obedience, with any merit of its own, 
but only as the acceptance of the merits of 
Christ, faith is saving faith. It is justifying 
faith inasmuch as, in view and consideration of 
the merits of Christ accepted by faith, God in 
His judgment pronounces the believer righteous. 
And this doctrine, that God justifies the sinner 
by His grace, for Christ’s sake, through faith, 
is the material principle of Lutheranism, the 
cardinal doctrine of Lutheran theology. This 
doctrine is looked upon by the Lutheran Church 
as doctrina stantis et cadentis ecclesie, the doc- 
trine with which the Church stands and falls. 

On the other hand, the doctrine of justifica- 
tion, while the central and ruling doctrine, is 
not the only doctrine of Lutheranism. Accord- 
ing to our thesis, Christ would have the whole 
life of believers to be repentance. This, too, is 
a doctrinal statement. Repentance, petavoca, 
is a change of heart and mind in man. In his 
natural fallen state man is wholly evil, spiritu- 
ally dead in sin, unable to will or to do that 
which is spiritually good. He cannot, there- 
fore, work his own restoration, nor contribute 
thereto. But God, prompted by His universal 
grace, and because of the merits of Christ, the 
redeemer of all mankind, through the gospel, 
the ever efficacious and ever irresistible means 
of grace, quickens the sinner into spiritual life, 
translating him, by the bestowal of faith, from 
a state of wrath and enmity against God into a 
state of grace and communion with God. This 
is the Lutheran doctrine of conversion or re- 
generation in the stricter sense of the terms. In 
a wider sense, in which repentance also stands 
in our thesis, it includes the preservation and 
growth of spiritual life and its activity in works 
of the spirit, or sanctification. For while the 
Lutheran Church maintains that man’s salva- 
tion is in no sense, manner or measure, his own 
work, but wholly and solely the work of God, 
and hence denies the necessity of good works 
unto salvation, it strenuously asserts that good 
mere are necessary fruits and evidence of 
faith. 

There have been Syncretists (Unionists) 
within the pale of the Lutheran Church, 
who held that the real obstacles to mutual 
recognition between the Lutheran Church 
and others were only two—the doctrines 
of predestination and of the Lord’s. Sup- 
per. But by these assertions Syncretism 
exhibits itself as thoroughly un-Lutheran 
in letter and spirit. These differences are in- 


LUTHERANISM 


deed, while they stand, insurmountable barriers 
between the conflicting theologies. But the 
chasm which separates them is far deeper and 
wider, a difference of the very fundamental 
principles which affects a multitude of particu- 
lar doctrines. The formal principle of Luther- 
anism is, as we have seen, that of the exclusive 
authority and absolute sufficiency of the canon- 
ical Scriptures in matters of faith. The mate- 
rial principle of Lutheranism is the scriptural 
doctrine of justification. Lutheranism holds 
that Christ, the only head and foundation of the 
Church, vested all the rights and powers of the 
Church, the keys of heaven, the power of re- 
mitting and retaining sins in His name as His 
agent, the government and discipline of the 
Church, in the local congregation of believers. . 
Lutheranism maintains that Christ, the only 
mediator between God and man, has instituted 
an office in the Church, the ministry of the 
word, for the public administration of the 
means of grace, that this office is conferred on 
its incumbent by Christ’s authority through the 
call of the congregation, and has no power but 
the power of the word as set forth in the Scrip- 
tures, all ministers being equal in rank among 
themselves. Lutheranism looks upon the Lord’s 
Supper as a means of grace, whereby Christ, by 
virtue of His words of institution pronounced in 
the night in which He was betrayed, gives to all 
communicants His body and blood, really pres- 
ent, not by transubstantiation or the change 
into another substance, nor by consubstantiation 
or the formation of a new substance, but by 
sacramental union, to be eaten and drunk’ in, 
with and under the consecrated bread and wine, 
for an assurance of the forgiveness of our sins, 
procured by His sacrifice on Calvary. 

Lutheranism also holds and teaches a doc- 
trine of predestination, not, however, a decree 
of damnation, but only an election and predes- 
tination of the children of God to eternal sal-_ 
vation by faith in Christ Jesus, who is the re- 
deemer not only of the elect, but of all man- 
kind, and by whom the decree of election is 
determined as by its meritorious cause, and not 
as an accessory means of execution. Thus, 
likewise, the gospel and the sacraments, accord- 
ing to the Lutheran concept, are the ordained 
means, whereby the same universal grace, ac- 
cording to which God earnestly desires the sal- 
vation of all men, and, by the power of His 
Spirit in all cases efficaciously, but in no case 
irresistibly, exerted through such means of 
grace, calls, converts or regenerates, sanctifies 
and preserves to eternal life all those who do 
not wilfully and obstinately resist the saving 
grace of God. 

Having thus. briefly portrayed the nature and 
principles of Lutheranism, we proceed to a sum- 
mary sketch of its rise and progress and its 
spread in the era of. the Reformation». 

The cradle of Lutheranism was Saxony. in 
Germany. Here, at Wittenberg, the great Re- 
former taught and preached and wrote under 
the protection of the Elector Frederick the 
Wise, and hand in hand with his successors 
John and John Frederick. The effects of his 
95 theses far exceeded the expectations of their 
author. When Luther published this manifesto, 
he had no thought of the establishment of a 
new church. The very name of Lutherans was 
not adopted by the free choice of those who 
bore it, but was solemnly inflicted upon them 


LUTHERANISM 


in a bull published by Pope Leo X 3 Jan. 1521. 
By this ‘bull Luther and his adherents were ex- 
communicated from the Roman _ Catholic 
Church, and when Luther had refused to recant 
at the Diet at Worms, April 1521, he and the 
Lutherans were also politically outlawed by an 
imperial edict, which exposed them to persecu- 
tion and the death of confirmed heretics. The 
execution of this edict was suspended in Ger- 
many because of the great headway which the 
Lutheran movement had by this time made, and 
for various political reasons, which bound the 
emperor’s hands, and at the Diet at Spires, in 
1526, the German princes and representatives 
formally agreed that everyone should so conduct 
himself toward the Edict of Worms as he would 
deem himself able to answer before God and 
His Imperial Majesty. 

Luther, who had for a time been concealed 
by the Elector in Wartburg castle, had made 
good use of his enforced rest by translating the 
New Testament into German and issuing the 
first instalments of his Church Postil, a collec- 
tion of sermons, from which hundreds of min- 
isters learned how to preach to the people. 
After his return and during the subsequent 
years the Lutheran Church in Saxony was or- 
ganized along conservative lines. Luther pro- 
vided the congregations with forms of worship 
and collections of hymns for public service, 
catechisms for the instruction of young and old 
and an extensive religious literature. 
of schools of various grades was established 
throughout the land and an able ministry was 
educated at the university. The translation of 
the whole Bible was completed in the course of 
years. At a second Diet of Spires, in 1529, a 
majority made an effort to stay the progress of 
Lutheranism in Germany, and in spite of the 
protest of the Lutheran members, from which 
they were called Protestants, these efforts were 
continued at the Diet at Augsburg, in 1530. 
Here, however, the Lutheran princes and cities 
succeeded in presenting to the emperor and Diet 
and thus publishing to the world a statement 
of their faith and doctrine, the Augsburg Con- 
fession, which, in the course of time, was 
adopted as its fundamental creed by the Lu- 
theran Church the world over. In the same year 
an apology of the Augsburg Confession ‘was 
framed and published, which also gained sym- 
bolical standing. // } the transactions of 
the Diet of Augsburg resulted in another pro- 
scription of Lutheranism and the inauguration 
of measures for its extermination, the political 
conditions of the empire continued to be such 
that the emperor and his party could not ven- 
ture to proceed against the dissenters, and while 
Luther lived the progress and spread ‘of Luther- 
anism continued, not only in Germany, but 
throughout Europe. Even when, after Luther’s 
death, Charles V marched his ‘armies against 
his Lutheran subjects and by fraud and force 
led away into captivity the two foremost of the 
German Lutheran princes and began the work 
of stamping out Lutheranism, these reverses, 
though causing considerable disturbance also 
within the Lutheran Church, lasted a few years 
only. The political conditions having once more 
turned in favor of the suppressed party, the 
Lutherans, in 1552, by the Treaty of Passau, 
secured temporary recognition as a church of 
lawful standing in Germany. This recognition 


A system - 


761 


was made permanent by the Peace of Augsburg 
in 1555. This settlement included the Lutherans 
only of all those who dissented from the Roman 
Catholic Church, Zwinglians, Calvinists, Ana- 
baptists and others being excluded. It was thus 
menacing the religious as well as the political 
status of Lutheranism, when men of influence 
in Saxony, the Cryptocalvinists, by clandestine 
operations endeavored to change the Lutheran 
Church of Saxony into a Calvinistic establish- 
ment. At the same time a number of doctrinal 
controversies threatened to vitiate the orthodox 
character of the Church of the Augsburg Con- 
fession, until, by the united labors of Lutheran 
theologians and princes, sound in doctrine and 
deeply concerned about the peace of the Church 
and the purity of its doctrine, the last of the 
great Lutheran Confessions, the Formula of 
Concord, closed the series of Lutheran stand- 
ards, all of which, the Augsburg Confession, its 
Apology, the Smalcald Articles, Luther’s Larger 
Catechism, Luther’s Smaller Catechism, the 
Formula of Concord, together with the three 
ancient Ecumenical Creeds of all Christendom, 
constitute the body of ‘Lutheran Symbols, 
known as the Book of Concord of 1580. 

While Germany was the home of the Luther- 
an Church, Lutheranism obtained a permanent 
foothold and became the church of the realm 
ina number of extra-German countries during 
the period of the Reformation. 

In Sweden Luther’s doctrine was dissem- 
inated as early as 1519 by two brothers, Lars 
and Olav Petersen, who had studied at Witten- 
berg. Under Gustavus Vasa, Lars Petersen was 
made professor of theology at the University 
of Upsala, and Olav Petersen was the leading 
preacher at Stockholm. The Bible was trans- 
lated into Swedish and at the Diets of Westeras, 
1527, at Orebro, 1529, and at Westeras, 1544, 
the organization of the Swedish Lutheran 
Church as a national church with an episcopal 
form of government was effected. 

The first Lutheran preachers in Denmark 
were Peter Lille and Hans Tausen. The or- 
ganizer of the Danish Lutheran Church was 
John Bugenhagen, pastor of Wittenberg, who 
came to Denmark in 1537 and prepared the new 
constitution, which was adopted at Odense in 
1539. Soon after Norway and Iceland were 
also Lutheranized, and thus the Lutheran 
Church was permanently established without 
bloodshed throughout all the Scandinavian 
countries. 

In Prussia the Lutheran Church was planted 
and made the church of this ancient territory of 
the German knights under John George of 
Polenz, bishop of Samland. The new Agenda 
and Church-Order was introduced in 1525 and 
1526, and the new Lutheran University of 
Konigsberg was a colony of Wittenberg, of 
which Sabinus, Melanchthon’s son-in-law, was 
the first rector. 

In Silesia Luther’s doctrine was preached as 
early as 1518. John Hess was called as a 
Lutheran minister by the city council of Bres- 
lau. 

In Poland Luther’s writings were prohibited. 
But in 1521 the Bible was translated into Polish. 
Jacob Knade preached at Danzig. From_Dan- 
zig Lutheranism spread to Elbing and Thorn, 
and by 1548 the Polish Church was preponder- 
atingly Lutheran, 


762 


In the Baltic territories, Riga, Dorpat and 
Reval were Lutheran in 1523, and within two 
decades the Reformation spread throughout 
these whole regions, 

In Hungary the doctrines of the Reforma- 
tion were promulgated by men who had been 
Luther’s students at Wittenberg. In 1549 five 
free cities adopted, the Augsburg Confession, 
and under the influence of. the Reformation 
numerous elementary and advanced. schools 
were opened in cities and villages throughout 
all Hungary. . Merchants who returned -home 
from the fair at Leipzig brought.Luther’s doc- 
trine to Transylvania, and others, who had been 
students at Wittenberg, promoted its spread. A 
Lutheran school was opened at Hermannstadt. 
From 1533 John Honter labored as “Evangelist 
of the Lord at Kronstadt,” and the Reforma- 
tion took its course from town to town. In 
cities and villages and in the open country 
schools were established, and even in the village 
schools Latin and Greek were taught. With the 
schools libraries for the people were connected, 
and endowments were provided for the support 
of young men who were willing to study at 
German universities. 

In Bohemia and Moravia a large part of the 
population embraced the Lutheran faith during 
Luther’s lifetime, and when, after the re- 
former’s death, the emperor made war against 
the Lutherans in Germany, the Bohemian. Lu- 
therans refused to take up arms against their 
brethren in the faith. 

In the Netherlands, also, the Church of the 
Reformation gained headway, © principally 
through the reading of Luther’s works. In 
Antwerp a_ great Lutheran movement took 
place, brought on by the preaching of Flacius 
and Cyriacus Spangenberg, in 1565 and 1566. 
But it was not long before Lutheran services 
were prohibited. The Dutch Reformed Church 
was organized in 1568 and 1571 and proclaimed 
the church of. the realm in 1583... With. the 
Spaniards in possession of Antwerp, in 1585, 
the Lutherans scattered and founded congre- 
gations in Frankfort, Hamburg, Amsterdam, 
Leyden and other cities. Even there they had 
no rest. In Amsterdam they were antagonized 
and Lutheran services were again prohibited. 
Still the Lutheran congregations continued to 
enjoy a rapid and steady growth; so much so 
that'a scarcity of ministers began to make itself 
painfully felt. The Lutherans in Holland had 
made the great mistake of neglecting the estab- 
lishing of schools and colleges for the education 
of. ministers, and this eventually brought about 
their decadence; for the importation of preach- 
ers from foreign countries was accompanied by 
the introduction of unionistic, syncretistic doc- 
trines. and practices. 

France is another country in which Luther’s 
writings were widely circulated and had great 
influence in the Church. A Lutheran congrega- 
tion was organized. at Maux. Faber Stapulen- 
sis, Brigonnier, Jean and Pierre Leclerc were 
some of the most noted preachers. Lefévre 
translated the Bible into French. A _ sound 
Lutheran movement promised a bright future 
for Lutheranism, but the influence of Geneva, 
the stronghold of the Reformed, Church, was 
very strong in France, and through this influ- 
ence the Lutheran movement in France was 
directed into other channels, 


_where they were of vast influence. 


LUTHER’S HYMNN —LUTON 


In England Luther’s books were read as 
early as 1519, especially at the universities, 
Great ef- 
forts were made to suppress these books, and 
they were proscribed very early, but this only 
had the effect that they were now read more 
than ever. Thomas Cranmer. embraced the. 
Lutheran faith, and, though in many ways in- 
consistent, he remained a Lutheran in doctrine 
until the year 1548, when he was won to Cal- 
vinism. He became a martyr in 1556, A ‘col- 
lection of Lutheran hymns was published being 
translations of German hymns, most of them 
Luther’s. In 1536 the Augsburg Confession 
was printed in an exquisite translation by 
Taverner. In Sarcerius’ ‘Commonplaces,> a 
Lutheran handbook of dogmatic theology was 
given the English people... ‘Cranmer, in the 
same year, at the close of which he abandoned 
Lutheranism, wrote an extensive explanation of 
Luther’s Smaller Catechism, in which-the first 
English translation of this catechism, also by 
Cranmer’s hand, was embodied. The death of 
Henry VIII, whose political ambition had been 
to make himself the head of the Lutheran 
League of the continent, the personal acquaint- 
ance of many English and Scotch refugees 
with Calvin at Geneva and the imposing work 
there being reared, and other reasons contrib- 
uted to the ascendency of Calvinism in England 
and Scotland, and the Lutheran movement be- 
came virtually extinct about the middle of the 


_ century. 


For Lutheranism in America see LUTHERAN 
CHURCH IN AMERICA. 
Aucustus LAWRENCE GRAEBNER, 
Late Professor of Theology, Concordia Sem- 
inary, Saint Lowis, Mo. — 
Revised by Lupwic E. FUERBRINGER, 
Professor. of Theology, Concordia Seminary, 
Saint Louis, Mo. 


LUTHER’S HYMN, a name given to the 
celebrated German hymn composed by Luther 
about 1521, entitled ‘Ein’ feste Burg ist unser 
Gott,? well known in the English version, ‘A 
mighty fortress is our God. 


LUTKE, lut’ké, Feodor Petrovitch, 
Coun’, Russian world circumnavigator: b. 
Saint Petersburg, 29 Sept. 1797: d. there, 30 
Aug. 1882. He entered (1813) the English 
service, taking part in the siege of Danzig and 
made the first journey round the world (1817. 
18) under Golovnin. He explored (1821-25) 
the Arctic for a passage, was raised (1823) to 
lieutenant-captain and commanded (1826-28) 
the fourth voyage round the world, exploring 
the coasts of Russia and America and discov- 
ered several islands. In 1842 he was raised to 
the rank of adjutant-general and, in 1845, to 
vice-admiral. In 1864 he became president of 
the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences 
and was raised to the nobility in 1866. He 
wrote several works tn the Russian language, 
chief of which is ‘Four Voyages into the Arc- 
tic Seas? (Saint Petersburg 1829) and ‘Jour- 
ney Round the World in the corvette Senjar- 
vin? (ib. 1835-36). His biography in Russian 
was written by Besobrasov (1889)... 

LUTON, loo’tén, England, town in Bed- 
fordshire, 30 miles northwest by north of Lon- 
don by rati, situated on the river Lea. It has 
an old Gothic church (Saint Mary’s), contain- 


LUTTRINGHAUSEN — LUTZOW 


ing highly interesting brasses and monuments 
and an Early English font. Here are also a 
fine town-hall in Italian style, corn exchange 
and municipal park. It is the chief centre of 
Englands’ great straw-plait industry, which 
originated when James I planted a Lorraine 
colony of straw-plaiters here. There are also 
brass and iron foundries and motor car works. 
The population in 1911 was 49,978. Consult 
Davis, ‘History of Luton? (Luton 1855). 

LUTTRINGHAUSEN, _ lit’ring-hou’zén, 
Germany, town in the government district Diis- 
seldorf, on the Barmen-Rittershausen-Marien- 
heide State Railway and five miles from Elber- 
feld. It is really a group of settlements number- 
ing no less than 110, having municipal rights 
since 1856. There are large gas and water meter, 
gas oven, bathing apparatus, boiler, hardware 
factories, etc. Its population in 1910 was 13,560, 
mostly Evangelical. 


LUTZ, loots’, Frank Eugene, American 
biologist: b. Bloomsburg, Pa., 15 Sept. 1879. 
He was graduated (1900) at Haverford College, 
Pennsylvania, studied (1902) at University of 
Chicago, then entered University College, Lon- 
don, England. He was (1904-09) resident-inves- 
tigator at the station for experimental evolu- 
tion, Cold Spring Harbor, then (1909-16) 
assistant curator of invertebrate zoology at 
American Museum of Natural History, New 
York City, to become associate curator in the 
latter year. He has written ‘Field Book of 
Insects» (1917) and numerous contributions to 
the scientific journals on the subjects variation, 
heredity, assortive mating, entomology, etc. 


LUTZEN, liit’sén, Germany, small town 
of Prussian Saxony, nine miles southwest of 
Leipzig. It derives all its interest from the 
two battles fought in its neighborhood. The 
first belongs to the Thirty Years’ War, being 
fought on 16 Nov. 1632, between the Swedes 
under Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists 
under Wallenstein. The Swedish monarch, 
having joined his forces with those of Bernard, 
Duke of Saxe-Weimar, attacked the enemy in 
a strongly intrenched position. The issue was 
long doubtful, but the Swedes finally triumphed, 
though Gustavus fell in the action. The place 
of his death is marked by a square block of 
granite, called the Schwedenstein (the Swedes’ 
stone). The second battle was fought 2 May 
1813, somewhat farther south, at Gross-Gor- 
schen. It was the first important conflict be- 
tween the allied Russian and Prussian armies 
- and the French under Napoleon in that de- 
cisive campaign. The French numbered 115,- 
000, while the allies had only 70,000. Napoleon 
maintained his position though at a loss of 
18,000 men, against 10,000 of the allies killed 
and wounded. Napoleon being unable to press 
his advantage owing to lack of cavalry, the 
allies retreated in Sie order. Pop. about 


4,086. 
LUTZK, lutsk, Polish LUCK, Poland, 


town in the government Volhynia, on the river 
Styr and a branch of the South-West Railway. 
It has a 16th century castle, three Greco- 
Catholic and two Roman Catholic churches, two 
convents, two synagogues, Catholic seminary, 
etc. This is the centre of a great German 
colony. In the 11th century it was the capital 


763 


of an independent principality but fell (1791) 
into the possession of Germany. Its population 
is about 31,806. 


LUTZOW,, liit’ so, Franz Heinrich Valen- 
tin, CouNT, Austrian author. He was born at 
Hamburg, ‘educated at Vienna and Innsbruck 
and followed a diplomatic career.. He was 
appointed chamberlain of the emperor of Aus- 
tria from 1881. He was IIchester lecturer at 
Oxford (1904), and in 1912 lectured at Amer- 
ican universities. He has published ‘History 
of Bohemian Literature? (1899); ‘Prague, in 
‘Medieval Town series (1901); ‘Historians 
of Bohemia? (1905); ‘Life and Times of 
Master John Hus? (1909): and ‘The Hussite 
Wars? (1914). 


LUTZOW, Karl von, German historian of 
art: b. Gottingen, 25 Dec. 1832; d. 1897. He 
assisted Lubke (q.v.) in editing ‘Denkmaler 
der Kunst, and in 1867 became professor of 
the Polytechnicum, Munich. He _ published 
“Munich Antiques? (7 vols., 1861-69) ; ‘Master- 
pieces of Ecclesiastical Architecture? (1862) ; 
“Monuments of Art,? with Lubke (6th ed., 
1892) ; ‘History of German Copperplate and 
Wood Engraving (1891). He was the founder, 
in 1866, of the ‘Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst,” 
and edited it till his death. 


LUTZOW, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm, 
Baron of, Prussian general: b. Berlin, 18 May 
1782; d. Berlin, 6 Dec. 1834. He is renowned as 
the leader of the noted Freischar (volunteer 
cavalry). He entered the ranks (1795) of the 
Prussian Guards, fought in the Reizenstein 
regiment (1806) at Auerstadt, and joined the 
Schill corps at Kolberg when his regiment was 
disbanded. He organized the cavalry, fighting 
and being wounded at Stargard and, receiving 
(1808) his discharge with the rank of major, 
he rejoined Schill, to be again wounded at 
Dadendorf. He re-entered (1811) the cavalry 
and was empowered (1813) to organize a corps 
of volunteers in Silesia and Jahn, Friesen, 
Korner, etc., joined him. The Liitzow Volun- 
teers were generally called the “Black Troopers” 
after their uniform, and were engaged in at- 
tacking flanks or in guerilla fighting and in 
Thutringen, Hessen and Westphalia raising in- 
surrections. The plan proved a failure on 
account of apathy of the inhabitants and the 
raids on the rear of the French were followed 
by the battle of Grossgorschen. On the 17th 
June in spite of the armistice of Poischwitz 
being in operation Generals Fournier and von 
Normann (the latter a Wurtemberger) am- 
buscaded him near Leipzig and neatly wiped 
out the small body of troopers. They re- 
organized and added to their fame as intrepid 
raiders in the engagement at Gohrde (16 Sept. 
1813) when they helped beat the French divi- 
sion, he again being severely wounded. He 
next is found with his troopers fighting the 
Danes. In March 1814, he was taken prisoner 
by the French militia while carrying dispatches 
from the Silesian army corps under Blticher 
at Chalons. Gaining his freedom when peace 
was made he was advanced to lieutenant-colonel 
and (1814) was given command of the 6th 
Uhlan regiment, to be taken prisoner in the 
battle of Ligny, to be again freed by the peace 
gained through the victory of Belle-Alliance. 
He was raised to a colonelcy in 1815, to major- 


764 


general in 1822, retiring tn 1830 as a lieutenant- 
general. Theodore Korner the poet, one of his 
volunteers, has made the Black Troopers eter- 
nally noted by his gripping poem ‘Lutzows 
wilde Jaged.» Consult Ciselen, ‘Geschichte des 
Liitzowschen Freikorps? (2d ed., Halle 1841). 


LUVERNE, li-vérn’, Minn. _ village, 
county-seat of Rock County, on the Rock 
River, and on the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minne- 
apolis and Omaha and the Chicago, Rock Island 
and Pacific railroads, about 220 miles southwest 
of ‘Saint Paul and 30 miles northeast of Sioux 
Falls, S. Dak. Luverne is situated in an agri- 
cultural region in which are granite quarries 
and fire-clay deposits. The chief industrial es- 
tablishments are flour-mills, grain elevators, 
brick and lumber yards, automobile factories, 
tile works, concrete-block plant and creameries. 
Large nurseries are in the vicinity. The trade 
is principally in flour, granite, grain, live-stock, 
nursery products and dairy products. The 
waterworks and electric-light plants are the 
property of the city. Pop. about 2,782. 


LUXEMBOURG, Francois Henri de 
Montmorency-Bouteville, fran-swa On-ré dé 
mon-m6-ron-sé boo-té-vél luk-s6n-boor, DUKE 
oF, marshal of France: b. Paris, 8 Jan. 1628; d. 
Versailles, 4 Jan. 1695. He served when young 
under the Prince of Condé; in 1662 was made a 
duke and peer of France, and in 1667 lieutenant- 
general. In 1672 he commanded during the in- 
vasion of Holland; in 1673 made a masterly 
‘retreat from Utricht to Maestricht, although 
outnumbered by three to one; and having gained 
the battle of Senef in 1674, was created a mar- 
shal of France (1675). Louvois attempted to 
compass his ruin by involving him in ‘The Af- 
fair of the Poisons? ; he was imprisoned in the 
Bastile, but acquitted; and in the war of 
France against England, Holland, Spain and 
Germany he won the three great battles of 
Fleurus: (1690), Steenkirk (1692) and Neer- 
winden (1693). Consult Segur, R. de, ‘La Jeu- 
nesse de Maréchal de Luxembourg? (Paris 
1900); ‘Le Maréchal de Luxembourg et le 
prince d’Orange 1668-78 (ib. 1902). 


LUXEMBOURG (lutk’sém-bérg, Fr. lik- 
son-boor) PALACE, a structure famous for its 
architecture, art gallery and gardens; situated 
in Paris, in the Rue de Vaugirard. It was be- 
gun in 1616 and completed in 1620. THe art 
gallery was opened in 1780 and closed during 
the Terror, was altered in 1790 and was much 
enlarged in 1830. Here Ney was condemned to 
death after the Restoration in 1815. At this 
latter date a magnificent semi-circular hall was 
built for the session of the House of Peers, and 
later for the Senate... The. Senate hall was 
burned in 1859, but was soon after rebuilt. The 
name of the palace is derived from the Duke 
of Piney-Luxembourg, whose mansion once 
stood on the same site. From 1870 to 1879 the 
palace was occupied by the Prefecture of the 
Seine and the Paris municipal council. Since 
1879 it has been again occupied by the Senate. 


LUXEMBURG, Rosa, German Socialist 
agitator: d. Berlin, 15 Jan. 1919. A Russian- 
Polish Jewess of obscure origin, she was be- 
tween 50 and 60 years of age. According to 
some accounts she married a German in order 
to obtain German nationality, and left him 


LUVERNE — LUXEMBURG 


immediately. A remarkably eloquent speaker, 
she always expounded the most extreme views, 
which gained her the nickname of “Red Rosa.” 
She was a cripple, barely five feet high. In 1906 
she was already working in alliance with Lieb- 
knecht (q.v.), arguing the doctrine of the gen- 
eral strike against Bebel (q.v.) at the Jena Con- 
gress of the German Socialist party, which occa- 
sion led to her first imprisonment for incitement 
to violence.- She invariably advocated direct 
action for the seizure of power, a principle anal- 
ogous to that exemplified by the Russian Bol- 


sheviki. Early in 1914 she made accusations of 
brutality against German army officers, for 
which she was sentenced to imprisonment. Re- 


leased in 1916, she was soon put under preven- 
tive arrest and severely treated. During the 
revolution that followed the German military 
collapse in November 1918 Rosa Luxemburg 
was the fiercest firebrand of the Spartacide 
group. ‘Conflicting reports stated that she was 
shot while being removed under arrest, or was 
felled by the butt-end of a rifle and thrown into 
the canal during a riot in Berlin. Liebknecht 
was killed about the same hour. 


LUXEMBURG, William Alexander, 
Granp DuKE oF: b. April 1852; d. 25 Feb. 
1912. His branch of the family (Walram) suc- 
ceeded to the dukedom on the extinction of the 
male line of the Otho branch on the death of 
the king of Holland in 1890. He became inca- 
pacitated by cancer in 1908, when his consort — 
a Portuguese princess —was appointed to act 
as regent. He left six daughters, the eldest of 
whom, Marie, came of age (18) in 1911 and 
assumed the sovereignty of the grand duchy. 


LUXEMBURG (Fr. lik-s6én-boor, Ger. 
look’sem-boorg), Grand-duchy of, northwest- 
ern Europe, an independent. state,. bounded 
north, east and south by Germany, southwest by 
France and west by Belgium; greatest length, 
north to south, 55 miles; greatest breadth, 34 
miles; area, 998 square miles. It forms part of 
the plateau of the Ardennes, and has a rugged 
and mountainous surface, covered in many parts 
with heaths and morasses, though in general 
well wooded. Its drainage belongs almost en- 
tirely to the basin of the Moselle. Agriculture 
is limited in extent by the nature of the surface, 
but the pastures rear great numbers of cattle, 
sheep and horses, the last long in high repute 
for light cavalry. Considerable quantities of 
iron are smelted from the ore of the duchy. 
The inhabitants are mostly of German origin, 
but French is the language of the educated 
classes and of business. Pop. about 259,891 
(4,007 Protestants, 1,270 Jews). 

Luxemburg in early times formed a part of 
Germany. In 1354 it was erected into a duchy 
by Charles IV. In 1814 it was converted into a 
grand-duchy under the king of Holland. 
Though governed by the Dutch kings as grand- 
dukes it was distinct from the kingdom of Hol- 
land; and on the death of Wilhelm III in 1890 
it passed over to Adolf, Duke of Nassau. It is 
included in the German Customs Union and 
formerly was a member of the German Confed- 
eration, 1815-66. By the terms of the Treaty of 
London of 1867 it became an independent state, 
and its integrity was guaranteed by the great 
European powers. The ruler is assisted in the 
government by a chamber of deputies of 53 


LUXEMBURG—LUZAN 


members, elected directly by the cantons for 
six years, half of whom retire and submit them- 
selves for re-election every three years. The 
revenue for 1917-18 was estimated at 43,761,428 
francs, and the expenditure 48,845,794 francs. 
There are 325 miles of railway in the grand- 
duchy, and 439 of telegraphs. On the outbreak 
of the Great War in August 1914, its neutrality 
was violated by Germany, despite the protests of 
the reigning grand-duchess, Marie Adelaide, 
who had succeeded 12 Feb. 1912, on the death 
of her father, the Grand Duke Wilhelm. The 
territory was occupied by the German army. 
Under the terms of the Peace Treaty of 7 May 
1919 (Section III) it was stipulated that Ger- 
many renounce her various treaties and con- 
ventions with the Grand Duchy and recognize 
that it ceased to be a part of the German 
Zollverein as from 1 Jan. 1919; to renounce all 
right of exploitation of the railroads; to adhere 
to the abrogation of its neutrality and to accept 

in advance any international agreement concern- 
- ing Luxemburg arrived at by the Allied Powers. 
(See War, European). Capital, Luxemburg 
(q.v.). Consult Passmore, T. H, ‘In further 
Ardenne? (London 1905); and Renwick, G., 
‘The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg and Its 
People? (ib. 1913) ; Putnam, Ruth, ‘Luxemburg 
and Her Neighbors’? (New York 1919). 


LUXEMBURG, the capital of the grand- 
duchy of the same name, situated 117 miles 
southeast of Brussels and 42 miles by rail north 
of Metz. Its natural position is so strong, and 
the different powers into whose hands it suc- 
cessively fell did so much to extend and im- 
prove its means of defense, that it was called 
“he northern Gibraltar” From 1839 till 1866 
it. was garrisoned for the Germanic Con- 
federation by Prussian troops, but in accordance 
with the Treaty of London (1867) the fortifica- 
tions were dismantled, the Prussians withdrew 
their troops and the neutrality of the duchy 
was guaranteed by the great European powers. 
During the Great War which began in 1914 it 
was in German occupation. It is divided into 
a low and a high town. The former lies along 
the banks of the Alsette. The latter stands 200 
feet higner, on a plateau with precipices on 
three sides, the surrounding ravine being crossed 
by great viaducts. The town is well built; con- 
tains a town-house, government-house, house of 
deputies, cathedral of Notre Dame dating from 
1613, Atheneum, Roman Catholic seminary for 
priests, grand-ducal palace dating from 1580 but 
rebuilt 1893-94, library, a handsome public park, 
etc. It has manufactures of machinery, leather 
gloves, breweries, dye-works, etc.; and a con- 
siderable trade. Luxemburg is the see of a 
bishop; and during part of the year is the 
residence of the leading families of the duchy. 
Its neighborhood abounds with fine promenades 
and picturesque features of various kinds. Pop. 


LUXOR, lik’sor or look’sér, Upper Egypt, 
a village on the right bank of the Nile, occupy- 
ing the site of ancient Thebes and containing 
splendid ruins of that historic metropolis. See 
THEBES. 

LUZAC, Jean, Dutch editor and champion 
of American independence: b. Leyden; 2 Aug. 
1746; d. 12 Jan. 1807. Editor of the Leyden 
Gazette which, from 1722 to 1783, published in 
Dutch and French, circulated all over Europe 


765 


as a standard authority, giving authentic and 
correct news from the United States of the 
Continental. Congress and armies. He served 
grandly the American cause, for which he was 
thanked by Washington, who sent him a souve- 
nir of his campaigns. Of Walloon descent and 
well educated, he became one of the ablest news 
gatherers and newspaper men in Europe. After 
1785, he was professor of Greek in Leyden 
University, and in 1794-95 was Rector Magnifi- 
cus. He was active during his life as a publicist 
and among his many writings in Dutch and 
Latin was a eulogy on Washington. His tomb 
is in Saint Peter’s Church, Leyden, and there are 
portraits of him. On 8 Sept. 1909 a tablet was 
placed by grateful Americans on his former 
dwelling, at No. 112 Rapenburg, Leyden, which 
was unveiled by one of his descendants, to the 
singing of “The Star Spangled Banner.» . Con- 
sult address by Gulian G. Verplanck, 1818, be- 
fore the New York Historical Society; Griffis, 
‘Brave Little Holland? (1894) ; “Nieuw Neder- 
land Biografisch Woordenboek? (Vol. I, 1911). 


LUZAN, loo-than, Ignacio de, Spanish 
writer: b. Zuragoza, 1702; d. Madrid, 19 May 
1754. He was son of ‘Antonio de Luzan, Lord 
of Castillazuelo and governor of Aragon, while 
his mother belonged to the family of the counts 
of Villar. He was graduated with the degree 
of doctor of theology from the University of 
Catana (Sicily). in 1727. with an excellent 
knowledge of ancient and modern languages, 
mathematics, philosophy, literature, history and 
theology. In 1747 he was appointed secretary 
to the Spanish embassy at Paris. On his re- 
turn to Spain, two years later,, he occupied 
several. important public offices, among them 
head of the mint and treasurer of the Real 
Biblioteca. He became a great favorite with 
the king who liberally pensioned his widow. He 
was a voluminous writer and he left at the time 
of his premature death over 60 works, the most 
important of which are ‘Chronologia para uso 
del estudio? ; ‘Compendio de las cuatro. prin- 
cipales partes de la Filosofia?; ‘Tratados de 
Dote,? etc.; ‘Ri sumen de las Instituciones, con 
notas en auxilio de los textos del Cddigo? ; 
‘Relorica de las conversaciones?; ‘Tratado de 
Ortografia espafiola? ; ‘Método para ensefiar y 
aprender las lenguas?; ‘La Poética? ; ‘Discurso 
apologetico?; ‘La Geganteina?; ‘Perspectiva 
politica?; ‘La vitud coronada? (comedy) ; 
“Origen y Patria de los godos?; ‘Doctrina 
politica sacada de proverbios y palabras de la 
Sagrada -Escritura>; ‘La razon contra la 
moda? (comedy, translated work of Nivelle de 
la Chaussée); ‘La Gatomiomaquia” (satire). 
His literary work also includes many and 
varied translations, among them being odes of 
Sapho, Anachreon, Metastasio, Ovid, Horace 
and Biblical poetry, especially the Psalms. He 
also composed poems in Latin and Italian. The 
range of his literary work was very wide, cover- 
ing poetry, philosophy, politics, grammar and 
languages, criticism and translation. Spanish 
critics place him among the foremost writers of 
Spain; Spanish reviewers who have paid much 
attention to his work are inclined to rank his 
poems and his criticism as superior to his other 
productions. Of the latter his ‘Poética? is his 
best. Luzan is distinguished by imagination, 
beauty of style and clearness of thought. All 
these qualities are present in the ‘Poética," 


766 


which is a notable work for the age in which it 
was written. It has, therefore, had a powerful 
influence on the development of Spanish litera- 
ture. Consult Ticknor, ‘History of Spanish 
Literature? ; White, Blanco, ‘Life of Thom? ; 
any good history of Spanish literature. 


LUZENBERG, loo’zén’bérg, Charles Alo- 
ysius, American physician: b. Verona, Italy, 
1805; d. 1848. He was educated at London and 
at Weissenburg College, Alsace. Leaving Italy 
for the United States in his 14th year, he sub- 
sequently received a medical education at the 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. ° He 
removed to New Orleans in 1829, where he 
made a reputation for brilliant surgery and was 
enabled to establish the famous New Orleans 
Medical School. He visited Paris in 1832, 
where his reputation had preceded him, and he 
was elected corresponding member of the Paris 
Academy. His most important work in Louis- 
iana (where he took up his residence again in 
1834) was the founding of the Society of 
Natural History (1839), and the Louisiana 
Medico-Chirurgical Society (1843), by which 
science has been much fostered and promoted 
in the South. It is believed that he was the first 
physician in the United States, who prevented 
pitting in cases of smallpox, by excluding light 
from the sick chamber. 


LUZERNE, li-zérn, N. Y., town, includ- 
ing a village of the same name, in Warren 
County, on the Hudson River, at the mouth of 
the Sacandaga River, about 20 miles north of 
Saratoga and 10 miles southwest of Lake 
George. Lake Luzerne is in the vicinity. The 
village is situated in an agricultural and lum- 
bering region, and its chief industries are con- 
nected with the manufacture of paper, shirts, 
lumber and with farm products. A_ bridge 
crossing the Hudson connects Luzerne with 
Hadley, a station on a branch of the Delaware 
and Hudson Railroad. The cool climate in this 
region in summer, the beautiful scenery and the 
opportunities for fishing make it a favorite 
summer resort. Pop. 1,185. 


LUZERNE, Pa., post borough of a county 
of the same name eight miles by rail. from 
Lackawanna Junction. It has two drill fac- 
tories, four flour and feed mills, etc., besides 
coal mines. Pop. 5,998. 


LUZON, loo-z6n’ (Sp. loo-thén’), Philip- 
pines, the largest, most populous and wealthy 
and with the exception of the Batanes and 
Babuyanes groups, the northernmost island 
of the Philippine Archipelago, lying south-south- 
west of Japan and south-southeast of China. 
It lies between lat. 12° 32’ and 18° 39’ N. and 
between long. 119° 42’ and 124° 8’ E. On the 
north is the Bashi Channel, connecting the 
Pacific Ocean and the China Sea; on the south 
are the San Bernardino Strait, separating it 
from Samar, the channels of the Visayas Sea 
and Tayabas Bay. 

Topography.— The island is very irregular 
in shape, elongated from north to south and 
southeast, and much wider at the north than at 
the south. It narrows at lat. 14° 30’, and much 
more at lat. 14° between Lamén Bay and Tay- 
abas Bay, where an isthmus unites the larger 
and northwestern part of the island with the 
smaller southeastern part; it is thus divided 
into three territorial divisions, Northern Luzén, 


LUZENBERG — LUZON 


Central Luzén and Southern Luzon. The 
length of Luzon is 283 miles from the north 
coast to Manila, and from there 225 miles south- 
east to Babulgum Point; at its widest point near 
the centre of Northern Luzon it is 138 miles 
wide; at its narrowest point, the isthmus in lat. 
14° , eight miles wide; area, 40,969 square miles, 
with dependent islands, 42,196 square miles. The 
mountain system of Luzon consists of three 
large ranges, the nucleus of which is Caraballo 
de Baler in the province of Neuva Ecija. 
The Caraballos Occidentales form the water- 
shed of Northern Luzon, and extend about 150 
miles near the western coast and parallel with 
it; the Sierra Madre range, starting at Cara- 
ballo de Baler, extends .northeast to Cape 
Engafio; the Caraballos Sur, starting at the 
same point, extends south to Banahao, then 
turns to the southeast and terminates near the 
straits of San. Bernardino. This range has 
several important branches, one ending on the 
south side of the bay of Baler. Among the. 
more important single mountains the following 
may be mentioned: Data (7,364 feet), and Bur- 
nay (6,376 feet), of the Caraballos Occidentales; 
Cana (3,830 feet) of Sierra Madre; and Bulusan 
and Mayon (7,916 feet) of the southern range. 
The three last mentioned are volcanoes, of which 
Mayon is the most active. Luzon is well 
watered; the longest river is the Rio Grande 

e Cagayan, running nearly the whole length of 
Northern Luz6n; three other large rivers 
traverse this part of the island, and there are 
numerous smaller streams. The Pasig River, 
although the shortest of all, is from a human 
standpoint by far the most important of all. 
Its length is 15 miles, and it affords communica- 
tion between the Laguna de Bay, the largest 
of the island’s lakes, and Manila Bay. Its 
importance is mainly due to the great volume 
of commerce which travels along it and to the 
fact that the capital of the archipelago is 
situated at its mouth. This river is tidal in its 
lower section, and very deep up to Fort Mc- 
Kinley; from that point to the lake it is much 
narrower and quite shallow in places, and has 
a very treacherous current. The coastal plains 
about the island are, as a rule, very narrow, the 
maximum width being about 10 miles. The 
mountains are nearly everywhere close to the 
sea. The dominant features of Luzon, as of 
other portions of the archipelago, are the 
enormous coast line and the mountainous char- 
acter of much of its interior. © 

Roads and Industries— There are a 
number of fine roads in Luzén, which centre 
at Manila, connecting it with remote points. 
In 1917 there were 616 miles of railways in 
operation. All the staple crops of the archi- 
pelago grow in abundance, and the chief in- 
dustries of the island are agriculture, and the 
development of the products into the advanced 
forms of manufacture; the mechanical indus- 
tries are very largely confined to Manila. 
Luz6én is also rich in forests, having all the 
woods used in building, as well as the gum- 
producing, medicinal and dye-trees. 

Mineral and Agricultural Products.— Gold © 
is found in Nueva Ecija; copper (in the form 
of arsenates and sulphides) in the Mancayan- 
Suyoc district of the Mountain province; iron 
occurs in a fairly well-defined belt which 
follows the east coast for a short distance, 


LUZZATTI — LYALL 


beginning in the Camarines and then turning 
toward the interior, where it reaches, so far as 
our knowledge now goes, its greatest develop- 
ment near the town of Angat in Bulacan 
province. One of the principal localities in 
which coal is found is Batan Island, Albay 
province, where it is of a sub-bituminous 
variety, with volatile combustible, 39.98 per 
cent; fixed carbon, 48.80 per cent; ash, 5.70 per 
cent; moisture, 5.74 per cent and sulphur, 0.66 
per cent. Salt springs occur in the Mountain 
province. Agricultural products are those of 
the buri and nipa palms (buri and tuba), cocoa, 
coffee, cotton, tobacco, hemp, pineapples, 
bananas, betel nuts, copra, mangoes, corn, rice, 
sugar, sweet potatoes, etc. The live-stock raised 
on this island is. given as two-thirds of the 
total (including domestic animals and poultry) 
for the entire archipelago. : 

Salient Facts— A writer in the Journal of 
Geology (Vol. XXI, pp. 29-61, Chicago 1913) 
observes that “because of its great strategic 
importance and because it is the home of the 
only Christianized people of Malay origin, 
Luzon is of more than passing interest. Geo- 
logically, it is worthy of constant study as. it 
is a link in that great Circle of Fire which 
girds the Pacific. As a mining field, evidence 
is already abundant that Luzén will before 
many years have a place in the very first rank.” 
He adds that its geographical position is also 
noteworthy, this being a region of tremendous 
rainfall (45. inches in 24 hours, Baguio Ob- 
servatory record, July 1911) and in the track of 
the most frequent and violent typhoons; and 
that as it extends to lat. 21°. N. and has much 
high level country, which is at the same time 
fertile, it should be colonized by white men. 
Historically interesting are the following facts: 
It was the first. of the Philippine Islands to 
come under the control of the United States; 
it was the scene of the earliest military opera- 
tions. against the insurgents, and the base of 
operations for campaigns of occupation of the 


other islands. See articles on individual 
provinces and general article PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS. 


According to the official post route maps, 
showing post-offices, etc., in operation on 
1 Oct. 1914, Apayao, Kalinga, Lepanto, Bontoc, 
Ifugao and Benguet are all included in Moun- 
tain province. The total number of Luz6én’s 
inhabitants (including about 220,000 uncivilized) 
is, in 1917, somewhat more than 3,800,000. Con- 
sult ‘Census of the Philippine Islands, taken 
under the Direction of the Philippine Commis- 
sion? (Washington 1905); Philippine Journal of 
Science (Vol. V, Manila 1910); Wilcox, M., 
‘Harper’s History of the War in the Philip- 
pines? (New York 1900): Worcester, D. C., 
‘The Philippines Past and Present? (New 
York 1914). 

Provinces and Population.— The provinces 
into which Luzon is divided are as follows: 


Albay. Kalinga. 
Apayao. Laguna. 
Ambos Camarines (Norte La Unién. 

and Sur). Lepanto-Bontoc. 
Bataan. Nueva Ecija. 
Batangas. Nueva Vizcaya. 
Benguet. Pampanga. 
Bulacan. Pangasinan. 
Cagayan. Rizal. 
Cavite. Sorsogon. 
Ifugao. Tarlac. 
Ilocos (Norte and Sur). Tayabas. 
Isabela. Zambales. 


767 
LUZZATTI, loo-tsat’té, Luigi, Italian 
statesman and financier: b, Venice, 1841. Ofa 


wealthy Jewish family, he studied law in the 
Instituto Tecnico at Milan and was appointed 
(1867) professor of political economy at the 
Padua University. In 1870 he was elected a 
member of the Chamber of Deputies but the 
election was declared illegal because he had not 
yet become of the necessary legal age and he 
was not admitted till 1871, after a third elec- 
tion had been held. He quickly gained fame on 
questions of finance and was several times mem- 
ber of the Budget Committee. He was Minis- 
ter of the Treasury (1891-92) in the Rudini- 
Nicotera Cabinet and filled that office also 1896- 
98, when he went to Perugia as professor. In 
1903 he was given a portfolio for the third time 
as Minister of the Treasury under Giolitti, con- 
tinuing in‘ofice under Sonnino (1906). In 1910 
he became president of the ministry with port- 
folio of Minister of the Interior. He wrote 
‘Lo Stato e la Chiesa nel Belgio? (1866); ‘Il 
socialismo e le questioni sociali dinanzi ai par- 
lamenti d’Europa? (1883); “Le classi dirigenti e 
gli operai in Ingkilterra? (1893); ‘La liberté 
de conscienze et de science? (1910). 
LUZZATTO, loo-tsat’ts, Samuel David, 


Jewish theologian and Hebraist: b. Triest, 22 
Aug. 1800; d. Padua, 29 Sept. 1865. He greatly 


‘advanced the study of Jewish science independ- 


ently through such work as translating the He- 
brew prayers and biblical works such as the 
Pentateuch with the Hastarot, Isaiah, Job, etc., 
into the Italian, through commentaries, disserta- 
tions on the Hebrew and Chaldaic languages, 
Targum Onkelos, Kabbala, etc. He issued 
treasures in manuscript from his library and 
sent many monographs to the _ periodicals. 
Among the most prominent of his other works 
are ‘Elementi grammaticali del caldeo biblico e 
del dialetto talmudico babilonese? (1865); 
‘Grammatica. della lingua ebraica? (1853); 
“Introduzione critica ed ermeneutica al Penta- 


teuco? (1870). 


LVOFF, l’vof, Alexei Fedorowitch, Rus- 
sian violinist and composer: b. Reval, 6 June 
1799; d. Kovno, 7 Jan. 1871. He obtained a 
thorough training on the violin early in life but 
continued his studies after entering the army. 
His zealous work brought him the rank of 
major-general and adjutant of the Emperor 
Nicholas as well as director of the choir at the 
court (1837-61), during the same time acting 
as inspector of musical education at the schools. 
Toward the last he lived a retired life on ac- 
count of his loss of hearing. He composed 
(1833) the music for the Russian national an- 
them, ‘God protect the Tsar? for the ceremony 
of unveiling the monument of Shukovski, who 
wrote the words. Among his operas are ‘Un- 
dine? (1848), his only one that was a success; 
‘Bianca e Gualterio (1845); © “Starosta? 
(1854). He wrote from his great knowledge 
of Russian Church songs ‘Concerning the free 
and unsymmetrical rhythm of the true old-Rus- 
sian songs.? Numerous violin compositions for 
concert, duet, quartette, etc., were written by 
this clever composer. ‘Consult his autobiog- 
raphy (2d ed., Saint Petersburg 1896); Lvoff, 
E. N., “Memoirs? (ib. 1880). 


LYALL, li’al, Srr Alfred Comyn, English 
author and civil servant: b. 1835; d. 10 April 
1911. He was educated at Eton and Hailey- 


768 


bury, entered. the Bengal civil service and 
served with distinction in the volunteer cavalry 
during the Indian Mutiny. He was appointed 
home secretary to the Indian government in 
1873, and foreign secretary in 1874, and was 
governor of the Northwest Provinces of India 
1882-87. He was afterward a member of the 
Council of India, 1888-1903. He was the 
founder of the new university of Allahabad. 
He was created K.C.B. in 1881, and G.C.LE. in 
1896. He was the author of ‘Verses Written 
in India? (1889); ‘British Dominion in India? 
(1893); ‘Asiatic Studies» (1882, 1899); ‘Life 
of Warren Hastings? (1889); ‘Tennyson? in 
the English Men of Letters series (1902) ; ‘Life 
of Lord Dufferin? (2 vols., 1905) ; and ‘Studies 
in Literature and History? (1915). His ‘Life,? 
by H. M. Durand, was published in 1913. 


LYALL, Edna. See Bayty, Apa ELLEN. 


LYALL, James, American inventor: b. 
Auchterarder, Scotland, 13 Sept. 1836; d. New 
York, 23 Aug. 1901. He was brought to this 
country as a child; when old enough worked at 
loommaking in his father’s shop; was a soldier 
of the 12th New York Infantry during the early 
part of the Civil War; and afterward became a 
manufacturer of jute and cotton goods and of 
machines. He designed corset-making machin- 
ery.and produced the first machine-made corsets 
ever manufactured. He also invented a water- 
proof varnish, and in the latter part of the war 
knapsacks and haversacks waterproofed by his 
process were largely used in the Union army. 
The Lyall positive-motion loom, -for weaving 
wide fabrics, was invented by him in 1863, Va- 
rious other inventions of his are much em- 
ployed in cotton manufacture. He received 
many medals and decorations, including the 
gold medal of honor from the American Insti- 
tute, bestowed on him in 1869. 


LYCANTHROPY. See WErReE-WOLF. 


LYCAON, li-ka’6n, a mythical king of Ar- 
cadia, generally represented as a son of Pelas- 
gus by Melibcea, daughter of Oceanus, and de- 
scribed by some as the first civilizer of Arcadia, 
by others as a barbarian who defied the gods. 
He became by several wives the father of a 
great number of sons, so notorious for arro- 
gance and impiety that Jupiter resolved to pun- 
ish them. Appearing to them at their dwelling 
in Arcadia disguised as a poor man, they invited 
him to a repast, at which was served up the 
flesh of a boy whom they had murdered. The 
god, rejecting the food, transformed Lycaon and 
all his sons save one into wolves, or according 
to other accounts destroyed them by a flash of 
lightning. The flood of Deucalion was said by 
some to have been a consequence of the crimes 
of the Lycaonidz. 


LYCAONIA, lik-a-é’ni-a, Asia Minor, the 
name of an ancient division which was bounded 
north, east, south, southwest and west by Gala- 
tia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria and Phrygia, 
and is now included in the Turkish province of 
Caramania. It is a somewhat bleak region; 
sheep and wild asses were bred here in ancient 
times, Lycaonia is first mentioned in Xeno- 
phon’s history of the expedition of the younger 
Cyrus as belonging to the Persian Empire. 
After its conquest by Alexander and his death, 
it was attached to the kingdom of Syria, and 
subsequently came into ‘the possession of 


LYALL — LYCEUM 


Eumenes, king of Pergamus, while the other 
part was ruled by native chieftains. In the lat- 
ter half of the lst century B.c. it was conquered 
by Amyntas, king of Galatia, with which coun- 
try it passed on his death to the Romans under 
Augustus, being annexed to the province of 
Cappadocia. The inhabitants, according to the 
Acts of the Apostles, spoke a peculiar dialect. 
They were warlike and skilled in archery. The 
principal town was Iconium, now Konieh, which 
stood close by the great highroad from Sardis 
and Ephesus to the Sicilian gates. Consult 
Ramsay, ‘Historical Geography of Asia? (Lon- 
don 1890); and ‘Cities of ‘Saint Paul? (New 
York 1907). 


_ LYCEE (French for lyceum), the designa- 

tion in France for state schools for secondary 
or intermediate education providing a three 
years’ classical course preparatory to the higher 
and final courses of instruction given by uni- 
versities, with their faculties of letters, law 
and medicine. The number of lycées for boys 
is 112, with an average attendance of 63,000, 
maintained at an annual expenditure of nearly 
45,000,000 of francs; the number of lycées for 
girls is 52, maintained at an expenditure of 
about five and one-half millions of francs. 
Nearly 5,000,000 of francs are devoted annu- 
ally to scholarships and prizes in lycées for 
boys and girls. There are also communal col- 
leges for secondary education, comparable to 
the American high school. The. course of 
studies in the lycée, however, is of a much more 
extended character than that of the communal 
college, the lycées of the larger towns prepar- 
ing students for positions in the different ad- 
ministrative departments of the national gov- 
ernment. The lycées originated under the first 
republic, and their courses of instruction, ad- 
ministration and discipline occupy an import- 
ant position in the decree of 17 March 1808, 
on the reorganization of the university system. 
From 1815 to 1848, during the restoration of 
the monarchy, the lycées were called royal col- 
leges (colléges royaux). . 


LYCEUM (Latin, from the Greek Lykeion 
the great gymnasium of ancient Athens), a 
school of higher education preparatory to the 
work of the university; and in a secondary 
sense, a public building or hall in which lectures 
of a scientific and informative nature are given. 
A later meaning of the word, which has, in the 
United States and Canada pretty nearly sup- 
planted its more primitive significations, is that 
of an association for literary and educational 
improvement. The American Scientific Lyceum 
was the idea of Josiah Holbrook of Derby, 
Conn., who, in 1826, organized the “Millbury 
Branch No. 1 of the American Lyceum.” Hol- 
brook was one of the first advocates in the 
United States of the necessity of teaching the 
natural sciences in American schools. Previous 
to 1826 he had spent some years lecturing from 
town to town throughout Massachusetts and 
Connecticut on geology and mineralogy and 
incidentally on others of the natural sciences ; 
and he organized, in the various villages and 
towns where he lectured, societies for the pur- 
pose of collecting specimens and the extension 
of mutual aid on the part of the members in 
their study of science. His efforts. long per- 
sisted in, did much to introduce into the public 


LYCEUM 


schools of the United States the systematic and 
practical study of the natural sciences. MHol- 
brook dreamed of seeing established in every 
town and village of the United States a branch 
of what is called “The American Lyceum,” with 
library and natural history, minerological, geo- 
logical and other specimens, catalogued, grouped 
and arranged in the best manner for study on 
the part of the members of the lyceum, who 
were expected to mutually aid one another. 
According to his plan there were to be country, 
town, State and national lyceums, the national 
lyceums being composed of delegates from the 
State lyceums, and the latter of delegates from 
the country and town institutions. Some 15 
neighboring villages. responded to Holbrook’s 
call within a few months of the organization of 
the Millbury branch. By the end of 1827 these 


had increased to over 100; and a year later there _ 


were lyceums in nearly every State. in the 
Union; and by 1834 some 3,000 lyceums had 
been established in towns throughout the United 
States. Some States, like Massachusetts, ap- 
pointed State boards to promote lyceum work. 
The States ran races with one another in their 
efforts to organize State lyceum associations. 
New York was the first in this race, but was 
followed closely by Massachusetts and several 
other New England States. Florida, too, was 
up near the top of the list. In May 1831 a 
convention for the organization of an American 
Lyceum met in New York City representing, 
through its delegates, over 1,000 town lyceums. 
The new organization took its stand for “the 
advancement of education, especially in the com- 
mon schools, and the general diffusion of knowl- 
edge.” A national. convention was held in 
1839, constituting itself the American Lyceum 
Union; and its enthusiastic meeting, which was 
extensively reported in the press, had very con- 
siderable influence upon the improvement of 
the public school system of the United States. 
It and the State and town lyceums bequeathed 
to the American people educational, literary and 
other associations, lecture bureaus, scientific 
societies and a nation-wide interest in the study 
of science.’ From one end of the land to the 
other men prominent in educational, literary, 
ecclesiastical and political life took an active 
part in the lyceum movement, and the larger 
cities were as active and enthusiastic in the 
work as the towns and country villages.) There 
was scarcely a New England town that did not 
have its lyceum organization. In this; work 
. Boston led the way, and its lyceum was pre- 
sided over for several years by no less a per- 
sonage than Daniel Webster. Down into the 
closing years of the 19th century the activity of 
the lyceum continued to hold aloft the banner 
of self-instruction through lectures, debates, 
classes for study and mutual help, essays, con- 
versation and public readings and recitations. 
Weekly meetings were generally held and home 
talent, for the most part, supplied the program 
free of charge during the first 15 or more 
years of the life of the lyceum. About. this 
time some of the more flourishing of the town 
and city lyceums began to pay the traveling ex- 
penses and even to occasionally offer a small 
fee for the services of some bright particular 
star of some other lyceum. Concord paid 
Daniel Webster $100 for a lecture and Ralph 
Waldo Emerson and Thoreau were in demand 
VOL. 17 — 49 


769 


as attractions for special lyceum events. The 
custom of paying lecturers once established, a 
galaxy of lyceum stars soon appeared in the 
horizon. Among these were Starr King, Theo- 
dore Parker, Horace’'Greely, Edward Everett 
Hale, Henry Ward Beecher, Oliver Wendell 
Holmes, Agassiz, Lowell, James T.. Fields, 
George W. Curtis, Edwin Whipple, Wendell 
Phillips and Charles A. Dana. It was about 
this time that the professional lecturer made 
his appearance. Emerson led the way, being 
immensely popular and ‘may be said to have 
created ‘the profession. He was soon followed 
by John B. Gough, Willits, Curtis, Whipple, 
O. W. Holmes, Bayard Taylor, W. L. Garrison 
and Fred Douglas. The most’ brilliant names 
in the history of American oratory began to 
appear on lyceum programs; among them being 
those of women lecturers who were later on 
the road to ‘achieve national reputations. Lucy 
Stone, Anna Dickinson, Elizabeth Cady Stanton 
and Mary Livermore were among the “burning 
brands» of these early days of lyceum activity 
and enthusiasm. ° 

Lyceum Reconstruction.— The heat of po- 
litical opinion occasioned by the agitators pre- 
ceding’ the outbreak of the Civil War’ and the 
years of the war itself destroyed fully 90 per 
cent of the lyceums throughout the land; and 
when the war was over'there was little left of 
them ‘but the material with which to begin 
building anew. Although the lyceums had 
fared’ badly they had left behind them a won- 
derful abundance of high class talent which was 
to he found, for the most part, in the East.::In 
1867 the “Associated” Western Literary Soci- 
eties” was organized for the purpose of bring- 
ine west, through the mutual efforts of the 
Western lyceums, the best Eastern lecturers: 
The first’ year the organization, which’ con- 
sisted of 110 lyceums, ‘brought west 35 lecturers 
and gave them consecutive dates at much better 
pay than they had- ever’before received. The 
association was a sticcess from the first, and 
after three years it joined hands with the Amer- 
ican Literary Bureau of New York. The Boston 
Lyceum Bureau was already in the field in 
1868, and the Williams Lecture and Musical 
Bureau began business the following year. The 
East had begun to outbid the West for the best 
lyceum’ talent and got it. The greatest names 
of the day appeared on the lyceum bureaus’ bill 
of:fare. The thorough organization: of the lec- 
ture field followed and the popular lyceum stars 
soon found themselves in clover. Early in his 
career as a lecturer, Mark Twain received $300 
a night and Beecher $500. Among those who 
received $200 and upward for a single lecture 
were Barnum, Robert.Collyer, Anna Dickinson 
and Gough. The Pond Bureau suddenly raised 
these high prices in order to secure the best 
talent in the. field, paying Beecher $1,000 per 
lecture and Henry M. Stanley, just back from 
Africa, $100,000 for 100 lectures. Stanley’s first 
lecture brought in. almost $18,000. So great was 
the demand for good lecturers that there were 
not enough to fill the bill, and readers and mus- 
ical entertainers were pressed into service. 
Some of the former, like Helen Potter, Mrs. 
Scott Siddons and. Charlotte Cushman became 
immensely popular and were eventually as highly 
paid as the lecturers. Musical clubs, lyceum 
opera companies, concert companies and dra- 


770 


matic readers became a fixed part of the lyceum 
program; and the expenses of the bureaus arose 
to such high proportions that more organization 
was necessary to meet them. Then the advance 
agent, the seller of lyceum talent, was put upon 
the road and scores of new bureaus for the 
handling of lyceum talent came into the field. 
By the end of the 19th century these numbered 
over 100 and five years later they had reached 
150, with thousands of entertainers of all kinds 
on their lists. 

Chautauqua Societies came to intensify the 
life of the lyceum movement. By this. time 
these societies had already neared the 500 mark, 
and they went on increasing rapidly and in so 
doing made further demands upon the efforts 
of the bureaus. The organization of talent into 
bands which gave their time, throughout the 
summer season, to the summer Chautauqua fol- 
lowed, and the selling of bureau talent became 
the business of trained agents who completely 
covered the country. 

Out of these Chautauqua courses sprang Uni- 
versity Extension work with its many ramifica- 
tions; and the free lecture courses furnished by 
schools, colleges, other institutions, cities and 
towns. Of these the most noted are the free 
lecture courses of the New York City board 
of education. Boston, Chicago, Milwaukee, 
Philadelphia and other large American cities 
have been active along this line. The natural 
result of all this activity was the organiza- 


tion, in 1903, of the International Lyceum 
Association in Chicago, which has yearly, 
since that date,- held meetings of several 
days’ duration in some prearranged city, 


such as Philadelphia, Elkhart, Ind., Valparaiso, 
Ind., and Chautauqua. The lyceum movement 
early extended to Canada where it became very 
active, established talent-selling bureaus and 
perfected its own organizations. (See UNIVER- 
sity EXTENSION; CHAUTAUQUA SocieETIEs; Lit- 
ERARY SOCIETIES; NEw York City Free Lec- 
TURES; INTERNATIONAL LycEUM ASSOCIATION). 
Consult the biographies of Beecher, Gough, 
Emerson and other noted lecturers mentioned 
in this article, Lyceum. Magdzine, Lyceum 
World, and Wright, A. A., ‘A Brief History of 
the Lyceum? (in “Who’s Who in the Lyceum,” 


Philadelphia 1906). 
Joun Husert Cornyn, 
Editorial Staff of The Americana. 
LYCEUM MOVEMENT, an educational 
project launched by Josiah Holbrook at Mill- 
bury, Mass., in 1826. Its primary object was to 
establish lyceums in various cities to stimulate 


educational institutions .and ventures along 
three lines: (1) the improvement of the public 
schools; (2) the organization of libraries and 


museums; (3) the formation of lecture courses 
and the establishment of classes for the educa- 
tion of adults. The movement became exceed- 
ingly popular, especially in regard to the second 
and third purposes. Noteworthy monuments 
testifying to the work accomplished are the 
Lowell Institute and the Mercantile Library 
Association in Boston, and the Brooklyn Insti- 
tute. The American Lyceum Association was 
organized to further the plans of the movement. 
It was active in stimulating a live interest in 
the public school question; in introducing new 
subjects and equipment into the school curricula; 
furthering education of girls and women and 


LYCEUM MOVEMENT — LYCIDAS 


correlating the work of the secondary schools 


‘with that of higher institutions of learning. A 


number of lyceum bureaus were established to 
serve as central offices for making ‘arrange- 
ments for speakers, exhibits, etc., and for the 
gathering of information for lyceum centres. 
The school work of the lyceum movement is 
carried on largely to-day by the various educa- 
tion and teachers’ associations; its program for 
the education of adults has been absorbed and 
enlarged by the Chautauqua and University Ex- 
tension (qq.v.) movements and various women’s 
and civic clubs; and the American Library As- 
sociation has taken over the work of -establish- 
ing libraries. 


LYCH-GATE. See Liew GATE. 


LYCHNIS, lik’nis, a genus of plants of 
the pink family (Silenacee) comprising many 
species well known both as weeds in waste 
places throughout the northern hemisphere, and 
as garden ornaments, They have a five-toothed 
naked calyx, five clawed petals, 10 stamens, 
and five styles, with flowers generally in, termi- 
nal corymbs. Ragged Robin, or cuckoo- flower 
(L. flos-cuculi), a native of Europe, is often 
cultivated and sometimes runs wild in isi 
United States; white campion (L. alba) , 
another species naturalized from Europe; ie 
also are the red campion (EZ, dioica), and some 
others. Many foreign species are cultivated in 
gardens, among which are the scarlet lychnis 
(L.. chalcedonica) and the mullein-pink (ZL. 


coronaria). Several. species are indigenous” to 
Arctic North America. 
LYCIA, lis‘i-a, . Asia Minor, an ~ancient 


maritime province, bounded -by Caria on the 
west, Pamphylia on the east and Pisidia-on the 
north. Its fertility and populousness are. at- 
tested by the 27 cities mentioned. by. Pliny, which 
formed.a confederated republic, with a congress 
which regulated the public concerns, and a presi- 
dent. called the Lyciarch. sLycia was. colonized 
by the Greeks at a very early period, and its his- 
torical inhabitants were Greeks, though with a 
mixture of aboriginal blood. They and the Cili- 
cians were the only people west of the Halys 
whom ‘Creesus did not conquer, and they were 
the last who held out against the Persians. Con- 
sult Fellows, ‘Account of Discoveries in saat 
(1841). 


LYCIDAS, lis’i-das. A pastoral elegy con- 
tributed by John Milton to a memorial vol- 
ume published at Cambridge in: 1638 in* honor 
of Edward King, a prospective parish «priest, 
who, while on a voyage to Ireland, perished in 
a shipwreck off the Welsh coast in August 1637. 
Little is known of Milton’s relations with King 
or of the circumstances attending the writing 
and publishing of ‘Lycidas,? but there ‘is > evi- 
dence that the poet bestowed much pains upon 
his elegy which has come to be regarded as a 
masterpiece in its kind, ‘being practically un- 
surpassed in English poetry in rich beauty and 
noble harmony. Tennyson told Edward Fitz- 
Gerald, who seems’ to have shared the opinion, 
that Lycidas? “was a touchstone of poetic 
taste.» 

In kind ‘the poem holds by the: pastoral 
elegies of the ancients, _Theocritus, Bion, 
Moschus, Virgil and of their Renaissance imi- 
tators, but it dispenses with some typical 
features, e.g., the refrain, and it swells, Partic- 


LYCIUM—LYCURGUS 


ularly in the passage that introduces Saint Peter 
denouncing the corruption of the English clergy, 
to an ode-like intensity of lyric utterance that 
might warrant the claim that in ‘Lycidas> Mil- 
ton created a new form of elegy, one blending 
the primary poem of lamentation with the 
pastoral and the ode. The exceptional features 
to be observed in the verse-lengths and the 
thymes, which show Italian influence, give color 
to this view. Few poems better repay the 
student who is interested in the sources from 
which a great poet. draws his materials, but 
such study of ‘Lycidas> only efftances respect 
for Milton’s art and leaves his right to be re- 
garded as essentially original unimpaired. 

Admirers of ‘Lycidas? have found difficulty 
in keeping their praise within bounds, but it 
has. not lacked detractors, the most conspicuous 
of whom is Dr. Johnson. Hostile criticism is 
generally based on the artificial elements of the 
poem, which it shares with other pastorals, on 
the alleged lack of a deep personal interest on 
the part of the elegist in the ‘subject of. his 
elegy, and on the assumed incompatibility of 
the denunciatory passage on the clergy with the 
soft, pensive tone of regret which should char- 
acterize an elegy. The first objection applies, 
however, to poems like ‘Adonais> and ‘Thyrsis,” 
for example, and opens up the large topic of 
the place of the conventional in art; the second 
overlooks the possibility that Milton sincerely 
lamented, the loss of King in his public capacity 
as a man who might have done. service as a 
reformer of the Church; the third may perhaps 
be parried by asking whether, if Milton did thus 
lament King, the much-censured Saint Peter 
passage ‘is not the natural culmination ‘of a 
blended ode’and pastoral elegy, of a fusion of 
kinds of poetry which has successfully borne 
the best of all tests, that of the experience of 
lovers of poetry throughout nearly three cen- 
turies. ‘Lycidas? in the judgment of so many 
readers stands so supreme among English 
poems of moderate length that depreciation of 
it will probably,.as time. goes. by, become 
negligibly sporadic. 

WILLIAM P.. TRENT. 

~ LYCIUM, a genus of shrubby and thorny, 
erect or climbing plants of the Solanacee 
family, about. 75 species of which are. scat- 
tered throughout the temperate and warm parts 
of the world: Of the American species none is 
noteworthy except one naturalized from Europe 
called box-thorn or matrimony-vine (L. halimi- 
. folium), which bears funnel-form flowers, pur- 
plish changing to greenish, and red berries. 

LYCOMEDES, lik-6-mé'déz, legendary king 
of the island of Scyros. He was the son of 
Apollo and Parthenope, and Thetis gave to him 
the charge of her son, Achilles, disguised in 
woman’s apparel, to prevent his going to the 
Trojan War. 

LYCOPERDACEA!,, 1i’k6-pér-da’sé-é. See 
Funct. 

LYCOPHRON, 1i’k6f-ron, Greek poet and 
grammarian: b. Chalcis, Eubcea, 3d century B.c. 
He lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus (283-247), whose favor he won by the 
invention of anagrams. Of all his writings 
there remains but one tragedy, ‘Cassandra? 
(Alexandra), written in iambics. It has no 
pretensions to poetical merit. and is but a cum- 
brous store of learning and obscure allusions. 


771 


It is, properly speaking, a continued soliloquy, 
in which Cassandra predicts the fall of Troy, 
and the fate of all the heroes and heroines 
who shared its ruin. It affords some informa- 
tion of value respecting antiquities and mythol- 
ogy. 

LYCOPODIALES. See Ferns anp FERN- 
ALLIES. 


LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of 
club-mosses (q.v.), containing many species of 
the northern hemisphere, of which several be- 
long to the United States. They are low creep- 
ing evergreen plants. A common example is the 
ground-pine (L. clavatum), which creeps upon 
the ground in heathy tracts with long, branch- 
ing stems. L. rubrum is a violent cathartic, and 
has been used successfully in Spanish America 
in cases of elephantiasis. L. clavatum and. L. 
selago excite vomiting. The yellow powder 
contained in the spore-cases of all the species is 
very inflammable, and is employed in the manu- 
facture of fireworks and in the flashing of 
torches or production of mimic lightning on the 
theatrical stage. It is also employed to cover 
pills, so as to prevent them being acted upon by. 
moisture, and-is known in England’ under the 
name of lycopode or vegetable brimstone, and 
in Germany as Blitzmehl or Hexenmehl (light- 
ning meal or switches’ meal). Many of. the 
species are prized for their beauty, and are 
cultivated in -hothouses or fern-cases, where 
they thrive well. 

LYCURGUS, 'li-kér’giis, Spartan lawgiver ; 
flourished in the 9th century B.c., according to 
the commonly received traditions. He was the 
youngest son of .the Spartan king Eunomus. | 
His eldest brother, Polydectos, succeeded his 
father in the government, but died soon after. 
His: wife proposed to Lycurgus to destroy her 
unborn child by her late husband, if he would 
share the throne with her. When:she gave birth 
to.a son, Charilaus, Lycurgus proclaimed him 
king, and became his guardian. Being desirous 
of examining the political constitutions of other 
lands, Lycurgus left Sparta. On his return the 
entire community requested him to draw up a 
constitution for them, and he undertook the task. 
The old constitution was completely remodeled; 
the. highest position in the state was to be 
shared by two kings, whose powers were coun- 
terbalanced by a senate (gerousia). The peo- 
ple obtained a voice in public affairs. The 
native race or Lacedemonians were confined to 
the pursuits of trade, commerce and agricul- 
ture; the Helots or slaves to all those menial 
employments which a freeman would consider 
as a disgrace; while the Spartans.became the 
warriors of the state. Lycurgus also intro- 
duced a redistribution of property. Obtaining 
from the god at Delphi an approving oracle for 
his institutions, he exacted a promise from his 
countrymen not to make any alterations in the 
laws before his return from a journey he was 
about to make. He then left Sparta, de- 
termined to finish his life in voluntary exile in 
order that the Spartans might be bound. by 
their oath to preserve his constitution inviolate 
forever. The time and place of his death are 
unknown. 


LYCURGUS, one of the 10 Attic orators: 
b. Athens, 396 s.c.; d. there, 325 3.c. He was a 
pupil of Plato and of Isocrates. In 343 he was 
sent with Demosthenes on an embassy to coun- 


772 


teract the intrigues of Philip. He won his chief 
glory as guardian of the public revenue 338-326 
B.c. The decree of the Athenians commending 
his administration of this trust (307 B.c.) is 
still extant. He was also appointed superin- 
tendent of the city, and censor, and in the latter 
capacity caused his own wife to be fined, for 
violating one of his sumptuary enactments. Of 
the prosecutions which he conducted, the most 
celebrated was that against Lysicles, who had 
commanded the army of Athens at Cheronea; 
Lysicles was condemned to death. There were 
15 orations of his extant in the ages of Plutarch 
and Photius, but all have since perished except 
that against Leocrates, and some fragments. 
Consult Jebb, R. C., ‘The Attic Orators? (3d 
ed., Oxford 1907). 


LYDDA, Palestine, town mentioned under 
the name Lod several times in the Old Testa- 
ment; later known as Diospolis. It is about 
nine miles east of Joppa and appears to have 
been. built mostly by the Benjaminites, though 
considerably outside of their territory, being 
within the confines of Ephraim and on the road 
to Jerusalem. The place gained importance 
under Vespasian and finds a description as a 
village equalling a city in size by Josephus. 
Here Peter healed A*neas and a church was 
erected to commemorate the event. Cestus 
Gallus (65 a.D.) burned down the town but 
it was soon rebuilt. Ecclesiastical annals tells 
us this place became the seat of a bishop, being 
especially distinguished as the probable birth- 
place of the celebrated Saint George and 
. assuredly his burial-place, a handsome church 
at some uncertain date being erected there to 
his honor. At present this town, spelled gen- 
erally Ludd, is a village only of considerable 
size and is surrounded by fine gardens and 
orchards. 


LYDDITE, a high explosive which was 
adopted by the English government in 1888 
for charging its torpedo-shells. Its composition 
has been varied from time to time, but a typical 
formula is picric acid 88 per cent, dinitrobenzene 
8 per cent and vaseline 4 per cent. These mate- 
rials are melted and mixed together in a water- 
bath, and while in the fused condition they are 
poured into the shells, where, on cooling, they 
solidify to a stone-like mass, bright yellow and 
bitter to the taste. A central canal is left in 
the explosive charge in which is placed a 
detonator containing ammonium picrate by 
which the charge is exploded. Its fumes are 
suffocating and it is supposed to kill by shock, 
or suffocate. It is stable under varying tem- 
peratures. This explosive was practically tested 
in the Boer War and the results were very 
disappointing, mainly because the positions 
selected by the Boers were such as minimized its 
destructiveness. It is, however, still believed to 
be an efficient explosive for use against armor. 
The explosive owes its name to the fact that the 
first experiments made with it were carried on 
in the environs: of the village of Lydd in 
England. 


LYDEKKER, Richard, English naturalist: 
b. 1849; d. 16 April 1915. He was educated at 
Cambridge University and was a member of the 
staff of the Geological Survey of India 1874-82. 
He. prepared for the British Museum in 1884, 
a catalogue in 10 volumes of the fossil mam- 


LYDDA —LYDIA 


malia, reptilia and birds therein, and was in 
Argentina, 1893-94, to examine the mammals 
in the La Plata Museum. Among his numerous 


publications are ‘Phases of Animal Life?- 
~ “Geographical History of Mammals: ’ ‘The 
Deer of All Lands? (1898); ‘Wild Oxen, 


Sheep and Goats of All Lands, Living and 
Extinct? (1898); ‘Descriptions of South 
American Fossil Animals” ; ‘The Game Animals 
of India, Burma and Tibet?; ‘The Game 
Animals of Africa? ; ‘The Sportsman’s British 
Book? (1908); ‘Mostly Mammals: Zoological 
Essays? (1903); ‘The Ox and Its Kindred 
and the Sheep and Its Cousins? (1912). 


LYDGATE, lid’gat, John, English monk 
and poet: b. Lydgate, Suffolk, about 1370; d. 
Bury Saint Edmunds, about 1450. After study- 
ing at Oxford, and visiting France and Italy, 
he entered the monastery of Bury Saint’ Ed- 
munds, and established a school for instructing 
the sons of the aristocracy in versification and 
composition. He began to write about 1400. 
His chief works are his ‘The Falls of Princes” 
(1430; first printed 1494); ‘Story of Thebes? 
(1420); and ‘Histoire, Siege, and Destruction 
of Troye’ (1412-20). . His minor poems were 
published by the Percy Society in 1840. Ritson, 
in his ‘Bibliographia Poetica,? gives a complete 
catalogue of his works. Lydgate was an ad- 
mirer of Chaucer, whom he imitated in ‘The 
Story of Thebes,» a Canterbury tale in 10 
syllabled couplets. An edition of his ‘Troy 
aa ht edited by Berg was published at Oxford 
in 1906. 


LYDIA, lid’i-a, Asia Minor, the name of an 
ancient large and fertile country, inhabited 
along the coast of the Jonian Sea by the 
Tonians. ‘Toward the south it was separated 
from Caria by the Meander (now Meinder) ; 
toward the east it was bounded by Phrygia and 
on the north by Mysia. It was in early times a 
kingdom, divided from: Persia by the river 
Halys (now Kizil Irmak). Its original inhabit- 
ants were a people called Mzonians, either of 
Semitic or of Indo-Pelasgic origin. This race 
was subdued by the Lydians, a Carian tribe. It 
attained its highest prosperity under the Merm- 
nade dynasty, beginning with the semi-mytho- 
logical Gyges (716 B.c.), and ending with 
Creesus (546 B.c), who was conquered by the 
Persiatis under Cyrus. The people were the 
richest and perhaps the most effeminate in all 
Asia. They delighted in luxurious garments, 
costly carpets, precious ointments and exquisite 
viands, and a kind of Grecian music called the 
Lydian. They also laid out beautiful gardens. 
Their example corrupted the JIonians. The 
wealth of the Lydians, however, was probably, 
in a great measure, confined to the kings and 
chief men. These could fill their coffers with 
the gold washed down by the Hermus (now 
Sarabat) and the Pactolus, and that obtained 
from the mines; and they procured. all the 
necessaries of life by the labor of their slaves. 
The Lydians are said. to have been the first to 
coin money and to establish inns; they are cred- 
ited with the invention of certain musical in-~ 
struments, the art of dyeing wool (which was 
afterward carried to such. perfection in 
Miletus), also the art of melting and working 
ore. At Sardis, the capital of the country, the 


LYE — LYMAN 


Grecians, Phrygians and .even the nomadic 
tribes bartered their goods. There was here a 
great market for the slave-trade, which fur- 
nished the harems’ of Persia with eunuchs. 
The great tumuli graves of the ancient Lydian 
kings are still to be seen near the Gygzean Lake. 
Interesting Lydian inscriptions have been un- 
earthed by American and other excavators. 
Consult Ramsay, Sir W. M., ‘Historical Geog- 
raphy of Asia? (London 1890). 


LYE, li, a solution of an alkali; water im- 
pregnated with alkaline salt imbibed from the 
ashes of wood. It is largely used in soap- 
making. 


LYELL, li-él, Str Charles, English geolo- 
gist: b. Kinnordy, near Kirriemuiér, Forfar- 
shire, Scotland, 14 Nov. 1797; d. London, 22 

Feb. 1875. He was educated at Oxford, and on 
leaving Oxford he studied and passed for the 
bar. His life was almost wholly given, how- 
ever, to geology. His first writings on the sub- 
ject ‘consisted of contributions to the ‘Transac- 
tions? of the Geological Society, of which he 
was secretary, 1823-26, and president in 1835-36 
and 1849-50, and to which he continued to fur- 
nish papers throughout his life. His first im- 
portant work, and the one on which his fame 
Tests, ne Principles of Geology,’ appeared 
in three volumes in 1830-33. A portion of it 
subsequently formed the basis of a separate 
work, ‘The Elements of Geology? (1838). In 
the prosecution of his geological studies Lyell 
made four visits to North America, in 1841-42, 
1845-46, 1852 and 1853. His ‘Travels in North 
America) (1845) and ‘Second Visit to the 
United States) (1849), although mainly devoted 
to geological topics, contain many entertaining 
sketches of political and social life and institu- 
tions. On the occasion of his first American 
visit he lectured before the Lowell Institute in 
Boston, and again 1845-46. In 1863 appeared 
Lyell’s last important and most popular work, 


‘The Antiquity of Man, containing’ a sum- 


mary of all the facts and arguments that could 
be obtained from geology, archeology, etc., to 
prove that man had existed upon the earth at a 
period vastly more remote than usually believed. 
His student’s ‘Elements of Geology? appeared 
in 1871. In 1864 he was president of the 
British Association. In 1848 he was knighted, 
and in 1864 was created a baronet. Lyell was 
a strong supporter of the “uniformitarian” 
theory of geology—the steady and long-con- 
_tinued action of forces still at work around us — 
as opposed to those who believe in great. cata- 
clysms or convulsions having taken place in the 
past; and he assisted materially in preparing 
the ground for the acceptance by scientists of 
Darwin’s theory of evolution. Consult ‘Life, 
Letters and Journals of (Sir Charles Lyell? 
(1881); Geikie, ‘The Founders of Geology” 
(1897). 


LYGODIUM. See Ferns AND FERN-ALLIES. 


LYKENS, li’kéns, Pa., postal village in 
Dauphin ‘County, at the foot of Bear Moun- 
tain, about 35 miles north-northeast of Harris- 
burg. Its rich anthracite coal mines are its 
chief source of income, but it has hosiery mills 
and a paper-box factory, foundry, etc. A bank 
and two newspaper offices are located here and 
no less than seven churches. The population 
in 1920 was 2,880. 


773 


LYLY, lili, John, English author: b. about 
1554; d. London, 30 Nov. 1606. He was grad- 
uated from Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1573; 
studied also at Cambridge; wrote plays for the 
children’s companies of the Chapel Royal and 
Saint Paul’s, London; took side with the 
bishops in the Mar-Prelate controversy; and sat 
in Parliament for Hindon in 1589, for Ayles- 
bury in 1593 and 1601 and for Appleby in 1597. 
It is, however, for his ‘Euphues? (Part I, 
“Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit, 1579; Part II, 
‘Euphues and his England, 1580) that Lyly is 
best known. This work is a tedious narrative 
of the fortunes and interests of a young 
Athenian, and is remarkable for a prose style 
that exhibits a uniform and continuous affecta- 
tion of epigram and antithesis. This fashion 
of writing, styled ‘Euphuism,? was much in 
favor at the court of Elizabeth, influenced 
numerous writers and may fairly be assumed 
to have been ridiculed by ‘Shakespeare, and it 
has excited the derision of successive genera- 
tions of authors. Lyly’s plays, ‘Alexander and 
Campaspe? (1584), ‘Endymion»? (1591) and 
“Midas? (1592), contain some worthy lyrics. 


Consult Bond’s edition of his works (3 vols., 


London 1902); ‘Child, C. G., ‘John Lyly and 
Euphuism? (ib. 1894); Feuillerat, A., ‘John 
Lyly: Contribution a la histoire de la Renais- 
sance ou Angleterre? (Paris 1910); Wilson, J. 
D., ‘John Lyly» (Cambridge, Eng., 1905). 
LYMAN, li’‘man, Benjamin Smith, Amer- 
ican geologist and mining engineer: b. North- 
ampton, Mass., 11 Dec. 1835. He was educated 
in the common schools, followed by one year 
of private tuition, then by one year at Phillips 
Exeter Academy and three years at Harvard 
College, receiving the degree of A.B in 1855. 
Taught school a few months, as principal of 
Deerfield (Mass.) Academy, and as assistant in 
Short’s Classical School at Philadelphia, and in 
Sanborn’s school at Concord, Mass. In 1856 he 
went to live at Philadelphia. In 1857 traveled 
extensively in the Middle and Southern States, 
collecting statistics of the iron manufacture for 
the American Iron Association. In 1858 he took 
up geology for life work and became assistant 
geologist of the State of Iowa. In 1859-61 he 
studied at the Paris Ecole des Mines, and then 
spent a year at the Freiberg Mining Academy. 
Returning to Philadelphia, he resumed _work at 
geological surveys in Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
eastern Nova Scotia, California, Alabama and 
Lower Canada, often in collaboration with J fe 3a 
Lesley, his original preceptor in such work, and, 
like him, based his work on instrumental topo- 
graphical surveying. About 1866 Lyman de- 
vised the method of indicating the geological 
structure, the direction and steepness. of the 
dip and the height of rock beds above sea- 
level, or other given level, at every point, by 
means of curves equidistant in level upon the 
surface of the rock beds. About four years 
later he devised a method of most compactly 
marking on maps the observed direction and 
steepness of dips at different points, so that 
any number of them could be clearly marked 
without confusion. In 1870 he was employed 
by the government of India in surveying oil 
fields. In 1871 he patented a solar transit sur- 
veying instrument, and in 1872 resumed geolog- 
ical surveys in West Virginia. From 1873 to 
1879 he was employed by the Japanese govern- 


774 


ment as chief geologist and mining engineer, 
first ina geological survey of Yesso (ascertain- 
ing an extensive coal field); then in a survey 


of the oil lands on the main island and exam- | 


ining many mines, and finally in beginning the 
geological survey of Japan. The surveys were 
economical in character, and ‘moreover resulted 
in training a dozen young students to become 
capable practical geologists. The survey re- 
quired traveling in every -considerable part of 
Japan, but the winter headquarters were at 
Tokio. Returning in 1881 to America, he went 
to live at his native town, and resumed the 
practice of private geological surveys in Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio, New Mexico and Colorado. In 
1885 and 1886 he served as common councilman 
of the city of Northampton. In 1887 he re- 
turned to Philadelphia and began, for the Penn- 
sylvania State Geological Survey, a geological 
survey of the New Red of Bucks and Mont- 
gomery counties, of which the results were 
finally published in 1895. He determined the 
thickness of the New Red to be about 27,000 
feet, over five times as much as it had pre- 
viously, after 75 years’ discussion, been gen- 
erally conjectured to be; and he demonstrated 
the fact by a map with a couple of thousand 
dips marked, and the structure of the rock beds 
fully indicated in conformity with them by 
equidistant curves, and with the outcrop of im- 
portant building stone beds marked for many 
miles through the country. In 1906 he went 
for a six months’ trip to the Philippines to in- 
vestigate coal lands on the island of Cebu. 
- Since that other private geological work in 
Pennsylvania has claimed his attention. He 
has published over 150 reports and papers on 
geological’surveying and other subjects. He is 
an honorary member of the Engineers’ Club of 
Philadelphia and of the Japan Mining Institute 
and member of many other societies. 


LYMAN, Chester Smith, American as- 
tronomer: b. Manchester, Conn., 13 Jan. 1814; 
d. New Haven, 29 Jan. 1890. In youth he was 
self-taught in-astronomy and other branches of 
science, making for himself serviceable appa- 
ratus. He calculated’ eclipses 15 years ahead 
and computed almanacs for 1830-31. He was 
graduated at Yale in 1837 and studied theology 
there after a previous course at Union Theo- 
logical Seminary. After a short pastorate 
(1843-45) at New Britain, Conn., he went to 
the Hawaiian Islands, where he became in- 
structor at the Royal School. Two years later 
he was surveying in California. In 1850 he re- 
turned to the East and resumed his early study 
of sciences; in 1858 accepted the professorship 
of industrial mechanics and physics at Yale; 
from 1871 to 1884 was professor of astronomy 
and physics in the Sheffield Scientific School, 
which he had assisted in organizing, and con- 
tinued to teach astronomy alone until 1889 when 
he became professor emeritus. He made a 
number of useful scientific inventions, including 
a combination zenith telescope and transit for 
latitude, longitude and time, and was a con- 
tributor of papers to the New Englander and 
the American Journal of Science. 


LYMAN, Phineas, American soldier:  b. 
Durham, Conn., about 1716; d: West Florida, 
now Mississippi, near Natchez, 10. Sept. 1774. 
He was graduated at Yale in 1738, was tutor 


LYMAN 


there until 1741 and subsequently practised law 
in Suffield. He acquired a great legal reputa- 
tion and succeeded in having Suffield annexed 
to Connecticut. He was’ a member of the 
upper house of the Connecticut legislature from 
1749 to 1755. In the latter year he was ap- 
pointed major-general and the same year, being 
commander-in-chief of the Connecticut militia, 
he served with Sir William Johnson at: the 
battle of Lake George, and, after his com- 
mander had been disabled, conducted the en- 
gagement to a prosperous conclusion. He con- 
structed Fort Edward, which at first was known 
as Fort Lyman, but the name was changed by 
Johnson, who was jealous of Lyman’s. popu- 
larity. He was present at the attack upon 
Ticonderoga by Abercrombie and at the cap- 
ture of Crown Point and the surrender of 
Montreal, and in 1762 commanded the provin- 
cial troops in the expedition against Havana. 
Subsequently he passed many years in England 
in efforts to procure a grant of land on the 
Mississippi for the purpose of establishing a 
colony, and in 1774 embarked with his eldest 
son and some others for the country in ques- 
tion. The emigrants who followed him en- 
countered many misfortunes, and after the sub- 
jugation of the country by the Spaniards in 
Ha Ss were obliged to take refuge in Savan- 
nah. 


LYMAN, Theodore, Amercan philanthro- 
pist: b. Boston, 20 Feb. 1792; d. Brookline, 
Mass., 18 July 1849. He was graduated from 
Harvard in 1810, studied at the University of 
Edinburgh in 1812-14, was for a time aide-de- 
camp to the governor of Massachusetts, in 1823- 
27 commanded the Boston brigade of the State 
militia with rank of brigadier-general, was a 
representative in the State legislature in 1821- 
24, and became State senator in 1824. In 
1834-35 he was mayor of Boston. He opposed 
the radical Abolitionists, and in August 1835 
presided over a pro-slavery meeting in Boston, 
but on 21 Oct. 1835, at the risk of his own 
life, rescued William Lloyd Garrison from the 
“gentlemanly mob» that had vowed to bring the 
Abolitionist to the tar-kettle before dark. In 
order to save him he had him confined to jail. 
From 1835 he devoted himself to philanthropic 
work, and in 1844 removed to Brookline, Mass. 
In 1840-46 he was president of the Boston 
Farm School. To this institution he gave 
$10,000; to the Massachusetts Horticultural So- 
ciety, of which he was a life-member, $10,000, 
and to the State Reform School, now the Lyman 
School, at Westboro, $72,500. He wrote ‘Three 
Weeks in Paris? (1814); ‘The Political State 
of Italy» (1820); “The Hartford Convention? 
(1823), a defense of the ‘Conventionists; ‘The 
Diplomacy of the United States with Foreign 
Nations? (1828), a work still of use for the 
period covered. 


LYMAN, Theodore, American naturalist: 
b. Waltham, Mass., 23 Aug. 1833; d.. Nahant, 
Mass., 9 Sept. 1897. He was a son of Theodore 
Lyman (1792-1849) (q.v.). He was graduated 
from Harvard in 1855, from the Lawrence Sci- 
entific ‘School in 1858, and was assistant in 
zoology at the Museum of Comparative Zool- 
ogy. In 1863-65 was volunteer aide on the 
staff of General Meade, with rank of lieuten- 
ant-colonel. Having been mustered out on 20 


LYME REGIS — LYMPH 


April 1865, he was fish commissioner for Massa- 
chusetts in 1865-82, and in that capacity made 
the first experiments undertaken by any State 
of the Union for the cultivation and protection 
of food-fishes. In 1883-85 he served in Con- 
gress as an independent representative. He was 
also president of the Boston Farm School, a 
member of the National Academy of Sciences 
(from 1872), and a trustee of the Peabody 
education fund. He donated $10,000 to Har- 
vard and his library of scientific works to the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology. His most 
important researches were connected with the 
Radiata. Among. his publications are ‘Illus- 
trated Catalogue of the Ophiuride and Astro- 
phytidee in the Museum of Comparative Zool- 
ogy’ (1865), with a “Supplement? (1871) ; ‘Old 
and New Ophiuride and Astrophytide? (1869) : ; 
“Papers Relating to the Garrison Mob? (1870) ; 
‘Prodrome of the Ophiuride and Astrophy- 
tide of the Challenger Expedition” (1878-79), 
and ‘Report on the Ophiuride Dredged by 
fies S. Challenger during the Years 1873-76? 


LYME REGIS, lim ré’jis, England, sea- 
port town in Dorsetshire, at the mouth of the 
Lyme at its entry to the English Channel, and 
22 miles west of Dorchester. It is a favorite 
summer bathing resort and its record goes back 
at least to the 13th century as a town. There 
is a Gothic (‘Saint Michael’s) church, old town- 
hall, assembly rooms, custom house, etc. The 
harbor has two piers which form it into a 
basin useful for small craft in stormy weather. 
Its population in 1911 was 2,772. In 1664 the 
town was besieged by Prince Moritz of the 
Palatinate, and it was here that the Duke of 
Monmouth landed in 1685. An ichthyosaurus 
and a plesiosaurus were discovered in this sec- 
tion buried in the Lias rock. Consult Roberts, 
“History of Lyme Regis? (London 1834). 


LYMPH, the fluid contained in the lym- 
phatic glands and in the lacteals (q.v.). It is 
elaborated primarily by the assimilation of food, 
and is also obtained from the blood and tissues, 
the system of vessels in which it is contained 
ramifying throughout the bodies of vertebrates. 
The clearest and simplest view of the nature 
and functions of the lymphatic vessels is that 
‘which considers them as forming a connecting- 
link between the digestive and circulatory sys- 
tems. It is to be understood that the largest 
portion of all the cells in the body never comes 
in direct contact with the blood, which itself 
touches only the linings of the veins and 
arteries and the cells of the pulp of the spleen. 
What builds up the tissues of the body is not 
therefore the blood, but the lymph. Also the 
waste matters which are formed in the tissues 
are collected by the lymph, which turns it over 
to the blood, from which it is carried to the 
lungs, kidneys, skin, etc., from which it is 
excreted. The matters absorbed from the 
alimentary canal and from the blood and tissues 
are converted in. the lymphatic glands into 
lymph, which supplies initial and essential ele- 
ments of the blood. The lymphatic system, con- 
cerned in absorption, is also called. the ab- 
sorbent system. None of the invertebrates have 
such a defined sect of vessels; in the lower ani- 
mals matters pass from the digestive system 
into the blood-system directly and without the 


715 


intervention of any absorbent vessels. The 
lymphatic vessels constitute a distinctive char- 
acter of the highest sub-kingdom of animals. 
Fresh supplies of nutritive matter are poured 
from the lymphatic system into the current of 
circulation, but it is difficult, if not impossible, 
to determine where the’ function of circulation 
ends and that of absorption begins. Hall, ex- 
perimenting upon a patient from whom an acci- 
dent permitted the chyle to be taken, found 
that the fat contained in it varied according to 
the diet, while the protein and sugar varied 
very little. 

The lymph as it exists in the lymphatic 
vessels of a fasting animal is a colorless, trans- 
parent fluid, odorless, with a slightly saline 
taste and an alkaline reaction. Four kinds of 
lymph are recognized: (1) the tissue lymph 
which fills the spaces between the cells in all 
parts of the body; (2) circulating lymph which 
flows along the lymph vessels and returns to 
the blood system; (3) chyle, which is a circu- 
lating lymph .in the intestines, and (4) the 
serous lymph which the serous cavities con- 
tain. When microscopically examined it is seen 
to be a clear plasma containing corpuscles. It 
resembles blood in being an alkaline fluid, and 
in that it coagulates or clots by the separation 
of the fibrinous part of the plasma; but it 
differs from blood in that its corpuscles are 
nearly all colorless, and because its solid mat- 
ters are present in very small proportions. Ex-. 
cepting chyle, all lymph is about 95 per cent 
water, the rest being made up of about 3.75 
per cent of proteins, 0.1 per cent of extractives 
and a very small proportion of inorganic mat- 
ter. In chyle the water is about 90 per cent. 
The lymph-corpuscles, when passed into the 
current of the blood, by a simple change of 
medium become the white blood-corpuscles, and 
when partially altered they give origin to red 
corpuscles. The lacteals absorb the chyle di- . 
rectly from the alimentary canal, and pour it, 
as rudimental blood, into the current of the 
circulation. Then from the body generally the 
ordinary lymphatic vessels bring the lymph, 
which is further elaborated in the lymphatic 
glands, and pour it into the current of the 
blood. The actual termination of the lymphatic 
vessels is in the large veins in the neighbor- 
hood of the heart. The lymphatic circulation 
may thus be regarded as corresponding in its 
general direction to the course of the venous 
blood. 

The lymphatic vessels resemble small veins 
in their general structure. They are provided 
with valves permitting the flow of the lymph 
only toward the large veins near the heart and 
into which the lymph is poured. The only 
structures in which lymphatic vessels do not 
exist are the non-vascular parts, such as the 
hair, nails, outer skin and cartilaginous tissues. 
The flow of lymph toward the heart is induced 
partly by the general pressure and action of the 
muscles of the body, the valvular structure aid- 
ing its propulsion as in the veins; and to this, 
as well as to the absorptive power, must be 
added the action of the contractile muscular 
fibres of the lymph-vessels themselves. It is 
not known to what extent the flow of lymph 
may be under the direct control of the nerves. 

The fluid employed in vaccination (q.v.) is 
also called lymph, of which two varieties are 


\ 


“76 


distinguished, human and bovine. The term has 
likewise been applied to various serums made 
from bacterial cultures for preventive or cura- 
tive use in certain diseases, especially to those 
serums known as antitoxins (q.v.). /See IM- 
MUNITY; KocH, Ropert; SERUM, ‘THERAPY; 
TUBERCULOSIS. 


LYMPHATIC GLANDS, small organs, 
round and smooth and. comparatively. solid, 
which form part of the lymphatic system in 
vertebrates. (See Lacreats; LympH). Into 
these, sooner or later in their course, the other 
lymphatic vessels run, and from them emerge 
again.: The lymphatic glands are highly im- 
portant structures, since only after passing 
through them does the lymph contain, in any 
abundance, lymph-corpuscles. In size the glands 
may be compared to small alfmonds, and they 
are generally arranged in groups. Each gland 
is entered by a number of afferent vessels 
which bring lymph to it, while those (efferent 
vessels) which leave the gland carry lymph 
away from it. Externally a lymphatic gland 
presents an envelope of connective tissue, from 
which the stroma, consisting of a fibrous frame- 
work of processes, is prolonged into the in- 
terior of the gland. Within the stroma the 
essential gland-structure is contained. Within 
the stroma also, as well as within the softer 
portions or pulp contained in the meshes of 
the fibrous network, minute blood-vessels are 
distributed. Corpuscles are added to the lymph 
in the glands, while in the composition of. its 
fluid it undergoes further. elaboration. The 
lymphatic glands are regarded as factories. of 
leucocytes or white blood cells. The lymphatic 
trunks of the greater part of the body finally 
pour their contents into the thoracic duct, a 
small tube which opens into the current of the 
blood at the point of junction of the internal 
jugular and subclavian veins of the left side of 
the body. On the right side of the body is a 
still smaller duct which receives the contents of 
the lymphatics of the right half of the chest, 
the right arm and the right side of the head 
and neck; and this smaller lymphatic channel 
or right lymphatic duct opens into the angle 
formed by the junction of the right jugular and 
subclavian veins, similarly to its larger neighbor 
of the left side. The thoracic duct begins in 
the upper part of the abdomen and runs up in 
front of the spine to the root of the neck, 
where it opens into the great veins. The re- 
ceptaculum chyli, or cistern of the chyle, is the 
-dilation at the commencement of the thoracic 
duct in the abdomen, which receives the con- 
tents of the lacteals or intestinal lymphatics. 
The orifices by which the thoracic duct and 
right lymphatic duct open into their respective 
great veins are guarded by valves which 
permit the lymph to flow from the ducts into 
the veins, but prevent the flow of blood into 
the. ducts. ; . 

The spleen has been considered by physiolo- 
gists to be merely a ductless lymphatic gland of 
large size, since it appears to be concerned in 
the elaboration of the blood, and also to be a 
place of disintegration of the red corpuscles and 
a manufactory of the white corpuscles of the 
blood. And the thymus, another ductless gland, 
has also been supposed to be ‘connected with 
the function of blood-elaboration, and thus to 
be associated with the lymphatic system. 


LYMPHATIC GLANDS — LYNCH 


LYNCH, Anne Charlotte. 
ANNE CHARLOTTE, 


LYNCH, Arthur, Irish journalist and au- 
thor: b. Smythesdale, Ballarat, Victoria, Aus- 
tralia, 1861. He was educated at Melbourne 
University and the University of Berlin; prac- 
tised as an engineer, lectured on engineering 
and scientific subjects at Melbourne; was for 
a time a journalist in London; was a war cor- 
respondent in Ashanti, and twice visited 
America. During the second Boer War he was 
colonel in the Irish Brigade No. 2 of the 
Transvaal forces, and upon his landing in Great 
Britain subsequent to the war was brought to 
trial for high treason.. He was sentenced to 
death; but this sentence was afterward com- 
muted to life imprisonment. Lynch was elected 
member of .Parliament for Galway in 1901. 


See Botta, 


Among his books are ‘Modern Authors? 
(1891); ‘Approaches? (1892); ‘Our Poets? 
(1895); ‘Religio Athlete? (1895).; ‘Human 


Documents? (1896); ‘Prince Azreel? (1911); 
“Sonnets of the Banner and the Star? (1914), 
and ‘Ireland: Vital Hour? (1915). 


LYNCH, Charles, American planter and 
soldier: b. Chestnut Hill, Va., 1736; d. 1796. 
He was one of the pioneers of Bedford County 
at 19. In 1767 he was elected to the House 
of Burgesses. His influence was thrown in 
favor of the Revolution and it is in great part 
due to him that the Virginia delegation was 
sent to Congress with instructions that culmi- 
nated in the Declaration of Independence. He 
became justice of the peace in 1774 and colonel 
of militia in 1778. He lived on the Staunton 
River in Virginia, and in support of the Rev- 
olutionary government in that region during 
the early part of the war with Great Britain, 
joined Robert Adams and Thomas Calloway in 
the punishment and exile of Tories. As justice 
of the peace, he sentenced them to various 
terms of imprisonment in order to prevent their 
acting against the Revolutionary movement. A 
frequent punishment, so says tradition, was to 
suspend the disaffected by their thumbs until 
they were willing to exclaim “Liberty forever 
The summary acts of this self-appointed court 
are generally accepted as the origin of the 
term lynch-law (from “Lynch’s Law”). But 
whereas the expression is now used almost ex- 
clusively of punishment by death without legal 
authority, it does not appear that Lynch ever 
exacted the death penalty. After the surrender 
of Yorktown, Lynch returned to Bedford 
County, and the Tories threatened to prosecute 
him for his activities against them which were 
in excess of his powers. On Lynch’s appealing 
to the legislature, the latter branded his actions 
as illegal, but exonerated him in view of the 
circumstances. 


LYNCH, Frederick (Henry), American 
clergyman and educator: b. Peace Dale, R. I. 
21 July 1867. He was graduated (1894) a 
Yale University, taking the B.D. degree in 1897. 
In 1899 he was ordained to the Congregational 
ministry, becoming assistant pastor of the 
United Church, New Haven, Conn., 1896-98, 
and pastor of the Pilgrim Church, New York, 
1904-10.. He has been editor of Christian Work 
and Evangelist since 1908; executor and direc- 
tor of the New York Peace Society; founder 
of the Peace Arbitration Society of New York, 
and delegate to the International peace con- 


LYNCH —LYNCH LAW 


gresses at Munich (1897) and London (1908) ; 
also secretary of the Church Peace Union of 
America. He has written ‘The Enlargement 
of Life (1903); ‘Is Life Worth ‘Living ?? 
(1905); ‘The Gospel for To-Day> (1905); 
“The Peace Problem? (1911); ‘New Oppor- 
tunities of the Ministry (1912); ‘What Makes 
a Nation Great??? (1913); ‘The Last War? 
(1915); ‘The Challenge? (1917); ‘The Chris- 
tian in War Time? (1917). Numerous maga- 
zines have published short stories and articles 
from his pen. 


LYNCH, James Mathew, union labor 
leader: b. Manlius, N: Y., 11 Jan. 1867. He 
was educated at his native town (1874-81), 
then entering the printing trade. He has been 
active as a leader in union labor circles, serv- 
ing for seven terms as president of the Syra- 
cuse Trade Assembly, and filling the positions, 
successively, of first vice-president (1899- 
1900), and president (1900-14) of the Inter- 
national Typographical Union. At present he 
is a member of the New York State Indus- 
trial Commission, member of the National 
Civic Federation and of the American Asso- 
ciation for Labor Legislation. 


LYNCH, John Joseph, Canadian Roman 
Catholic prelate: b. Ireland, 1816; d. 1888. He 
was educated at Dublin and Paris, was. ordained 
to the priesthood in 1843 and three years 
later came to the United States. He next went 
to Canada, where he became coadjutor bishop 
of Toronto in 1859, bishop in 1860 and arch- 
bishop in 1870. 

LYNCH, Patricio, Chilean naval and mili- 
tary officer: b. Santiago, Chile, 1824; d. at sea, 
May 1886. He was educated at the Chilean 
Naval Academy; entered the English navy in 
1840 and took part in the Anglo-Chinese War; 
in 1847 he re-entered the Chilean navy and 
served during the war against Spain and be- 
came governor of Valparaiso. In 1879-80 he 
commanded a military and naval expedition 
against Peru, and ravaged the northern part of 
that state, destroying a large amount of prop- 
erty. He also took part in the battle of Chor- 
rillos, the battle of Miraflores and the attack 
against Lima, and was made commander-in- 
chief of the Chilean army; in the city of Lima 
he strictly observed martial law, suppressed 
the Peruvian government and took Calderon, 
the provisional President, prisoner, though this 
act called forth a protest from the United 
. States Minister. In 1883 he evacuated the city, 
having placed Iglesias at the head of affairs. 
He was made vice-admiral of the navy, and in 
1884 sent as Minister to Spain. He died on his 
homeward voyage two years» later. 


LYNCH, Thomas, Jr., American patriot, 
one of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence: b. Prince George’s parish, S. C., 5 
Aug. 1749; perished at sea in the latter part of 
1779. He was educated at Eton and the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge, and was subsequently ad- 
mitted as a student in the Temple, London. In 
1772 he returned to South Carolina, and at the 
outbreak of hostilities in 1775 was appointed a 
captain in the first regiment of provincial regu- 
lars raised by South Carolina. Being unani- 
mously chosen by the provincial assembly to 
succeed his father as a member of Congress, he 
took his seat in that body in 1776, but in a few 
months was compelled by ill health to retire 


777 


from active political life. One of his last public 
acts was to affix his signature to the Declaration 
of Independence. In the latter part of 1779, as 
the only means of saving his life, he sailed for 
Saint Eustatius, West Indies, intending to find 
there a neutral vessel which would convey him 
to France. The ship in which he sailed was 
never heard from and is supposed to have been 
lost in a storm. 


LYNCH, William Francis, American na- 
val officer: b. Norfolk, Va., 9 April 1801; d. 
Baltimore, 17 Oct. 1865. He entered (1819) the 
United States navy, becoming lieutenant in 
1828. A Palestine expedition was placed in his 
command (1848) and he explored the Dead 
Sea and the Jordan, publishing (1849) an ac- 
count of the survey under the title of ‘Narra- 
tive of the United States Expedition to the 
River Jordan and the Dead Sea,’ which has 
gone. through several editions. He was pro- 
moted (1849) commander and (1856) captain, 
in which latter rank he joined the Confederate 
forces in 1861, in which he rose to commodore. 
He wrote also ‘Naval Life: The Midshipman, 
or Observation Afloat and Ashore? (1851). 


LYNCH LAW, or JUDGE LYNCH, a 
name for irregular punishment, especially capi- 
tal, inflicted by private individuals independ- 
ently of the legal authorities. Extra judicial 
punishments in states which are in a condition 
of loose organizatian haye been common in 
all ages, as the Vehmgerichte in Germany, the 
Lydford law in England,- “Jeddart Justice” in 
Scotland and the Spanish Hermanadad. The 
origin of the term “Lynch law” is doubtful; 
by some it is said to be from James Lynch 
Fitz-Stephen, warden of Galway, Ireland, who, 
about 1526, sentenced his son to death for mur- 
der, and to. prevent a rescue by a mob executed 
him with his own hands without due process of 
law. By others the term is said to have had 
its origin in the State of Virginia, where a 
farmer of the name of Charles Lynch (q.v.) 
took his own way of obtaining redress for a 
theft by catching the culprit, tying him to 
a tree and flogging him. This mode of admin- 
istering justice has always prevailed more or 
less in every country in times of great popular 
excitement, and is necessarily resorted to in 
newly-settled territories, where the power of 
the civil government is not fully established. 
As early as 1768, in the United States the 
terms “regulating,” “regulation” and “regulator” 
were in use in the Carolinas; illegal whippings 
were at that time inflicted by the Regulators, 
and it is claimed that a meeting of the Regu- 
lators took place at Lynch’s Creek. Whether 
there is any historical connection between the 
Regulators of the Carolinas and the Regulators 
who flourished along the Western frontiers 
where lynch law was well known, in and after 
1819, is one of the many obscure points in the 
early history of lynch law which await elucida- 
tion. At first in the United States, “lynch 
law” was not mob law, as it is now understood. 
It was almost necessary under the conditions 
then obtaining, when territory extended faster 
than effective government organization for the 
punishment of offenders. “t was orderly, 
methodical and fair in its practices, and was 
strongly opposed to violence or mob rule. Its 
distinctive feature was simply that its decrees 
and findings were executed sternly and swiftly 


778 


on the spot where they had been decided upon. 
This was true of the conditions in California in 
1849 when Judge Lynch held frequent court, 
and hundreds of culprits were executed be- 
tween 1849 and 1860, in an orderly manner, 
with nothing of the mob violence or excite- 
ment common in recent years. During the 
Civil War and afterward, lynching was prac- 
tised in the Southern States at the instigation 
of the Ku Klux Klan (q.v.). From 1870 it 
became an unwritten law in the South to lynch 
by mob rule every negro charged with rape 
or assault, or with the murder of a white per- 
son; and it is still the Southern. States that 
bear the unenviable record for lynchings. Grad- 
ually this practice spread to Northern States, 
and negroes were not only “lynched,” or hung, 
but were burned at the stake in Indiana, 
Illinois, Ohio and other States. According to 
figures prepared by the Chicago Tribune, there 
were 3,539 lynchings in the United States be- 
tween 1885 and 1912. About one-third of these 
were for violence to women, another third for 
murder, but none were for the killing of one 
negro by another. The number of lynchings 
vary considerably from year to year, as the 
following totals show: in 1906, 68; 1907, 71; 
1912, 64; 1913, 79; 1914, 50; 1915, 96; 1916, 54. 
In the last-named year 50 negroes were lynched 
and four whites; less than a quarter of the 
punishments being inflicted for rape. Georgia 
headed the list of lynchings for 1916 with 14, 
Florida had 8 and Oklahoma 4. 

Rarely is there conviction or punishment 
-of persons who participated in lynchings, owing 
largely to the sympathy of jurors for the 
accused. In Kansas and Indiana laws have 
been passed providing for the suspension from 
office of sheriffs who fail to protect prisoners 
from the violence of the mob, and in South 
Carolina and Ohio the counties are held liable 
for compensation to the relatives of persons 
who suffer death by lynching. As the adminis- 
tration of the criminal law is in the hands of 
the several States, the Federal government is 
unable to mitigate or stamp out the practice. 
The best remedy for lynch law is prompt ac- 
tion by the courts and the prompt execution 
of sentence after a culprit has been convicted. 
Consult Calter, J. E., “Lynch Law> (New York 


1905); Hart, A. B. ‘The Southern South 
(ib. 1910); ‘Cyclopedia of American Govern- 
ment, ed. by McLaughlin and Hart (Ngw 


York 1914) ; and the volumes of the ‘American 
Year Book. 


LYNCHBURG, Va., city Campbell County, 
on the James River and on the Norfolk and 
Western, the Southern and the Chesapeake and 
Ohio railroad 174 miles south-southwest of 
Washington. The city is situated in a river 
valley which forms a pass through the moun- 
tains. The irregularity of the surface upon 
which stands the city, the hills, the numerous 
terraces, the many trees along the streets, the 
well-built, handsome houses with neatly kept 
grounds, all make the place most attractive. 

History.— Lynchburg was founded in 1786 
by John Lynch, but it was not incorporated until 
1823. It was early in the 19th century, as now, 
a distributing centre for places above on the 
river and for many settlements and towns 
south of the James. The Confederates used 
it as a supply depot during the Civil War, 


LYNCHBURG — 


LYNDHURST . 


On 18 June 1864 General Hunter, of the Fed- 
eral army, attacked the city, but was defeated. 

Manufactures, etc.— The chief manufac- 
tures are iron products, tobacco, cotton goods, 
plows, wagons, shoes, bark extract, candy, 
fertilizers, overalls, hardware, flour and lum- 
ber. It has extensive tobacco interests, as 
a manufacturing and jobbing centre being 
among the seven leading shoe jobbing cen- 
tres of the Union. The trade is principally 
in tobacco, raw and manufactured; coal, 
granite and its own manufactures. Lynchburg 
is the seat of Randolph-Macon Woman’s. Col- 
lege, Virginia Christian College (coeduca- 
tional) and. Episcopal School for Boys, and 
it has four hospitals, the Miller Female Orphan 
Asylum, a Presbyterian orphanage, an Odd- 
Fellows’ orphanage, Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. 
and Chamber of Commerce. Granite quarries 
are near by, and large coal fields and iron ore 
are in the neighboring counties. The river fur- 
nishes extensive water power, which aids in the 
development of: the manufacturing interests of 
the city. 

Government, etc.— The government of the 
city is vested in a mayor, who holds office 
four years, and a council.and board of aldermen 
(biennial). The city treasurer, clerk of the 
courts and commissioner of revenue are chosen 
by popular election, and the other officers are 
appointed. . The waterworks plant is owned and 
operated by the city. Pop. (1920) 29,956.. Con- 
sult Cabell, ‘Sketches and Recollections of 
Lynchburg.” 


LYNDE, lind, Francis, American novelist: 
b. Lewiston, N. Y., 12 Nov, 1856. After many 
years in the ‘railway service in various capacities 
he turned to literature in 1893, beginning as 

a contributor to magazines; work which he still 
Hays bet and which now comprises over 200 
short stories and novelettes. His published 
books are ‘A Romance in Transit? (1898); | 
‘The Helpers? (1899); ‘A Private Chivalry? 
(1900) ; ‘The Master of Appleby (1902) ; ‘The 
Grafters? (1904); A Fool for Love? (1905); 
‘The Quickening? (1906); ‘Empire Builders? 


(1907); ‘The King of Arcadia? (1909); ‘The 
Taming of Red Butte Western? (1910); ‘The 
Price? (1911); ‘Scientific Sprague? (1912): 


‘The Honorable’ Senator Sage-brush? (1913); 
“The City of Numbered Days? (1914); ‘The 
Real Man? (1915). With a single exception, 
Mr. Lynde’s books deal with modern condi- 
tions of American life, industrial, social and 
political, with a strong emphasis laid upon 
character development. 


LYNDHURST, lind’hérst, John Singleton 
Copley, Baron, English lawyer and statesman: 
b. Boston, 21 May 1772; d. London, 12 Oct. 
1863. His father was the well-known painter 
of the same name. He was taken to Eng- 
land in early infancy, his parents having 
gone to reside in London. He was educated 
at the University of Cambridge, became a Fel- 
low of Trinity College, traveled in the United 
States, was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn 
in 1804 and soon gained a high position. In 
1817 he ably defended Watson and Thistlewood 
for high treason, and obtained their acquittal. — 
He was first known as a Liberal, but early be- 
came Conservative. In 1818 he entered Parlia- 
ment for Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, which he 
scon exchanged for Ashburton. In 1819 he be- 


LYNDON — LYNX 


came solicitor-general and was knighted. He 
conducted the prosecution in the trial of Queen 
Caroline. In 1824 he succeeded to the post of 
Attorney-General, in 1826 was elected for Cam- 
bridge, and became Master of the Rolls. He 
succeeded Lord Eldon as Chancellor in 1827, 
which post he retained until 1830, and was 
raised to the peerage as Baron Lyndhurst. 
In March 1829, he delivered a great speech 
against Catholic emancipation. He was chief 
baron of the exchequer from 1831-34. He was 
a formidable opponent of the Reform Bill, and 
in 1834 became a second time Chancellor, but 
in 1835 retired with the Peel Ministry. Lynd- 
hurst’s speeches and annual reviews of the 
session contributed greatly to the return to 
power of the Conservatives in 1841, on which 
occasion he was a third time raised to the 
woolsack. He retired in 1846, from which time 
he took little part in home ‘politics, confining 
his attention more to matters of foreign policy. 
For a long time he was virtually the Tory 
leader in the upper house. Brougham said: 
“Lyndhurst was so immeasurably superior to 
his contemporaries . . . that he might well be 
pardoned for looking -down rather than prais- 
ing.» He was distinguished alike as a debater, 
advocate and judge; his decisions were models 
in arrangement and clearness of exposition. 
Consult Sir Theodore Martin’s ‘Life? (1883); 
Atlay’s ‘The Victorian Chancellors» (London 
1906) ; and, for a spiteful portrayal, Campbell’s 
‘Lives of the Chancellors. 


LYNDON, Vt., post-village of Caledonia 
County, located on the Passumpsic River, about 
36 miles east by northeast of Montpelier. It 
has two churches, an academy, graded school, 
national bank, two marble works, pulp-mill, 
an institute, school of agriculture, public li- 
brary, etc. Pop. about 3,204. 


LYNE, lin, Joseph Leycester, commonly 
known as “FATHER IGNATIUS,» or “IGNATIUS OF 
Jesus,” English clergyman: b. London, 23 Nov. 
1837; d. 16 Oct. 1908. After taking deacon’s 
orders in the Church of England and doing 
mission work in London, he conceived the idea 
of reviving the Benedictine rule in a modern 
monastic foundation. With this view he first 
formed a community at Claydon, near Ipswich, 
in 1862 and finally built Llanthony Abbey in 
Wales, where he was joined by a few enthusi- 
asts, though his movement made no progress 
at all commensurate with his program. He 
visited Canada and the United States (1890- 
91) asa missioner. He was a striking preacher, 
and his warmly evangelical discourses were in 
curious contrast to his medieval ideas. But 
he was always in conflict with the authorities of 
the Church of England, was finally prohibited 
from preaching and was forced to preach in 
hired halls. Among his published works are 


‘The Catholic Church of England’ (1864); 
‘Brother Placidus? (1870); ‘Leonard Morris, 
or the Benedictine Monk? (1871); ‘Mission 


Sermons and Orations? (1886) ; 
(1889). 

LYNN, lin, Samuel H., American physi- 
cian: b. Phijadelphia, 1843; d. Rochester, N. Y., 
27 Feb. 1917. He was a graduate of the School 
of Dentistry of the University of Pennsylvania 
and of the School of Medicine there. He re- 
moved to Rochester in 1888. He spent much 
of his time abroad, and for 18 years lived in 


‘Jesus Only? 


779 


Russia. He studied at the clinics in Vienna, 
Saint Petersburg and other European cities and 
obtained a world-wide knowledge of medicine. 
He was a veteran of the Civil War, having 
served under Admiral Farragut at the battle 
of Mobile Bay and participated in the Cushing 
expedition. He was one of the men who 
planted a bomb on the deck of the Albemarle, 


‘He was a member of several medical societies. 


LYNN, -lin, Mass., city tn Essex County, 
on Massachusetts Bay, and on the Boston and 
Maine, the Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn 
railroads, about 10 miles northeast of Boston 
and five miles southwest of Salem. Area, 
nearly 12 square miles. Lynn was first settled 
in 1629 by Edmund and Francis Ingalls and 
for a time was called Saugus. It receives its 
present name in 1637 from. King’s Lynn, Eng- 
land, the home of Samuel Whiting, then pastor 
at Saugus (Lynn). It was incorporated in 1630 
and chartered as a city in 1850. The city in- 
cludes what were several independent villages: 
Glenmere, Highlands, East Lynn, West Lynn, 
Linwood, Lynmere and Wyoma. The Lynn 
Harbor is shallow, but it is considered safe. 
The three-mile shore- line adds to its attrac- 
tions. The city is noted for its shoe factories. 
The annual amount of shoe business is in the 
neighborhood of $50,000,000; and the number 
of persons employed, about 25,000. The chief 


‘manufactures are shoes, cut leather, shoe ma- 


chinery, electrical supplies, meters, arc lamps, 
morocco and patent medicines. The city has 
several churches of the various denominations. 

Some of the principal buildings are Lynn 
Public Library, which has about 115,947 volumes; 
two hospitals, the city hall, Lynn Home for 
Aged Women and an orphanage. There are 
two high schools, over 100 grammar schools and 
an equal number of primary schools, together 
with several large parish schools, containing 
primary, grammar and high school departments. 

The annual expenditure for municipal main- 
tenance and operation is about $1,348,000; the 
chief items are, schools about $385,000; for 
poor, sick, homeless and other charities, $63,- 
000; for police department, $112,000; for fire 
department, $112,000; for waterworks, $185,000; 
for sanitation, $104,000. The waterworks plant 
opened in 1870, and costing about $2,500,000, 
is owned and operated by the city. 

The government of Lynn is conducted by a 


single council. Pop. (1920) 99,148. Consult 
Newhall, F. H., ‘History of i nn, Mass. 
(Lynn 1883), and Sandergon, H. “Lynn in 


the Revolution (2 vols., Boston 1909). 


LYNN EPISCOPI (“Bishop’s -Lynn”), a 
seaport town in the county of Norfolk, Eng- 
land, situated on the Great Ouse near its mouth; 
and generally known as King’s Lynn (q.v.). 


LYNN REGIS, KING’S LYNN, a port 
town in Norfolk, England, situated on the 
Great Ouse, not far from its mouth. See 
Kine’s Lynn. 


LYNX, a wildcat, distinguished from the 
larger members iof the family Felide chiefly by 
the shortness of the tail and the presence of a 
pencil-like arrangement of hairs at the tips of 
the ears. It was long customary to regard 
these cats as constituting a separate genus Lyn, 
to which the North American wildcats, the 
caracal and some. others, were assigned, \but 


780 


modern zoologists include them with the gen- 
eral genus Felis. (See Wiipcat). The fur 
known to trade as “lynx” is furnished by the 
Canadian lynx, and is described as of a light- 
brown color, with a light silvery top on the 
back, that on the under part long, soft and 
spotted; about 30,000 to 80,000 are exported 
yearly from the Dominion of Canada, Califor- 
nia and Alaska to Liverpool, besides what is 
consumed in domestic trade. 


LYON, David Gordon, American Assyri- 
ologist: b. Benton, Ala., 24 May 1852. He was 
graduated from Howard College, Alabama in 
1875, and at Leipzig in 1882. From 1882 to 1910 
he was Hollis professor of divinity at- Harvard, 
and since the latter year has been Hancock pro- 
fessor of Hebrew and other Oriental languages. 
Since 1891 he has served as curator of the Har- 
vard Semitic Museum. He was recording sec- 
retary of the American Oriental Society 1886— 
95; corresponding secretary of the Society of 
Biblical Literature 1894-99, and director of the 
American School for Oriental Study and Re- 
search 1906-07. He is a Fellow of the Amer- 
ican Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has 
published ‘Heilschrifttexte Sargons K6nigs von 
Assyrien? (1883); ‘An Assyrian Manual? 
(1886), and articles in the Journal of the Amer- 
ican Oriental Society. 


LYON, George Francis, English naval 
captain and. traveler: b. Chichester, 1795; 
sea, 1832. He entered (1808) the navy and was 
commissioned (1818-20) to travel in Africa for 
the government. From 1821-23 he was a mem- 
ber of Captain Parry’s Arctic expedition, and 
(1824) he attempted with the Griper to reach 
Repulse Bay, but was unsuccessful. In 1826 he 
went to Mexico and South America. He wrote 
‘A Narrative of Travels in North Africa? 
(1821); ‘Journal of a Residence and Tour in 
the Republic of Mexico? (1829). 


LYON, Mary, American educator: b. 
Buckland, Mass., 28 Feb. 1797; d. South Had- 
ley, Mass., 5 March 1849. She began teaching 
at 18, and later studied at the Sanderson Acad- 
emy, Ashfield, and at the Byfield Academy, near 
Newburyport, continuing to teach at intervals. 
In 1821 she began teaching at the Sanderson 
Academy, and in 1824 became associate prin- 
cipal of the Adams Female Academy at Lon- 
donderry, N. H. In 1828, with the principal of 
this school she moved to Ipswich, Mass., where 
they were followed by a number of their pupils, 
and established a seminary of which Miss Lyon 
had practically the entire charge for several 
years. The establishment of a seminary for 
girls, embodying the same principles of educa- 
tion as the Ipswich school, and at the same time 
offering its advantages at a low price, became 
the main purpose of her life; and in 1834 she 
resigned her position at Ipswich, and, amid 
great discouragements, undertook the work of 
founding such a seminary. Aided to some ex- 
tent by clergymen and others, she succeeded in 
obtaining contributions, and on 8 Noy. 1837, a 
part of the buildings having been completed, the 
school was opened in South Hadley with about 
80 pupils, under the name of the Mount Hol- 
yoke Female Seminary. She was president of 
this school for 12 years, during which time it 
was enlarged and gained a national reputation 
for its high intellectual and moral standard. 
{See Mount Hotyoxe CoLiece). She wrote 


-mained a number of years. 


Gat 


LYON 


‘Tendencies of the Principles embraced and 
the System adopted in the Mount Holyoke Fe- 
male Seminary? (1840) and the ‘Missionary 
Offering? (1843). Consult Hitchcock, Edward, 
‘Life and Labors of Mary Lyon’? (New York 
1860) ; Gilchrist, B. B., ‘Life of Mary Lyon? 
(Boston 1910); Foster and Adams, ‘Heroines 
of Modern Progress? (New York 1913); Nut- 
ting, M. O., ‘Historical Sketch of Mount Hol- 
yoke Seminary? (Washington 1876). 


LYON, Matthew, American politician: b. 
Wicklow County, Ireland, 1746; d. Spadra Bluff, 
Ark., 1 Aug. 1822. He went to New York in 
1755, and, being too poor to pay for his passage, 
was bound out by the captain of the ship to a 
farmer in Connecticut, in whose service he re- 
Subsequently he be- 
came a citizen of Vermont, and in July 1776 
was commissioned as lieutenant in one of the 
companies of “Green Mountain boys.» He 
served later as commissary-general, and even- 
tually rose to the rank of colonel of militia. He 
was one of the founders of Fairhaven (1783), 
where he engaged in paper-making, iron casting 
and other occupations, and at one time edited a 
newspaper of an ultra-democratic character, en- 
titled The Scourge of Aristocracy and Repos- 
itory of Important Poltical Truth, of which 


the types and paper were manufactured by him- 


self. Becoming an active political leader, he 
was elected in 1797 to Congress by the Anti- 
Federal party. In October 1798 he was con- 
victed of a libel on President Adams, and im- 
prisoned for four months, a fine of $1, 000 which 
had also been imposed upon him being paid by 
his friends. An attempt to expel him from 
Congress as a convicted felon failed for want 
of a two-thirds vote. During this Congressional 
term he had a violent altercation on the floor of 
the House with Roswell Griswold of Connecti- 
cut, ending in blows; but the motion to expel 
them was defeated. In 1799, while a prisoner, 
he was re-elected to Congress from Vermont. 
After the expiration of his term he removed to 
Kentucky, where at the next Congressional 
election (1803) he was returned to the House, 
of which he continued a member until 1811. 
Subsequently he held the office of United States 
factor for the Cherokee Indians by the appoint- 
ment of President Monroe and removed to Ar- 
kansas, of which he was the territorial delegate- 
elect to Congress at the time of his death. 
Though rough and impetuous in manner, he 
was an able debater, and to the end of his life 
continued a man of active business habits. He 
built gunboats on speculation during the War 
of 1812 and lost his fortune in the venture. 
Consult Bassett, J. S., ‘The Federalist System? 
(New York 1906) ; Channing, Edward, ‘The 
Jeffersonian System? (ib. 1906) ; McLaughlin, 
“Matthew Lyon, the Hampden of Congress: A 
Biography (ib. 1900). 

LYON, Nathaniel, American soldier: 
b. Ashford, Conn., 14 July .1818; d. Wilson’s 
Creek, Mo., 7 Aug. 1861. He was graduated 
from West Point in 1841; served in the Mexi- 
can War 1846-47, being present at the siege of 
Vera Cruz and the assault on the City of Mex- 
ico; and was on duty in Kansas during the Free 
State agitation. In February 1861 he was as- 
signed to Saint Louis, Mo., where he had charge 
of the arsenal; he was most active and efficient ° 
in the Union cause, organized the Home Guard 


LYNXES 


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PATS ee I Ge 


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LYONNESSE — LYONS 


and on 10 June 1861 captured Camp Jackson, a 
rendezvous of the seccessionists. Soon after- 
ward he was made brigadier-general of volun- 
teers and given command of the department. 
He refused all compromise* with Governor 
Jackson, who sympathized with the secession- 
ists, and in June occupied Jefferson City, the 
capital of the State, and defeated the gov- 
ernor’s troops at Boonville on the 17th. He then 
went to Springfield, whence he advanced on 
1 August to meet a part of the Confederate 
army, which was advancing into Missouri under 
McCulloch; he defeated them at Dug Spring 
and returned to Springfield. But the Confederate 
forces were soon increased by the arrival of 
the troops under Price and General Lyon was 
opposed by an army considerably greater than 
his own. Unwilling to surrender southwestern 
Missouri without a struggle, he decided to risk 
a battle and accordingly advanced from Spring- 
field to Wilson’s Creek, where his troops were 
defeated and he himself killed after a gallant 
fight. He bequeathed nearly all his property, 
about $30,000, to the government to aid in the 
preservation of the Union. In 1862 a collection 
of his letters in favor of the Republican party 
and the election of Lincoln (1860) was pub- 
lished under the title ‘The Last Political Writ- 
ings of General Nathaniel Lyon.» Consult 
Carr, Lucien, ‘Missouri: A Bone of. Conten- 
tion? (New York 1888); Hosmer, J. K., ‘The 
Appeal to Arms> (ib. 1907); Rhodes, J. F., 
“Histor# of the United States from the Com- 
promise of 1850? (ib. 1907) ; ‘Life’ (Hartford 
1862) by Woodward; Peckham, ‘General Na- 
thaniel Lyon and Missouri in 1861> (New York 
1866) ; and Churchill’s novel, “The Crisis.» 


LYONNESSE, . lio-nés, LYONESSE, 
LEONAIS, LEOMOYS, England, the land 
from seichy King Arthur came and now sub- 
merged “forty fathoms under water” or, as in 
Tennyson’s ‘Morte. dArthur?: “Until King 
Arthur’s table, man by man, had fallen in Lyon- 
nesse about their lord,” we find it the “last bat- 
tle field of the West,” scene of the final con- 
flict between Arthur and Sir Modred, west of 
Camelot, sometimes located near Cornwall, be- 
tween Land’s End and the Scilly Islands. 


LYONS, Richard Bickerton Pemell, Eng- 
lish diplomat: b. Lymington, Hampshire, 26 
April 1817; d. 5 Dec. 1887. He studied at Win- 
chester College and Christ Church, Oxford, tak- 
ing (1843) the degree M.A. He had been ap- 
pointed (1839) attaché at Athens without pay, 
but in 1844 he was in government’s pay at that 
city, to be transferred to Dresden in 1852. The 
following year he was transferred to Florence, 
becoming secretary of that legation in 1856. 
From 1858-65 he was British Minister at Wash- 
ington, and then (1865-67) Ambassador at Con- 
stantinople.. He was Ambassador at Paris from 
1867-87. He was created Viscount Lyons. of 
Christchurch in 1881, and Earl Lyons in 1837. 
His wonderful tact and broadness of vision 
were oftentimes. displayed while he repre- 
sented the Court of Saint James in Washing- 
ton. This was the trying period of the Civil 


War, calling for much tact, especially during 


such an episode as the Mason and Slidell re- 
lease controversy. 


LYONS, li’onz, or LYON, 5 on, France, 


the former capital of Lyonnais and now of the 
department of the Rhone, 320 miles by rail 


781 


southeast of Paris, and 170 miles north of Mar- 
seilles, is the second city of industrial and mili- 
tary importance and the third in point of popu- 
lation in the country. It is strikingly situated at 
the confluence of the Saéne and Rhone, the cen- 
tral business section being on the tongue of 
land that projects between the rivers to their 
junction, and extends northward to the hill of 
La Croix Rousse; while the ancient medizval 
town is on the steep slopes of the Fourviéres 
hill, rising from the west bank of the Sadne, 
and the modern industrial suburb of La Guil- 
lotiére, with its numerous factories, is on the 
east bank of the Rhone. Thirteen bridges span 
the Sadne at this point, varying from 250 to 
450 feet wide, and 11 bridges the Rhone, over 
600 feet wide. A series of detached forts 
crown different heights within a circuit of 43 
miles, making Lyons, with its extensive bar- 
tracks and considerable garrison, a defensive 
position of great strategic importance. It is 
the centre for the 14th Army Corps. The older 
quarters of the town are crowded, dirty and un- 
healthful, with narrow, irregular streets, lined 
by tall, ungainly buildings. The best parts are 
the 13 miles of magnificent quays, built since 
the 18th century as a protection against the pe- 
riodical river floods, and now laid out with 
finely planted walks, stately mansions, munici- 
pal buildings, railroad depots, capacious ware- 
houses, etc. 

Among the notable squares and open places 
are the Place des Terreaux, facing which stands 
the Hétel de Ville and the large and handsome 
Place Bellecour, the fashionable promenade. 
The chief public edifices are more remarkable 
for their antiquity than for the beauty of their 
architecture. The cathedral of Saint John on 
the slope of the Fourviéres, on the right bank 
of the Saone, is in the Gothic style of the 12th 
century, and has four towers, two of which 
flank the west front, while the other two, shorter 
but more massive, form the transepts. Higher 
up the slope is the modern church of Notre 
Dame, an imposing composite edifice occupy- 
ing the site of the Forum Vetus byilt by Trajan. 
Beside it is a tower or Belvedere 680 feet 
above the Sadne from which on a clear day 
Mont Blanc, 100 miles off, may be seen. On the 
other side of the Fourviéres is the church of 
Saint Irenzus, the second bishop of Lyons. The 
church itself is an uninteresting modern struc- 
ture, but it stands on the grave of the martyred 
bishop, and has beneath it the reputed crypt in 
which Polycarp preached, and 19,000 Christians 
at a later period were massacred by orders of 
Septimius Severus, 202 a.p. A little above the 
cathedral is the Palais de Justice, and lower 
down on the opposite bank of the Saone is the 
church of the Abbey of Ainay, dating from the 
6th century, beneath whose sacristy, and pene- 
trating below the bed of the river, are dungeons 
without light or air, in which many of the early. 
Christians were immured previous to martyr- 
dom. Other noteworthy churches are the 
church of Saint Nizier, of the 14th century, one 
of the largest in the town; that of Saint Bona- 
venture, the patron saint of Lyons; and the 
church of the Chartreux, surmounted by a 
superb dome seen from all quarters of the city. 
The archepiscopal palace (15th century), 
situated near the cathedral, is a large edifice of 
no architectural merit. The Hotel de Ville is 
considered one of the finest edifices of the kind 


782 


in France. It is an isolated saware, and is sur- 
mounted by a dome 164 feet high. The public 
library, occupying part of the buildings of the 
college on the Quai de Retz, is the best provin- 
cial collection in France, containing 450,000 
volumes and over 1,000 incunabula. The Palais 
des Arts, facing the Place des Terreaux, isa 
fine majestic edifice. It contains a picture-gal- 
lery (with works by Pugin, Rubens, Paul 
Veronese and Teniers), a museum of natural 
history, a cabinet of medals, a gallery for 
statutes, and another for ancient stuccoes; a 
depot of mechanical inventions for the fabrica- 
tion of silks, with a library attached, a free 
school of design and a large hall used as the 
exchange. Among the city’s monuments are 
those to President Carnot, a memorial of the 
Franco-German War and a fountain’ by 


Bartholdi. 


The chief educational establishments are the 
college, or university, founded 1808, occupying a 
fine modern building and attended by over 3,000 
students in the different faculties; the Mar- 
tiniére, a great school of science and the .indus- 
trial arts with 500 students: a free Catholic 
university; various institutions of a. special 
character, such as schools. of chemistry .and 
chemical industry, schools of design, of com- 
merce, of weaving; a celebrated veterinary 
school, the botanic garden, etc. Charitable es- 
tablishments are large and, numerous. The most 
important are the Hotel-Dieu, the Maison de la 
Charité, the Mont de Piété, occupying the 
Manécanterie or deanery attached. to the cathe- 
dral; and the Hospice de l’Antiquaille, on the 
site of the ancient Roman palace or pretorium 
now used partly .as a Iunatic-and partly asa 
Magdalen asylum, and general penitentiary. 
There are several prisons—the New. Prison, 
an extensive building, well. arranged; . the 
Maison des Récluses, now employed as a mili- 
tary prison; and the prison of Roanne, regarded 
as a model of its kind. 

As a manufacturing town Lyons, early. ac- 
quired and ‘has long maintained a first, place. 
It. is'a great financial. centre; with very large 
foreign investments: One of. its~great insti- 
tutions, the Crédit. Lyonnais,. has branches. in 
100, cities. of France. It. is the most.important 
centre of silk manufacture in the world, employ- 
ing directly and indirectly over 200,000 persons. 
Other manufactures are hats, boots, :jewelry 
and: liqueurs; besides. dye-works,' foundries, 
glass-houses, potteries, “tanneries, breweries, 
chemical works. and. printeries. Lyons,. albeit 
the climate is foggy and rainy, is admirably 
situated for trade,.on two navigable. rivers, 
which make it a great entrepot both: forthe 
north and the south:. It forms the common 
centre where the highways and railroads: from 
Paris, Marseilles; Bordeaux, from Switzerland 
and Italy, all meet; it. communicates ‘with’ the 
Rhine by the Rhone and Rhine Canal, while 
several other canals, branching. off from: its 
rivers, give it ample means of transport over 
a great part of the interior of the country. The 
chief, imports are raw silk; wine,sbrandy,) oil, 
soap, flax; hemp, rice, salt, cotton, wool, coffee, 
dyes, earthenware and timber ; and the exports, 
spun-silk and silk-goods ribbons, ‘hats, straw- 
bonnets, woolens, flannels, ‘linens, corn, flour, 
chestnuts, liqueurs, paper, hemp, ironware; etc. 
The United States is represented by a consulate. 


LYONS 


As Lugdunum, Lyons was an early Gallic 
town, and when Cesar invaded Gaul: was a 
place of some importance; it figures more or 
less in the subsequent history of the Roman 
Empire, several emperors in succession making 
it their occasional residence and vying with 
each other»in adorning it.. It early received 
Christianity, and toward the end of the 2d cen- 
tury numbered thousands of Christians, among 
its inhabitants. Its first bishop, Pothinus, died 
a martyr in 197, and his successor, Irenzeus, died 
also a martyr in 202. Lyons was afterward 
sacked by the Huns and  Visigoths, who 
destroyed many of its noblest Roman structures. 
In the 8th century it fell for a time into the 
hands of an army of Saracens from Spain, 
and suffered severely; ‘but’ recovered its pros- 
perity under Charlemagne, on the dissolution of 
whose empire it became the capital of the king- 
dom of Provence. Subsequently it fell under 
ecclesiastical domination, and was long gov- 
erned by a succession of ‘archbishops.’ Two 
Ecumenical Church Councils were held in the 
city (1245—74). In 1312 Lyons was annexed to 
the crown of France, It received its first munic- 
ipal charter in 1320. It owes its new quays and 
several of its finest edifices to Louis XIV, of 
whom there is a fine equestrian statue. The 
Revolution of 1793 occasioned fearful reverses. 
The inhabitants, finding their industry paralyzed 
and their trade destroyed, rebelled against revo- 
lutionary violence, and the convention Jet loose 
its forces upon them; wholesale butcheries for 
many days deluged the town with blood. Since 
that, period questions of an. economical, or 
rather socialist nature, culminated in the san- 
guinary revolts of 1831, 1834, 1849 and 1871. 
Several important’ figures in history were 
natives of Lyons, among them the Roman 
emperors Marcus Aurelius, Claudius and Car- 
acalla; and the celebrated general Germanicus, 


Saints Irenzeus and Ambrose, and Meissonier 
the artist. Pop. about 523,796. 


LYONS, Kan., city, county-seat of Rice 
County, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, 
the Missouri Pacific, the .Saint. Louis and 
San Francisco, railroads; about 180 miles west 
by south of-Topeka and 25 miles north by west 
of Hutchinson. It is situated in a fertile agri- 
cultural region, in which stock-raising is a 
prominent industry.. Nearby are salt deposits, 
like that at. Hutchinson in Reno County, a re- 
markably fine salt, obtained from a considerable 
depth below the surface. Some of its indus- 
trial establishments are salt works, grain ele- 
vators, gas-engine works and flour-mills, Its 
trade is chiefly in grain, salt; livestock,. flour 
and corn. The. city owns and operates the water- 
works. .Pop. (1920) 2,516, 


LYONS, N. Y., village, county-seat of 
Wayne Cotnty, on the Erie and new Barge 
Canal system. Is 49 miles west of Syracuse 
and 36 miles east by south'of Rochest@r. On 
the main line of the New York Central, West 
Shore and Rochester, Syracuse and Eastern 
railway systems, -being the terminal of the 
Pennsylvania division of the New York Cen- 
tral, tapping the Pennsylvania ~ coal fields. 
Lyons was founded in 1795 and incorporated as 


a village in 1854. It is situated in a fertile agri- 


cultural region and centre of the fruit belt. The 
Niagara, Lockport and Ontario Power Com- 


LYONS — LYRE-BIRD 


pany maintains a large power plant here, fur- 
nishing the Empire United Railways with power 
and surrounding villages with current for all 
purposes. The Empire Gas and Electric Com- 
pany maintains its power plant here, utilizing 
an extensive water power. The Barge Canal 
will have warehouses and. terminals here cost- 
ing $125,000. It is estimated that 15,000 horse 
power can be realized from the Barge Canal at 
this point. State officials estimate that one- 
third of the local tonnage on the Barge Canal 
will be received at this point, being coal to be 
transferred here from the Pennsylvania coal 
fields. The New York Central has exten- 
sive car shops here with a payroll of. over 
$800 per day. Lyons has the cheapest elec- 
tric power in the State of New. York out- 
side of Niagara Falls. This is an important 
coal transfer point, the New York Central 
transferring here, while the Philadelphia and 
Reading Coal. and Iron Company has a 
mammoth coal transferring trestle in the Penn- 
sylvania division yards. 

Its chief industries are two of the largest 
canning plants in the State; a large cider vine- 
gar plant, cement pipe and block factory; tile 
yards, machine shops, planing mill, distilleries 
of peppermint and other essential oils. Mail 
bags, sacks, ‘carriers’ bags, satchels and straps 
for the United States postal system are made 
here with a factory for making fanning-mills 
and slipper soles. 

The Lyons Cold Storage Company, Incor- 
porated, recently erected a 75,000-barrel cold- 
storage plant here, the only plant of its kind 
between Syracuse and Rochester on the main 
line of the New York Central. There are ex- 
tensive warehouses for the handling of fruit 
and produce of various kinds. Lyons has been 
made a grading station for handling hay from 
the Western States and grading it for ship- 
ment. A warehouse has just been completed 
for receiving, grading and picking beans, giv- 
ing employment to 60 hands, using power ma- 
chinery. A new municipal waterworks plant 
costing $100,000 and a sewer system with dis- 
posal plant costing $140,000 has been installed 
the past year. Tax rate and fire insurance rates 
are low. The mortgage indebtedness of Lyons 
is the smallest of any village in the Empire 
State, while the fact that its mortality rate is 
the lowest of any New York village and 78 per 
cent of its residences are occupied by owners 
speaks well for the frugality of its residents. 
The Hough Shade Corporation of Janesville, 
Wis., maintains storage warehouses here, sup- 
plying the New England, Middle and Eastern 
States to and including Washington, D. C. 
Lyons has an aggressive Business Men’s Asso- 
ciation and Civic Club. The union school li- 
brary with over 7,000 and the Civic Club library 
with over 3,000 books are maintained. Its 
school system is of the best. Pop. (1920) 4,253. 


LYONS, Councils of, two synods held at 
the city in France from which they derive their 
name and which are received as ecumenical by 
~the Roman Catholic Church. When the quar- 
rel between the Emperor Frederick II and In- 
nocent IV had resulted in the banishment of 
the latter from Rome, the Pope summoned a 
council in 1245 at which the patriarchs of Aqui- 
leia, Antioch and Constantinople, as well as the 
Emperor Baldwin II, were present, with sev- 
eral royal delegates. Thaddeus of Susa repre- 


783 


sented Frederick II, who was, in spite of that 
delegate’s emphatic: protests, solemnly deposed 
and his subjects released from their allegiance. 
When Gregory X took the tiara, his first step 
was to attempt a reunion of Christendom, as 
represented by the Greek and Latin churches, 
which had been parted by schism mainly on the 
question of the filioque (q.v.), and Latin accre- 
tions to the doctrine of purgatory. Accordingly 
the second Council of Lyons met 1274 under 
his presidency and the desired union was ap- 
parently effected, for both Greek and Latin prel- 
ates. sang the Creed including the clause assert- 
ing the double procession. The tie that bound 
them, however, proved a rope of sand and the 
schism has continued to this day. The synod 
also made regulations concerning papal _elec- 
tions. See GREEK CHURCH. 


LYONS, Gulf of, a large bay of the Medi- 
terranean on the south of France, extending 
from the Spanish frontier eastward to the 
Hyéres Islands. 


LYRE, the most ancient of stringed instru- 
ments, which originally had but three strings. 
The Egyptian and Grecian lyres were at first 
strung with the sinews of animals. The number 
of the strings was at last increased to 16. 
It was played with a stick of ivory or polished 
wood, also with the fingers. The body of the 
lyre was hollow, to increase the sound. Few 
objects are so graceful in form and susceptible 
of such various application in the fine arts. As 
a musical instrument it has now gone out of 
use among the civilized nations, though a rude 
form of it is still to be met with in the hands 
of the shepherds of Greece and among the 
negro tribes of Africa. It is the symbol of 
Apollo. 


LYRE-BAT (Megadernia lyra), a small 
bat of the family Nycteride, common in India 
and Ceylon, where it is known as the “Vam- 
pire’ bat. It haunts old buildings, ruins and 
cave-temples. The name vampire is given to 
it from its blood-sucking habits, for it first 
sucks the blood of its prey before consuming 
the body. It eats insects, smaller bats and fish. 
Enormous ears are characteristic of the lyre- 
bat. Consult Blyth, E., ‘Notice of the Preda- 
tory and Sanguivorous habits of the bats of 
the genus Megaderme? (in the Journal of the 
Asiastic Society. of Bengal, Vol. XI, pt. I, p. 
255-262, Calcutta 1842). 


LYRE-BIRD, a remarkable Australian 
bird which derives its name from the form of 
the tail in the male, which much resembles that 
of the conventional Apollo’s lyre; thé tail of the 


- female is rather long, but simply wedge-shaped. 


There are two species, about the size of 
chickens, both reddish brown and called “native 
pheasants» by the colonists, constituting the 
genus Menura and family Menuride, and re- 
garded as the lowliest of the Passeres, and of 
very ancient origin. They dwell in the “scrub” 
or open woods, and rarely leave the ground, 
avoiding their enemies by swift running. Their 
nests are placed upon the ground, are well 
woven of sticks and plant-stems and are 


-covered by a dome-like roof, leaving an en- 


trance only at the sides. In the mating season 
the males scrape tp mounds of leaves and rub- 
bish upon which they strut about. sing and do 
their best to display their long and handsome 


784. 


tails to the hens. The better known species is 
the long-tailed one (JM. superba) but both are 
now rare. 


LYRIC POETRY. The origins of lyric 
poetry are merged with those of narrative, be- 
cause of the primitive conditions under which 
the distinction between these types did not ex- 
ist,— that is, when there was no clearly felt 
difference between the relating of an incident 
and the expression of the emotions associated 
with it. With the development of art there 
seems to have been a gradual differentiation of 
lyric and narrative expression, as there was a 
differentiation of the originally united arts of 
poetry and music. The progress of poetry was, 
in general, marked by an increased emphasis on 
the individuality of the artist and on the per- 
sonat—or stibjective elements in lyric poetry; 
further, by the diminished importance of its 
association sae music, and 5 oust penansiti 

rowth of the reflective or intellectual elements, 
eS that modern Tenner ee is but slightly asso- 
ciated with actual song, though it is still cen- 
tred on the expression of subjective emotion. 
The surviving sense of the original connection 
between this utterance of personal feeling and 
Song is well illustrated by Wordsworth’s ob- 
servation that his lyric poems, though none of 
them songs, could not have their full force 
without a supposed musical accompaniment. 
For the various types of lyric developed from 
primitive song to late reflective lyric, see under 
LITERARY FOorRMS. : ; 

Song Lyric.—In Greek poetry this type is 
commonly called “melic,» and is distinguished 
according as a poem was intended to be sung 
by an individual or a chorus; the former class 
was associated especially with the AZolian race 
and its music, the latter with the Dorian. The 
principal names representative of Greek lyric 
are those of Terpander and Alcman, in the 7th 
century B.c., Anacreon, Alczeus and Sappho in 
the 6th century, and Pindar and Bacchylides in 
the 5th. It should also be remembered that the 
Greek ‘drama was in large degree a lyric form, 
containing choral odes made for musical rendi- 
tion; so that in this sense Atschylus, Sophocles 
and Euripides are authors of some of the 
greatest of ancient lyrics. From the standpoint 
of its later influence, the most important feature 
of Greek lyric was its elaborate strophic 
structure, adapted to corresponding musical 
form. Thus the threefold structure of. the 
choral odes, divided into “strophes,” “anti- 
strophes” and “epodes,” became the model for 
the few formal odes in modern poetry. The 
music of the Greeks ‘and the corresponding 
types of lyrics were imitated by the Romans; 
but since the art. of song held a much less im- 
portant place at Rome, these types passed over 
into the literary lyric, and practically no ex- 
amples of pure song-lyric are preserved from 
the period of classical Latin. In the 4th cen- 
tury of the Christian era occurred an important 
development of the hymn, especially under the 
influence of Saint Ambrose of Milan; and that 
form of lyric remains important to this day in 
connection with ecclesiastical music. From the 
medieval period a great body of popular song- 
lyric survives, usually without association with 
any known author; it was also cultivated with 
elegant formality at the courts of princes, espe- 
cially by, the troubadours of Provence and the 


-man of life upright.» 


_ LYRIC POETRY 


minnesingers of Swabia. In the Renaissance 
period this development of the art by courtly 
poets was continued, and in western Europe 
received a new stimulus under Italian influence. 
At the court of Henry VIII of England vocal 
music, both sacred and secular, was diligently 
cultivated, and from this period date several 
collections of songs; the Bassus, for example, 
printed in 1530 by Wynkyn de Worde, is one 
of the earliest English printed books. In 
Elizabethan England the connection between 
music and lyric poetry was maintained with 
enthusiasm, and musicians — courtly and other- 
wise — vied with each other in producing col- 
lections like William Byrd’s ‘Psalms, ‘Son- 
nets, and ‘Songs of Sadness and~ Piety? 
(1588), and “Songs of Sundrie Natures? 
(1589) ; John Dowland’s three ‘Books of Songs 
or Airs? (1597-1603), and Thomas Campion’s 
four ‘Books of Airs» (1601-18). A special 
form called the madrigal, introduced at this 
period from Italy, exerted an influence on 
Elizabethan music and poetry alike, as is ex- 
emplified in Yonge’s ‘Musica Transalpina, a 
collection of madrigals from the Italian 
(1588), and Wilbye’s ‘First Set of Madrigals? 
(1598). The greater number of these Eliza- 
bethan songs are of comparatively slight in- 
terest as poetry, but to this Thomas Campion 
is an exception, a number of his lyrics remain- 
ing classics — such as “Cherry Ripe” and “The 
1 In the modern period the 
increasing development of the reflective and 
literary elements of poetry has diminished the 
importance of the song lyric and few import- 
ant names are associated with it. Of these the 
greatest is Robert Burns, whose poems (pub- 
lished 1786 and 1793) were written for the 
most part as songs set to traditional Scottish 
airs and represent more nearly the primitive 
conditions of union of music and verse than 
any other work of modern times. Other groups 
of song lyrics of some importance are the 
‘Irish Melodies? of Thomas Moore (1807-34) 
and the ‘Hebrew Melodies? of Lord Byron 
(1815). In Germany the chief representatives 
of this type are Wilhelm Miiller (died 1827), 
Uhland (died 1862), Heine (died 1856) and 
Morike (died 1875). : Ri ‘g 

Reflective Lyric.— The line between this 
group and the preceding is often a slight or 
arbitrary one; but in general the reflective lyric 
may be distinguished as arising from meditation 
on a personal experience rather than from the 
spontaneous impulse to express it musically. In 
modern practice it is read rather than sung. 
But in ancient times, when the lyric art was 
more largely musical, the same distinction can- 
not be observed; thus many of the Greek lyrics 
are reflective, though intended for song. The 
forms of Greek poetry called “elegiac” (repre- 
sented by Tyrteus and Mimnermus) | and. 
“ambic” (represented by Archilochus), may be 
distinguished in this way from the “melic,” as 
less closely associated with song. Among the 
Romans the chief masters of the lyric were 
Catullus, in the first half of the Ist century 
B.c., and, in the second half of the cen- 
tury, Horace, Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. 
Horace’s most familiar poems, the “odes,»: were 
originally called carmina, or songs, but appear 
to have been much more commonly read than - 
sung; in the “epodes” he was less lyrical. and 


4 
RAEN 
4 


LYRE BIRD 


oe) 


Ban VR 


oO 
1 Ne 


a» 


LYRIC POETRY 


more reflective. Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid 
are classed as the “elegiac” lyrists, but in Latin 
literature even more than in Greek the term has 
reference to traditional form rather than to 
distinctive subject-matter. In the medieval pe- 
riod the formal lyric was less important than 
narrative poetry, but with notable exceptions 
among the courtly poets, particularly in 
France; to these are traced the lyrics in “fixed 
forms,” like the rondeau, the ballade and the 
villanelle. The Renaissance brought about an 
immense revival of literary lyric, especially in 
Italy under the influence of Petrarch (died 
1374), and in France under the leadership of 
the “Pléiade poets”— Ronsard, du Bellay, etc.— 
of the 16th century. The most important re- 
sulting type was the sonnet, the vogue of which 
in France and Italy was carried into England, 
reaching its height toward the close of the 
16th century. This, with other forms of lyric 
of the Italian school, was introduced to Eng- 
lish readers by the posthumous publication, in 
1557, of the poems of Sir Thomas Wyatt and 
the Earl of Surrey (see under Torret’s Mis- 
CELLANY). In the Elizabethan period there ap- 
peared not only many collections of son- 
nets, but a number of poetical miscellanies in- 
dicating the growing interest in lyric poetry of 
a cultivated character. Of the sonneteers, the 
chief are Sidney, Daniel, Drayton, Shakespeare 
and Spenser. Spenser also contributed to the 
Elizabethan lyric the pastoral poems of his 
“Shepherd’s Calendar,’ 1579, and Drayton a 
brilliant collection called ‘Poems Lyric and 
Pastoral, 1606. Ben Jonson, though himsel 
a minor lyrist, exerte important influence 
on the more correct or classical school of 
post-Elizabethan lyric; of his followers, some- 
times called the “sons of Ben,” the chief repre- 
sentative is Robert Herrick, who in 1648 pub- 
lished the collections of lyrics called ‘Hes- 
perides» and ‘Noble Numbers.” John Donne, a 
contemporary of Jonson’s, exerted an influenge 
‘of a different character, and is sometimes 
viewed as the founder of the so-called “meta- 
physical lyric poetry of the 17th century— 
that is, poetry characterized by the use of in- 
tricate and ingenious imagery drawn from the 
field of learning rather than art. In this cen- 
tury the most characteristic development of the 
English lyric was in the religious type; besides 
Herrick, already mentioned, its leading repre- 
sentatives are George Herbert and Richard 
Crashaw. The Restoration saw a brief revival 
of secular lyric poetry, especially of the courtly 
type, in the region of occasional verse and vers 
de société, but the lyric spirit was ebbing 
rapidly in the interest of poetry of satiric and 
didactic modes. In the 18th century the most 
characteristic English lyrics are odes like those 
of Collins and Gray, in which the form of the 
ancient classical ode, now divorced from its 
association with music, is made the means of 
elaborate poetic thinking, and equally formal 
and reflective elegies, of which Gray’s, again, is 
the chief. The ode form was cultivated in 
France in the same period by Jean Baptiste 
Rousseau (died 1741) and Ecouchard Lebrun 
(died 1807) ; and in both France and Germany 
there was also.a vogue of “anacreontics,” rep- 
resenting another revival of classical fashion; 
but in general the age was one in which the 
lyric languished on the Continent as well as in 
YOL. 17-—— 50 


785 


England. With the “romantic revival,” at the 
end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th 
century, there came a great renewal of the 
lyrical impulse. The emphasis placed by the 
romantic spirit upon individual emotion leads 
to the characteristic expression of such emotion 
in lyric form and the whole 19th century 
presents a new development of the effort to 
unite with this expression the processes of re- 
flection. In England the finest representatives 
of this tendency are Wordsworth, Keats and 
Shelley, in the opening years of the century; 
Wordsworth’s ode on “Intimations of Immor- 
tality,» Shelley's “Odes to Naples” and Keats’ 
ode “On a Grecian Urn” are masterpieces ex- 
emplifying the lyric development of thought on 
the subjects of immortality, liberty and art. In 
the mid-19th century~the~reffective Tyric finds 
equally notable representation in the poems of 
Tennyson’s ‘In Memoriam? (1850). Tenny- 
son also wrote a number of “dramatic lyrics,” 
—that is, lyrical utterances of imagined per- 
sonalities —and the same type was developed 
even more brilliantly by Robert Browning. The 
personal sonnet-sequence was revived by Mrs. 
Elizabeth Barrett Browning in her ‘Sonnets 
from the Portuguese? (1850), and by Dante 
Rossetti in the collection called ‘The House of 
Life? (1881); and the pastoral elegy, in the 
manner of the classic tradition, reappeared in 
Matthew Arnold’s ‘Thyrsis» (1866). Of the 
later Victorian lyrists Algernon Charles Swin- 
burne may be counted the chief. Meantime the: 
romantic movement had developed the reflec- 
tive lyric with equal importance on the Con- 
tinent. In the earlier years of the century 
Goethe represented it in Germany, followed 
later by such lyrists as Ferdinand Freiligrath 
(died 1876), Emanuel ‘Geibel (died 1884), 
Detlev von Liliencron (died 1909), Friedrich 
Nietzsche (better known as philosopher, died 
1900), and Richard Dehmel (born 1863). In 
France the chief lyrists of the century are 
Béranger (died 1857), Lamartine (died 1869), 
Alfred de Vigny (died 1863), Alfred de Musset 
(died 1857), Théophile Gautier (died 1872), and 
Victor Hugo (died 1885). Some will have it 
that the lyric poetry of Hugo, in its combina- 
tion of personal fervor, range of intellectual 
interest and sensuous beauty, is unsurpassed in 
the verse of any modern tongue. In Italy 
among the more important representatives of 
the lyric are Leopardi (died 1837), Manzoni 
(died 1872), and Carducci (born 1836). Amer- 
ican literature has not been distinguished pri- 
marily for lyric poetry, though in Edgar Allan 
Poe (died 1849) it has an important represen- 
tative of the type which is close to song. Ex- 
emplars of the more reflective type aré found 
in the poetry of Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell, 
Whittier, Emerson, Whitman, Aldrich, Sidney 
Lanier, Emily Dickinson, William Vaughn 
Moody and John B. Tabb.. Perhaps the high- 
water marks of American lyric might be meas- 
ured from three or four occasional poems which 
are expressive of national as well as personal 
feeling,— Emerson’s “Concord Hymn,” Lowell’s 
“Commemoration Ode,” Whitman’s “Captain, 
my Captain,» and Moody’s “Ode in Time of 
Hesitation.” It is clear that the vogue and the 
value of lyric poetry remain wholly undimin- 
ished; indeed it remains the characteristic type 
of the present era, In the early 20th century, 


786 


however, there has beenva\tendency among the 
younger poets\to relax the emphasis.on the re- 
flective or intellecttial element, and to make the 
lyric a more momentaty or fugitive representa- 
tion of a personal:mood. See POETRY. 

Bibliography.— On lyric poetry in general, 
consult Gummere’s ‘The Beginnings of Poetry’ 
(New York 1901), especially chapter IV. For 
Greece, consult Farnell’s “Greek Lyric: Poetry? 
(London 1891); Smyth’s “Greek Melic Poets? 
(London 1900); Fairclough’s article on “Tyr- 
taeus, Archilochus, and their Successors” (in 
the Warner Library of Universal Literature, 
Vol. XXXVII, 1897); and ‘Ancient Gems in 
Modern Settings? (versions of the Greek 
Anthology), edited by Grundy (Oxford 1913). 
For Rome, consult Sellar’s ‘Roman Poets. of 
the Augustan Age? (Oxford 1892), and Mac- 
kail’s ‘Hundred Best Poems (Lyrical) in the 
Latin Language? (London 1906). For the Eng- 
lish lyric, consult Reed’s ‘English Lyrical 
Poetry? (New Haven 1912); Rhys’ ‘Lyric 
Poetry? (London 1913); Schelling’s ‘The Eng- 
lish Lyric? (Boston 1913); Wright’s ‘Old 
Christmas Carols? (London 1841) and ‘Songs 
and Carols? (1847); Schelling’s ‘Elizabethan 
Lyrics and Seventeenth Century Lyrics? (Bos- 
ton 1895, 1899); Lee’s ‘The French Renais- 
sance in England? (London 1910); Bullen’s 
‘Shorter Elizabethan Poems? and Lee’s 
‘Elizabethan Sonnets? (‘New: English Garner? 
1904); Erskine’s ‘The Elizabethan Lyric? 
(New York 1903); Bullen’s ‘Lyrics from 
Elizabethan Dramatists? (1889); ‘Lyrics from 
Elizabethan Song-Books? (1889) ; and. ‘Lyrics 
from Elizabethan Romances? (1890) ; Padel- 
ford’s ‘Early Sixteenth Century Lyrics? _(Bos- 
ton 1907); Cox’s ‘English Madrigals in the 
Time of Shakespeare? (London 1899);. Pal- 
grave’s ‘Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics? 
(many editions). For America, . consult 
Knowles’ ‘Golden Treasury of American Songs 
and Lyrics? (Boston 1897), and Rickert. and 
Paton’s ‘American Lyrics? (New. York 1912). 
For France, consult Jeanroy’s ‘Origines: de la 
Poésie Lyrique en France au. Moyen Age? 
(Paris 1889); Fonsny and Van Dooren’s 
“Anthologie des Poétes Lyriques Francais? 
(Verviers 1902) ; Wyndham’s ‘Ronsard and La 
Pléiade? (London 1906) ; Brunetiére’s ‘Evolu- 
tion de la Poésie Lyrique au XIXe Siécle? 
(Paris 1889); Lang’s ‘Ballads and Lyrics of 
Old France? (London 1872). For Germany, 
consult Lee’s ‘The German Lyric? (London 
1914), and Miinsterberg’s ‘Harvest of German 
Verse (New York 1916). 


RAyMonpD M. ALDEN, 


Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior 
University. 


LYS, lés, or LEYE, li-é, Belgium, an af- 
fluent of the Scheldt, which rises near Lysbourg, 
Pas-de-Calais, France, and after a northeasterly 
course of 130 miles unites with the Scheldt at 
Ghent, Belgium. Some of the most stubbornly 
contested engagements in the early months of 
the Great War were fought i in its valley. 


LYSANDER, li-sin’dér, Spartan general : 
d. 395. His fat er was Aristocritus, a Lace- 
demonian of the purest blood, being of Hera- 
cleidan descent, his mother a Helot who 
brought him up in poverty. His fine: qualities, 
however, procured him. the command of: the 


LYS —LYSANIAS 


Spartan fleet off the coasts of Asia Minor 


(408).. He established his’ headquarters at 
Ephesus, which he raised to prosperity. Next 
year, he was succeeded by Callicratidas..In a 


short time, his reputation had so increased that 
the Asiatic allies of Sparta requested the Lace- 
demonians to invest him a second time with 
the command. Accordingly, Lysander, with 
the title of vice-admiral (405 z.c.), defeated 
and captured the Athenian fleet off JE gospo- 
tamos. This decisive victory put an end to 
the Peloponnesian War. ‘Shortly afterward he 
set sail for Athens, which he blockaded. The 
city was starved into capitulation (404); the 
long walls and the fortifications of the Pirzeus 
were demolished; and the oligarchy of the 
Thirty Tyrants was established, which gov- 
erned with terrible cruelty. Lysander then re- 
turned to Lacedemon, where his ambitious and 
unscrupulous character made itself. more pal- 
pable than ever. He was excessively fond of 
praise, and was the first of their own country- 
men to whom the Greeks erected altars, offered 
sacrifices as to a god and celebrated festivals. 
On his return to Sparta Lysander, stung by 
the ingratitude of Agesilaus, whose succession 
to the throne he had secured, resolved to de- 
stroy the constitution of his country by abolish- 
ing hereditary monarchy,. making the throne 
elective, but the Delphic and other oracles were 
unfavorable, in spite even of his bribes. On 
the outbreak of the Beeotian War (395 B.c.) he 
marched against Haliartus and was killed: in 
battle under its walls. 


LYSANIAS, (1) an Athenian of the deme 


_Sphettus, who according to some accounts was 


the father of Aschines, the disciple of Socrates. 
Consult Plato, ‘Apol?; Socrates, c. 22; Diog- 
enes’ ‘Laértius, > 11,60. (2) The father of Ceph- 
alus, one of the interlocutors in the republic of 
Plato. Consult Plato, ‘Polit. p. 330b. (3) A 
friend: of Alexander the Great, who. was sent 
with Philotas to the coast in charge of the 
booty taken after the victory over the Thra- 
cians (355 B.c.). Consult Arrian, 1, 2. (4) A 
Greek grammarian, native of Cyrene, mentioned 
by Athenzus as the author of a work on the 
Iambic poets (vil, p. 304 b.; xiv, p. 620 c.). 
Suidas speaks of him as the instructor of Era- 
tosthenes. _He may be the same person men- 
tioned by Diogenes (‘Laértius? vi, 23) as the 
son of A¢schrion. 


LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene ais the 
eastern slope of the Lebanon Mountains near 
Damascus), mentioned by Saint Luke (chap- 
ter iii, 1) at the time when John the Baptist 
began his ministry (25 a.p.). He is supposed 
to have died about the time that the Emperor 
Claudius ascended the throne for in the first 
year of Claudius’ reign the tetrarchy of Abilene 
was given to Herod Agrippa. It is probable 
that Lysanias was the son of Lysanias, spoken 
of by Josephus as a prince named Lysanias who 
ruled over a territory in the neighborhood of 
Lebanon in the time of Antony and Cleopatra 
and who was put to death by Antony to gratify 
Cleopatra’ (26 3.c.).: This ambitious queen 
seems to have received a good part of the 
territory (Joseph, Ant. Jud. xv, 4; Dion. Cass.. 
xlix, 32). The obscurity surrounding the name 
of Lysanias has attracted the attention of 
scholars, many of whom confused the two Ly- 
sanias supposing there was but one. Consult 


LYSENIAS —LYSTRA 


McClintock and Strong (Vol. V, p. 589, New 
York: 1891). 


LYSENIAS, a piece of statuary found in 
the island of Scio and bearing this name on 
the base and an inscription showing that the 
sculptor’s father was named Dionysus and that 
the statue represented the god Dionysus. 


LYSIAS, lis’i-as, Athenian orator: b. about 
458 ~B.c.; d. about 380. He was a son of Cepha- 
lus, an orator, of whom Plato makes honorable 
mention in his ‘Republic.»> Lysias at 14 went 
to Thurium, in Magna Grecia, to study philos- 
ophy and eloquence under Tisias and Nicias of 
Syracuse. Having settled in Thurium, he was 
employed in the government; but on the defeat 
of the Athenians in Sicily was banished with 
many of his countrymen. After Athens had re- 
covered its freedom he exerted himself for the 
advantage of the city and sacrificed much of his 
property for the public welfare. At first he 
gave instruction in eloquence; but finding him- 
self surpassed by Theodorus, another teacher 
of oratory, he devoted his time to writing ora- 
tions for others. He wrote more than 200, some 
say 400 orations, but only 223, however, were 
regarded as genuine. His style is applauded as 
a perfect example of the simple Attic eloquence. 
Only 34 of his orations have come down to our 
times. They thave been published in various 
collections of the Attic orators; among the best 
separate editions of them are ‘those by Baiter 
and Sauppe (1850); Cobet (1863); Thalheim 
(1901). Consult Jebb, ‘Attic Orators? (Vol I, 
1880). 


LYSICRATES, li-sik’ra-téz, Monument of, 
located in Athens; one of the earliest examples 
of Corinthian architecture. It was dedicated 
334 B.c. to Dionysus, by Lysicrates, as a trophy 
for winning the Dionysian games. The monu- 
ment, which was built in the form of a round 
temple, was surmounted by a bronze tripod and 
stood on a cubical base 13 feet high. The build- 
ing on account of its shape was popularly 
known as the “Lantern of Demosthenes.” 


LYSIMACHIA. See Loosestrire. 


LYSIMACHUS, li-sim’a-kis, general and 
one of the diadochoi of Alexander the Great: 
b. Pella, Thessaly, 361 B.c.; d. near Corus, 281 
z.c. He was a low-born Macedonian of great 
physical strength and courage. On the death of 
Alexander, 323 B.c., Thrace fell to the share of 
Lysimachus, who became also satrap of Mace- 
donia in 286.. The murder of his son Agatho- 
cles, a great favorite of the people, at the insti- 
gation of his Egyptian wife, Arsinoe, provoked 
a revolt in Asia; Séleucus, satrap of Syria, took 
up the cause of the widow of Agathocles, Ly- 
sandra, and Lysimachus was killed in the battle 
near Corus which ensued. He founded a city 
on the Hellespont, named after him Lysimachi. 


LYSIMETER (a rain gauge) from two 
Greek words, lysis, dissolving, and metron, 
measure, an invention for collecting and meas- 
uring the rain that percolates through the 
soil; and also for the study of the composition 
of drainage water. The lysimeter is a water- 
tight box (or cylinder), enclosing a definite 
area to a given depth and provided with a bot- 
tom arranged so that the percolating water that 
has drained through the soil may be drawn off 
and measured. This box is sunk into the soil 
to a level with its top. Sometimes the lysimeter 


787 


is placed in a pit dug for the purpose and filled 
with the soil removed from the pit, Usually 
the conditions of the soil in the lysimeter are 
like those of the soil outside. Lysimeters are 
variously made. In some cases a trench has 
been dug fn the soil and perforated iron plates 
are inserted to support the mass, with a zinc 
funnel to collect the drainage water and con- 
duct it to a receptacle. Although lysimeters 
cannot represent accurately the conditions of 
the natural soil, they are valuable for compara- 
tive scientific studies on percolation, drainage 
and the processes of vitrification in soils. The 
best work with lysimeters has been done by 
Stockbridge at the Agricultural College, Am- 
herst, Mass.; Sturtevant, Babcock and Goff at 
the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 
N. Y.; and Lyon at Cornell University. In 
other countries the leading experimenters are: 

England, by Lawes, Gilbert and Warrington at 
Rothamsted ; France, by Dehérain at Grignon; 
Germany, by Gerlash at Bromberg; in Hawaii, 
by Eckert; and. Moscow, by Klucharoy. Con- 
sult Stockbridge, ‘Investigations in Rainfall, 
Percolation and Evaporation? (Boston 1879) ; 

Gilbert, ‘Observations on Rainfall, Percolation 
and Evaporation? (in ‘Rothamsted Memoirs,’ 
Vol. VII, London 1890); Dehérain, ‘Les coux 
de drainage des terres cultives» (Paris 1893) ; 
Cameron, F. K., ‘The Role of the Lysimeter in 
Soil Solution Studies’? (in Eighth International 
Congress of Applied Chemistry Proceedings, 
Vol. XV, 1912); and New York State Experi- 
ment Station Reports, 1882, 1887, 1888 and 1890. 


LYSIPPUS, li-sip’tis, Greek sculptor who 
flourished in Sicyon between 360 and 316 B.c. 
Alexander the Great would permit no one but 
Apelles. to paint his portrait, and no one but 
Lysippus_ to make his statue. Lysippus was 
first a smith and afterward devoted himself to 
sculpture, adopting the-canon of Polycletes, as 
exemplified in that artist’s “Doryphorus.? This 
canon, or standard of beauty, presents the hu- 
man form with the head smaller and the limbs 
longer and slenderer than in life. His statues 
were wrought with much greater ideal beauty 
than those of his predecessors. They were al- 
most all, if not all, in bronze, and he is said to 
have left behind him some 1,500 works. Sev- 
eral of his more celebrated statues were those 
of Alexander, the most noted of which repre- 
sented the Macedonian hero bearing a lance. 
This was considered as a sort of companion to 
the picture of Apelles, in which Alexander was 
seen, like a second Zeus, launching a thunder- 
bolt. -Among his principal ideal works are the 
colossal ‘Zeus» at Tarentum; ‘Phcebus Apollo 
in his four horse Chariot? at Rhodes; the 
bronze statue of ‘Opportunity at the entrance 
of a temple in Sicyon, of which several copies 
are extant; the colossal bronze statue of ‘Her- 
cules? at Tarentum and the famous ‘Athlete, 
of which the ‘Apoxyomenus? of the Vatican is 
a copy. 


LYSOL, a brown, oily liquid, having an 
odor resembling creosote. It is prepared from 
tar oil by saponification; is a useful antiseptic 
for the hands in a 1 or 2 per cent solution, and 
is chiefly used in obstetrical operations. 


LYSTRA, lis’tra, Asia Minor, a village of 
importance in ancient Lycaonia between Cap- 
padocia and Phrygia. Lystra was a Roman col- 
ony and the place where Saint Paul healed the 


788 


impotent man and was, ith Saint Barnabas, 
worshipped as a god(‘Acts,? xiv). The ac- 
tual site is a, low stone-strewn mound, a little 
beyond the village of Khatin Serai. Near it are 
the ruins of a Small church with a spring issu- 
ing underneath. Little remains in situ, but in 
the village are many inscriptions, several of 
which are in Latin. An inscription found be- 
side the mound enabled Prof. John Robert 
Sitlington Sterrett (1851-1914), who visited the 
place in 1884, to identify it with Lystra. The 
first bishop of Lystra is said to have been Ar- 
temas, one of the Seventy Disciples. In the 
graveyard of Kavak, an hour’s journey from 
Khatin Serai, a miléstone bears the inscription 
“Colonia Lystrensium.” Consult Ramsay, Wil- 
liam M., ‘The Historical Geography of Asia 
Minor? (London 1890); id., ‘Saint Paul the 
Traveller? (1895); id., ‘The Cities of Saint 
Paul? (New York 1907); Sterrett, J. R. S., 
“Wolf Expedition to Asia Minor? (1885); id., 
‘Epigraphical Journey in Asia Minor? (1888) ; 
id., ‘Leaflets from the Notebook of a Travelling 
Archeologist? (1889). 


LYTE, Henry Francis, English Anglican 
clergyman and hymn writer: b. Ednam,: near 
Kelso, Scotland, 1 June 1793; d.. Nice, France, 
20 Nov. 1847. He was graduated from Trinity 
College, Dublin, and took orders in the Angli- 
can Church, 1815. He was curate of Lower 
Brixham, Devonshire, 1823-47.. He published 
‘Tales Illustrative of the lLord’s Prayer? 
(1826) ; ‘Poems, Chiefly Religious? (1833) ; 
“Miscellaneous Poems? (1868); ‘Memoir of 
Henry Vaughan? ; ‘Abide With Me? ; ‘Pleasant 
Are Thy Courts?; ‘Jesus, I My Cross Have 
Taken; and other hymns of his have become 
widely popular both in America and England. 
His ‘Miscellaneous Poems? were issued with a 
memoir by his daughter (London 1868). 


LYTLE, lit'l, William Haines, American 
general and poet: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 Nov. 
1826; d. Chickamauga, Tenn., 20 Sept. 1863. He 
was graduated at Cincinnati College, studied 
law and practised for a short time. He served 
as a captain in the Mexican War, and later was 
a member of the Ohio legislature. During the 
Civil War he was colonel of the 10th Ohio 
Regiment and was brigadier-general of volun- 
teers, having been promoted to that rank for 
gallant conduct. He was killed at the battle 
of Chickamauga. His best-known poem is the 
famous ‘Address of Antony to Cleopatra, the 
opening line of which is “I am dying, Egypt, 
dying» Consult ‘Poems? with ‘Memoir by 
Venable (1884). No complete collection of his 
works was published. . 


LYTTELTON, New Zealand, a seaport 
town on the east coast of South Island, on an 
inlet on the northwestern side of Banks Penin- 
sula. It is the port of Christchurch, seven 
miles northwest, with which it is connected by a 
tunnel over a mile long. Lyttelton steamers 
connect the railway system of South Island 
with Wellington in the North Island. The 


LYTE— LYTTON 


abrupt hills (the walls of an extinct volcano), 
surrounding it, rise to 1,600 feet. The harbor, 
protected by great artificial breakwaters, has an 
area of 110 acres, and is about 10 miles long. A 
graving dock permits vessels of 6,000 tons to 
land. Lyttelton is the port for the commerce of 
the region of the rich agricultural district of 
Canterbury. The town was settled in 1850 and 
was called Port Cooper, Port Victoria and, 
finally, Lyttelton. Pop. 4,392. 


LYTTON, lit’on, Edward Robert Bulwer- 
Lytton, Eart or, English poet and diploma- 
tist: b. London, 8 Nov. 1831; d. Paris, 24 Nov. 
1891. He was the only son of the well-known 
novelist, Bulwer-Lytton (q.v.). He was edu- 
cated at Harrow and Bonn, and entered the 
diplomatic service in 1849, being appointed at- 
taché at Washington, where his uncle, Henry 
Bueller, afterward Lord Dalling, was Minister. 
Subsequently he held diplomatic posts at Flor- 
ence (1852) and other European capitals, 
and was secretary of legation successively at 
Copenhagen, Athens, Lisbon and Madrid. In 
1874 he was appointed Minister at Lisbon, and 
was made viceroy of India by Disraeli in 1876. 
At a great durbar held at Delhi in 1877, he pro- 
claimed Queen Victoria empress of India. In 
the great famine of 1877-78 he conducted admi- 
rably the work of relief. He adopted an agegres- 
sive policy in Afghanistan, which brought about 
the second Afghan War (1879). His adminis- 
tration was marked by notable internal reforms, 
such as the abolition of the inland customs, the 
repeal of duties on cottons and the promulga- 
tion of new civil service rules. In 1880 he was 
created earl of Lytton, and on the accession of 
the Liberals to power in that year, who were 
strongly opposed to his policy in Afghanistan, 
he sent in his resignation as viceroy. In 1887 
he was appointed British Ambassador at Paris. 
For many years Lytton was better known as a 
poet than as a diplomatist, under the pseudonym 
of “Owen Meredith” His published works in- 
clude ‘Clytemnestra, and Other Poems? 
(1855); ‘The Wanderer? (1859); ‘Lucile? 
(1860), a story in rimed anapzstic couplets, 
which met with a very great popular success; 
‘The Ring of Amasis> (1863); ‘Orval, or the 
Fool of Time,? which is the solitary representa- 
tive in English of the great Polish school of 
mystic verse (1869) ; ‘Fables, in Song? (1874) ; 
“Speeches of Edward Lord Lytton,’ with a 
memoir (1874); ‘The Life and Letters of Ed- 
ward Bulwer, Lord Lytton) (1883, the narrative 
comes down only to 1832); ‘Glenaveril? 
(1885); ‘After Paradise? (1887); ‘King 
Poppy,’ his best poetical work, abounding in 
lofty poetry and gay irony, appeared posthu- 
mously (1892). As a prose writer Lytton takes 
high rank. Consult the works by his daughter, 
Lady Betty Balfour, ‘History of Lord Lytton’s 
Administration, 1876-1880 (London 1899) ; and 
“Personal and Literary Letters? (New York 
1906): - * 


LYTTON, Lord. 
EDWARD GEORGE EARLE. 


See BuLwer-LyTTon, 


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